ENGLISH CONTENTS - The Field Museumfm2.fieldmuseum.org/rbi/pdfs/RI22_English.pdfPERÚ: MAIJUNA JULIO/JULY 2010 141 ENGLISH CONTENTS (for Color Plates, see pages 23–42) 142 Participants

PERÚ:MAIJUNA JULIO / JULY 2010 141

ENGLISHCONTENTS

(for Color Plates, see pages 23– 42)

142 Participants

144 InstitutionalProfiles

148 Acknowledgments

151 MissionandApproach

152 ReportataGlance

159 WhytheACRMaijuna?

161 ConservationtheACRMaijuna 161 ConservationTargets

162 Threats

164 Strengths

166 Recommendations

171 TechnicalReport 171 RegionalOverview,Overflight,InventorySites,

andHumanCommunitiesVisited

Biological Inventory

176 VegetationandFlora

183 Fishes

190 AmphibiansandReptiles

197 Birds

205 Mammals

Social Inventory

211 SocialOverviewoftheRegion

226 TheMaijuna:Past,Present,andFuture

233 TheMaijunaParticipatoryMappingProject

242 HumanCommunities:ConservationTargets,Assets,

Threats,andRecommendations

249 Appendices 250 (1) VascularPlants

271 (2) FishSamplingStations

272 (3) Fishes

282 (4) AmphibiansandReptiles

288 (5) Birds

310 (6) MaijunaNamesforCommonBirds

312 (7) LargeandMedium-sizedMammals

320 (8) Bats

321 LiteratureCited

328 PublishedReports

142 RAPIDBIOLOGICALANDSOCIALINVENTORIES INFORME / REPORT NO. 22

WilliamS.Alverson(report preparation)

Environment,Culture,andConservation

TheFieldMuseum,Chicago,IL,USA

[email protected]

AdrianaBravo(mammals)

OrganizationforTropicalStudies

Durham,NC,USA

[email protected]

AlbertoChirif(social inventory)

IndependentConsultant

Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

NállarettDávila(plants)

UniversidadNacionaldelaAmazoníaPeruana

Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

ÁlvarodelCampo(field logistics, photography, video)



[email protected]

JuanDíazAlván(birds)

InstitutodeInvestigacionesdelaAmazoníaPeruana

Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

RobinB.Foster(herbarium, overflight)



[email protected]

RooseveltGarcía(plants)

PeruvianCenterforBiodiversityandConservation(PCBC)

Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

MichaelGilmore(ethnobiology)

NewCenturyCollege

GeorgeMasonUniversity

Fairfax,VA,USA

[email protected]

MaxH.Hidalgo(fishes)

MuseodeHistoriaNatural

UniversidadNacionalMayordeSanMarcos

Lima,Peru

[email protected]

IsaúHuamantupa(plants)

HerbarioVargas

UniversidadNacionalSanAntoniodeAbad

Cusco,Peru

[email protected]

GuillermoKnell(field logistics)

EcologísticaPerú

Lima,Peru

[email protected]

www.ecologisticaperu.com

CristinaLópezWong(coordination)

ProgramadeConservación,GestiónyUsoSostenible

delaDiversidadBiológicaenLoreto

Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

JonathanA.Markel(cartography)



[email protected]

ItaloMesones(field logistics)

UniversidadNacionaldelaAmazoníaPeruana

Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

PARTICIPANTS

FIELD TEAM

www.ecologisticaperu.com


DebraK.Moskovits(coordination, birds)



[email protected]

MarioPariona(field support)



[email protected]

NataliPinedo(social inventory, logistics)

ProyectoApoyoalPROCREL

Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

AnaPuerta(social inventory)


Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

IvánSipión(fishes)



Lima,Peru

[email protected]

DouglasF.Stotz(birds)



[email protected]

SilviaUsuriaga(coordination)


Iquitos,Peru

[email protected]

PabloJ.Venegas(amphibians and reptiles)

CentrodeOrnitologíayBiodiversidad(CORBIDI)

Lima,Peru

[email protected]

RudolfvonMay(amphibians and reptiles)

FloridaInternationalUniversity

Miami,FL,USA

[email protected]

CorineVriesendorp(coordination,plants)



[email protected]

TyanaWachter(general logistics)



[email protected]

COLLABORATORS

ComunidadNativadeNuevaVidaYanayacuRiver,Loreto,Peru

ComunidadNativadePuertoHuamánYanayacuRiver,Loreto,Peru

ComunidadNativadeSanPablodeTotollaAlgodónRiver,Loreto,Peru

ComunidadNativadeSucusariSucusariRiver,Loreto,Peru

GeorgeMasonUniversityFairfax,VA,USA


TheFieldMuseum

TheFieldMuseumisacollections-basedresearchand

educationalinstitutiondevotedtonaturalandculturaldiversity.

CombiningthefieldsofAnthropology,Botany,Geology,Zoology,

andConservationBiology,museumscientistsresearchissuesin

evolution,environmentalbiology,andculturalanthropology.One

divisionoftheMuseum—Environment,Culture,andConservation

(ECCo)—isdedicatedtotranslatingscienceintoactionthatcreates

andsupportslastingconservationofbiologicalandcultural

diversity.ECCoworkscloselywithlocalcommunitiestoensure

theirinvolvementinconservationthroughtheirexistingcultural

valuesandorganizationalstrengths.Withlossesofnaturaldiversity

acceleratingworldwide,ECCo’smissionistodirectthemuseum’s

resources—scientificexpertise,worldwidecollections,innovative

educationprograms—totheimmediateneedsofconservationat

local,national,andinternationallevels.

TheFieldMuseum

1400S.LakeShoreDrive

Chicago,IL60605-2496USA

312.922.9410tel

www.fieldmuseum.org

ProgramadeConservación,GestiónyUsoSostenibledelaDiversidadBiológica,GobiernoRegionaldeLoreto

TheGobiernoRegionaldeLoreto(GOREL)isalegalentity,

withpolitical,economic,andadministrativeautonomyinregional

issuesunderitsauthority.Itsgoalistopromoteintegrated,

sustainable,regionaldevelopment(encouragingresponsiblepublic

andprivateinvestment)andemployment(guaranteeingequal

opportunityforresidents,andrespectoftheirrights),inaccordance

withnationalandregionalplansandprograms.

TheProgramadeConservación,GestiónyUsoSostenibledela

DiversidadBiológica(PROCREL)isatechnicalentityofGOREL,

associatedwithitsregionalmanagementgroup,thatcontributes

tosustainabledevelopmentintheLoretoregionthroughpublic

policiesanddevelopmentstrategiesforÁreasdeConservación

Regionalandtheenvironmentalbenefitstheyoffer,suchas

ecologicalandevolutionaryprocessesofvalueforconservation

andsustainableuseofregionalbiologicaldiversity,resultingin

areductionofpovertyinLoreto’shumanpopulation.GOREL,

throughPROCREL,isresponsiblefortheadministrationofthe

ÁreasdeConservaciónRegionalandpromotesinformedand

responsibleparticipationofresidentsthroughco-administration

oftheseprotectedareaswithlocalcommunitiesandotherparties

involvedintheirmanagement.

ProgramadeConservación,Gestióny

UsoSostenibledelaDiversidadBiológica

Av.AbelardoQuiñónezkm1.5

Iquitos,Loreto,Peru

51.65.268151tel

www.procrel.gob.pe

[email protected]

INSTITUTIONALPROFILES

http://www.fieldmuseum.org

www.procrel.gob.pe



TheProyectoApoyoalPROCREL(PAP)isadministeredthroughan

inter-institutionalconsortiumbytheGobiernoRegionaldeLoreto

(GOREL),thenon-governmentalorganizationNaturalezayCultura

Internacional(NCI),andtheInstitutodeInvestigacionesdela

AmazoníaPeruana(IIAP),instrategicalliancewiththeSociedad

PeruanadeDerechoAmbientalandtheUniversidadNacionaldela

AmazoníaPeruana.PAPwasestablishedin2006toworkclosely

withPROCREL(thedivisionchargedbyGORELwithbiodiversity

management)andincreaseconservationareaswithintheÁreasde

ConservaciónRegional(ACR)system.TheACRinitiativeseeksto

empowerlocalcommunitiessothattheytakeplayaleadershiprole

inprotectingandmanagingtheirnaturalresources.PAPprojectalso

hasdevelopedtechnicalandlegalproposalsaimedatmaintaining

ecologicalprocessesessentialforthevitalityofAmazonian

ecosystemsinLoreto.


CalleBrasil774

Iquitos,Loreto,Peru

51.65.607252 tel

FederacióndeComunidadesNativasMaijuna

TheFederacióndeComunidadesNativasMaijuna(FECONAMAI)

isaPeruviannon-profitorganizationestablishedbytheMaijuna

in2004andregisteredin2007intheOficinaRegistralinIquitos,

Peru.FECONAMAIofficiallyrepresentsallfourMaijuna

communitieslocatedinthePeruvianAmazon:PuertoHuamán

andNuevaVidaalongtheYanayacuRiver,SanPablodeTotoya

(Totolla)alongtheAlgodónRiver,andSucusarialongthe

SucusariRiver.Thefederation’smissionisto(1)conservethe

Maijunaculture,(2)conservetheenvironment,and(3)improve

Maijunacommunityorganization.FECONAMAIhaspromoted

andcollaboratedonawidevarietyofbioculturalconservation

andsustainabledevelopmentprojectswithinMaijunalands.

Thefederationiscurrentlypetitioningforthecreationofan

ÁreadeConservaciónRegional(ACR),thatwouldlegallyand

formallyprotectMaijunaancestrallands,astheMaijuna

stronglyfeelthatthesurvivaloftheirpeopleandthesurvival

andmaintenanceoftheirculturalpractices,uniquetraditions,

andtraditionalsubsistencestrategiesdependonahealthy,intact,

andprotectedecosystem.

FederacióndeComunidadesNativasMaijuna

ComunidadNativadePuertoHuamán

RíoYanayacu,DistritoNapo

Maynas,Loreto,Perú

Radiophone79.12or51.90(callsign039),

8–10amy4–6pm



TheInstitutodeInvestigacionesdelaAmazoníaPeruana(IIAP)

isapublicinstitutiondevotedtoresearchandtechnicaldevelopment

inAmazonia.Itsobjectivesincluderesearch,sustainableresource

use,andconservationofbiodiversitywhilepromotingthe

developmentofhumanpopulationsinAmazonia.Itsheadquarters

areinIquitos,withotherofficesinsixAmazonianregions.

Inadditiontoinvestigatingpossibleusesofpromisingspecies

anddevelopingmethodsforthecultivation,management,and

developmentofbiodiversityresources,IIAPisactivelypromoting

activitiesaimedatthemanagementandconservationofspecies

andecosystems,includingthecreationofprotectedareas;italso

participatesinthestudiesnecessaryforsupportingthecreation

oftheseareas.IIAPhassixresearchprograms,whicharefocused

onaquaticecosystemsandresources,terrestrialecosystemsand

resources,ecological-economiczoningandenvironmentalplanning,

Amazonianbiodiversity,humandiversityintheAmazon,and

informationresourcesaboutbiodiversity.


Av.JoséA.Quiñóneskm2.5

ApartadoPostal784

Iquitos,Loreto,Peru

51.65.265515,51.65.265516tels,51.65.265527fax

www.iiap.org.pe

HerbarioAmazonensedelaUniversidadNacionaldelaAmazoníaPeruana

TheHerbarioAmazonense(AMAZ)issituatedinIquitos,Peru,

andformspartoftheUniversidadNacionaldelaAmazonía

Peruana(UNAP).Itwasfoundedin1972asaneducationaland

researchinstitutionfocusedonthefloraofthePeruvianAmazon.

Inadditiontohousingcollectionsfromseveralcountries,the

bulkofthecollectionsshowcaserepresentativespecimensofthe

AmazonianfloraofPeru,consideredoneofthemostdiversefloras

ontheplanet.Thesecollectionsserveasavaluableresourcefor

understandingtheclassification,distribution,phenology,andhabitat

preferencesofplantsinthePteridophyta,Gymnospermae,and

Angiospermae.Localandinternationalstudents,docents,and

researchersusethesecollectionstoteach,study,identify,and

researchtheflora,andinthiswaytheHerbarioAmazonense

contributestotheconservationofthediverseAmazonianflora.

HerbariumAmazonense

EsquinaPevasconNanays/n

Iquitos,Peru

51.65.222649tel

[email protected]

Institutional Profiles (continued)

www.iiap.org.pe


MuseodeHistoriaNaturaldelaUniversidadNacionalMayordeSanMarcos

Foundedin1918,theMuseodeHistoriaNaturalisthe

principalsourceofinformationonthePeruvianfloraandfauna.

Itspermanentexhibitsarevisitedeachyearby50,000students,

whileitsscientificcollections—housingamillionandahalfplant,

bird,mammal,fish,amphibian,reptile,fossil,andmineral

specimens—areaninvaluableresourceforhundredsofPeruvian

andforeignresearchers.Themuseum’smissionistobeacenter

ofconservation,education,andresearchonPeru’sbiodiversity,

highlightingthefactthatPeruisoneofthemostbiologicallydiverse

countriesontheplanet,andthatitseconomicprogressdepends

ontheconservationandsustainableuseofitsnaturalriches.

ThemuseumispartoftheUniversidadNacionalMayorde

SanMarcos,foundedin1551.



AvenidaArenales1256

Lince,Lima11,Peru

51.1.471.0117tel

museohn.unmsm.edu.pe

CentrodeOrnitologíayBiodiversidad

TheCentrodeOrnitologíayBiodiversidad(CORBIDI)was

createdinLimain2006todevelopthenaturalsciencesinPeru.

Asaninstitution,itpromotesresearchandtraining,andcreates

conditionsthatenableotherinstitutionsandindividualstocarry

outstudiesofPeruvianbiodiversity.CORBIDI’smissionisto

encourageresponsibleconservationthathelpsguaranteethe

maintenanceoftheextraordinarynaturaldiversityofPeru.Italso

trainsandhelpsPeruviansdeveloptheirskillsandknowledgeof

naturalsciences.Likewise,CORBIDIadvisesotherinstitutions

(includinggovernmental)inpoliciesrelatedtotheunderstanding,

conservation,anduseofbiodiversityinPeru.Atpresent,the

institutionhasthreedivisions:ornithology,mammology,

andhepetology.

CentrodeOrnitologíayBiodiversidad

CalleSantaRita105,oficina202

Urb.HuertosdeSanAntonio

Surco,Lima33,Peru

51.1.344.1701tel

www.corbidi.org

www.corbidi.org


InJulyof2009,TheFieldMuseumwasinvitedtothefourthannual

MaijunaCongress,ayearlymeetingoftheMaijunacommunities.

Overthecourseofthreedays,weheardnotonlyMaijunasongsand

stories,butalsodeepdiscussionsofaloomingthreat:aproposed

roadthatwouldbisectthelandswheretheMaijunalive,fish,hunt,

andgather.WedescribedTheFieldMuseum’sRapidInventories

program,andhowwepulltogethermuseumscienceandtraditional

knowledgetomakeacaseforthebiologicalandculturalimportance

ofanarea.Together,thesesharedstoriesandexperienceswerethe

catalystfortherapidinventoryoftheMaijunalandsfourmonths

later.Neverbeforehaveweassembledaninventorysoquickly.

Firstandforemost,wewouldliketoextendourgratitudeto

theMaijunapeople,especiallytheFederacióndeComunidades

NativasMaijuna(FECONAMAI),allofourMaijunaguidesand

counterparts,andtheMaijunacommunitiesofPuertoHuamán

andNuevaVida(YanayacuRiver),Sucusari(SucusariRiver),and

SanPablodeTotolla(AlgodónRiver).

WearedeeplythankfultoIvánVásquezValera,president

oftheLoretoregion,whosestrongcommitmenttoregional

conservationhasbeenanexampletoothersinPeruandtherest

ofSouthAmerica.

AndwearegratefultotheGobiernoRegionaldeLoreto,the

GerenciadeMedioAmbienteyRecursosNaturales,thePrograma

deConservación,GestiónyUsoSostenibledelaDiversidad

BiólogicadeLoreto,and,inparticular,LuisBenitesforhis

commitmenttoprotectedareasandtheenvironment.

WearedeeplygratefultotheDirecciónGeneraldeFloray

FaunaSilvestre,MinisteriodeAgricultura,fortheirsupportwith

thepermitprocess.Wewouldliketoextendspecialrecognition

toNélidaBarbagelata,ElisaRuiz,JeanPierreAraujo,and

KarinaRamírez.

Throughouttheinventory,SilviaUsuriaga,executivedirector

ofProyectoApoyoalPROCREL(PAP)playedacriticalrole.

WewouldliketoextendourdeepestthankstoherandPAP,for

withoutthemthisinventorywouldneverhavebeenpossible.In

addition,wewouldliketoextendourprofoundestgratitudeto

SilviaUsuriaga,CristinaLópezWong,andPepeÁlvarezfortheir

indispensableinputduringthetwodayswespentpullingtogether

recommendationsontheSucusariRiver.

Logisticsarealwaysanintenseandtrickyphaseofthe

inventories.Thisparticularinventorywasnoexception,and

demandedsubstantialreconnaissancegiventhattransportwas

entirelybyboatandfoot.Withoutthecriticalparticipationof

certainindividualsbefore,during,andaftertheinventory,theentire

endeavorwouldhavebeenimpossible.ÁlvarodelCampowould

liketoexpresshissinceregratitudetoItaloMesonesandGuillermo

Knell,whoasusualskillfullyledtheadvanceteamsinCurupaand

Piedras,aswellasthestopoverpointinQuebradaChino.Gonzalo

BullardandPepeRojasprovidedlogisticalsupportduringthe

differentreconnaissancephasesoftheinventory;Pepealso

contributedimportantbirdsightingstothefinallist.

WewouldliketothankCristinaLópezWongandNataliPinedo

LiaoforalloftheirinvaluablecoordinationwiththeMaijuna

communities,especiallyduringthefourthMaijunaCongress,

advancelogisticsfortheinventory,andthepresentationofresults

ofourresearch.Cristinasupervisedallofthefoodandequipment

logisticsfortheadvanceandrapidinventoryteams.Inaddition,

PamelaMonteroandFrancoRojaslaidmuchofthegroundwork

fortheinventoryintheirworkwiththeMaijunacommunities.

RafaelSaenzmadefabulousmapsoftheproposedregional

conservationarea.

Ouradvanceteamsdeserveenormouscreditforthesuccess

oftheinventory;theireffortdemonstratesadeepcommitmentto

theprotectionandmanagementoftheselands.Wearedeeply

gratefultoJorgeAlva,EmilianoArista,DanikeBaca,LinderBaca,

RomarioBaca,VidalDahua,LizardoGonzales,CleverJipa,

GervasioLópez,LeiferLópez,WalterLópez,JulioMachoa,

OréMosoline,AlbertoMosoline,JaroMosoline,LiberatoMosoline,

FelipeNavarro,JulissaPeterman,ElmerReátegui,AbilioRíos,

DuglasRíos,EdersonRíos,EmersonRíos,LambertRíos,ReiganRíos,

RomeroRíos,SebastiánRíos,SegundoRíos,UldericoRíos,

WilsonRíos,JohhnyRuiz,RobertoSalazar,LaurencioSánchez,

MarcosSánchez,PabloSanda,MauricioShiguango,DavidTamayo,

GrapulioTamayo,JacksonTamayo,LisderTamayo,JohnyTang,

CasimiroTangoa,GuillermoTangoa,LucíaTangoa,RománTangoa,

RusberTangoa,EdwinTapullima,RománTaricuarima,

CarlosYumbo,andIvánYumbo.

ACKNOWLEGMENTS


Wearedeeplygratefultoourexcellentcooks,BellaFlor

MosqueraandherassistantJulioVilcaT.,forcreatingfantastic

mealsintheirfieldkitchen.

RobinFosterandtherestofthebotanyteamwouldliketo

extendtheirgratitudetothefollowingindividualswhohelped

withtheidentificationofplantspecimens:HenrikBalslev(Aarhus

University,Denmark),FrancisKahn(IRD,France),Jacquelyn

Kallunki,MichaelNee,JamesMiller,andDouglasDaly(New

YorkBotanicalGarden),RaymondJerome(HeliconiaSociety),

W.JohnKressandKennethWurdack(SmithsonianInstitution),

PaulBerry(UniversityofMichigan),M.BeatrizRossiCaruzo

(UniversityofSaoPaulo,Brasil),M.LuciaKawasaki(TheField

Museum),Hans-JoachimEsser(BotanischeStaatssammlung

Munich,Germany),AdolfoJara(InstitutodeCienciasNaturales,

Bogotá,Colombia),BertilStahl(GotlandUniversity,Sweden),

IraydaSalinas(MuseodeHistoriaNatural,Lima,Peru),

DavidJohnson(OhioWesleyanUniversity),PaulFine(University

ofCalifornia,Berkeley),andTerryPennington(KewGardens,

London).IsaúHuamantupawouldliketothanktheherbarium

(CUZ)oftheUniversidadNacionalSanAntonioAbaddelCusco

fortheuseofitsdatabasefortheidentificationofplantspecimens.

RooseveltGarcíathanksMarcosSánchez(SanPablodeTotolla),

FelipeNavarro(Sucusari),DuglasRíos(Sucusari),andMario

Pariona(TheFieldMuseum)fortheirinvaluablehelpduring

theinventory.

Fortheirsupportinthefield,herpetologistsRudolfvonMay

andPabloVenegasareindebtedtotheirMaijunacolleaguesLizardo

Gonzales,EdwinTapullima,GervasioLópez,LiberatoMosoline,

MarcosSánchez,andLeiferLópez.Inaddition,theythankAriadne

Angulo(IUCN),RonaldHeyer(SmithsonianInstitution),William

Duellman(UniversityofKansas),JasonBrown(DukeUniversity),

EvanTwomey(EastCarolinaUniversity),andWalterSchargel

(UniversityofTexas,Austin)fortheirkeyassistancewithspecies

identification.CésarAguilar(MuseodeHistoriaNatural,

UniversidadNacionalMayordeSanMarcos),GiussepeGagliardi

(MuseodeZoología,UniversidadNacionaldelaAmazonía

Peruana),andtheCentrodeOrnitologíayDiversidad(CORBIDI)

kindlyfacilitatedpreservationofthespecimens.

JuanDíazwouldliketothankLarsPomaraforcritical

informationheprovidedonthenewantwrenspeciesthatwas

abundantduringtheinventory.

AdrianaBravowouldliketothankLiberatoMosoline,

SebastiánRíos,andMarcosSánchezfromNuevaVida,Sucusariand

SanPablodeTotolla,respectively,whohelpedtranslatethemammal

namesintoMaijuna.Inaddition,Marcos,Sebastián,andMichael

Gilmoresharedkeynaturalhistoryinformationaboutthemammals

registeredintheRíoAlgodónarea.

AlbertoChirif,wholedthesocio-economicinventory,would

liketoextendhisdeepestgratitudetoalloftheMaijunapeoplewho

sharedtheirtime,knowledge,experience,andhospitality.Rusber

Tangoa,vice-presidentofFECONAMAI,participatedintheentire

socialassessmentprocess.BiologistNataliPinedoandbiology

studentAnaPuerta,volunteerinProyectoApoyoalPROCREL,

werecriticalinthewholeprocess,especiallywiththeelaborationof

theparticipatorymaps.AndMichaelGilmore’srichinformation

helpedusclarifydiverseaspectsoflifeintheMaijunacommunities.

MichaelGilmorewouldliketothanktheMaijunapeoplefor

theirstronginterestincollaboratingonthisprojectandtheir

unwaveringsupportandhardworkthroughouttheentireprocess.

HewouldespeciallyliketothankSebastiánRíosOchoa(Masiguidi

DeiOyo)forhisfriendship,guidance,andhelpduringallaspectsof

fieldresearch.Researchwasconductedwiththeapprovalofthe

FederacióndeComunidadesNativasMaijuna(FECONAMAI),the

MaijunacommunitiesofSucusari,NuevaVida,PuertoHuamán,

andSanPablodeTotoya(Totolla),theMiamiUniversityCommittee

ontheUseofHumanSubjectsinResearch,andtheGeorgeMason

UniversityHumanSubjectsReviewBoard.Financialsupportforhis

workwiththeMaijunaoverthelasttenyearswasprovidedby

GeorgeMasonUniversity,TheRuffordSmallGrantsFoundation,

theAppliedPlantEcologyProgramoftheZoologicalSocietyof

SanDiego,theNationalScienceFoundation,theElizabeth

WakemanHendersonCharitableFoundation,PhippsConservatory

andBotanicalGardens(BotanyinAction),andtheWillardSherman

TurrellHerbarium,DepartmentofBotany,andStevensonFundof

MiamiUniversity.Michaelwouldalsoliketoextendhisgratitude

toHardyEshbaugh,AdolphGreenberg,andSebastiánRíosand

countlessotherMaijunaeldersandteachersfortheirintellectual


contributions.VeryspecialthankstoJylLapachinforallofher

support,help,inspiration,andencouragementthroughouttheentire

courseofthisresearchproject.

JohnO’NeillletususehisbeautifulpaintingofaWhite-

throatedToucanfortheT-shirts.JulioVilcaL.,hissonJulioVilca

T.,andTransportesVITEtookcareofallofthefluviallogisticsfor

theexpedition.JorgePinedofromAlasdelOrientewasthepilotof

ourfantasticflightoverMaijunalands.PamBucurofExplorama

Lodges,MarcosOversluijsfromCONAPACandtheentirestaffof

ExplorNapoLodgemadeusfeelathomeduringourshortstayin

Sucusari.PatriciaandCeciliafromHotelMarañónhelpedussolve

problemsduringourstayinIquitos.DiegoLechugaCelisandthe

VicariatoApostólicodeIquitosprovideduswithaveryquietand

comfortableplace,asusual,towriteourreport.Wealsowantto

thankNorthAmericanFloatPlaneService,HotelDoralInn,Chu

SerigrafíayConfecciones,andClínicaAdventistaAnaStahl.

Inaddition,intheCIMAofficeinLima,JorgeLuisMartínez

wentaboveandbeyondtohelpusobtaintheresearchpermitin

thenickoftime.Jorge“Coqui”Aliaga,LottyCastro,Yesenia

Huamán,AlbertoAsin,TatianaPequeño,andManuelVásquez

helpeduswithvariousadministrativeissuesandaccountingbefore,

during,andaftertheinventory.Wearedeeplygratefultoallofthem.

JonathanMarkelpreparedexcellentmaps,fortheadvance

team,inventoryteam,andforthefinalreport.Inaddition,his

generalhelpwasfabulousduringthewritingandpresentation

process.Asalways,TyanaWachter’sroleintheinventorywas

critical,alwayssolvingproblemsfromChicago,Lima,andIquitos.

TyanaandDougStotzcarefullyproofreadpartsofthemanuscript

anddetectednumerouserrorsunseenbyus.RobMcMillanand

DawnMartinwerewonderfulinsolvingproblemsfromChicago.

Thefundsforthisinventorywereprovidedbygenerous

supportfromtheGordonandBettyMooreFoundation,

TheBoeingCompany,ExelonCorporation,andTheFieldMuseum.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


During rapid biological inventories, scientific teams focus

primarily on groups of organisms that indicate habitat type and

condition and that can be surveyed quickly and accurately. These

inventories do not attempt to produce an exhaustive list of species

or higher taxa. Rather, the rapid surveys (1) identify the important

biological communities in the site or region of interest, and (2)

determine whether these communities are of outstanding quality

and significance in a regional or global context.

During social asset inventories, scientists and local

communities collaborate to identify patterns of social organization

and opportunities for capacity building. The teams use participant

observation and semi-structured interviews to evaluate quickly

the assets of these communities that can serve as points

of engagement for long-term participation in conservation.

In-country scientists are central to the field teams.

The experience of local experts is crucial for understanding

areas with little or no history of scientific exploration. After the

inventories, protection of natural communities and engagement

of social networks rely on initiatives from host-country scientists

and conservationists.

Once these rapid inventories have been completed (typically

within a month), the teams relay the survey information to local and

international decisionmakers who set priorities and guide

conservation action in the host country.

MISSION

The goal of rapid inventories—biological and social—is to catalyze effective action for conservation in threatened regions of high biological diversity and uniqueness.

Approach

REPORTATAGLANCEREPORTATAGLANCE


Datesoffieldwork Biological team: 14 – 31 October 2009

Socio-economic team: 11 – 24 July 2009

Additionally, in the technical report we present data compiled over the last ten years by

M. Gilmore in his ethnobiological work with the Maijuna.

Region Part of the ancestral territory of the Maijuna indigenous people in northeastern Peru:

Amazonian forest in the Napo-Algodón interfluvium, where the four Maijuna communities

and their federation have requested that 336,089 hectares be declared a regional

conservation area, the Área de Conservación Regional (ACR) Maijuna. This proposed

ACR is 60 kilometers north of Iquitos. It borders the proposed ACR Ampiyacu-Apayacu

to the east, communities living along the Napo River to the south and west, and the

Algodón River to the north (Fig. 2A).

Inventorysites The biological team visited two sites: Curupa, along the Yanayacu River in the Napo

basin, and Piedras, along the Algodoncillo River in the Algodón basin. The biologists

also spent two nights in ExplorNapo Lodge on the Sucusari River, one of the most well-

studied areas in the Peruvian Amazon, and adjacent to the proposed ACR Maijuna.

Curupa, 15 – 19 October 2009

Piedras, 20 – 27 October 2009

Sucusari (ExplorNapo) 29 – 31 October, 2009

The socio-economic team surveyed 24 communities from 11 to 24 July 2009, all in

the Napo drainage except for San Pablo de Totolla, which is on the Algodón River in the

Putumayo drainage:

Copalillo, Cruz de Plata, Huamán Urco, Morón Isla, Nueva Argelia, Nueva Floresta, Nueva Florida,

Nueva Libertad, Nueva Unión, Nueva Vida, Nuevo Leguízamo, Nuevo Oriente, Nuevo San Antonio

de Lancha Poza, Nuevo San Juan, Nuevo San Román, Nuevo San Roque, Puerto Arica, Puerto

Huamán, San Francisco de Buen Paso, San Francisco de Pinsha, San Pablo de Totolla, Sucusari,

Tutapishco, and Vencedores de Zapote.

In addition, the social team participated in the fourth Maijuna Congress in Sucusari,

the annual three-day meeting of the four Maijuna communities (Sucusari, Nueva Vida,

Puerto Huamán, and San Pablo de Totolla).

Biologicalsurvey Vegetation, plants, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, medium to large mammals, and bats

Socialsurvey Infrastructure, demography, traditional practices, resource use, and management

Strong biological gradients characterize the proposed ACR Maijuna. To the south, in

the Yanayacu drainage, low hills with soils of intermediate fertility show clear, recent

evidence of intensive hunting and selective logging. In the north, in the Algodoncillo

drainage, high, flat terraces with low-fertility soils harbor an intact assemblage of flora

Principalbiologicalresults


and fauna. This variation is pronounced at very small scales of the landscape. Less than

20 kilometers separate the two inventory sites and less than 120 meters separate the

highest and lowest points in the landscape. Nevertheless, the contrast is marked, with

topographic variation and gradients in soil fertility creating favorable conditions for high

diversity in all groups sampled.

* Includes records from a single day of surveys at ExplorNapo Lodge on the Sucusari River.

** Does not include 10 species of bats registered during the inventory.

Vegetation We identified five vegetation types: (1) streamside forests, (2) swampy bottomlands,

(3) palm swamps, (4) low hill forests, and (5) forests on high, flat terraces (Fig. 2B).

Low hill forest was the most extensive vegetation type. Our most unexpected finding

was the high terraces in the Putumayo drainage, a vegetation type that none of the

botanists had seen previously. At their most extreme, the soils of these forests had a

root mat (a “cushion” of organic matter and roots ) about 10 centimeters thick. The flora

of the high terraces was substantially different from the other vegetation types that we

sampled during the inventory and appears to harbor several species new to science.

Some terraces were dominated by Clathrotropis macrocarpa (Fabaceae, Fig. 3C), a

species known from the Caquetá drainage in Colombia. The other dominant families —

Chrysobalanaceae, Sapotaceae, and Lecythidaceae — are typical of low-fertility soils,

like those found in Alto Nanay, Jenaro Herrera, and Sierra del Divisor. Our working

hypothesis is that these high terraces are associated with the uplift known as the Iquitos

Arch and occur as an archipelago from Güeppí to Ampiyacu. Towards the southeast (in

the Napo drainage), we found a forest of approximately 1,500 hectares dominated by the

pioneer Cecropia sciadophylla (Cecropiaceae), a near uniform regeneration after a massive

blowdown 20 – 30 years ago (Fig. 3B).

Flora The botanists registered approximately 800 species and estimate that 2,500 occur

in the area. Edaphic and topographic variation creates conditions favoring distinct

floras, with less than 40% of species shared among inventory sites. We found

dozens of new records for Peru and three species almost certainly new to science:

(1) Eugenia (Myrtaceae, Fig. 4H), a treelet with distinctive bracts, (2) Calycorectes

Speciesregisteredduringtheinventory Speciesestimatedtooccur intheACRMaijuna

Curupa Piedras Total

Plants ~500 ~530 ~800 2,500

Fishes 85 73 132* 240

Amphibians 40 55 66* 80

Reptiles 28 23 42* 80

Birds 270 267 364 500

Medium and large mammals 22 28 32 59**

REPORTATAGLANCE


(Myrtaceae, Fig. 4N), a tree with large white flowers and hairy calices, and (3) Dilkea

(Passifloraceae, Fig. 4B), an unbranched treelet with red bracts. The area harbors a

strong soil-fertility gradient, from the poor soils of the high terraces in the north — with

healthy populations of two important timber species, tornillo (Cedrelinga cateniformis)

and marupá (Simarouba amara ) — to low hills with more fertile clay soils in the

south, where selective logging has removed vast numbers of cedro (Cedrela odorata ),

cumala (Virola pavonis, V. elongata, Otoba glycicarpa, O. parvifolia), and lupuna

(Ceiba pentandra ).

Fishes The ichthyologists recorded 132 species and estimate approximately 240 for the area.

Most species registered (60% – 80%) live almost exclusively in source or headwater

areas and their reduced size is probably an adaptation to these habitats: almost

every species is less than 10 centimeters long as an adult. These species depend

heavily on forest resources for their diet — seeds, fruits, terrestrial arthropods, other

plant tissues — making the fish community very sensitive to changes in forest cover.

We found catfish (Heptapteridae), which are strong indicators of good water quality,

living in the headwaters. We also found a potentially new species of banjo catfish

(Bunocephalus, Fig. 5E ) and an undescribed species of Pseudocetopsorhamdia. Three

species are new records for Peru (Figs. 5G – J), of which two represent substantial

range extensions, and 53 have potential ornamental value. Important game species

(sábalos, lisas ) were relatively abundant in the north of the area, probably reflecting food

resources and important reproductive sites. The two drainages we sampled (Napo and

Algodón/Putumayo) had only 27% of their species in common.

Amphibiansandreptiles The herpetologists registered 108 species — 66 amphibians and 42 reptiles — and

estimate 160 species (80 amphibians and 80 reptiles) in the region. Of the species

encountered, 28 (21 amphibians and 7 reptiles) are restricted to the northwestern

Amazon, an area that includes Loreto in Peru, Ecuador, southern Colombia, and extreme

northwestern Brazil. We registered two species considered Vulnerable by the IUCN,

harlequin frog (Atelopus spumarius, Fig. 6D) and yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis

denticulata, Fig. 6N). We also recorded dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus , Fig. 6M),

considered “Near Threatened” under Peruvian law. Other important findings include

a species of Pristimantis frog that is likely new to science and the second record for

Peru of the arboreal frog Osteocephalus fuscifascies, (Fig. 6L, extending its known

distribution 300 kilometers to the south). In less disturbed areas closer to headwater

streams, we found greater amphibian diversity, including species that reproduce in

clear-water streams with sandy bottoms (e.g., harlequin frog, Atelopus spumarius, and

glass frog, Cochranella midas ). Protecting these areas not only conserves amphibians

but also ensures water quality in the drainages.

Vegetation(continued)


Birds The ornithologists recorded 364 of the 500 species they estimate for the region.

The avifauna is diverse, typical of northwestern Amazonia, and similar to assemblages

found in the neighboring drainages of Apayacu, Ampiyacu, and Yaguas. Notably, one

group of birds was registered only on the high terraces in the Putumayo drainage:

Lophotriccus galeatus, Percnostola rufifrons, Neopipo cinnamomea, and Herpsilochmus sp.

The Herpsilochmus (cf. Fig. 7G), which we found on every hilltop on the high terraces, was

only recently discovered in the Ampiyacu River and is in the process of being described as

a new species. Our finding is only the second record for this species. The number of mixed

species flocks in the understory was unusually low in the Yanayacu basin, probably

reflecting structural changes created by intense, selective logging in the area. East of the

Napo River we recorded two range extensions: Neopipo cinnamomea and Platyrinchos

platyrynchos. We recorded several range-restricted species: 6 endemic to northwestern

Amazonia and 12 that occur only north of the Amazon River in Peru. Game birds,

especially guans (Nothocrax urumutum and Mitu salvini , Fig. 7H) and trumpeters (Psophia

crepitans ), are important conservation targets for the area, especially in the south.

We recorded 32 of the 59 species we expect occur in the area. Abundances of game

species were unexpectedly low in the south, reflecting intense hunting in the past.

Woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha ) are absent from areas sampled along the Yanayacu

River, where hunting and fishing were intense during the last decade. Other primates,

including the few groups of monk sakis (Pithecia monachus), were very wary of our

presence. Contrary to expectation and likely related to hunting impacts, soil fertility does

not predict mammal abundances: near the Algodoncillo River, in the poor-soil terraces

and nearby areas, we found the highest abundances of large primates (L. lagotricha and

P. monachus ) and ungulates. Limited access to loggers and subsistence (rather than

excessive) hunting have maintained more intact mammal populations in the north. We did

observe top predators such as jaguars (Panthera onca ), rare species such as short-eared

dog (Atelocynus microtis ) and giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla ), and a single

individual of grey dolphin (Sotalia fluviatalis ) on the Algodoncillo River.

HumanCommunities The four Maijuna native communities are driving the creation of a regional conservation

area, ACR Maijuna, through FECONAMAI (the Federación de Comunidades Nativas

Maijuna). The Maijuna connection to the area, part of their ancestral territory, is

profound. Quechua, campesino, and mestizo settlements occupy the buffer zone of

the proposed area. These settlements all have primary schools, and a few have high

schools. The entire region has some access to health services. A well-managed ACR

would guarantee that the Maijuna communities and the nearby settlements would have

access to the natural resources that are fundamental to their well-being. The greatest

strength of the proposal is that the four Maijuna communities put it forth themselves,

recognizing that protecting these forests is critical for their cultural, economic, and

long-term survival.

Mediumtolargemammals

REPORTATAGLANCE


The four Maijuna communities, in collaboration with M. Gilmore, identified and

mapped more than 900 sites of biological and/or cultural significance in the area.

The resulting map (below) reflects the deep Maijuna understanding of the resources

in their territory and demonstrates that the Maijuna rarely use areas in the central

portion of the proposed ACR. This central portion, the heart of the ACR Maijuna, would

protect the high, flat terraces and fragile headwater streams and serve as an important

reservoir of reproduction and conservation of species that are ecologically, economically,

and culturally important to the Maijuna.

Participatoryresourcemapping

R í o A l g o d o n c i l l o

Rí o

Ap

ay

ac u

Q. C

ot o

R í o Ya n a y a c u

Río

Su

cu

sa

ri

R í o A l g o d o n

R í o N a p o

R í o P u t u ma y o

San Pablode Totolla

Sucusari

PuertoHuamán

NuevaVida

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0 10 20

Kilómetros /Kilometers

Ecuador

Colombia

Brasil

Perú

PacificOcean

Campamento /Hunting or fishing camp

Cemeterio Maijuna/ Maijuna cemetary

Chacras (hasta 30 años) / Fields (up to 30 years old)

Colpas (sitio de caza) /Animal mineral licks (hunting sites)

Comunidades Maijunas / Maijuna Communities

Conflicto antiguo Maijuna / Ancient Maijuna battle site

Recursos no maderables (aguajales, ungurahuales, irapayales, camu camales, yarinales) /Non-timber resources

Sitios historicos (puestos viejos, chacras viejas, campamentos viejos)/Historical sites (old house sites, old fields, old camp sites)

Zona especial de pesca / Special fishing zone

Zona especial de caza / Special hunting zone

Propuesta/Proposed Área de Conservación Regional (ACR) Maijuna

Tierras tituladas de los Maijuna /Maijuna titled lands

Caminos/Trails

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Maijunabiologicallyandculturallysignificantsites


Biological

01 The high terraces (Figs. 2B, 3C), a previously unknown habitat that harbors a unique

flora, endemic species, species new to science, and new distribution records

02 Highly diverse and intact expanses of forest, with heterogeneous habitats and soils

that encapsulate much of the diversity found in Loreto

03 Intact headwaters of seven rivers that supply two of the Amazon’s largest tributaries,

the Napo and Putumayo

Cultural

01 Maijuna ancestral territory and Maijuna traditional knowledge

02 Leadership demonstrated by the four Maijuna communities in their work to create

the proposed Área de Conservación Regional (ACR) Maijuna

03 FECONAMAI and its objectives, which include maintaining the Maijuna cultural

identity, conserving natural resources, and establishing strong links among the

Maijuna communities to ensure a successful implementation of the ACR

Regional

01 A well-defined regional vision for conservation in Loreto and a regional ordinance

that explicitly protects headwater streams

02 A successful participatory model for regional conservation areas and institutional

support for implementing areas

03 Together with the proposed ACR Ampiyacu-Apayacu, the proposed ACR Maijuna will

form a forested corridor north of the Napo River.

01 High-terrace habitats previously unknown in the Peruvian Amazon

02 Intact headwater streams and their connectivity with lower reaches of rivers

(important for fish reproduction and watershed integrity)

03 Game species and other forest resources used by local people (aguaje palm fruits

and other non-timber forest products, large mammals, birds, tortoises, paiche and

arahuana fishes)

04 Populations of threatened species (listed by IUCN and INRENA)

05 Traditional ecological knowledge of the Maijuna, their cultural traditions and

practices, their language, and their low-impact use of natural resources

Principalassetsforconservation

Principalconservationtargets

REPORTATAGLANCE


06 Species (non-timber forest products, animals) and habitats (irapayales, yarinales,

aguajales) traditionally important for the Maijuna

Principalthreats 01 Proposed road from Bellavista to El Estrecho, with a planned 10-km-wide swath

of development (Fig. 11A)

02 Illegal logging

03 Oil concessions

01 CreatetheÁreadeConservaciónRegional(ACR)Maijuna.

n Act on the initiative of the Maijuna communities and the vision of GOREL to

establish the ACR Maijuna (336,089 hectares), which will conserve part of the

ancestral territory of the Maijuna and sustain its high cultural and biological value.

02 HalttheprincipalthreatstotheACRMaijuna.

n Given the important cultural and biological value of the area, the conservation

vision of PROCREL, and the regional ordinance protecting headwater streams,

reevaluatetheBellavista-Mazán-ElEstrechoroadprojectandsearchfor

viablealternatives.

n EliminateillegalloggingintheACRMaijuna, strengthening and supporting the

existing system developed by the Maijuna and FECONAMAI.

n Before allowing oil exploration or extraction in the ACR Maijuna, requirethatoil

companiesdevelopandimplementpracticesthatminimizeenvironmentalimpacts,

andmandateindependentevaluationoftheseimpacts.

03 ImplementtheACRMaijuna.

n Developandimplementamanagementplanthatfocusesprincipallyonbiological

andculturalconservationtargets(including refuges for species locally extinct

in other parts of Loreto) andamonitoringplanthat allows for adjustments and

adaptations of the management strategy.

n Establishaparticipatorypatrolsystem,focusing on the most vulnerable

entry points.

n Determinearangeofcompatibleusesofnaturalresourcesanddevelopa

managementplanforeachofthesenaturalresources.

n Promotestrategicalliancesforthelong-termsustainability (biological, cultural,

and financial) oftheACR.

04 StrengthenthecapacityandculturaltraditionsoftheMaijunatopromotea

successfulimplementationoftheACR.

Principal conservation targets (continued)

Principalrecommendations


Why the ACR Maijuna?

StraddlingthewatershedsoftheNapoandPutumayo—twoofthePeruvianAmazon’slargest

rivers—avastwildernessharborsafullsampleofthemegadiversitytypicalofwesternAmazonia

andservesasavitalsourceoffloraandfaunafortheMaijunapeople.Tothenorthandsouthare

fourMaijunacommunitieswhoseresidentslive,hunt,fish,andgatherinthis336,089-hectare

blockofforest.

ThisispartoftheancestralterritoryoftheMaijuna;thefateofthisforestandofthe

Maijunaarestronglylinked.Toensurelong-termprotectionofbothbiologicaldiversityand

theirculturaltraditions,theMaijunaproposeanÁrea de Conservación Regional.Asuccessful

conservationmodelinLoreto,theregionalconservationareasemphasizeparticipatory

management,conservation-compatibleeconomicuses,andadaptivemanagement.

ThisproposedconservationareawillprotectanewjewelinLoreto:acomplexof

Amazonianhighterraces—ahabitatunknownuntilourinventory—thatsheltersafloraand

faunawithanumberofnew,rare,andspecializedspecies.Theseterracesandtheadjacent

lowlandsforestsareunderlainbydiversesoiltypesandgiverisetosevenlocaldrainages,

whosewaterssupportthefloraandfaunaofthearea,aswellasitshumanresidents.

Themostimminentthreatisaproposedroadthatwouldseverthisareaintwo,ripping

itsecologicalandculturalfabric.Historically,mostroadsinAmazoniahavenotbeenfinancially

viable.Andthedestructionofhabitats—bythedirecteffectsofhighwayconstructionand

byassociatedimpactsfromaninfluxofhumancolonistsandsubsequentdeforestation—

wouldbeirreversible.Instarkcontrast,formalprotectionofthisforestedlandscapeastheÁrea

deConservaciónRegionalMaijunawillensuretheintegrityofthewatersheds,cleanwater,and

thecontinuityofecologicalandevolutionaryprocessesforthelongterm.Thenewconservation

areaalsowillsecurethebasisoflifeandculturefortheMaijunaandotherresidentsinthe

NapoandPutumayodrainages.



Conservation in the ACR Maijuna

n Traditional ecological knowledge held by the Maijuna, and

Maijuna cultural practices that are compatible with the

conservation of natural resources

n Species (of non-timber forest products and animals)

and habitats (e.g., palm forests such as agualajes and

irapayales ) traditionally important — economically and

culturally — for the Maijuna

n The Maijuna language

n The high terraces, unique and previously unknown

habitats growing on poor soils and sheltering a flora

full of new and rare species (Figs. 2B, 3C)

n Intact headwaters and their connection with lower parts

of rivers (which are critical areas for fish reproduction and

the health of the watersheds)

n Plants and animals used or consumed by residents of

the region (e.g., aguaje palms (Mauritia flexuosa ), large

mammals, birds, yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis

denticulata , Fig. 6N), and paiche and arahuana fishes

(Arapaima gigas and Osteoglossum bicirrhosum,

respectively), among others

n Populations of threatened species (according to IUCN

and SERNANP)*

Cultural

Biological

CONSERVATIONTARGETS

* The International Union for the Conservation of Nature, and the Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas por el Estado, respectively.


01 TheproposedroadfromBellavistatoElEstrecho,witha5-km-wide

swathofdevelopmentoneithersideofit.The proposed Área de Conservación

Regional (ACR) Maijuna includes highly fragile areas that will be destroyed by

this road (Fig. 11A), including:

n Headwaters exceptionally susceptible to erosion (Fig. 11B)

n Periodically flooded areas (tahuampas, pantanos, and aguajales ) important for

plant and animal species

n Areas with great cultural value for the Maijuna (Fig. 9D)

n Maijuna hunting, fishing, and gathering areas (Fig. 9D)

n High terraces (Figs. 2B, 3C), a rare and previously undescribed habitat with

associated unique plants and animals

The topography and extensive inundated areas in the proposed ACR Maijuna

make a road impractical. Both the construction and the maintenance will be

prohibitively expensive, and the proposed swath of development on either side

of the road would be on infertile soils, inappropriate for agriculture. Furthermore,

this road will have other, significant, primary and secondary effects, including:

n The destruction of over 130,000 ha of forest by the 130-km-long road and its

10-km-wide swath of development

n Disorganized colonization along the road, with subsequent deforestation and

degradation

n Indiscriminate, unsustainable hunting because of easy access to previously

remote areas, which will bring populations of vulnerable species to local

extirpation

n Contamination of waters by erosion and sedimentation in the headwaters

during construction and colonization, with downstream impacts

n Trafficking in lands

n Destruction of the quality of life and biocultural resources of the Maijuna

THREATS


02 Illegallogging

n Loss of flora and fauna (due to overhunting, fishing with poisons such as

barbasco, and changes in forest structure)

n Local extinctions of economically and ecologically valuable timber species

n Impoverishment of the quality of life of the Maijuna, and of other communities

neighboring the proposed ACR Maijuna

03 Petroleumconcessions(Area XXVI and Area XXIX, under technical review)

n Represent a potential obstacle for the declaration of the ACR Maijuna

n Contamination of waters

n Erosion of vulnerable soils

n Reduction of local well-being

n Degradation of Maijuna ancestral territory

04 Conflictamongneighboringcommunitiesovertheuseofnaturalresourceswithin

Maijunaancestralterritory

05 EasyaccessoftheareabytheNapoRiverandpossibleaccessviathe

AlgodónRiver

06 LackoflegaltitlinginareassurroundingtheproposedACRMaijuna,increasing

pressureontheforest

07 Hundredsofyearsofstrongpressuresthathaveerodedtheculturalidentity,

knowledge,andvaluesoftheMaijuna

08 AbsenceofefficientcommunicationmechanismsamongMaijunacommunities

andotherpartiesinLoreto

09 EmigrationofMaijunayouth


01 Cultural

n Ancestral Maijuna territory

n Maijuna traditional knowledge of the forest and recognition, by the Maijuna

and some neighboring communities, of the value of the forest, of the benefits

it provides, and of the necessity of managing natural resources

n Initiative and leadership by FECONAMAI and the Maijuna communities to

create an Área de Conservación Regional (ACR)

n FECONAMAI and its goals to maintain cultural identity, conserve natural

resources, and strengthen ties among Maijuna communities that will ensure

successful implementation of the ACR

n Existing, successful means of control of logging and overexploitation of other

natural resources (e.g., paiche fishes and aguaje palms) by the Maijuna

n Kin-relationships among the Maijuna communities

n Traditional subsistence economy, which is compatible with forest conservation

02 Biological

n High terraces, a previously undescribed habitat that to date is unique and

found nowhere else in the Peruvian Amazon

n High biological diversity in all groups inventoried

n Intact headwaters of seven rivers, which form part of two large Amazonian

watersheds

n Large expanses of still-intact forest

n Heterogeneity of habitats and soils concentrated in a relatively small area,

comprising a large portion of the diversity of Loreto

03 Polítical

n Conservation vision at the regional level within Loreto

n Regional laws that protect headwater areas

STRENGTHS


n A successful, participatory model for regional conservation areas in Loreto,

and institutional capacity to promote these areas

n Initial steps to form a consensus for management in the future buffer zone

(Zona de Amortiguamiento ) of the proposed ACR Maijuna

RECOMMENDATIONS


Below we list our principal reommendations for consering the proposed ACR Maijuna in the face of several looming

threats. We begin with recommendations for protection and management, followed by suggestions for future research,

inventories, monitoring, and surveillance.

01 CreatetheÁreadeConservaciónRegional(ACR)Maijuna.

n Take advantage of the initiative of the Maijuna communities and of the conservation

vision of GOREL, and create the ACR Maijuna to protect the ancestral territory of

the Maijuna and its biological and cultural riches.

02 BlockprincipalthreatstotheACRMaijuna.

n Given the biological and cultural values of the area, the conservation vision

already put forward by PROCREL, and regional laws governing the protection of

headwaters, challenge the Bellavista-Mazán-El Estrecho road project (with its 5 km

of development on either side of the roadway) and find economic, biological, and

cultural alternatives that are more viable and sustainable.

n Stop illegal logging in the proposed ACR Maijuna, strengthening and supporting the

successful system developed by the Maijuna via FECONAMAI.

n Before allowing hydrocarbon exploration or extraction from the ACR Maijuna,

demand that the companies (1) develop and implement practices that minimize

negative impacts, both biological and cultural, and (2) permit independent

monitoring of these impacts.

03 ImplementtheACRMaijuna.

n Develop and implement a management plan for the ACR Maijuna that focuses first

and foremost on the biological and cultural conservation targets (including refuges

for species already locally extirpated in other parts of Loreto).

n Implement the ACR Maijuna with a system of participatory management and vigilance.

n Determine a range of compatible uses of natural resources and develop management

plans for each resource.

n Choose an adaptive monitoring system that will help (1) evaluate results of

management and (2) adjust or change management strategies if it becomes

necessary.

n Promote strategic alliances for the biological, cultural, and financial sustainability

of this ACR for the long-term.

n Define the buffer zone (Zona de Amortiguamiento ) for this ACR and form a

committee for its participatory development.

n Promote legal titling of lands in the buffer zone to stabilize the use of these lands

and their resources, thus reducing pressure on the ACR Maijuna.

Protectionandmanagement


n Integrate communities in the buffer zone into participatory management of the

ACR Maijuna, strengthen existing alliances and agreements, and provide training

to all about the benefits of natural resources management.

n Together with the Maijuna, devise a system of control that focuses on areas of easy

access to the ACR and form alliances with national armed forces to facilitate the

vigilance and control of areas bordering Colombia.

n Disseminate to everyone in the buffer zone, via FECONAMAI, existing information

about (1) impacts of extractive activities in Amazonia and (2) better practices

for extraction.

n Implement an efficient system of communication in the ACR with the necessary

equipment, and provide adequate training and maintenance.

04 StrengthenthecapacityandtraditionalcultureoftheMaijunaforsuccessful

implementationoftheACR.

n With the help of FECONAMAI, validate and reinforce Maijuna values and traditions

that will strengthen the management of the ACR Maijuna (including traditional

stories and songs, traditional ecological knowledge, and traditional resource-use

and management practices).

n Strengthen efforts to conserve the Maijuna language, including training of bilingual

teachers, use of the language in everyday life, and development of a formal

language revitalization program.

n Improve the educational system in the communities and train young Maijuna

leaders via FECONAMAI.

Additionalinventories 01 Samplevegetationandsoilsnotexaminedduringthisrapidinventory,andconduct

amorein-depthinvestigationandevaluationofthehighterraces:

n The high terraces (Figs. 2B, 3C) merit additional study to determine if they are

connected, to the north and the east, with other patches of high terrace habitat.

Further inventory of these terraces may add new records of plants to the known

flora of Peru, as well as species new to science.

n Survey forests dominated by a single species of Tachigali (Fabaceae, Fig. 3A) —

not observed by the botanical team in the field but seen by R. Foster during his

overflight of the northeastern sector of the proposed ACR Maijuna — to document

the flora of the area.

n The vegetation of five watersheds not visited during the rapid inventory, to

determine whether or not the patterns we encountered are general, or exclusive

to the areas we visited.

RECOMMENDATIONS


02 Inventoryfishesintheseareas:

n The five headwater zones not sampled inside the proposed ACR Maijuna, which

likely will bolster the species list.

n Lentic bodies of water in the proposed ACR Maijuna, including aguajales

(Mauritia-palm swamps) and cochas (oxbow lakes), which may be associated with

new and/or endemic species.

n The Algodón River and associated lakes, including an estimate of the population

sizes of paiche (Arapaima gigas ) and arahuana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum ).

03 Inventoryamphibiansandreptilesinmorelocalities,vegetationtypes,soils,and

indifferentseasonsoftheyear to increase the number of species registered in the

proposed ACR Maijuna.

04 Inventorybirdsinthefollowingareas:

n The high terraces, because these formations may contain species that are poor-

soil specialists, including the possibility of undescribed species (similar to

Allpahuayo-Mishana).

n Seasonally inundated forests and aguajales along the principal tributaries of the

Napo River (e.g., Quebrada Coto and the Yanajacu River), as well as the Algodón

and Algodoncillo Rivers. It is possible that Wattled Curassow (Crax globulosa, an

IUCN Vulnerable species) still occupies these habitats in the Putumayo watershed.

n Oxbow lakes in both the Napo and Putumayo watersheds.

Research 01 Studypopulationsoftreesusedfortimber,includingtheirphenology,toimplement

reforestationprogramsinthebufferzone.

02 Studythedynamicsofforestregenerationinthehugeblowdowninthe

southeasternsectoroftheproposedACRMaijuna(Figs.2A,3B).This information

will help us understand how catastrophic events affect regional composition and

diversity in Amazonia.

03 Undertakelimnologicalstudiestodeterminethequalityofwaterbodiesand

corroboratethepresenceofbiologicalindicators.

04 Carryoutanevaluationofpaiche(Arapaima gigas )andarahuana(Osteoglossum

bicirrhosum )populationsinthewatershedoftheAlgodónRiver,to determine their

potential for sustainable harvest.

05 StudythefeasibilityofimplementingpisicultureinMaijunacommunities, utilizing

native species with rapid growth and low cost as a source of animal protein and as

part of a program to generate income.

Additional inventories (continued)


06 Studyspeciesofornamentalfishandevaluatetheirpossibleuseinaprogramto

generateincome, and establish safeguards to avoid overexploitation.

07 Investigatethefactorsthataffectthespatialandtemporaldistributionofamphibians

andreptilesinthearea,to determine if there is a distinct community associated with

the high terraces.

08 CarryoutarapidstudyofthenewspeciesofHerpsilochmus(cf.Fig.7G)inthearea,

to determine its distribution and abundance.

09 CarryoutacomprehensiveandsystematicstudyoftheMaijunalanguagethatwill

facilitateproductionoflanguagematerials(e.g.,adictionaryandprimers)and

implementationofalanguage-revitalizationprogram, in support of Maijuna desires

to conserve their unique and endangered language.

10 Undertakeethnobiologicalstudiestoinvestigateanddocumentspeciesofplants

andanimalsthatareeconomicallyandculturallyimportanttotheMaijuna. This

information will serve to help focus conservation efforts and management plans on

these important species and their respective habitats.

11 InvestigateMaijunaculturaltraditionsandvalues(includingtraditionalecological

knowledge,stories,songs,resourceuse,andmanagementpractices)andworkwith

FECONAMAItoinvigorateandreinforcethosetraditionsandvalues, which will

strengthen the management and conservation of the proposed ACR Maijuna.

01 ImplementaprogramofpatrolsaroundandwithintheproposedACRMaijuna,

concentratingoncriticalareaseasilyaccessedfromtheoutside, to guarantee that

the ACR maintains its wild condition and continues to function as a source area for

renewal of populations of plant and animal species.

02 Implementaprogramofreforestationoftimber-yieldingspeciesthathave

disappearedinthesouthernsectoroftheproposedACRMaijuna,e.g., lupuna

(Ceiba pentandra, Malvaceae), cedro (Cedrela odorata, Meliaceaee), and the cumalas

(Virola pavonis, Otoba glycycarpa, and O. parvifolia, Myristicaceae), focusing on

small open patches in the forest resulting from past logging.

03 Establishclosed-season(veda )zonesorzonesofstrictprotection(i.e.,no-season)

intheproposedACRMaijuna,to permit the recuperation and maintenance of

vertebrate populations used traditionally as food sources by local residents

(including species with low reproductive rates like common woolly monkey

(Lagothrix lagothrica ), red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus ), and Brazilian

tapir (Tapirus terrestris ).

Monitoringandobservation

RECOMMENDATIONS


04 Implementamonitoringprogramforthreatenedspecies, e.g., harlequin frog

(Atelopus spumarius ), yellow-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis denticulata ), smooth-

fronted caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus ), and common woolly monkey.

05 Implementamonitoringprogramforpopulationsofirapay-palm(Lepidocaryum

tenue ), a species that is used as roof thatch.

06 Establishmonitoringofthewaterlevels,andwaterqualityofthesevenprincipal

watershedswithintheproposedACRMaijuna.Investigate the principal elements

of pollution as soon as deterioration of water quality is seen, so as to respond with

adequate measures to maintain healthy watersheds.

07 Prohibitpoisonous,non-selectivefishingmethods.

08 Establishamanagementplanforallculturallyandeconomicallyimportantharvested

speciesandimplementplanswithadaptivemanagement.

Monitoring and observation (continued)


REGIONALOVERVIEW,OVERFLIGHT,INVENTORYSITES,AND

HUMANCOMMUNITIESVISITED

Authors: Corine Vriesendorp and Robin Foster

REGIONALOVERVIEW

Soilsandgeology

IntheMiocene,muchofthePeruviandepartmentofLoretowasdominatedbyan

inlandlakeunderlainbythickclays(knownasthePebasFormation).Thislake,

LagoPebas,likelyhadmarineincursions,asevidencedbyshellsdepositedintheclays.

ThePebasclaysrepresenttheoldestandrichestsoilsintheLoretoregion,andLago

PebaslikelycoveredmuchoftheproposedÁreadeConservacion(ACR)Maijuna.

Loreto,includingtheproposedACRMaijuna,ismarkedbyterrificsoil

heterogeneity,includingoldPebasclays,aswellasmorerecentalluvialdeposits,

sandyloams,whitesands,andsoilsformedinsitu.Shiftingriversconsistently

reorganizeandredistributethesedifferentlayers.Notably,theMaijunahavenames

foratleasttendifferentsoiltypes(Gilmore2005),includingspecificnamesforblack,

white,yellow,andredclay.

TheproposedACRMaijunaisrelativelyflat,similartotherestofthePeruvian

Amazon(forexception,seetheSierradelDivisor).Ourhighestpointsinthiscurrent

inventoryareamere200mabovesealevel,indicatingaverygradualreductionin

elevationoverthenextseveralthousandkilometerstothepointwheretheAmazon

flowsintotheAtlantic.Althoughtheelevationvarieslittle(from80–200m;Fig.2B),

evensmalldifferencesareimportant.CloudssweepwestwardacrosstheAmazonian

plainandgatheralongthehigherhills.IntheproposedACRMaijuna,thehighest

pointsareoverwhelminglyinthePutumayodrainage,formingabandthatbeginsin

theeastinthecommunityofSanPablodeTotollaandstretcheswestandnorth.

ThesehigherhillsandterracesmaybeontheoutskirtsoftheIquitosArch,a

geologicalupliftthattraverseshundredsofkilometersacrossLoretointoColombia.

Fromtheairandinsatelliteimages,muchoftheIquitosArchisidentifiableasaband

ofsteepertopographyextendingnorthwestfromtheYavaríRiverbasinthroughthe

Nanaybasin,uptothePutumayo,andalongthePutumayototheGüeppí.Another

possibilityisthatthesehigherpointsareassociatedwithgeologicalformationsinthe

Technical Report


ColombianAmazon,notasradicalastheupliftinthe

SerraníadeChiribiquete,butperhapsassociatedwiththe

sameprocesses.

Inventoryareaandroadprojects

Ourinventorycenteredontheancestralterritoryofthe

Maijuna,whichharborssevenheadwaterstreamswithin

theinterfluviumoftheNapoandPutumayorivers.

TheproposedACRMaijunaisuninhabited.Itsnearest

neighborsarefourMaijunacommunities:Sucusari

alongtheSucusariRivertothesouth,PuertoHuamán

andNuevaVidaalongtheYanayacuRivertothe

southwest,andSanPablodeTotollaalongtheAlgodón

Rivertothenorth.Allothernearbyhumansettlements

areconcentratedalongtheNapoRiver,tothewest.

Totheeast,theareaisboundedbytheproposedACR

Ampiyacu-Apayacu.

Inthe1980sengineersinitiatedaroadprojectacross

60kmontheextremenorthwesternendoftheproposed

ACRMaijuna,betweenthetownsofFlordeAgostoand

PuertoArica,acrossthenarrowestdistancebetweenthe

PutumayoandNaporivers.However,theFlordeAgosto-

PuertoAricaroadwasabandoned—judgedhopelessly

expensive—becausemorethan12kmpassedthrougha

palmswampandtheroadwasimpossibletoconstructor

maintaininseasonallyfloodedsoils.

Anewproject,ledbyPEDICP(ProyectoEspecial

BinacionalDesarrolloIntegraldelaCuencadelRío

Putumayo,formerlyINADE,theInstitutoNacionalde

Desarrollo),proposestobuildaroadfromBellavista

toMazántoEstrecho.TheMazán-Estrechoportionof

theproposedroadwouldcrossmorethan130kmof

forestandswamptounitetheNapoandthePutumayo

rivers(Fig.11A).Theroadwouldbisecttheproposed

ACRMaijuna,and5kmoneithersideoftheroadare

envisionedasadevelopmentcorridor,withafocuson

biofuels,e.g.,oilpalms.UndertheexistingPEDICP

roadplans,thedevelopmentcorridorwoulddeforest

130,000ha(i.e.,a10-by-130-kmstrip)ofintactforest.

Moreover,whenweexaminedthetopographyofthe

proposed130-kilometerMazán-Estrechoroad,our

estimatessuggestthatatleast40kmwouldpassthrough

palmswampsandotherseasonallyinundatedforests.

Therefore,notonlyisthecurrentlyproposedroadtwice

aslongastheabandonedroadprojectofthe1980s,the

areaoffloodedforestandswampwouldbethreetimes

aslong.

OVERFLIGHTOFTHEACRMAIJUNAAND

SURROUNDINGAREA

On31October2009,weflewforthreehoursina

hydroplane,criss-crossingtheareatopassoverthemain

habitatsandformations.ParticipantsincludedR.Foster

andA.delCampo(TheFieldMuseum),S.Ochoa

(FECONAMAI),andA.Vásquez(GOREL).Theflight

beganinthesoutheasterncorneroftheproposedACR

Maijuna,wherelowandmedium-sizedhillsdominate

thelandscape,interspersedwithsmallpalmswamps.

Weflewoverthemassiveblowdownobviousonthe

satelliteimage(Figs.2A,3B,3G),anareathatspans

morethan1,500hawithanalmostuniformcoverof

regeneratingCecropia sciadophylla(Cecropiaceae)and

otherpioneerspecies.

Fromhere,wetraveledtothenortheastcorner

oftheproposedACR,toterraceswithaconspicuous

abundanceofstandingdeadindividualsofmonocarpic

Tachigali(Fabaceae),locallyknownastangarana

(Fig.3A).Wedidnotsampletheseareasinthefield.

However,piecingtogetherobservationsfromour

previousrapidinventories,especiallyfartherupriver

ontheNapoRiverneartheMazánheadwaters,

theseterracesmaybepartoftheIquitosArchuplift

(seeabove).

EastoftheTachigaliterraces,weflewoverhigh

terracescoveredbyfloweringClathrotropis macrocarpa

(Fabaceae,Fig.3C).Oursecondinventorysite(Piedras,

seebelow)allowedaccesstotheeasternedgeofthisarea.

TheterracesmaybepartofsameIquitosArchuplift

butthelandformsappeardifferentfromtheTachigali

terraces.Theyareslightlyhigher,flatter,andseparated

bynarrow,verysteepvalleys,almostasifanaxehad

selectivelycleavedalargetable.Humiditywithinthese

valleysisquitehigh,andepiphytedensityissubstantially

higherincomparisonwiththebroadervalleybottoms

thatseparatelowerhillsinthesouthernportionofthe

proposedACR,nearCurupa.Thehighterracesappear


tostretchwestwardalongtheAlgodónRiverfortens

ofkilometers,andthengradebackintomoreofthe

Tachigaliterracestowardsthewesternedgeofthe

proposedACR(Fig.2B).

AsweflewalongtheAlgodón,thewaterlevelsof

themainriveranditstributarieswereremarkablylow,

instrongcontrasttothehighwatersoftheNapoRiver.

Thisdifferenceemphasizestheseasonaldifferences

inwaterwaysfedbydischargeintheAndes(e.g.,the

Napo)versusthewaterwaysfedbyAmazoniansources

(e.g.,theAlgodón).

Aftercrossingthewesternboundaryoftheproposed

ACRMaijuna,weflewsouthalongtheroadbetweenFlor

deAgostoandPuertoArica(seeabove;Figs.3E,3G).A

sectionoftheroad,probably20kmofthenorthernmost

portionthatconnectswiththePutumayo,appearstobe

inuse,withmanyculvertstoallowtheroadtopersist

inthefaceoftheextensive,small-streamnetworksthat

characterizethisarea.Therestoftheroadisabandoned,

coveredinsecondary-forestgrowth.Fromtheair,it

appearsthattheroad-buildingeffortstoppedwhen

confrontedwiththemassivepalmswamps(aguajales)on

thenorthernbanksoftheNapoRiver.

Asafinalobservation,asweflewbacktoIquitoswe

passedovertheNapoRiver,crossingthethinisthmus

betweenIndiana(ontheAmazon)andMazán(onthe

Napo).OnewondershowlongbeforetheAmazonand

theNapounitehere,isolatingthenorthernloopofthe

Napo(nearwhichtheMaijunasettlementofSucusari

islocated).

SITESVISITEDBYTHEBIOLOGICALTEAM

Duringouroverflightweidentifiedseveralunexplored

habitats,includingoxbowlakes(cochas)alongthe

AlgodónRiverandtheTachigaliterracesontheeastern

andwesternedgesoftheproposedACRMaijuna.In

thissection,weprovidemoredetailsabouthabitats

wesurveyedonthegroundattwoinventorysitesin

theproposedACRMaijuna:Curupainthesouth(in

theNapodrainage)andPiedrasinthenorth(inthe

Putumayowatershed).

Weusedadigitalelevationmodelandcareful

examinationofsatelliteimagestochooseoursites.

Alltravelfortheinventorywaseitherbyboatoronfoot,

andwewereaccompaniedbyMaijunafromallfourof

theMaijunacommunitiesmentionedabove.Fromthe

MaijunacommunityofNuevaVida,wewentupriverin

aflotillaofsmall,motorizedcanoes(peque-peques)and

alargefreightcanoe,travelingninehourstoreachthe

junctionoftheCurupastreamandtheYanayacuRiver;

thiswasthefirstsitewevisited.Togetfromourfirstsite

tothesecond,wewalkedatrailtraditionallyusedbythe

MaijunatogetfromNuevaVidatoTotolla,thesortof

transitroutetypicalofindigenouspeopleofinterfluvial

areas.Walkingfromonedrainagetotheotherallowed

ustogetabettersenseoftheon-the-groundvariationin

habitattypes,andweidentifiedseveralgradientsacross

theinterfluvium.

Fromsouthtonorth,wetraveledfromselectively

loggedareastointacttimberstands,fromsubstantial

huntingpressuretolimitedornopressureongame

populations,fromanareaclosetoIquitos(alarge

regionalpopulationcenterwithabigmarket)tonear

ElEstrecho(asmallbordertownwithalimitedmarket),

frommanyusersalongtheNapoRiver(outsidersand

locals)tofewusersalongtheAlgodónRiver(remote,

difficultaccess),fromanareawithgreaterproximity

tothelawtoremoteborderareasclosertoarmedcivil

conflictinneighboringColombia.

Withineachsiteweidentifiedadditionalgradients:

frominundatedareastotierrafirme,fromhighly

dynamicareasinthebottomlandstoslowerprocessesin

theuplands(e.g.,leaflitterdecompositionrates),from

lowfertilityareasinhighesthillsandterracestohigher

fertilityareasinvalleybottomsandlowlands(loosely,

aninverserelationshipwithfertilityandtopography),

andfromareaswithfewtrunkclimberstoareasofhigh

humiditypackedwithepiphytes.

Onabroadscale,thispartofthePeru-Colombia

borderwasoneofthemostimportantsitesduringthe

rubberboom,alongwithsomeofthemostatrocious

mistreatmentofindigenouspeople,includingthe

Maijuna.However,duringtheinventorywesawfew

Heveatrees(naturalrubberknownlocallyascaucho),

andpresumablymostrubbertappingoccurredfarther

north-andeastward,alongthemajorriverfloodplains.


Curupa(15 – 19 October 2009; 02°53'06.1" S,

73°01'07.2" W, 125 – 160 m)

Wecampedonabluffoverlookingtheconfluenceof

theYanayacuRiverandQuebradaCurupa(theCurupa

stream).Our25kmoftrailsletusexplorethemixof

tierrafirmeandfloodedforeststhatcharacterizethissite,

fromlowhillstovalleysandbottomlands,aswellas

raisedleveesinbetween.Theareaisatruepatchwork,

withclumpsofMauritiapalmsinterspersedthrough

thelandscape.

Onthesatelliteimage(Fig.2A),alargeyellowpatch

standsoutasauniformcolor,andappearsdeforested.

However,thisistheresultofanaturalprocess—

amassiveblowdowncreatedbyadownburst—

aphenomenonthatoccurscommonlyintheAmazon.

Ourlocalguidesclaimtheeventoccurred25–30years

ago,andoneofourtrailsallowedustoexplorethis

large,regeneratingarea(Fig.3B).

Weobservedsubstantialvariationfromhilltopto

hilltopinplantcomposition.Forexample,thehillwhere

wecampedsupportedamuchricher-soilfloradominated

byMoraceaeandspeciesentirelyabsentfromnearbyhills

inthelandscape.Overall,theareaappearstosupport

soilsofintermediatefertility.

TheYanayacuwasabout12mwideduringourvisit

andtheCurupastreamwasabout8macross;water

levelsinbothwerequitelow.Watersarelargelymixed,

withsomeblack-waterpoolsintheforest,butoverall

themajorstreamsandriversaremixedorwhite-water,

suggestingapersistentinfluencefromtheNapoRiver.

DuringthedayswespentatCurupa,weexperiencedthe

dramaticriseandfallinwaterlevelstypicaloftheupper

reachesofwaterways,with0.5–1.0mrisesinwater

levelsoverthecourseof24hours.

Duringthelastdecade,ourcampwashometomore

than100peopleloggingandhuntinginthearea.We

foundabundantevidenceoftheirpresenceacrossthe

landscape:stumps,extractionpathsleadingfromfelled

treestonearbystreams(oftenquitesmallwaterways

becauseweareclosetotheirheadwaters)andskittish

mammalpopulations.Onapositivenote,twoyearsago,

PuertoHuamánandNuevoVida(withsupportfrom

ProyectoApoyoaPROCREL)begancontrollingaccess

totheareaandstoppedtheillegallogging.Forthemost

intenselyexploitedtreespecies,cedro(Cedrela)and

lupuna(Ceiba),localextinctionsareverylikely,andany

regenerationfromthefewremainingrefuges,ifany,will

beexceedinglyslow.

Piedras(20 – 27 October 2009; 02°47'33.9" S,

72°55'02.9" W, 135 – 185 m)

Wehiked18kmfromCurupatooursecondsite,Piedras,

reachingthedividebetweentheNapoandPutumayo

drainagesat7km.Wecampedonaslightriseabovethe

PiedrasRiver(whichisabout4macross),ontheedge

ofanextensivecomplexofhighterraces(Fig.2B).Aswe

crossedovertothePutumayodrainage,weexperienced

adramaticchangeinriverandstreamcomposition,

withabundantrocksandgravelratherthanthemuddy

bottomsoftheCurupastreamanditstributaries.One

ofourtrailspassedthroughacampsiteabandoned

about12yearsago,reportedlycreatedbytheFARC-EP

(FuerzasArmadasRevolucionariasdeColombia-Ejército

delPueblo).

Our18kmoftrailsallowedustoexplorehigh

terraces,aswellasalargeexpanseofinundated

bottomlands.Thevalleysbetweentheterracesandthe

bottomlandsarehighlydynamic,withtreefallsfrom

windthrows,lightningstrikes,slumpsandsmall-scale

landslides.Wesampledtwolargetributariesofthe

Algodon,theAguasBlancas(about12mwide)andthe

Algodoncillorivers(about14mwide).

InPiedraswefoundthehighestpointsinthe

landscape,sharplydissectedterraceswithlongflattops

andsteepslopesinbetween.Decompositionappears

tobeexceedinglyslow,withabundantleaflitteranda

thick,spongyrootmat.ThedepartmentofLoreto,and

especiallytheIquitosarea,isfamousforextremehabitats

growingonwhitesand,locallyknownasvarillales.On

thehighterracesinPiedraswefoundforestswithsimilar

structure(thickrootmat,slowleaflitterdecomposition,

thinstuntedtrees),howevertheunderlyingsoilsare

clays,notsands.Incontrasttovarillalforestinother

partsofLoreto,thesepoor-soilforestssupportsome

verylargetrees,includingimpressivestandsofthe

timbertreeCedrelinga cateniformisandClathotropis

macrocarpa(bothFabaceae;seediscussionin


Overflightsection,above).Floristically,thereare

similaritiestoforestsintheCaquetádrainagein

Colombia,thewhite-sandareasofJenaroHerreraand

theupperNanayRiver,andisolatedplotsnorthofthe

NapoRivernearthemouthoftheCuraray.Looking

atelevationmodelsandsatelliteimagerysuggeststhat

theremaybeanarchipelagoofthesehighterraces

scatteredalongthePutumayoRivernorthwardstothe

GüeppíRiver.

AswewalkedfromCurupatoPiedras,wetraversed

agradientfromheavyhumanuseofnaturalresources

intheNapobasintomoreintactbiologicalcommunities

inthePutumayobasin.Withintheregionalconservation

context,centralormoreremoteareassuchasPiedras

actassourceareasforgameandforestproducts,while

surroundingareasareuseddirectlybycommunities.

ExplorNapoLodge /ACTSStation(29 – 31 October 2009;

03°15'10.6" S, 72°55'03.6" W, 85 – 130 m)

Wespenttwodaysattheendoftheinventoryinawell-

knownbiologicalstationandtouristlodgethatborders

thesouthernendoftheproposedACRMaijuna.This

biologicalstation,originallyknownasACEERandnow

calledACTS,representsonethemoststudiedplacesin

thePeruvianAmazonandwasvisitedinthe1970sand

1980sbyluminariessuchasAlwynGentry,TedParker,

RodolfoVásquez,BillDuelman,andLilyRodríguez.

Wewalkedthemaintrails,andtheichthyologistssampled

theSucusariRiver.Wealsosurveyedthespectacular

canopywalkwaythatconnects14largetreesandspans

morethanhalfakilometer.Shockingly,theareaappears

tohavesufferedsustainedheavyhuntingpressure,and

isalargelyemptyforest,devoidoflargemammals.Our

findingshereunderscoredboththethreatofunchecked

extractionandtheimportanceofcreatingastrong

conservationareaintheproposedACRMaijuna.

COMMUNITIESVISITEDDURINGTHE

SOCIALINVENTORY

OurfocalcommunitieswerethefourMaijunanative

communitiesadjacenttotheproposedACRMaijuna:

threeintheNapodrainage(Sucusari,PuertoHuamán,

NuevaVida)andoneinthePutumayodrainage

(SanPablodeTotolla)(Fig.2A).Sucusariissituated

alongtheSucusariRiverandneighborstheExplorNapo

Lodge.PuertoHuamánandNuevaVidaareclose

neighborsontheYanayacuRiver,10–14kmupriver

fromtheYanayacu’sjunctionwiththeNapoRiver.

SanPablodeTotollaissituatedintheupperreaches

oftheRíoAlgodón,farfromanyothercommunities.

Similartootherindigenouscommunitiesthatlivein

theinterfluviumoflargeAmazonianrivers,theyhave

createdanetworkoftrailsthroughoutthearea,andtheir

livelihoodsandculturelargelyrelyonforestresources

(Fig.9D;andseetheParticipatoryMappingchapterof

thisreport).M.Gilmore,anethnobiologist,hasbeen

workingwiththeMaijunaforthelastdecade,andhis

workprovidesadeepcontextforthearea.

AsacomplementtoM.Gilmore’swork,Alberto

Chirifconductedatwo-weeksocio-economicsurveyof

24communities:the4Maijunacommunitiesmentioned

above,plus20othercommunitiesalongtheNapo

River(Fig.2A).Thisworkfocusedoninfrastructure,

demography,andnaturalresourceuse,andlaysthe

groundworkforresolvinganyexistingconflictsaswellas

buildingalliancesaroundtheproposedACRMaijuna.


VEGETATIONANDFLORA

Authors/Participants: Roosevelt García-Villacorta, Nállarett Dávila,

Robin Foster, Isaú Huamantupa, and Corine Vriesendorp

Conservationtargets:High terraces containing a distinct flora, a

habitat unknown in Peru prior to the rapid inventory; a gradient in

soil types, from nutrient-poor clay soils to the north of the proposed

Área de Conservación Maijuna, to intermediate fertilty clays in

the middle and south; hill forests in northern Loreto with species

composition characteristic of the Colombian Amazon and the

northeastern Brazilian Amazon; aguajal (Mauritia flexuosa ) swamps;

a representative sample of the flora of two different watersheds

(Putumayo and Napo ) that are not protected elsewhere in Peru; the

flora of streams and headwaters in northeastern Loreto that are not

protected in any regional conservation area; healthy populations of

palm species widely used in Loreto, such as irapay (Lepidocaryum

tenue ), ungurahui (Oenocarpus bataua ), and shapaja (Attalea

butyracea ); healthy populations of threatened timber species,

such as tornillo (Cedrelinga cateniformis ) and marupá (Simarouba

amara ); forests with reduced timber populations that can be

restored through appropriate management of species with high

commercial value (e.g., cedro, Cedrela odorata, and lupuna, Ceiba

pentandra ) and species with intermediate value (the cumalas, Virola

pavonis, Otoba glycycarpa, O. parvifolia ); new additions to the flora

of Peru, such as the dwarf palm Astrocaryum ciliatum; and 5 – 13

plant species that might be new to science

INTRODUCTION

TheforestsintheproposedÁreadeConservación

Regional(ACR)Maijunaarelocatedintheinterfluvium

betweenthePutumayoRiverinthenorthandtheNapo

Riverinthesouth.Thearea’sflorahadnotbeenexplored

untilnow.Ourbestpointofcomparisonistheforests

neartheMaijunacommunityofSucusariintheNapo

Basin(Fig.2A),onlandownedbytheExplorNapo

touristlodge,whereaflorulawasdeveloped(Vásquez

1997).Inaddition,thefloraandvegetationofthe

forestsadjacenttotheproposedMaijunaACRtothe

east—intheupperbasinsoftheApayacu,Ampiyacu,

andYaguasRivers—wereevaluatedina2004rapid

inventory(Vriesendorpetal.2004).Incontrast,theflora

ofthePeruvianbasinofthePutumayoRiverremains

virtuallyunknown.

METHODS

Wecharacterizedthefloraandvegetationoftheproposed

ACRMaijunabyacombinationofquantitativemethods,

collections,andobservationsalongthetrailsystem.

I.HuamantupaalsocollectedintensivelyalongQuebrada

Yanayacu(theYanayacustream,intheNapobasin)

andQuebradaAlgodoncillo(inthePutumayobasin).

N.DávilaandC.Vriesendorpstudiedthewoodyfloraby

establishingtwotransectsinwhichthefirst100trunks

between10and100cmDBH(diameteratbreastheight)

wereidentified.R.Garcíaestablishedtentransectsfor

studyingtheflorawithstemsover5cmDBH,surveying

forestschosenaccordingtotheircolorvariationin

theLandsatsatelliteimageofthearea(Fig.2A);eight

transectsmeasured5x100mandtwoofthemdidnot

havesetareas.R.Fosterflewoverthearea(Fig.3G)and

describedthedifferencesinthevegetationandcanopyas

wellasdominantemergentspecies.

N.Dávila,I.Huamantupa,andC.Vriesendorptook

morethan2,000photographs,mostlyoffertilespecies

butalsoofunknownsterilespecies.Thesephotosare

availableatwww.fieldmuseum.org/plantguides.

WedepositedspecimensintheHerbarioAmazonense

(AMAZ)oftheUniversidadNacionaldelaAmazonía

PeruanaenIquitos,andwhenpossible,weleftduplicates

intheMuseodeHistoriaNatural(USM)ofthe

UniversidadNacionalMayordeSanMarcosinLima,

andtriplicatesatTheFieldMuseum(F)inChicago.

RESULTS

Typesofvegetation

Atleastfivetypesofvegetationcanbefoundinthearea:

(1)riparianforestsalongstreams(bosques de quebradas);

(2)low,periodicallyinnundatedforests(bosques de bajial );

(3)Mauritia-palmswamps(aguajales);(4)low-hillforests

(bosques de colinas bajas );and(5)high-terraceforests

(bosques de terrazas altas).Ingeneral,webelievethatthe

arearepresentsagradientinsoilfertility,fromterraces

withpoorclaysoilsinthenorth(inthePutumayobasin)

tohillswithclaysoilsofintermediatefertilityinthe

south(Napobasin).

www.fieldmuseum.org/plantguides


Riparian forests

IntheriparianforestsoftheYanayacuRiversector

(intheNapoBasin),wecommonlyfoundMacrolobium

acaciifoliumandParkiapanurensis (Fabaceae),Apeiba

membranacea andCavanillesiaumbellata(Malvaceae

sensulato),Ficusparaensis(Moraceae),Vochysia

lomatophylla(Vochysiaceae),andseveralspeciesofInga

(Fabaceae)andPalicoureaandPsychotria(Rubiaceae),

amongothers.Seventypercentofthefloracollectedin

thoseforestswasinfruitorflower.

Low, periodically inundated forests

Low-lying,periodicallyinundatedareas,orbajiales,were

plentifulthroughoutthestudyarea,especiallyalongthe

trailsthatfollowtheCurupastreamtoLimónwhere

thehillyterrainbegins.Inthisareawecommonlyfound

Erismacf. calcaratum(Vochysiaceae)andSocratea

exorrhiza(Arecaceae).

Mauritia-palmstands

Smallpatchesoftheseaguajales,withabundant

Mauritiaflexuosa(Arecaceae)andCespedesiaspathulata

(Ochnaceae),werefoundinpoorlydrainedsitesbetween

theuplandhills.Thesesmallpatchesareabundant

throughouttheproposedACRMaijuna,especiallyalong

thestreams,andtheyareclearlyvisibleinsatelliteimages

ofthearea(Fig.2A).

Low-hill forests

Forestsgrowingonlowhillsconstitutethemostextensive

typeofvegetationinthearea.Theyaremoreextensivein

theNapowatershedandhavebeensubjectedtoagreater

intensityoftimberextraction(prevalentuntil2007)than

otherpartsofthearea.Theircanopyhasanaverage

heightof28mandemergentspeciesreach35m.Among

themostcommontreespeciesareScleronema praecox

(Malvaceae,Fig.4C),Iriarteadeltoidea(Arecaceae),

BrowneagrandicepsandParkianitida(Fabaceae),and

Minquartiaguianensis(Olacaceae).

High-terrace forests

Ourmostunexpectedfindingwerethehighterraces

growingonnutrient-pooryellowclaysoilthatwefound

inPiedras.Theseforestshaveadistinctflora,andthesoil

iscoveredbyadenselayerofrootletsanddeadleaves

thatreachupto15cmindepth.Theabundanceof

epiphytes(Araceae,Bromeliaceae,andmosses)

wassogreatthatattimesitgaveusthesensationof

walkinginmontaneforestsinsteadofAmazonian

lowlandforests.

TheturnoverofdominantspeciesfromCurupa

toPiedrasissodramaticthatentirefamiliesare

replacedinthetreecommunityateachsite.InPiedras,

Chrysobalanaceae,Sapotaceae,andLecythidaceaeare

dominantandhavecharacteristicstypicalofoligotrophic

(nutrient-poor)soils:hardwood,abundantlatex,and

thick,hard(coriaceous)leaves.

Inthesamesector,butoccupyingareaswithorganic

materialandathinnerlayerofroots(approximately

5cm),wefindforestsdominatedbyClathrotropis

macrocarpa(Fabaceae,Fig.3C).Theseforestsoccupya

substantialareanorthofPiedrasandwerealsoobserved

byR.Fosterinhisoverflightofthearea.Seedlingsof

thisspeciesarecommonintheforestunderstoryand

almostonethirdofthestems≥5cmDBHinatransect

inthisforestbelongtoC.macrocarpa.Thedensityofall

stemsintheforestdominatedbyC.macrocarpaishigh

(79stems),onlysurpassedbythetransectonanother

highterrace(95stems).

ThetransitionbetweenCurupaandPiedras

InCurupawefoundaflorawithcharacteristicspecies

offertilesoils:Quararibeawittii(Malvaceae),Iriartea

deltoideaandAstrocaryummurumuru(Arecaceae),

VirolapavonisandV. elongata(Myristicaceae),and

Pseudolmedialaevis(Moraceae).Inthetwointermediate

camps(LimónandChino)betweentheCurupaand

Piedrassites,wefoundanintermediateflora.Limónhas

higherhillswherewedidnotfindirapay(Lepidocaryum

tenue),incontrasttotheforestsofCurupa,where

irapayisabundant.Thisfloristicturnoverisalso

evidencedbylargeindividualsoftornillo(Cedrelinga

cateniformis),atimbertreethatisabsentinCurupa.

Theotherintermediatepoint,Chino,haspatchesofclay

soilswithintermediatefertilitythatarenexttopatches

oflessfertilesoilswithabundantorganicmaterial

(approximately10cmdeep)neartheaguajales.InChino

itiscommontofindcashinbo (Carinianadecandra,


Lecythidaceae),Guareamacrophylla(Meliaceae),

ungurahui(Oenocarpusbataua,Arecaceae),anda

speciesofVantanea(Humiriaceae).AlsoinChinothe

woodyunderstoryspeciesbegintodifferfromwhat

wefoundinCurupa,withthemostcommonspecies

beingNeoptychocarpussp.(Salicaceae),Guarea

cristata(Meliaceae),andPseudosenefelderainclinata

(Euphorbiaceae).

Massivenaturalblowdown

Tothesoutheast,approximately7kmfromthe

Curupacamp,wefoundaforestofapproximately

1,500hadominatedbyCecropiasciadophyllaand

C. membranacea(Cecropiaceae,Fig.3B).Thislarge

secondaryforestwasproducedbyacatastrophic

downburstofwindthatslammedintothearea

20–30yearsago.InadditiontotheseCecropia

species,thesespeciesalsowerecommon:Socratea

exorrhiza,ItayaamicorumandPhytelephasmacrocarpa

(Arecaceae),andHeveaguianensisandNealchornea

yapurensis(Euphorbiaceae).

Richnessandcomposition

Werecordedapproximately800species(Appendix1):

500speciesintheCurupasiteand530speciesinthe

Piedrassite.Consideringthenumberofspeciesreported

forthreeotherbiologicalreservesinLoreto(Vásquez

1997),aswellasthehabitatsdiversitypresent,we

estimatethattheareamightcontain2,500species,ahigh

numberrepresentativeofthediversityofwoodyplants

typicalofthenorthernPeruvianAmazon.Basedonour

fieldobservationsandthecompositionofthefloraof

bothwatersheds,weestimatethatthesetwoinventory

sitesshare40%oftheirspecies.

Onearea-lessplotwaslocatedinthelargeblowdown,

inwhichwecommonlyfoundCecropiasciadophylla

asanemergenttree,alongwithseveralspeciesof

Pourouma(Cecropiaceae).Theyarinapalm(Phytelephas

macrocarpa)andponapalm(Iriarteadeltoidea),were

alsorelativelycommoninthesubcanopy.Wefound

50–95stemsintheeighttransects,eachmeasuring

20x50m,withanaverageof72stemspertransect.

Thetransectwiththemoststemswaslocatedin

theterraceswitholigotrophicsoilsinPiedras,and

thetransectwiththefeweststemswasfoundinthe

intermediatesectorbetweenbothbasins,inChino.

Curupa

ThecommunityofdominanttreesinCurupa

wasrepresentedbyseveralspeciesofMalvaceae,

Myristicaceae,Moraceae,andArecaceae,whichoccur

frequentlyinclaysoilsofintermediatefertilityto

nutrient-richsoils:Scleronema praecox(Fig.4C)and

severalspeciesofMatisia,Quararibea,Sterculia,and

Theobroma(Malvaceaesensulato);Otobaglycicarpa,O.

parvifolia,andVirolapavonis(Myristicaceae);Brosimum

parinarioidesandB. lactescens,Perebeaguianensis

subspecieshirsuta,Pseudolmedialaevis,andseveral

speciesofNaucleopsis(Moraceae);Iriarteadeltoidea

andSocrateaexorrhiza(Arecaceae).

Themostimportantgeneraintermsofdiversity

andabundanceinCurupaareNaucleopsis(Moraceae),

Matisia,Quararibea,Sterculia,andTheobroma

(Malvaceae),andBrownea(Fabaceae).Inthesubcanopy,

itiscommontofindOxandraeuneura(Annonaceae)in

relativelyhighdensity.Additionallyinthesubcanopy,

Pausandratrianae(Euphorbiaceae),Iryanthera

laevis(Myristicaceae),Swartziaklugii(Fabaceae),

Drypetesgentryi(Putranjivaceae),andthetreefern

Cyatheaalsophylla(Cyatheaceae)arealsocommon.

Densepatchesofthreepalmspeciesarecommon

intheunderstoryandthesubcanopyofterrafirme

forestsinCurupa:shapaja(Attaleabutyracea),irapay

(Lepidocaryumtenue),andAstrocaryummurumuru

var. macrocalyx.

Piedras

InPiedras,theterrainisfairlyundulatingandthehighest

areasare50–100mhigherthantherestofthelandscape.

Thesehighareasformflatplateauscutbynarrow

streamsofmoderatedepth,withverysmall,rounded

stonesandfinequartzsands.Thesoilisyellowishclay

andcoveredbyathicklayeroforganicmaterialand

smallroots5–15cmthick,withoutanysignsofsandin

itscomposition.

TheuplandforestsofPiedrashaveaverydifferent

floristiccompositionthanCurupa.Theterracesare

dominated(inrichnessandabundanceofindividuals)


byspeciesofChrysobalanaceae,Lecythidaceae,and

Sapotaceae.Plantcommunitiesontheseterracesappear

torespondtothelargevariation,overshortdistances,of

availablenutrients.Atransectwheretheabovefamilies

aredominant,locatedinthehighestpartoftheterraces,

wasseparatedbyonly500mfromanotherplotin

whichClathrotropismacrocarpa(Fabacae)isthemost

importantspecies.Theforestsinthehighestpartsofthe

terraceswerelowerinstature,withacanopynohigher

than20mandemergentspeciesto24m.Theseforests

havethegreatestdensityofstemsascomparedwith

othersitesstudied:wefound95stems≥5cmDBHin

atransectmeasuring5by100m,versusanaverageof

66stemsfoundinthreetransectsinCurupa.

Althoughwedidnotmeasuretheconcentration

ofnutrientsinthesoil,weutilizedthethicknessof

theorganiclayerpermeatedbysmallrootsabovethe

mineralsoilasanindicatoroftheamountofnutrients:

thegreaterthethicknessoftheorganicmaterial-root

layer,thesmallertheamountofavailablenutrients

fortheplants(DuivenvoordenandLips1995;Cuevas

2001).Thus,thehighestterraceshadaverythicklayer

oforganicmaterialandsmallroots(approx.10–15cm)

andafloratypicalofthesandy-loamterracesofsouthern

Loreto(Yavarí,Pitmanetal.2003;JenaroHerrera,

N.Dávilapers.comm.).

CommonspeciesontheterracesareAnisophyllea

guianensis(Anisophylleaceae),Chrysophyllum

sanguinolentum,Micropholisguyanensissubsp.

guyanensisandPouteriatortasubsp.tuberculata

(Sapotaceae),Pouroumaherrerensis(Cecropiaceae),

Duroiasaccifera(Rubiaceae),Iryantheraparaensis

andI. tricornis(Myristicaceae),Hirtellaphysophora

(Chrysobalanaceae)andMabeaangularis.Generalist

speciesofpoorsoils,andthosethatcommonlyoccur

onwhite-sandsoils(varillales),alsowerecommonhere:

Parkiaigneiflora(Fabaceae),Jacaranda macrocarpa

(Bignoniaceae),Ocoteaargyrophylla(Lauraceae),and

Virolacalophyllasubsp.calophylla(Myristicaceae).

ThehillsdominatedbyClathrotropismacrocarpa

havealayeroforganicmaterialandsmallrootswith

athicknessofnogreaterthan5cm.Theheightofthe

canopyintheseforestsis25m,whileemergentspecies

reach28m.OthercommonspecieshereareIryanthera

tricornis,severalspeciesofEschweilera(Lecythidaceae),

Pouteria(Sapotaceae),Protium(Burseraceae),and

Oenocarpusbataua(Aracaceae).

ThemostdiversegenerainPiedrasareEschweilera

(Lecythidaceae),Pouteria(Sapotaceae),Couepia

(Chrysobalanaceae),andSloanea(Elaeocarpaceae).

Clathrotropis(C. macrocarpa)wasthedominantspecies.

Shrubbyspecieswithsmallberriesordrupaceous

fruits,especiallyPiperaceaeandRubiaceae,arenot

importantintermsofrichnessandabundanceinthe

understoryineitherofthetwoinventorysites.Wealso

recordedalowlevelofHeliconia(Heliconiaceae)diversity.

Speciescompositionintreefallgapsisalsoatypical

forLoreto’sterrafirmeforests,andconsistsmostlyof

Conceveibamartiana,Croton matourensis,C.smithianus

ySapium marmieri (Euphorbiaceae),andVismia

sandwithiiandV. amazonica(Hypericaceae).

Economicallyvaluablespecies

ThenorthernsectoroftheACRMaijunasupports

healthypopulationsoftwotimberspeciesimportantfor

theregion:tornillo(Cedrelingacateniformis,Fabaceae)

andmarupá(Simaroubaamara,Simaroubaceae).These

twospecieshavebeenlocallyextirpatedinmanyparts

ofLoreto,andtheACRMaijunawouldrepresentan

importantsourcepopulation.Anothereconomically

importantspeciesobservedbytheadvanceteamwas

palo de rosa(Anibarosaeodora,Lauraceae).Thisspecies

wasexploitedatunsustainablelevelsinthe1970sfor

useinperfumes.

Thearea’ssouthernsector(intheNapoBasin)

wasintensivelyexploitedfortimberuntil2007,and

timberspeciesthatwerepreviouslyemblematicofthose

forests—cedro(Cedrelaodorata,Meliaceae),thecumalas

(Virolapavonis, Otobaglycycarpa, and O. parvifolia),

andlupuna(CeibapentandraMalvaceae)—arerareor

absent.Thelupunatreesweresocommoninthearea

thatevenastream,QuebradaLupuna,carriestheirname.

Nonetheless,thisstreamisnowamutewitnesstothe

absenceofthisspecies.


Locally-importantpalmtrees

Theirapaypalm(Lepidocaryumtenue)hashealthy

populationsinbothwatersheds.Thewell-drained

terracesofpoortoslightlypoorclayappeartobethe

perfecthabitatforthisspecies,aswellasfortwoother

palmspecies:shapaja(Attaleabutyracea,intheNapo

watershed)andaspeciesofGeonoma(inthePutumayo

watershed).Theungurahuipalm(Oenocarpusbataua)

ismorecommononthehighterracesinthePutumayo

watershed,whilepona(Iriarteadeltoidea)isrelatively

commoninforestsintheNapowatershed.

Newspeciesandrangeextensions

Wefoundatleast13specieswhichwethinkmaybenew

toscience,morethanhalfofthemonthehighterraces

inPiedras,inthePutumayobasin.Itishighlylikely

thatmoreextensivesamplingoftheseterraceswould

provideadditionalfinds,bothintermsofspeciesnewto

scienceaswellasnewrecordsforPeru.Theperiodically

innundatedforestsandforestsonlowerhillsofboth

watershedsalsocontributedtothenumberofpotentially

newspeciesinthearea.Weprovideabriefdescription

ofourpreliminarydiscoveriesbelow(seeAppendix1for

moredetailedinformation).

Likely new species

WefoundtwospeciesofMyrtaceaethatspecialists

indicatearelikelynewtoscience:aCalycorectestree

(Fig.4N)withlarge,whiteflowersandfurrycalyxesand

asmallEugenia tree(Fig.4H)withnotablebracts.

Dacryodes (Burseraceae)orTalisia(Sapindaceae)—

Thissmalltree,7minheight,wascollectedonthehigh

terracesatPiedras,andhasanaromaticodor,largeleaf

blades,andseparateleaflets(Fig.4O).Theinfructescence

ishighlycompact.Withoutcarefulexaminationofthe

specimen,expertsarenotsureifitisbestincludedin

DacryodesorTalisia,buteitherway,itappearstobea

newspecies.

Dilkeasp.(Passifloraceae)—Wecollectedthis2-to-3-

meter-talltreeonthePiedrasterraces,whereitwasone

ofthedominantshrubsintheunderstory(Fig.4B).This

specimenhasbigbractsandaerialrootsandappears

tobenew,althoughthereareseveralspecimensatthe

MissouriBotanicalGardenincorrectlyidentifiedas

D.parviflora.

Possible new species

Markeasp.(Solanaceae)—Thisshrubbyhemiepiphyte

wascollectedonthebanksofQuebradaCurupa.It

differsfromotherspeciesbyitslargeleaves(Fig.4P).

OnlyfivespeciesofthisgenusareknowninPeru,

andonlyoneofthemisknowntoexistinLoreto,

M. formicarum.

Schoenobiblussp.(Thymelaeaceae)—Collectedinthe

lowandmedium-sizedhillsinPiedras,thisshrubcan

growtobe2mhigh.Ithaspronouncedpubescenceon

theflowersandfruitandawhitishcoloronthebacks

oftheleaves(Fig.4Q).Thisspeciesiscompletelydifferent

fromthesevenspeciesinthisgenusknowntoexist

inPeru.

Erythroxylumsp.(Erythroxylaceae)—Wecollected

this2-to-3-meter-talltreenearasmallstreambetween

thehighterracesinthePutumayobasin.Althoughit

wasidentifiedasErythroxylum macrophyllumvar.

macrocnemium,inthissiteitwasfoundalongwith

Erythroxylum macrophyllumvar.macrophyllum,

suggestingthatitshouldberecognizedasadistinct

speciesratherthanavariation.Ithaslargeleavesand

theundersidesofitsleavesarenotwhitishastheyarein

Erythroxylum macrophyllumvar.macrophyllum.

Weregisteredsixotherspeciesthatwethinkmight

benewbecausetheybelongtogeneraweknowwell,but

donotcorrespondtoanyspeciesknownforthesegenera

inPeru,includingEsenbeckiasp.(Rutaceae,Fig.4G),

Guareasp.(Meliaceae,Fig.4E),andthreespeciesof

Marantaceae(Figs.4K–M).

New records

Astrocaryum ciliatum(Arecaceae)—Anacaulescentpalm

(Fig.4J)thatextendsfromthemiddleCaquetátoLeticia.

OurrecordrepresentsthefirstforPeru.


Esenbeckia cf.kallunkiae(Rutaceae)—Itappearssimilar

toasmalltreeknownfromBrazil(Rondônia)andBolivia

(SantaCruz),however,weneedtoexaminethespecimen

moreclosely.

Croton spruceanus(Euphorbiaceae)–Afirstrecordfor

Peru,thisspecieswaspreviouslyknownonlyinBrazil

andVenezuela(Fig.4A).

Rarely collected species

Additionally,wecollectedseveralpoorlyknownspecies

suchasPseudoxandra cauliflora (Annonaceae,Fig.4F),

arareandrecentlydescribedspeciesrepresentedbyonly

fourcollectionsfromColombia,Brazil,andLoreto,

andKrukoviella disticha (Ochnaceae,Fig.4D),aspecies

foundmostlyatelevationsabove600m,andknown

fromsouthernEcuador,afewrecordsinthedepartments

ofAmazonas,SanMartín,andLoretoinPeru,anda

singlerecordinBrazil.

DISCUSSION

Highterraces

ThehighterraceswithintheproposedACRMaijuna

harborauniqueflorawithinthePeruvianAmazon.The

highestpartsoftheterraceshaveacompositionvery

similartoterraceforestswithsandy-loamsoilsthatare

morecommoninsouthernLoreto(betweentheYavarí

andUcayalirivers)butarenotyetprotectedateitherthe

nationalorregionallevel.

Thethreemostimportantfamiliesonthehigh

terracesoftheACRMaijuna(Lecythidaceae,Sapotaceae,

andChrysobalanaceae)arealsothemostimportantin

thesouthernColombianAmazon,thecentralBrazilian

Amazon,andtheregiontothesouthoftheGuyana

Shield(Duivenvoorden1994;DuivenvoordenandLips

1995;TerborghandAndresen1998;terSteegeetal.

2000,2006;Duqueetal.2003).Forestsdominatedby

Clathrotropismacrocarpa(Fabaceae,Fig.3C)havealso

beenfoundintheseregionsandwouldrepresentthemost

southwesterlydistributionofthisspeciesspecializedin

poorsandy-loamsoils(Milliken1998;Duqueetal.2003;

SolerandLuna2007).Itsdominanceintheseforests

couldbeduetoitssuccessfulsymbioticrelationship

withectomycorrhizafungi,whichallowittoinhabit

infertilesoils(Henkeletal.2002).Ourreportisthe

fourthforC.macrocarpainthePeruvianAmazon,all

occurringbetweentheNapoandthePutumayorivers.

In2003,abotanicalexpeditioninthemiddleandupper

PeruvianNaporecordedthisspeciesasadominant

treeinthree1-hectareplots(Pitmanetal.2008).In

2004and2007,tworapidbiologicalinventoriesinthe

Apayacu,Ampiyacu,andYaguasRiverbasins,andinthe

Cuyabeno-Güeppíarea,documentedsmallerpatchesof

thesamespecies(Vriesendorpetal.2004,2008).Forests

dominatedbyC. macrocarpadonotreachthesouthern

sideoftheAmazonasRiver:nonehavebeenreported

intheYavaríandUcayaliregions(Spichigeretal.1996;

Pitmanetal2003;Honorioetal.2008).Thepresence

anddominanceofC.macrocarpainthenorthernpart

oftheproposedACRMaijunamaymarkanimportant

crossroadforregionalfloras.

Clay-dominatedforestsintheNapobasin

Thesoilsofuplandforeststothesouthoftheproposed

ACRMaijunaaremorefertilethanthoseoftheterraces

inthenorth.Theseforestsarealsomorediverse,

dominatedbyfamiliesthataremorecommoninthis

soiltype:Myristicaceae(Virola,Otoba),Malvaceae

(Ceibapentandra,Sterculia,Theobroma,Quararibea,

Matisia),Arecaceae(Astrocaryummurumuru,Iriartea

deltoidea),andMoraceae(Naucleopsis,Pseudolmedia

laevis).ThisfloraismoretypicalofLoreto,andwould

extendtothesouthernmostpartofthearea,theterra

firmeforestsoftheSucusariarea(Vásquez1997;

Honorioetal.2008)AtSucusari,wefoundmany

ofthespeciesthathadbeenobservedintheCurupa

camp,althoughprobablysomewhatmorediversedue

totheirproximitytoforestsneartheAmazonRiver

andtheoppositesideoftheNapoRiver.InSucusari,

weobservedanindicatorspeciesforrichsoils—yarina

palm(Phytelephasmacrocarpa)—indensestandsinthe

understoryandsubcanopyoftheforest.

ComparisonwithotherLoretoforests

TheforestsoftheproposedACRMaijunadonot

harborthesamesoilheterogeneityofclayandwhite


quartzsandfoundintheforestsofthelowerand

upperNanayRiver(Kauffmanetal.1998;Vriesendorp

etal.2007).Nordoestheareahavewideterracesof

sandyloamorsandinterspersedwithclayeyforests

(typicalofsoutheasternLoretointheYavaríandUcayali

Rivers:Pitmanetal.2003;Fineetal.2006).TheAguas

NegrascampoftheCuyabeno-Güeppírapidinventory

alsoincludesspeciescharacteristicofpoorsoils(for

example,Neoptychocarpuskillipii)andisdominatedby

Chrysobalanaceae.N. killipiidominatedthesubcanopy

oncertainhillsinourChinocampandinthePiedras

site.AlthoughClathrotropismacrocarpaisnotdominant

intheseforests,itisalsopresentinAguasNegras

(Vriesendorpetal.2008).Althoughourknowledgeofthe

patternsofLoreto’sregionalfloraremainsfragmented,

webelievethatsufficientevidenceexists(Pitmanetal.

2008andthisstudy)tosuggestthatthefloratothe

northeastofIquitos,betweentheNapoandPutumayo

Rivers,marksthetransitiontowardsalessdiverseflora

thatgrowsonancient,nutrient-poor,claysoilstypical

oftheforestsofthecentralBrazilianAmazon,southern

Colombia,andtheGuyanaregion.

RECOMMENDATIONSFORCONSERVATION

Managementandmonitoring

■ Guaranteethatthecentralpartoftheproposed

ACRMaijuna—theNapo-Putumayointerfluvium—

ismaintainedinitswildstate,toensurethat

itcontinuestofunctionasasourceofnatural

repopulationofthefloraandfaunainbothbasins.

■ Implementareforestationprogramusingthe

timberspeciesthatarelocallyextirpatedinthe

southernsectorofthearea:lupuna(Ceibapentandra,

Malvaceae),cedro (Cedrelaodorata, Meliaceae),

andcumalas(Otobaglycicarpa,O. parvifolia,and

Virolapavonis,Myristicaceae).Thisreforestation

programshouldutilizeseedlingsfromtheareato

preventtheintroductionofforeigngeneticmaterial.

Becausethesoilsandtreespeciesaredifferent,the

area’snorthernsector(inthePutumayoBasin)isnot

animportantsourceforrepopulationofthearea’s

southernsector(NapoBasin).

■ Implementaprogramtomonitortheirapay

(Lepidocaryumtenue)populations.Thispalmtree

isgreatlyvaluedasamaterialforroofthatching,

andwithoutadequatemanagement,itcouldbecome

locallyextinct.

Research

■ Carryoutamorecompletestudyofthehigh-terrace

habitats,includingtheirfloristiccompositionand

geographicdistribution.Weneedtoknowifthese

terracesareconnectedwithothersimilarhabitats,both

tothenorth(towardstheZonaReservadaGüeppí)

andeastofthearea(towardstheAmpiyacu,Apayacu,

andYaguasbasins).Itispossiblethattheterraces

harborplantspeciesthatarenewrecordsforthe

Peruvianflora,aswellaspossiblynewspecies

toscience.

■ StudytheforestsdominatedbyaspeciesofTachigali

(Fabaceae,Fig.3A)—notobservedbythebotanical

team,thoughseenbyR.Fosterduringtheoverflightof

thenortheastsectoroftheproposedACRMaijuna—in

ordertobetterunderstandthearea’sflora.

■ Includestudiesofthebotanyandvegetationinthe

fourmicro-watershedsnotvisitedduringtherapid

inventory,todermineifthefloristicpatternswe

documentedaregeneralornot.

■ Studythereducedpopulationsofimportanttimber

speciessuchascedro(Cedrelaodorata),lupuna

(Ceibapentandra),andthecumalas(Otobaglycicarpa,

O. parvifoliayVirolapavonis).Seedlingsoftheseand

otherspeciescouldbeusedtoestablishreforestation

programsfortimberspeciesinthearea.

■ Theextensivenaturalblowdown(Fig.3B)inthe

southeastsectoroftheproposedACRMaijuna

presentsanopportunitytostudythedynamicsof

forestregenerationundernaturalconditionsandto

understandhowcatastrophiceventsintheAmazon

affectthearea’sregionalcomposition,dominance,

anddiversity.


FISHES

Authors: Max H. Hidalgo and Iván Sipión

Conservationtargets: Arapaima gigas (paiche) and

Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (arahuana), threatened species with

high socioeconomic value, in the Algodón River basin; a very

diverse community of headwater fishes, adapted to the naturally

fluctuating conditions of the first- and second-order streams

(nacientes) and associated with riparian forests; connectivity

between the aquatic ecosystems of the headwaters and the flood

plains, which is critical for key ecological processes for migratory

species that are very important in the Maijuna diet and in the

Loreto region

INTRODUCTION

FishdiversityintheproposedÁreadeConservación

RegionalMaijuna(ACRMaijuna)hasnotbeenevaluated

orexploredverysystematically.Thisregion,locatedat

themidpointofthesouthernpartoftheinterfluvialzone

betweentheriverbasinsoftheNapo(tothesouthwest)

andthePutumayo(tothenortheast),containsatleast

seventributaryheadwatersthatfloweventuallytothese

twolargerivers.Dominantaquatichabitatsinthis

regionarefirst-andsecond-orderstreams(nacientes),

inhabitedprimarilybysmallfishspeciesadaptedto

theircharacteristicallyfluctuatingphysicalandchemical

conditions.Thesefishspeciesdependonresourcesthat

theforestprovidestothebodiesofwater(Angermeier

andKarr1983;WinemillerandJepsen1998).

Thesecharacteristicsandother(geographicand

historic)factorsexplainwhyahighdiversityoffishes

existsintheseheadwaterareas,despitebeingoligotrophic

systemswithlowproductivity(Lowe-McConnell

1975).Inaddition,theobservedsimilaritybetween

fishspeciesinthenacientesandfloodplainsorlarge

habitats(suchasriversandlagoons)canbeverylow,

asthespeciescompositionsoftheseareasaredistinct

(Barthemetal.2003).

Recentstudiesoftheichthyofaunainnearbyareas

andsimilarhabitatshavebeenconductedprimarily

inthebasinoftheAmpiyacuandArabelarivers,but

alsoinotherriverbasinssuchastheApayacu,Yaguas,

AltoNanay,andGüeppí(HidalgoandOlivera2004;

HidalgoandWillink2007;HidalgoandRivadeneira

2008).Inventorieshavealsobeenconductedinthe

Colombian-PeruviansectorofthePutumayoRiver

(Ortegaetal.2006)andintheequatorialsectorofthe

NapoRiver(Stewartetal.1987).Thegoalofthecurrent

ichthyologicalinventoryistodeterminethediversity

andconservationstatusoffishcommunitiesinthe

proposedACRMaijuna,withtheaimofmaintaining

theirprotection.

METHODS

Fieldwork

During11daysofintensivefieldwork(16–30October

2009),weevaluatedallpossibleaquatichabitatsin

theriverbasinsoftheAlgodoncillo(atributaryofthe

Algodón,inthePutumayobasin)andtheYanayacuand

Sucusari(tributariesoftheNapo),andmadedaytime

collectionsatatotalof12samplingstations(generally

oneperday):6atCurupa,5atPiedras,and1inthe

SucusariRiver(betweenExplorNapoandtheSucusari

indigenouscommunity).Weaccessedthesestationsby

motorboatand/oronlandbytrails,andtwomembers

oftheMaijunacommunityhelpedwithallofthefishing

activities.Inadditiontoobtainingfieldsamples,we

talkedwithMaijunamembersaboutfishingandfavorite

fishingsitesintheircommunities,wherebywelearned

whichspeciesarepartoftheirdietandwhichspeciesare

presentintheareathatwerenotcapturedinoursamples.

Werecordedthealtitudeandgeographiccoordinates

ateachstationanddescribedphysicalcharacteristics

ofthehabitat(Appendix2).Allsamplingstations

werelotic(runningwater)typesofriversandstreams,

including“headwaters”thatcorrespondedtofirst-and

second-orderstreams.Sixtypercentofthestationswere

clearwater(transparentwithoutapparentcoloration)

ormixed-water(betweenclearandwhite)habitats,and

40%werewhitewaterhabitats(withcloudywater,milky-

brownincolor),thelatterbeingatypicalcharacteristic

ofthelargerriversevaluated.Atsomestations,we

sampledtributariesassociatedwiththeprimarystreams

evaluated.Wedidnotfindexclusivelylentic(stillwater)

bodiesofwater(tahuampas;aguajales,orpalmswamps;

andcochas);however,somestreamslikeCurupaand

sometributariesoftheAlgodoncillohadsegmentswith


solittlecurrentthattheywerefunctionallylentic.The

absenceoflentichabitatscouldhavebeenduetothe

factthattheevaluationwasdoneduringaless-rainy

period(sincefloodedforestsarepresentinthearea)

andthatwewereintheinterfluviumoftheNapoand

Putumayotributaries.

Collectionandanalysisofbiologicalmaterial

Foricthyologicalcollectionsweusedmanualdrag

nets,10x2mand5x2m,with5-mmmesh.Weused

thesenetsindifferentmicrohabitats:sandandclay

banks,trunksandbranchpiles,deadleaves,rooted

orsubmergedvegetation,smallclumpsoffloating

vegetation,andareasofshallowrapids(cachuelas),with

hardorsoftbottoms.Wealsousedacircularcastnet

calledanatarraya,2mindiameter(whoseefficiencywas

lowbecauseofthelargenumberofdeadtreebrancheson

theriverbed)intheAlgodoncilloRiver.Inadditiontothe

nets,weusedhooksandlinesinsomelocations(Agua

BlancaandYanayacu).

Ninety-fivepercentofcapturedindividualswere

collected,andtheremaining5%werecaptured,identified,

photographed,andreleasedintheSucusariRiver.

Somemedium-sizedspecies(>25cm,approximately)

capturedbytheMaijunaforfoodorduringthecollecting

operationwereidentifiedandphotographedbutnot

collectedassamples.

Wefixedthesamplesina10%formolsolutionfor

24hoursandimmediatelyphotographedthem,after

whichwewrappedthemingauzesoakedin70%ethyl

alcoholandpackedtheminhermeticallysealedbagsfor

finaltransport.Mostofthecollectedbiologicalmaterial

willbecomepartofthecollectionoftheDepartamento

deIctiologíaoftheMuseodeHistoriaNaturalatthe

UNMSM(inLima),andsomespecimensweredonatedto

theInstitutodeInvestigacionesdelaAmazoníaPeruana

(IIAP,inIquitos).Individualsamplesthatwewerenot

abletoidentifytaxonomicallytothespecieslevelinthe

fieldwerelabeledasmorphospecies(e.g.,Bujurquina

sp.2andBujurquinasp.3).Thismethodologyhas

beenappliedinotherRapidBiologicalInventories,such

asAmpiyacu-Apayacu-Yaguas-MedioPutumayoand

Nanay-Mazán-Arabela(HidalgoandOliveira2004;

HidalgoandWillink2007).

Briefdescriptionofthesitesevaluated

Curupa

ThissiteislocatedintheNapoRiverbasin;we

evaluatedonlythebasinoftheYanayacuRiver,from

itsconfluencewithQuebradaYarina(YarinaStream)to

watersabovetheQuebradaCurupa.Dominantaquatic

environmentsinthissystemareverysinuousstreams

withslowcurrentandclayandmudbottoms.Withthe

exceptionofQuebradaYanayacuandQuebradaCurupa

nearitsconfluencewiththeformer,theremaining

habitatsexploredwerefloodedenvironmentswithin

theforest.Thesecharacteristicsdeterminedthespecies

compositionrecorded.

Piedras

ThissiteislocatedinthePutumayoRiverbasinand

consistsofaquaticenvironmentsinthesmallriverbasin

oftheAlgodoncillo,thefinaltributaryoftheAlgodón

River.Thisarea,whichcontainsthehighesthillsobserved

duringtheinventory,isdominatedbylotichabitats

withmoderatecurrents,sinuousriverbeds,andmainly

narrowstreamswithsofttohardbottomsofmostlysand

andgravel.Incertainsectionsofthestreams(especially

first-andsecond-orderones),shallowwatercourses

(nomorethan5cmdeep)couldbeobservedwithhard

bottomsofgravelandsmallstones,characteristics

thatwererelativelycommoninalmostallofthesmall

foreststreams.

Sucusari

ThissiteislocatedintheNapoRiverbasinandisa

primarytributaryofthisriver.Thesectorevaluated

wasthelowerpartoftheSucusariRiver,betweenthe

communityofSucusariandtheExplorNapoLodge.

Theriveriscloudywhitewater,withlittletransparency

andfewsandybeaches.Thedominantsubstratein

theareaswherecollectionsweremade(butbiological

materialwasnotpreserved)wassandandmud,andthe

dominantvegetationwasvirginprimaryforest.Wedid

notexploretheSucusaritributariesbecauseofthelimited

timeavailableforfieldworkinthisarea.


RESULTS


Wefound132fishspeciesrepresenting6orders,

28families,and83genera(Appendix3).Thespecies

compositionshowsthatmembersoftheSuperorder

Ostariophysidominate,whichincludestheorders

Characiformes(scaledfisheswithspinelessfins),with

73species(55%);Siluriformes(armoredandnaked

or“leather”catfish),with38species(29%);and

Gymnotiformes(electricfish),with7species(5%).

Inaddition,theorderPerciformes(fishwithspinyfins)

wasrepresentedby12species(9%),andtheorders

CyprinodontiformesandBeloniformeswithasingle

specieseach.

ThehighspeciesdiversitywithintheCharaciformes

andSiluriformes,whichtogetherconstitute84%ofthe

ichthyofaunaintheproposedACRMaijuna,reflects

thatobservedinotherpartsofLoretoandthePeruvian

Amazon.ThefamilyCharacidae(Characiformes),with

51species(39%),exhibitedthegreatestspeciesdiversity

inthisinventory.ThemajorityofCharacidaespecies

aresmall(<10cmtotallength),includingtenspeciesof

Moenkhausia(thegenuswiththemostspeciesinthe

proposedACRMaijuna),sevenspeciesofHemigrammus,

andsixofHyphessobrycon.Werecordedothergeneraof

Characidaethatreachlargesizes(15–30cmorlonger)

andareimportantlocallyinthedietoftheMaijunaand

regionallyinthecommercialfishingindustryofLoreto,

including,forexample,twospeciesofsábalo(Brycon

cephalusandB. cf. hilarii)andthreepiranhas(pirañas,

Serrasalmusspp.)thatwereobservedinthelarge

streamsinthestudyarea,especiallyintheAlgodoncillo

Riverbasin.

AmongtheSiluriformes,themost-representedgroup

wasthecarachamas(thecatfishfamilyLoricariidae),

ofwhichwerecorded14species(11%ofthetotal).

Almostallthespeciesweidentifiedaresmallandadapted

totheheadwaterforeststreams.Hypostomusspp.

(ofthe“cochliodon”group)andPanaque dentexare

noteworthyfortheirimportantrolesindecomposing

organicmaterial;theirknife-shapedteethareaunique

adaptationamongtheloricaridsthatallowsthemto

consumewood(SchaeferandStewart1993;Armbruster

2003).Thusinenvironmentswheretheyarerelatively

abundanttheyhelpbreakdowndeadtreetrunksthatfall

inthestreams;thiswasoftenobservedintheheadwaters

surveyed,wherethereisasignificantamountofforest

debrisinthewater.

Ingeneral,theichthyofaunaoftheproposedACR

Maijunaisdominatedbysmallspeciesoffish(80%of

thetotalrecorded).Themajorityofthetypesrecorded

aremicro-omnivores,whichtakeadvantageofwhatever

resourcescomefromtheforest(seeds,pollen,fruit,plant

debris,arthropods),aswellasthelimitedproduction

fromwithintheaquaticsystem(primarilymicroalgaeon

hardsubstratesandmacroinvertebrates).Thiscategory

includesthemajorityofthecaracids(Moenkhausia,

Hemigrammus, Tyttocharax, Knodus),small

auchenipterid(Centromochlus, Tatia)andheptapterid

(Myoglanis, Pariolius)catfish,andvariouselectric

fishspecies(Hypopygus,Gymnorhamphichthys)and

rivulids(Rivulus).Theeritrinids(Hoplias, Erythrinus,

Hoplerythrinus)andtheelectriceel(Electrophorus

electricus)representthetoppredatorsintheseheadwater

fishcommunities.Inparticular,itisnotablethatwe

observedseverallargeelectriceels(>1mlong)inhabiting

streamswithdepthsoflessthan30cm(Fig.5N).

Curupa

Weidentified85fishspeciesfromatotalof1,187

collectedorobservedindividuals(42%ofthesurvey’s

totalof2,822).TheorderCharaciformes,with40

species,andtheorderSiluriformes,with27species,

exhibitedthegreatestspeciesdiversity.Fiftyofthe

85recordedspecies(59%)werefoundduringthe

inventoryonlyatthissite,whereastheremaining35

haddistributionsinotherriverbasinsinLoretoandthe

PeruvianAmazoningeneral.TherecordforHemibrycon

cf. divisorensisrespresentsapossiblegeographicrange

extension(Fig.5K).Wealsofoundapotentiallynew

speciesofthegenusPseudocetopsorhamdia.

ThemostabundantspeciesinCurupawereallinthe

familyCharacidae,ofwhichKnodus orteguasaewasthe

mostcommon(342individuals,29%ofthetotalfor

thesite).Thisspecies,whichwasfoundinstreamsin

Curupa,haswidedistributioninthePeruvianAmazon

(asfarasMadredeDiosandintheAndeanpiedmontup


to500m).OthertypicalcaracidsoftheAmazonianplain

thatwereabundantinCurupawereHemigrammus aff.

bellottii (166individuals,14%)andTyttocharax cochui

(97individuals,8%).Thelatterisaverysmallspecies

thatreachessexualmaturityatasizeofabout1cmand

primarilyinhabitsforeststreams.ThegenusTyttocharax,

ofthesubfamilyGlanduclocaudinae(WeitzmanandVari

1988),ischaracterizedbyaglandinthecaudalfinthat

secretespheromones(WeitzmanandFink1985),which,

givenitslimitedmobilityascomparedwithlargerspecies,

representsanadvantageousreproductiveadaptationin

highlyfluctuatingecosystemslikethestreamsinCurapa.

Thecarachamas(familyLoricariidae),with9species,

weretheotherabundantgroupinCurupa.Themost

commonwasaspeciesofAncistrus,recordedatalmost

allthesamplingpointsandfoundasofteninthequiet

watersofstreamsinthelowerpartoftheCurupaand

Yanayacuasinmoreturbulentwatersandonhard

substratesnearthewatershed.ThegenusAncistrushas

awidedistributioninPeruandisoneofthefewinthis

familythathasbeenrecordedfromtheAmazonianplain

uptoelevationsofmorethan1,000mintheeastern

Andes.Alsonoteworthyamongtheloricaridsarethree

wood-eatingspecies,Hypostomus ericeus, H. pyrineusi,

andPanaque dentex.

Fishesusedasfoodbylocalresidentswererare

inCurupa,despitetheuseofatrapnet inQuebrada

Yanayacu.Thisnet,usedbytheMaijunaofNueva

Vidatotrapindividualfishtoeat,capturedsomelisas

(Leporinus friderici, Schizodon fasciatus),acunchi

(Pimelodella cf.gracilis),awhitepiranha(Serrasalmus

rhombeus),acarachama (Hypostomus ericeus),anda

cunchinovia(Tatia dunni).

Ingeneral,abundanceinCurupawasrelativelylow

ascomparedwithPiedras,whichwasreflectedbythelow

capturenumberswiththegillnet.Werecordedseveral

rareoruncommonspecieswithornamentalvalue.These

species,whichbelongtothreeorders(Characiformes,

Perciformes,andSiluriformes),areNannostomus

trifasciatus, Batrochoglanis cf. raninus, Monocirrhus

polyacanthus, Boehlkea fredcochui, Apistogramma

luelingi,Corydoras rabauti,and C. semiaquilus.

Piedras

Weidentified73speciesoffish,among1,602individuals

collectedorobserved(57%oftheinventorytotal);

38ofthespecieswerefoundonlyatthissite(52%of

thetotalforPiedras).Themostdiversegroupswere

Characiformes(with49species)andSiluriformes(with

16).AscomparedwithCurupa,amoreabundantsample

wasobtainedwithlesseffort(6vs.5evaluationpoints,

respectively),whichindicatesabetterconservationstatus.

InPiedrastherewerenorecordsorevidenceoffishing

withpoisons(specificallybarbasco),asispracticedin

Curupa(accordingtostatementsbytheMaijunaduring

theinventory).

Atthissite,althoughtherewasagreaterabundance

offish,therelativeabundancesofspecieswerenotas

markedlydominantaswasobservedinCurupa.Thus,

Moenkhausia collettii, M. cotinho,andHyphessobrycon

bentosi,allinthefamilyCharacidae,eachrepresented

12%ofwhatwerecordedforPiedras.However,these

specieswerenotascommoninthearea(werecorded

themin60%ofthehabitatsevaluated)aswereKnodus

orteguasae,Tyttocharax cochui,andBryconops

caudomaculatus,whichwererecordedin100%ofthe

habitats,althoughinlesstotalabundance(between4%

and8%).Thesespecieshavewidedistributionsinthe

PeruvianAmazon,especially,inthecasesofMoenkhausia

andHyphessobrycon,intheAmazonianplain.

AmongtheSiluriformes,fewerspecieswere

recordedinPiedrasthaninCurupa,coincidingalso

withanoticeablylowerabundanceofthisorder.Thus,

werecorded5speciesofcarachamas(Loricariidae),a

lowernumberthaninCurupa(9),andalmostallthese

wererecordedonlyintheAlgodoncilloRiver(withthe

exceptionofAncistrussp.).Thelowerabundanceofthis

familyatthePiedrassite(9individualsvs.31inCurupa)

couldberelatedtothelowerfrequencyofsubmerged

logsinthesmallerstreams(withtheexceptionofthe

AlgodoncilloRiver),whicharesubstratesoftenutilized

bycarachamasforfood(scrapingalgaethatgrowon

them),refuges,ornestingsites(Gouldingetal.2003).

ThesmallcatfishCentromochlus perugiae(Fig.5L)

wasthemostabundantsiluriformatthissite,with26

individualscollected;itwasparticularlyabundantinthe


Chinostream,wherewecollected24samples.Thissmall

specieshidesduringthedayinsideholesorchannelsin

submergedlogs,usingitspectoralspinesasanchorsto

avertbeingcarriedawaybythecurrent.Itsreticulated

pigmentationpattern(roundblackspotswithwhite

edges)makesitattractiveasanornamentalspecies.

Atthissitewerecordedthegreatestvarietyand

abundanceoffishspeciesconsumedbylocalresidents

inthewholesurvey,whichprimarilyinhabitlarge

aquatichabitatssuchastheAlgodoncilloRiverandthe

AguaBlancastream.Inparticular,inthelatterseveral

individualsoftwospeciesofsábalo(Brycon cf. hilarii

and B. cephalus),lisa(Leporinus friderici),and

pirañas(Serrasalmus cf. maculatusand S.spilopleura)

werecapturedusinghooksandlinesinlittlemore

than2hours,indicatingoptimalconditionsforthe

establishmentofmigrating,mid-sizedfishpopulations

importantforconsumption.

Sucusari

Weidentified14speciesoffishamong33observed

individuals(1%oftheinventorytotal).Thesespecies

belongedtothreeorders:Characiformes,withten

species,andSiluriformesandPerciformes,withtwo

specieseach.Thisresultislowasfarasspeciesrichness,

primarilybecauseofthelimitedtimeavailabletoevaluate

thisarea.Intermsofabundance,althoughwerecorded

fewspeciesweexpectedlargernumbersofindividuals

ofsmallcaracids,whicharecommonlyobservedin

similaropenhabitats(e.g.,riverbeacheswithhighsolar

radiationexposureandlittlevegetationcoveroverthe

bodyofwater,asseeninotherrapidinventories,suchas

Ampiyacu,Güeppí,andYavarí).

MostofthespeciesrecordedintheSucusari

RiverhavewidedistributionsinLoretoandother

Peruvianriverbasins.However,eightspeciesatthis

sitewerenotrecordedatCurupaorPiedras:Leporinus

aripuanaesis, Hemigrammus levis, Paragoniates alburnus,

Prionobrama filigera, Carnegiella myersi, Limatulichthys

griseus, Rhineloricaria sp.2,and Biotodoma cupido;that

is,57%ofthespeciesinSucusariwereadditionstothe

finalspecieslistfortherapidinventory.Themajorityof

thesespecieshavebeenrecordedinotherriverbasinsin

Loretoandin otherlargerivers,suchastheUrubamba

asfarasMadredeDios(Ortegaetal.2001;Goulding

etal.2003).ThelackofrecordsinCurupaandPiedras

maybeduetothefactthattheSucusariwasthelargest

habitatevaluatedintheACRMaijunaandtothegreater

influenceofthemainriverbasin(oftheNapo)becauseof

itsproximity(whichoffershabitatswherethesespecies

tendtobemorecommon).

DISCUSSION

ThediversityoffishwefoundintheproposedACR

Maijunaishighbutunderestimatestotalspecies

richnessforthearea,which,accordingtoourestimates,

couldbealmostdoublethe132speciesidentified.

Thus,ourestimatedspeciestotalisaround240,based

oncalculationsmadeusingtheprogramEstimateS

(Colwell2005).

Consideringthatmorethan90%oftheevaluated

habitatswerethoseclosesttothenacientes(first-and

second-orderstreamsatthetopofthewatershed),itis

logicalthatlowerareasthatexperiencemoreflooding

wouldcontainlargerspecies,likemanyscaledand

scale-less(leathery)migratoryspecies,amongthem

curimatidslikeyambinaandyahuaraqui,otherspecies

likepalometas,andlargecatfish-likedoncellas,zungaros,

anddorados,whichareveryimportantbiologicallyand

economically(Goulding1980).

Infact,theMaijunareportedthepresenceof

gamitana(Colossoma macropomum),paco(Piaractus

brachypomus),arahuana(Osteoglossum bicirrhosum),

andpaiche(Arapaima gigas)intheYanayacuand

Algodónriverbasins,whichrepresentsanimportant

opportunitytomanageresourcesfortheirownbenefit.

TheMaijunaemphasizedthatthepaichepopulationsin

theAlgodónarerebounding,thankstomeasuresthey

haveappliedforthepasttwoorthreeyearstostop

indiscriminateextractionbyfishermenfromoutsidethe

area.Theconservationoftheseresourceshasbecomea

prioritybecauseofhighcommercialdemandforthem

andbecausetherearefewareasinPeruwheretheyare

underlegalprotection(OrtegaandHidalgo2008).

Weobservedthatingeneraltheconservationstatus

ofPiedraswasgreaterthanthatinCurupaorSucusari.

Thiscouldreflectthelargerimpactofpastlogging(and


otherrelatedactivities)inCurupa,asreportedbythe

Maijuna.Forexample,alowerabundanceinfishcatches

usingagillnetwasobservedinCurupa.Theuseof

barbascobyloggers(alsoreportedbytheMaijuna)also

wouldexplainthelownumbersofmedium-sizedand

largefish,whichshouldhavebeenincreasingtwoyears

aftercessationofthisactivity.Itwasmentionedtous

thatintheSucusariRiverbasintherehasbeenheavyfish

extractionwithintensiveuseofbarbasco,whichwasalso

indicatedasthecauseoffishscarcityintheriver.

Anotherfactorinfluencingtheabundanceoffishin

aparticularareaistheamountofnutrientsinthewater,

whichisdirectlyproportionaltoprimaryproductivity.

Asprimaryproductivityrises,sodoestheabundance

ofschoolsoffish,whichoccurinfloodedareasof

whitewaterrivers(e.g.,thefloodplainsoftheUcayali,

theAmazon,andtheYavarí),unlikesimilarareasof

blackwaterrivers,whicharenutrient-poor(e.g.,the

floodplainsoftheNanayassociatedwithaguajales,or

palmswamps).Inthiscase,weweretoldthatthelower

areasoftheAlgodoncilloRiverhadabundantfish.Ifwe

takeintoaccountthatthisriverisamixtureofblack

waterandclearwater,wewouldexpectthatthelower

partoftheCurupa,whichiswhitewater,wouldhavea

highabundanceoffish,butweweretoldithasdecreased

becauseofindiscriminatefishingandtheuseoftoxic

substancesbyloggers.

Asdescribedpreviously,Characidaeisthe

dominantfamilyasfarasdiversity,andwithinthat

familythegeneraMoenkhausia, Hemigrammus,and

Hyphessobryconhadthegreatestspeciesrichness.The

importanceofthesegeneraandofothersmallcaracids

isthattheyconstitutepartoftheprimaryfishbiomass

intheseheadwater(naciente)ecosystems(Barthem

etal.2003).Inaddition,themajorityaretypicalof

thelowerLoretoAmazonandhaveornamentalvalue

(Campos-Baca2006).

Becauseofthepresenceofsábalo(Bryconspp.),

pirañas(Serrasalmusspp.),andlisa(Leporinusand

Schizodonspp.) inthemainriverswesampled(especially

intheAlgodoncillo),wewouldexpectlargenumbersof

otherimportantfisheryspeciestobeinthishabitatand

othersimilarones;thiscanbecorroboratedindirectlyby

thepresenceoffish-eatingspecies,likedolphinsandriver

otters,whichwereobservedinthestudyareabyother

membersoftherapidinventoryteam.

Ingeneral,speciationisverystrongintheaquatic

ecosystemsoftheheadwatersbecauseofthefluctuating

conditionsoftheseecosystems;thatis,waterlevelsof

streamsmayrisewithseasonalrainsuntiltheyflood

surroundingforestsforhours,thenrecedetolevelsless

than2mdeep.Theseforcesgreatlymodifythebottom

substrateofaquatichabitatsandthephysicochemical

propertiesofthewater(suchasconcentrationof

dissolvedoxygen,turbidity,etc.),andspeciesmust

adapttothesevariations(WinemillerandJepsen1998).

However,despitethisadaptability,whenverydrastic

changesoccurinriparianforeststhatmaybeirreversible,

orreversibleonlyoverlongperiodsoftime(e.g.,intense

deforestationorseriouscontamination),theremaybe

localextinctionsofspecieswithreductionsindiversityof

morethan50%(SabinoandCastro1990).

Comparisonswithotherinventories/othersites

AscomparedwithotherregionsofLoreto,theproposed

ACRMaijunarepresentsanareaofhighdiversity,in

agreementwithwhathasbeenobservedinAmpiyacu-

Apayacu-Yaguas-MedioPutumayo(HidalgoandOliveira

2004)andNanay-Mazán-Arabela(HidalgoandWillink

2007),whicharetheareasclosesttotheACRMaijuna

whoseichthyologyhasbeenstudied.Itshareswith

thesetworegionsthedrainagesystemsoftheNapo

andthePutumayo;however,thesimilaritywefound

wasrelativelylow.Forexample,39%ofthespecies

werecordedintheACRMaijunawereinAmpiyacu-

Apayacu-Yaguas-MedioPutumayoand36%werein

Nanay-Mazán-Arabela,with20%ofthespeciesinthe

ACRMaijunacommontobothsites.

Intermsofichthyologicaldiversity,thisresultis

anindicatorofthehighrichnessandheterogeneity

offishcommunitiesinLoreto,andtheACRMaijuna

isanimportantpieceofthismosaicoffluctuating

communities.Withtheexceptionofpotentiallynew

recordsandthosespeciesnewtoscience,morethan

90%ofthespeciesintheACRMaijunaarepresent

inotherriverbasinsinPeru(OrtegaandVari1986)


aswellasinthoseinotherregionsofSouthAmerica

(Reisetal.2003).Thus,forabetterunderstandingof

thepatternsofspeciesdistribution,morestudiesare

necessaryinareaswithgapsininformation;itwould

beinterestingtostartwiththosethathaveneverbeen

exploredandthatarenearoradjacenttoareaspreviously

studiedasANPs(Áreas Naturales Protegidas )ortoriver

basinsalreadysurveyed.

Rarespecies,newspecies,rangeextensions

Themajorityofspeciesfoundcorrespondtothetypical

ichthyofaunaofLoreto,especiallyoftheAmazonian

plain.However,weobtainedsomenoteworthy

recordsofpossiblynewspeciesandrangeextentions.

Thepossiblynewspeciesbelongtothreegenera:

Pseudocetopsorhamdia(wefoundthesamespeciesinthe

ArabelaareaduringtheNanay-Mazán-ArabelaRapid

Inventory;HidalgoandWillink2007);Bunocephalus

(asmallaspredinidcatfishknownassapocunchiorthe

banjocatfish,whichwerecordedonlyinsandy-bottom

streamsintheheadwatersoftheproposedACRMaijuna,

Fig.5E);andBujurquina(averycolorful,reddishadult

specimenwithturquoiseonthehead;speciesofthis

generainPeruhadnotbeenknownpreviouslytohave

suchmarkedcolorpatterns,whicharetypicalforother

cichlidgenera,Fig.5F).Themajorityofspeciesinthis

familyhavehighornamentalvalue.

InCurupawefoundaspeciesofHemibrycon

(Fig.5K)thatisverysimilartotheH. divisorensis

recentlydescribedfromtheZonaReservadaSierradel

DivisorduringtheRapidInventorythere(Bertacoetal.

2007).Therehadbeennorecordsofthisspeciesoutside

oftheSierradelDivisor,sofindingitintheNapoRiver

basinandinarelativelysimilarhabitat(headwaters,

waterswithstrongcurrents,stony-sandybottom,clear

water)wouldrepresentarangeextensionofmore

than500km.Itcouldpossiblyalsobeaspeciesnew

toscience.

IntheAlgodoncilloRiverwefoundCorydoras

ortegai,whichisasmall catfish(familyCallichthyidae)

describedfromtheAltoYaguasRiverbasinduringthe

AmpiyacuRapidInventory(Brittoetal.2007).This

recordconstitutesarangeextensionoftheknown

distributionofthisspecies,whichapparentlyonly

inhabitsminortributariesofthePutumayobasinonthe

Peruvianside.

TherearethreeveryprobablenewrecordsforPeru

resultingfromourichthyologicalsurvey:Characidium

pellucidum (Fig.5G), Melanocharacidium pectorale

(Fig.5H), andJupiaba aff. abramoides (Fig.5J).The

firsttwospecieshavebeenreportedforLeticiainthe

ColombianPutumayoregion(Galvisetal.2006)but

werenotrecordedonthelistoffishofPeru(Ortega

andVari1986;ChangandOrtega1995).Jupiaba aff.

abramoidesisreportedfortheGuyanas(Planquetteetal.

1996)andistheclosesttothespeciesofthisgenusthat

wefoundintheAlgodoncilloRiverbasin.



■ ConsulttheOrdenanzaRegional020-2009-GRL-CR

(www.regionloreto.gob.pe),ineffectsince15October

2009,inreferencetotheconservationandprotection

oftheriver-basinheadwaterslocatedintheLoreto

region,forlegalsupporttoenforcerespectforthese

areasintheYanayacuandAlgodónriverbasins,which

arecurrentlywell-conservedandhavehighspecies

diversity.Thevariedmicrohabitatsintheproposed

ACRMaijunaareplacesoffeeding,reproduction,and

offspring-raisingformanyspeciesofecologicaland

commercialimportance.Thus,thisareaisasourceof

ichthyicresourcesforeachriverbasin,anditsprotection

willcounterbalancefishingpressure downstream.

■ StudypopulationsofArapaima gigas (paiche)and

Osteoglossum bicirrhosum(arahuana)intheAlgodón

Riverbasinandbodiesofwaterassociatedwith

thesectoroftheproposedACRMaijuna.Studies

focusedonthesespecieswillallowthedetermination

ofthecurrentstatusoftheirpopulationsand,on

thebasisofthisinformation,theestablishment

ofadequatemeasuresforresourcemanagement

bylocalcommunities.Also,werecommendan

objectivediagnosisoffishingoperationsinvolving

othereconomicallyimportantfishspeciestodevelop

strategiesfortheirrationaluse.

www.regionloreto.gob.pe


■ Prohibittheuseofharmfulandnonselective

fishingmethodsinthevariousbodiesofwater.The

establishmentofloggingcampsnearCurupacaused

soilerosionandalteredaquatichabitats,aswellas

enablingpoorfishingpractices.Althoughitisdifficult

todeterminetheimpactofbarbascouseinthesewaters

before2007,wecanassumethatthebodiesofwater

arecurrentlyinastateofnaturalrecuperation,as

hasbeenobservedinotherareasofPeruwherefish

populationshavereboundedsincebarbascouseended

(Rengifopers.comm.).

Investigation

■ Carryoutlimnologicalevaluationstodeterminethe

qualityofthebodiesofwaterstudied,whichmay

corroboratetheirgoodstatusthroughthepresence

ofbiologicalindicatorssuchasinsectsinthefamilies

EphemeropteraandPlecoptera(RoldánandRamírez

2008)andfishinthefamilyHeptapteridae,which

areassociatedwithsecond-orderbodiesofwater

(Reiselal.2003).

■ Provideincentivesfor,andpromotefishfarmingin,the

Maijunacommunities,notonlyasasourceofanimal

proteinbutalsoaspartofanalternativeprogramto

generateincomethroughthesaleofcommercially

importantfish.Sábalos, boquichicos, tucunaré,and

paco(seeAppendix3forscientificnames)arespecies

withwhichtheyhaveexperienceandthathavethe

advantagesofbeingnative,rapidgrowth,andlowcost.

■ Conductastudyofthefishcollectedinourinventory

thatareconsideredornamental(53species,which

is45%ofthespeciescollected).Thepossibleuseof

thesepotentialresourcesshouldinvolveadequate

managementstrategiesthatavoidoverexploitation

andallowsustainabilityovertime.

Additionalinventories

■ Inventorythefiveheadwaterareasnotsampledwithin

theproposedACRMaijuna,whichwouldexpandthe

fish-specieslist.

■ Collectfromparticularlenticbodiesofwater(aguajales

andcochaswithintheproposedACRMaijuna)that

maybeassociatedwithneworendemicspecies.

■ Evaluatethediversityofichthyofaunainthe

AlgodónRiverandinlagoonsassociatedwiththis

river,includingestimatesofthesizeofpopulations

ofArapaima gigas(paiche)andOsteoglossum

bicirrhosum (arahuana).

AMPHIBIANSANDREPTILES

Authors: Rudolf von May and Pablo J. Venegas

Conservationtargets: Two threatened species categorized as

Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature

(IUCN 2009), harlequin frog (Atelopus spumarius) and yellow-

footed tortoise (Chelonoidis denticulata); smooth-fronted caiman

(Paleosuchus trigonatus), categorized as Near Threatened by the

government of Peru (INRENA 2004); 28 species (21 amphibians

and 7 repiles) with distributions restricted to the northwest portion

of the Amazon Basin (Ecuador, southern Colombia, northeastern

Peru, and the extreme northwest of Brazil); intact forests and river

basin headwaters inhabited by a high diversity of amphibians with

direct development (Pristimantis spp.) and amphibians with aquatic

development associated with clear-water streams with sandy

bottoms (harlequin frog and a glass frog [Cochranella midas])

INTRODUCTION

TheLoretoregion,adjacenttotheEcuadorianAmazon,

southernColombia,andtheextremenorthwestofBrazil,

ispartofoneofthemostdiverseregionsofamphibians

andreptilesintheworld.However,theherpetofauna

inthisextensiveregionpresentsheterogeneouspatterns

ofdistributionthatmakeefficientsurveysdifficult

(Duellman1978).Inrecentdecades,muchoftheeffort

todocumentherpetofaunaldiversityintheAmazon

BasinhasbeenconcentratedinLoretoandEcuador:the

herpetofaunaofSantaCecilia(Duellman1978),reptiles

oftheIquitosregion(DixonandSoini1986),anurans

oftheIquitosregion(RodríguezandDuellman1994),

andtheherpetofaunaofnorthernLoreto(Duellman

andMendelson1995).Duringthepastdecadetherehas

alsobeenaseriesofrapidinventoriesconductedinthe

mostremotepartsofLoretowiththeaimofpromoting

theprotectionofnaturalareas.Theseinventorieshave

compiledvaluableinformationaboutamphibianand

reptiliandiversityintheAmazon:Yavarí(Rodríguezand

Knell2003);Ampiyacu,Apayacu,Yaguas,andMedio


Putumayo(RodríguezandKnell2004);SierradelDivisor

(BarbosadeSouzaandRivera2006);Matsés(Gordoet

al.2006);Mazán,Nanay,andArabela(Catenazziand

Bustamante2007);andCuyabeno-Güeppí(Yánez-Muñoz

andVenegas2008).Despitetheseeffortstodocument

herpetologicaldiversityinthePeruvianAmazon,many

remoteareasremaintobestudied.

Toconfirmthebiologicalimportanceoftheproposed

ÁreadeConservaciónRegional(ACR)Maijuna,we

documentedspeciescompositionandrichnessforthe

herpetofaunafoundduringtwoweeksofrapidinventory.

Inaddition,tohighlighttheuniquecharacteristics

oftheproposedACRMaijunainthecontextofthe

conservationvisionoftheGobiernoRegionalofLoreto,

wecomparedourresultswiththoseofothersites

evaluatedpreviouslythroughrapidinventoriesconducted

inLoreto.

METHODS

Fieldsamplingwasconductedbetween15and30

October2009.Weevaluatedtwomainsites,Curupa

(5intensivedaysofsampling)andPiedras(7intensive

daysofsampling),whicharepartoftwodifferentriver

basins(NapoRiverandPutumayoRiver,respectively).

Weincludedathirdsite,Sucusari(intheNapoRiver

basin),asapointofcomparisonbecausethatareais

locatednexttotheproposedACRMaijunaandhas

beenstudiedpreviously(RodríguezandDuellman1994).

WesampledtheareaaroundtheExplorNapoLodge

(1.5intensivedays)tocharacterizethisthirdsite.

Ateachsiteweconducteddaytimeandnight-

timesearchesfollowingthe“freeinventory”method

(inventario libre,i.e.,unstructuredvisualsurveys)in

severaltypesofterrestrialandaquatichabitats(Heyer

etal.1994).Terrestrialhabitatsincludeduplandforests

withseveraltypesofvegetationandsoilcomposition

associatedwithhighandlowhills,forestsonseasonally

floodedterraces,smallaguajales (palmswamps),and

riparianvegetation(banksofseveralstreamsand

banksoftheAlgodoncilloRiver).Aquatichabitats

includedclearwaterstreams,whitewaterstreams,and

theAlgodoncilloRiver(whitewater).Inaddition,we

sampled20plotscoveredwithleaflitter,eachmeasuring

5by5m (JaegerandInger1994)(10inCurupaand10

inPiedras),whichweresetupinuplands,onfloodplain

terraces,andinthetransitionzonebetweenthetwo

habitats.Ineachplot,threeorfourobserverslookedfor

animalsbymovinglogs,rocks,andsurfacevegetation.

Weevaluatedspeciesrichnessandcompositionat

thetwomainsites(CurupaandPiedras)andmade

comparisonswithtensampledsitesfromprevious

rapidinventoriesinLoreto.Siteswereselectedfor

thiscomparisononthebasisofobservationsofthe

vegetation,topography,andsoilsmadebytheteam

ofbotanists.Thesitesselectedexhibiteddiversitiesof

soils,topography,andvegetationtypessimilartothose

observedinthecurrentinventory.Also,thesesitesare

distributedinareastotheeast,north,andwestofthe

proposedACRMaijuna(Fig.19),andthesampling

effortwassimilartothatofthecurrentinventory(4–7

dayspersite).Specifically,weusedthefollowingsites

forthecomparisons:CuracinhaandLimera(sites1

and3inYavarí;RodríguezandKnell2003);Yaguas,

Maronal,andApayacu(sites1,2,and3inAmpiyacu;

RodríguezandKnell2004);AltoMazánandAltoNanay

(sites1and2inNanay-Mazán-Arabela;Bustamante

andCatenazzi2007);Redondococha,Güeppí,and

AguasNegras(sites2,4,and5inCuyabeno-Güeppí;

Yánez-MuñozandVenegas2008).Weexcludedother

nearbysites(e.g.,ZonaReservadaAllpahuayo-Mishana)

becausetheyhadbeenmuchmoreintensivelysampled

(foryearsinthecaseofAllpahuayo-Mishana;Riveraand

Soini2002).

Toanalyzeourdata,wefirstmadeacomparison

ofspeciesrichnessandrelativeabundanceofthe

herpetofaunarecordedinCurupaandPiedras.The

comparisonofrelativeabundancewasbasedon

standardizeddatawithrespecttothetotalnumberof

individualsfoundateachsite.TocompareCurupa

andPiedraswithothersitesinLoreto,weperformed

aclusteranalysisbasedonapresence/absencematrix

andtheJaccardsimilarityindex.Forthisanalysiswe

usedthePASTprogram(Hammeretal.2001).Wealso

graphicallyevaluatedtherelationbetweennumber

ofspeciessharedbetweenallpossiblepairsofsites

andgeographicdistance.Inaddition,weconstructed


ECUADORCOLOMBIA

BRASIL

PERÚLimera

Curupa

Güeppí

Yaguas

ApayacuMaronal

Curacinha

Alto Nanay

Alto Mazán

Aguas Negras

Redondococha

Piedras

400 km

300 km

200 km

100 km

50 km AMPIYACU

NANAY-MAZÁN-ARABELA

GÜEPPÍ

YAVARÍ

APAYACUMAIJUNA

ageographicaldistancematrixforallpossiblesite

pairsandusedtheMantelproof(Mantel1967)

toevaluatewhetheracorrelationexistedbetween

similarityandgeographicdistance.Forthisproofwe

usedanExcelspreadsheetintegratedwithPopTools

(www.cse.csiro.au/poptools).

Wecollectedvoucherspecimensforthemajority

ofspeciesandtookphotographsofallspeciesfound

ateachsite.Collectedspecimensweredepositedinthe

herpetologicalcollectionsattheCentrodeOrnitología

yBiodiversidad(CORBIDI)andtheMuseodeHistoria

NaturaldelaUniversidadNacionalMayordeSan

Marcos(MUSM),bothlocatedinLima.Arepresentative

sampleofthemostcommonspeciesweredepositedin

theherpetologicalcollectionattheMuseodeZoología

oftheUniversidadNacionaldelaAmazoníaPeruana,

inIquitos.

RESULTS


Wefound108species,ofwhich66areamphibiansand

42arereptiles(Appendix4).Werecorded12families

and27generaofamphibians,themostprominant

familiesbeingHylidae(19species,6genera)and

Strabomantidae(18species,5genera).Werecorded13

familiesand32generaofreptiles,themostprominent

familiesbeingColubridae(10species,10genera)and

Gymnophtalmidae(6species,4genera).Oftherecorded

Fig.19. Location of the two sites (Curupa and Piedras) evaluated during our inventory of the proposed ACR Maijuna,

in relation to previous Rapid Inventory sites in Loreto. Concentric circles indicate the distances from a point located

midway between the Curupa and Piedras camps.

www.cse.csiro.au/poptools


species,28havedistributionsrestrictedtothenorthwest

partoftheAmazonbasin(Ecuador,southernColombia,

northeasternPeru,andtheextremenorthwestofBrazil).

Theherpetofaunaismainlyassociatedwithfourkindsof

terrestrialhabitat:uplandwithhighhillsandnutrient-

poorsoils,floodplainforests,smallaguajales,and

vegetationaroundriversorstreams.

Wefoundseveralamphibianspeciesassociated

withfavorablereproductivehabitats.Forexample,

speciesthatusetemporarybodiesofwater(frogsofthe

generaLeptodactylus, Hypsiboas,andDendropsophus)

arecommoninsmallaguajalesandfloodplainforest.

Wefoundmanyspecieswithdirectdevelopment

(generaHypodactylus,Oreobates,Pristimantis,and

Strabomantis)inuplandforestswithhighhills.On

hillsclosetoaguajalesandstreamswefoundspecies

withaquaticlarvalstages(Allobates femoralis,

Ranitomeya duellmani,andOsteocephalus planiceps),

whichtypicallyusesmallbodiesofwatercontainedin

logs,fallenleaves,bromeliads,orotherepiphytesfor

reproduction.Wefoundagreaterabundanceofarboreal

species(Osteocephalus cabrerai, O. fuscifacies [Fig.6L],

O. taurinus,and Cochranella midas)associatedwith

riparianorstreamvegetation.

Severalspeciesofreptilesalsowerecommonin

particularterrestrialoraquatichabitats.Forexample,

fourleaf-litterlizardsinthefamilyGymnophtalmidae

(Cercosaura argulusandthreespeciesofthegenus

Alopoglossus)weremoreabundantinuplandsandin

lowlandswithlowhillsthaninfloodplainforest.We

foundseverallizardspeciesofthegenusAnolisinhigher

abundanceintheuplandforestswithhighhillsthan

inothertypesofforest.Wealsofoundyellow-footed

tortoise(Chelonoidis denticulata,Fig.6N)andvenomous

snakes,likethejergón (Bothrops atrox)andshushupe

(Lachesis muta,Fig.6P),intheuplands.Wefoundother

snakes(Xenoxybelis argenteus, Bothrocophias hyoprora,

andPseustes poecilonotus)infloodplainforests.

(However,muchmoresamplingwouldbeneededto

detectwhetherapatternofhabitatuseexistsforsnakes.)

Instreamandriparianvegetation,wefoundaquaticand

semiaquaticreptilespecies,likesmooth-frontedcaiman

(Paleosuchus trigonatus,Fig.6M),anaconda(Eunectes

murinus),andthelizardPotamites ecleopus.

ComparisonbetweenCurupaandPiedras

OursamplingeffortinPiedras(7days)wasgreaterthan

inCurupa(5days),buttherewasnotalargedifference

inspeciesrichness,inpartbecausethedistancebetween

thetwositeswasrelativelysmall(15.3km).Ofthe

108speciesrecordedduringtheinventory,werecorded

68speciesinCurupaand78inPiedras.Thetwosites

sharemorethan50%ofallspeciesrecordedduringthe

rapidinventory.Nevertheless,thereweredifferences

inavailabilityofhabitatsateachsite.Forexample,in

Piedraswefoundmoreclearwaterstreamswithsandy

bottomsthaninCurupa,anditwastherethatwe

foundspeciesthatusesuchstreamsforreproduction

(Cochranella midasandAtelopus spumarius,Fig.6D);

thelarvaeofbothspeciesfinishtheirdevelopmentinthis

typeofaquatichabitat(RodríguezandDuellman1994).

Thestructureoftheherpetofaunalcommunitycan

becharacterizedinapreliminarywayonthebasisof

relativeabundanceofcommonspeciesfoundineach

site(Fig.20).Themajorityofthesespeciesweredetected

atbothsites,althoughtheirrelativeabundancevaried

withrespecttothesite.Atelopus spumariuswasthe

onlycommonspeciesdetectedatonlyonesite(Piedras).

Another,less-commongroup,butthatexhibited

differencesinpresence/absenceandrelativeabundance

betweenthetwosites,includedlizardsofthefamily

Gymnophthalmidae.SixspeciesofGymnophthalmidae

weredetectedinCurupaandonlythreeinPiedras;

twoofthethreespeciespresentatbothsiteswere

moreabundantinCurupaandwereassociatedwith

uplandforests.

Rarespecies,newspecies,andrangeextensions

Twospeciesrecorded,harlequinfrog(Atelopus

spumarius,Fig.6D)andyellow-footedtortoise

(Chelonoidis denticulata,Fig.6N),arecategorizedas

VulnerablebytheIUCN(2009).Wealsorecorded

smooth-frontedcaiman(Paleosuchus trigonatus,

Fig.6M),aspeciescategorizedasNearThreatened

accordingtoPeruvianlaw(INRENA2004).Themeat

ofbothreptilespeciesistraditionallyeatenbythelocal

population,asisthatofanamphibianspecies(jojoor

hualo,Leptodactylus pentadactylus).Itisworthnoting


thatAtelopus spumariuswasrecordedinonly2of

the12sitesusedinoursitecomparisoninLoreto.In

Piedraswefound18individualswithalimitedsearch

effortof2person-hours,whereasinAltoNanayfive

individualswerefoundwithasearchof5person-hours

(CatenazziandBustamante2007).Weshouldnotethat

theneotropicalfroggenusAtelopuscomprisesatleast

85describedspecies,ofwhich65havebeencategorized

asCriticallyEndangeredand3areconsideredextinct

(IUCN2009).Becauseknowledgeofthepopulation

statusofA. spumariusisdeficientforalargepartofits

distribution(Lipsetal.2001),ourrecordrepresents

adetailedsnapshotofapopulationwithrelatively

highabundance.

WerecordedthesecondknownlocalityinPeruof

thetwofrogspeciesOsteocephalus fuscifacies(Fig.6L),

andPristimantis delius(Fig.6C),expandingtheir

distributionrangesmorethan300kmtothesouth.In

thecaseofP. delius,thisspecieswasknownonlyforits

typelocalityinAndoas,innorthernLoreto(Duellman

andMendelson1995),andO. fuscifacies hadbeen

recordedonlyinthelocalityofAguasNegrasonthe

borderwithColombiaandEcuador(Yanez-Muñozand

Venegas2008).Wealsorecordedthethirdlocalityin

PeruofPristimantis lythrodes(seeDuellmanandLehr

2009),expandingitsdistributionrange100kmtothe

west.Inaddition,werecordedapossiblenewspecies

ofPristimantis(oftheunistrigatusgroup,Fig.6A)that

differsfromallotherspeciesofPristimantisrecordedin

thePeruvianAmazoninthefollowingcombinationof

characters:(1)backcompletelysmooth,(2)abdomen

creamywithoutmarks,(3)backofthethighsbrown,and

(4)two-colorediris(navyblueandred).

Knowledgeanduseoftheherpetofauna

bytheMaijuna

WeinterviewedtwoMaijunaresidents(SebastiánRíos

OchoaandLiberatoMosolineMojica(whoseMaijuna

nameswereMataqueDeiOyoandSabaDei,respectively)

tolearntraditionalnamesandusesofamphibianand

reptilespeciesinthearea.Onthebasisofphotographic

chartscontainingmorethan200speciesfromtheregion,

residentsrecognized21speciesandreferredtothem

bytheircommonnamesintheMaijunalanguage.The

followingamphibianspecieswererecognized(Maijuna

nameinparentheses1):Leptodactylus pentadactylus

(jojo),Osteocephalus planiceps(eque,typically

recognizedbythemales’vocalizations),Phylomedusa

bicolor(uacuacodo),andSiphonops annulatus(bachi,

awordthatmeans“worm”).Thefollowingreptile

specieswererecognized:Ameiva ameiva(cochi chido),

Amphisbaena fuliginosa(bachiucu),Anolis fuscoauratus

(namamo),Boa constrictor(jaisuquiaqui aña),

Bothriopsis bilineata(beco aña),Bothrops atrox(yiaya

cotiaqui;juvenileindividualsofB. atroxarecalledyie

añainMaijunaandcascabelinSpanish,althoughtrue

cascabelsnakes[Crotalusspp.]donotliveinLoreto),

Chelonoidis denticulata(meniyo),Chelus fimbriatus

(mio tada,althoughthisspecies,“matamata,”wasnot

recordedduringtherapidinventory),Eunectes murinus

(ucucui),Kentropix pelviceps(chido),Lachesis muta

(ñene aña),Liophis taeniogaster(tota aña,notrecorded

duringtherapidinventory),Oxyrhopusspp.(ne aña

orma aña;thisnameisusedforO. melanogenys,O.

formosus,andotherredsnakeslocallycalledaguaje

machaco,noneofwhichwererecordedduringtherapid

1 For a pronunciation guide, see the chapter “Maijuna: past, present, and future” in this report.

Fig.20. Relative abundance of the 16 most-abundant species

found at both sites in the proposed ACR Maijuna.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Rhinella margaritifera

Rhinella festae

Kentropyx pelviceps

Leptodactylus petersii

Allobates femoralis

Osteocephalus cabrerai

Chiasmocleis bassleri

Pristimantis croceoinguinis

Hypsiboas fasciatus

Osteocephalus planiceps

Osteocephalus taurinus

Pristimantis achuar

Oreobates quixensis

Leptodactylus andreae

Engystomops petersi

Atelopus spumarius

Relative Abundance (%)

Piedras

Curupa


inventory),Paleosuchus trigonatus(ñucabi totoaco;this

nameisalsousedtorefertoothercaimansnotrecorded

duringtheinventory),Platemys platycephala(pego,

notrecordedduringtherapidinventory),Siphlophis

compressus(pede aña),andTupinambis teguixin(miibi).

TraditionallytheMaijunaconsumethemeatof

fourspecies:Chelonoidis denticulata,Paleosuchus

trigonatus,Leptodactylus pentadactylus,andPlatemys

platycephala.TheskinofthelizardTupinambis teguixin

isusedtomakebracelets,andtheshellofthetortoise

C. denticulataismadeintowhistles,whichareusedto

producesoundsandsupposedlyattractanimalsduring

hunting(e.g.,forblackagouti,Dasyproctafuliginosa).

TheMaijunahaveasongbasedonC. denticulata

(meniyo),whichistypicallysungbychildren.Theyalso

haveseveralstoriesbasedonvariousspeciesoffrog(e.g.,

Osteocephalus planicepsandL. pentadactylus).Oneof

thetraditionalMaijunaclanswascalledbachi baji(bachi

means“worm,”awordalsousedtoidentifycaecilids,

andbajimeans“clan”).Todaytherearethreeclansin

theMaijunapopulation,butthebachi bajiclannolonger

exists(SebastiánRíosOchoapers.comm.).

DISCUSSION

Weestimatethattheherpetofaunaoftheproposed

ACRMaijunamaycontainatleast160species,ofwhich

approximately80areamphibiansand80arereptiles.

Thisestimateisbasedontheknownspeciesrichness

forseveralareasofthewesternAmazon(e.g.,Duellman

1978;DixonandSoini1986;DuellmanandMendelson

1995),althoughsomeareasmaycontainevenhigher

speciesnumbers.Toputthisestimateinaregional

context,theherpetofaunaofsomesitesinLoretocontain

morethan200specieslivinginanareaequaltoor

smallerthantheproposedACRMaijuna.Thisisthecase

fortheReservaNacionalAllpahuayo-Mishana,which

wassampledforseveralyears(RiveraandSoini2002).

Similarly,morethan200specieshavebeenrecorded

innearbysitesinEcuador(EstaciónBiológicaTiputini

andtheParqueNacionalYasuní;Cisneros-Heredia

2006;Ron2007).Thenumberofspeciesweestimate

fortheproposedACRMaijunaislessthanthenumber

ofspeciesinAllpahuayo-Mishanabecausetheproposed

ACRMaijunadoesnothaveashighadiversityofsoils.

However,theuniquenessoftheMaijunaareaisdue

toacombinationofvegetation,soils,andtopography

notpreviouslyobservedinthePeruvianAmazon,and

itsspeciesrichnessmaybeslightlyhigherthanwe

estimatehere.

Comparisonwithsitesevaluatedinotherrapid

inventoriesinLoreto

Speciesrichnessoftheherpetofaunadetectedduring

ourrapidinventoryintheproposedACRMaijuna

(108species)iswithintherange(90–120species)

recordedduringrapidinventoriesofotherareasin

Loreto(RodríguezandKnell2003;Gordoetal.2006;

BustamanteandCatenazzi2007;Yánez-Muñozand

Venegas2008).However,thetwoevaluatedsitesinthis

inventory(CurupaandPiedras)exhibitahigherspecies

richnessthanthatfoundinthemajorityofsitesevaluated

individuallyinotherareasofLoreto.(Typically,threeto

fivesitesareevaluatedforeachrapidinventory.)

Ouranalysisofpresence/absencedatainCurupa

andPiedrasindicatesthatthesetwositesformagroup

morerelatedtositesatAmpiyacu,aregioneastofthe

proposedACRMaijuna(Fig.21).Theselectedsitesin

otherareas(Ampiyacu,Mazán/Nanay,andGüeppí)also

formdistinctgroups,indicatingthatnearbysitesare

moresimilarinspeciescompositionthanmoredistant

ones.Theonlyexceptionwastwoevaluatedsitesin

Yavarí(LimeraandCuracinha).Thisdiscrepancymaybe

duetothelownumberofspeciesidentifiedatoneofthe

sites(Limera).However,ifallpossiblepairsofsitesare

takenintoaccount,wefindthatthenumberofspecies

sharedbetweensitesisinverselyproportionaltothe

geographicdistanceseparatingthesesites(Fig.22).This

resultwasalsoconfirmedbyouranalysisbasedonthe

Jaccardsimilarityindexandgeographicdistance(Mantel

proof,r=–0.442,P <0.001).



■ Implementamonitoringprogramforthetwo

threatenedspeciescategorizedasVulnerablebythe

IUCN(2009):harlequinfrog(Atelopus spumarius,


Fig.21. Relation among 12 sites evaluated in rapid inventories in the Loreto, Peru, region, based

on a cluster analysis using the Jaccard similarity index. The number of species reliably identified

and the number of sampling days are in parentheses.

Limera–Yavarí (15 spp, 4d)

Yaguas–Ampiyacu (48 spp, 6d)

Maronal–Ampiyacu (50 spp, 6 d)

Apayacu–Ampiyacu (60 spp, 5 d)

Piedras (75 spp, 7 d)

Curupa (67 spp, 5 d)

Curacinha–Yavarí (58 spp, 7 d)

Alto Nanay (37 spp, 4 d)

Alto Mazán (47 spp, 6 d)

Redondococha–Güeppí (40 spp, 6 d)

Güeppí–Güeppí (36 spp, 5 d)

Aguas Negras–Güeppí (40 spp, 5 d)

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1Jaccard Similarity

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700Distance (km)

Num

ber o

f sha

red

spec

ies

Fig.22. For sites evaluated previously in rapid inventories in Loreto, the number of species

shared between sites is inversely proportional to the geographic distance (Spearman correlation,

r = – 0.451, P < 0.001).


Fig.6D)andyellow-footedtortoise(Chelonoidis

denticulata,Fig.6N).Inthecaseofthemotelo,we

recommendamonthlyaccountingofcapturedanimals

andtheirsizes(shelllength),andthatindividuals

ofreproductiveage (thatis,thosewithshelllengths

longerthan25cm;Vogt2009)notbetaken.For

harlequinfrog(A. spumarius)ourrecommendationis

basedonanadaptationofamonitoringmethodfor

speciesassociatedwithflowingwatersuggestedbyLips

etal.(2001).Wesuggestthattheharlequinfrogbe

monitoredtwiceayearwithfourtransectsestablished

intheforestalongthebanksofthePiedrasstream:two

transectsoneachbankofthestream,eachtransect

2by400m,with200–400mbetweentransects

tomaintainindependenceofsampling;andeach

transectshouldbevisitedduringthedayandatnight.

Datatakeninthesetransectsshouldincludenumber

ofindividuals,sex,numberofpairsinamplexus,

temperature,andrelativehumidity.Informationfrom

thismonitoringshouldbearchivedandprepared

forpublicationeverythreeyearsinherpetological

journals(e.g.,HerpetologicalReview).Monitoringand

managementdecisions,intheeventthatareduction

inrelativeabundanceisnoticed,shouldbesupervised

byconservationauthoritiesfromtheInstitutode

InvestigacionesdelaAmazoníaPeruana(IIAP).

■ EstablishclosedareasinsidetheproposedACR

Maijunatoallowrecuperationandmaintenanceof

yellow-footed-tortoisepopulationswithreproductive

individuals(>25cm),becausethespeciesrequires

12–15yearstoreachsexualmaturity(Vogt2009);

theseareasshouldalsobeestablishedformanyother

animalstraditionallyusedbythelocalpopulation.

Theseno-harvestareaswithintheproposedACR

Maijunawouldbedeterminedinaccordancewith

reproductivepatternsofvariousspecies(reptiles,

mammals,birds)usedbyhumans.

Researchprioritiesandadditionalinventories

TheestablishmentoftheproposedACRMaijunawill

ensuretheprotectionofauniqueareaforresearchon

theecologyofforestsonhighhillsandpoorsoilstypical

ofLoreto.Theareaofferstheopportunitytoevaluate

twoormoresitesrepresentingseveralgradientsinterms

ofsoilfertility,vegetationtypes,huntingpressure,and

extractionofwoodandotherresourcesthatcouldbe

usefulforstudiesofpatternsofamphibianandreptile

abundanceinthearea.Otherimportantsubjectsforlocal

studentsandinvestigatorsincludethestudyofpatternsof

spatialandtemporaldistribution(seasonality),patterns

ofabundancebyhabitat,ecologyofthecommunity

ofleaf-litterreptiles,andecologyandnaturalhistory

ofselectedtaxa(e.g.,Pristimantisspp.,Paleosuchus

trigonatus,and Atelopus spumarius[seetheprevious

sectionofthisreport]).Ourinventorywasconducted

overonly12daysofsamplingintwolocalities.Future

inventoriesthatarelonger;includemorelocalities,

vegetationtypes,andsoils;andareconductedduring

differenttimesoftheyearwillincreasethenumberof

speciesrecordedintheACRMaijuna.

BIRDS

Authors: Douglas F. Stotz and Juan Díaz Alván

Conservationtargets: Birds of high-terrace habitats (four species,

including an undescribed Herpsilochmus antwren); game birds,

especially Nocturnal Curassow (Nothocrax urumutum) and Salvin’s

Curassow (Mitu salvini ); six species endemic to northwestern

Amazonia; plus an additional 12 species limited in Peru to areas

north of the Amazon; diverse forest bird communities

INTRODUCTION

TheareanorthoftheAmazonRiverandeastofthe

NapoRiverhasnotbeenwellsurveyedforbirds.Several

earlycollectors,includingDeville,Castelnau,andthe

Ollalas,obtainedbirdsnearPebasandApayacuon

thenorthbankoftheAmazoninthe1800sandearly

1900s(T.Schulenbergpers.comm.).Themostrelevant

comparisonforthissurveyistheAmpiyacurapid

inventory(StotzandPequeño2004).Theclosestsite

surveyedduringtheAmpiyacuinventorywasApayacu,

approximately43kmsoutheastofourPiedrascamp

inthispresentinventory.Thesitessurveyedduringthe

Ampiyacuinventoryresembledthoseonthisinventory

bybeingdistantfrommajorriversandsignificanthuman


habitation.Othersurveysnearcurrentrapidinventory

sitesincludethoseworkedbyteamsfromLouisianaState

University(LSU)nearSucusariandalongtheYanayacu

Riverintheearly1980s.Listsofthespeciescollected

atthesesitesareinCapparella(1987).Cardiff(1987)

reportssignificantdistributionalrecordsfromSucusari.

AftertheLSUpublications,TedParkerexaminedthe

avifaunaintheareaaroundExplorNapoLodgenear

Sucusarimorethoroughlythanwewereabletoduring

thecurrentrapidinventory.Recordsfromtheselocalities

areincludedinanunpublisheddatabasecompiledby

TomSchulenberg,whichweusedforcomparisontoour

surveyresults.

METHODS

ThisinventorytookplaceintheproposedÁreade

ConservaciónMaijuna(“ACRMaijuna”)innorthern

Loreto,Peru(Fig.2A).Wespentfourfulldaysat

Curupa(16–19October2009)andfouratPiedras

(23–26October).OurinventoryatPiedraswas

supplementedbyobservationsduringanafternoonand

fullday(20–21October)atasatellitecamp,Chino,

approximately6kmsouthwestofthePiedrascamp.Stotz

andDíazspent87hoursobservingbirdsatCurupaand

101hoursatPiedras(includingtimearoundChino).

Observationstotaled7hoursatNuevaVida(14–15

and28–29October)and16.5hoursduringboattrips

upanddowntheYanayacuRiver(15and28October).

On29–31October,wevisitedExplorNapoLodge

neartheMaijunavillageofSucusari;theresultsof

ourobservationstherearenotincludedinAppendix5

becauseitisoutsidetheproposedACRMaijuna,butwe

makesomecomparisonsintheDiscussionsectionbelow.

Observationsmadebyadvance-teammembersJosé

RojasandÁlvarodelCampoduringtheperiod8–14

JuneareincludedinAppendix5andtheResultssection

belowassupplementarytoourobservationsduringthe

formalinventory.IncludedareobservationsfromPuerto

Huamán,alongtheYanayacuRiver,andthetwocamps

surveyedduringtherapidinventory.Alsoincluded

areobservationsfromalongQuebradaCoto(Coto

Stream),whichenterstheYanuyacuabitaboveNueva

Vida(Fig.2A)butwasnotsurveyedduringourrapid

inventory.Weprovidenoabundanceestimateforthese

observationsbecausethelackofformalsurveysduring

theadvanceteam’stripintotheregion.Comparisonsof

ourresultstootherinventoriesandamongsitessurveyed

duringourinventorydonotincludetheobservations

fromtheadvanceteam.

Ourprotocolconsistedofwalkingtrails,lookingand

listeningforbirds.Weconductedoursurveysseparately

toincreaseindependent-observereffort.Typically,we

departedcampbeforefirstlightandremainedinthe

fielduntilmid-afternoon.Onsomedays,wereturned

tothefieldforonetotwohoursbeforesunset.Wetried

tocoverallhabitatsnearcampandcoveredallofthe

trailsystematleastonce.Totaldistanceswalkedbyeach

observereachdayvariedfrom5to12km,dependingon

traillength,habitat,anddensityofbirds.

Díazcarriedataperecorderandmicrophoneto

documentspeciesandconfirmidentificationswith

playback.Wekeptdailyrecordsofnumbersofeach

speciesobserved,andcompiledtheserecordsduringa

round-tablemeetingeachevening.Observationsbyother

membersoftheinventoryteam,especiallyD.Moskovits,

supplementedourrecords.

Duringthedayinthefield,Stotzfollowedthemixed

birdflockshefound,recordingflockcompositionin

termsofspeciesandnumbersofindividuals.When

heencounteredThamnomanesantshrikes(understory

flockleaders)ormultiplespeciesoftypicalcanopyflock

memberstogether,hewouldleavethetrailandfollow

themattemptingtoobtainacompletelistofspecies

presentintheflock.Iftheflockcompositionherecorded

appearedtobesignificantlyincomplete,orifhecould

notfollowtheflockforatleast15minutes,hedidnot

includethatflockoritscompositioninthediscussion

offlocksbelow.Hefollowed61flocksforperiods

rangingfrom15to85minutes(mean34minutes,

median25minutes).Themethodsusedforfollowing

flocks,recordingnumbersanddeterminingwhetheran

aggregationconstitutedaflockorwhetheraparticular

specieswasamemberofaflockfollowedStotz(1993).

InAppendix5,weestimaterelativeabundances

usingourdailyrecordsofbirds.Becauseourvisitsto

thesesiteswereshort,ourestimatesarenecessarily


crude,andmaynotreflectbirdabundanceorpresence

duringotherseasons.Forthetwomaininventorysites,

weusedfourabundanceclasses.“Common”indicates

birdsobserved(i.e.,seenorheard)dailyinsubstantial

numbers(averagingtenormorebirdsperday);“fairly

common”indicatesthataspecieswasobserveddaily,

butrepresentedbyfewerthantenindividualsper

day;“uncommon”birdswereencounteredmorethan

twiceatacamp,butnotseendaily;and“rare”birds

wereobservedonlyonceortwiceatacampassingle

individualsorpairs.Becauseoftheveryshortperiodof

observationavailabletousatNuevaVidaandonthe

boattripsupanddowntheYanayacuRiver(Fig.2A),we

didnotattempttoestimateabundancesintheseareas.

RESULTS

Diversity

Werecorded364speciesduringourinventoryofthe

proposedACRMaijuna.Wefound318ofthesespecies

atourtwomaininventorysites,CurupaandPiedras.

Weencounteredtheremaining46speciesduringbrief

periodsofobservationatNuevaVida,theMaijuna

villagenearthemouthoftheYanayacuRiver,andon

boattripsupanddowntheYanayacuRiverbetween

NuevaVidaandCurupa.Werecorded30ofthese

additionalspeciesonlyatNuevaVida,6onlyalongthe

YanayacuRiver,and10atbothNuevaVidaandonthe

YanayacuRiver.Werecorded270speciesatCurupa,

267atPiedras,108speciesatNuevaVida,and91along

theYanayacuRiveraboveNuevaVida.Observations

duringtheadvanceteamworkintheregionbeforethe

formalinventoryadded29speciestotheoveralllist,

raisingthetotalnumberofbirdspeciesrecordedin

theregionto393.Theyadded5speciestoourtotal

atCurupa,8atPiedras,22alongtheYanayacu,and

26inthevicinityofNuevaVidaandPuertoHuamán.

Onlyoneoftheirnewspecieswasfoundonlyalong

QuebradaCoto,notsurveyedduringtherapidinventory.

Notablerecords

Twospeciesofbirdswefound,White-crested

Spadebill(Platyrinchus playrhynchos)andCinnamon

Manakin-Tyrant(Neopipo cinnamomea),werenot

previouslyknownfromnorthoftheAmazonandeast

oftheRíoNapoinPeru(Schulenbergetal.2007).

P. platyrhynchosisknownbroadlyfromterrafirme

forestsinlowlandAmazonia,sothelackofthisspecies

infarnortheasternPeruseemedabitofananomaly.

N. cinnamomeaisagenerallyrare,patchilydistributed

speciesthroughoutAmazonia,associatedwithpoorsoils.

ThepreviouslackofrecordseastoftheNapoinPeru

presumablyrepresentsthelimitedsurveysdoneofthe

region,especiallyinareasofinfertilesoils.

Besidesbeingarangeextension,N. cinnamomea

wasoneoffourpoor-soilspecialistswefoundonlyin

thehigh-terracehabitats.Theotherthreespecieswere

Percnostola rufifrons,Lophotriccus galeatus,andan

undescribedspeciesofHerpsilochmus (cf.Fig.7G).We

furtherconsiderthepoor-soilavifaunainthediscussion

sectionbelow.Díazheardadistantbirdonthenightof

25–26OctobernearthePiedrascampthathebelieves

wasWhite-wingedPotoo(Nyctibius leucopterus).This

speciesisknowninPeruonlyfromwhite-sandareasat

Allpahuayo-Mishana(ÁlvarezandWhitney2003),butit

occursatleastlocallythroughnorthernAmazoniaeastto

theGuianasinabroaderrangeofpoor-soilhabitats.

Wefoundseveralspeciesofbirdsrestrictedto

northernAmazoniathatremainpoorlyknowninPeru,

includingNyctibius bracteatus (Fig.7C), Neomorphus

pucherani, Microbates collaris, and Touit purpurata.

Mixedflocks

Stotzrecordedspeciescompositionin61mixed-species

flocks:16atCurupain48hoursoffieldworkand45

atPiedrasin60hoursoffieldwork.Flocksrangedin

sizefrom6to26species,containingbetween6and

41individuals.Themeanflocksizeandcomposition

was19.3individualsof13.9species.AtCurupa,flocks

averaged20.3individualsof14.3species,whileat

Piedrastheaverageflockwasslightlysmaller,averaging

19.0individualsof13.8species.However,flocks

composedentirelyofunderstoryspeciesaveraged

largeratPiedras(11.4species,25flocks),thanCurupa

(8.5species,6flocks).FlocksatCurupaaveragedlarger

overallbecauseofagreatertendencytobecomposedof

acanopy,aswellasanunderstory,element;50%ofthe


flocksatCurupa,versus38%offlocksatPiedras,had

bothelements.

DISCUSSION

Habitatsandavifaunasatsurveyedsites

Curupa

BothPiedrasandCurupahavefairlytypicalAmazonian

forestavifaunasforareasatsomedistancefroma

majorriver.AtCurupa,extensiveselectivelogginghad

openeduptheunderstory.Themostnotableeffectof

thisappearedtobeonunderstoryflocks.Theseflocks

werelesscommonthanusualandlessspecies-richthan

usual(seefullerdiscussionbelow).Althoughtherewas

clearevidenceofheavyhuntingpressureonmammalsat

thissite,theeffectsofhuntingwerenotclearlyvisiblein

birds:Penelope jacquacu wasfairlycommon,andthere

weregoodnumbersofNothocrax urumutum, tinamous,

trumpeters,andwood-quail.Mitu salvini(Fig.7H)was

recordedonlyonce,buteveninareaswithlittlehunting,

thisspeciesisoftenrare.

Therewereextensiveareasofseasonallyflooded

forestsaroundthiscamp,andspeciesassociatedwith

inundatedforestswerewellrepresented,althoughoverall

theavifaunawasprimarilycomposedofterrafirme

species.Anumberofgroupsthatareoftenquitecommon

atAmazonianforestsiteswerenotparticularlycommon

atCurupa,includinghawks,largeparrotsandmacaws,

tanagers,andspeciesthatfollowarmyants.

Piedras

Thissiteshowedlittleevidenceoflogging,and

mixed-speciesflocksintheunderstorywerecommon

andrelativelylarge.Thereweresignificantareasof

seasonallyfloodedforestsatPiedras,especiallyalong

theAlgodoncilloRiver,about3.5kmfromthecamp.

However,theareawasprimarilytierrafirmeforestand

theavifaunawasdominatedbytierrafirmebirds.Asat

Curupa,hawks,largeparrotsandmacaws,tanagers,and

armyant-followerswerepoorlyrepresented,butgame

birdnumbersseemedtobegenerallygood.Although

tanagersandparrotswerepoorlyrepresented,larger

forestfrugivores—suchaspigeons,trogonsandquetzals,

barbets,andtoucans—weregenerallycommon.In

fact,PavonineQuetzal(Pharomachrus pavoninus)was

noticeablymorecommonatbothcampsthanwehave

everencountereditelsewhereinAmazonia.And,Gilded

Barbet(Capito auratus),basedoncalls,mayhavebeen

themostabundantbirdintheforest.

Yanayacu River

WesurveyedtheYanayacuRiverinpassingontwo

boattripsbetweenNuevaVidaandCurupa.Wefound

fivespecies(Ardea cocoi,Egretta thula,Geranospiza

caerulescens,Hydropsalis climacocerca,andCissopis

leveriana)onlyalongtheYanayacuRiver.Thecharacter

oftheavifaunaalongtheYanayacuchangedaswe

movedupstream.Foraboutthefirst30km,theriver

isrelativelybroadandthecanopyisnotclosedacross

theriver.Beyondthispoint,therivernarrowsandthe

canopycloses.AlongthelowerYanayacu,thereare

moreofthespeciesincommonwithNuevaVida,and

fewerforestspecies.AlongtheupperYanayacu,the

avifaunacomprisesmoreforestspecies,whereasspecies

associatedwithlargeriversandsecondaryhabitatshave

largelydroppedout.Onbothboattrips,wehadless

than50%overlapamongthespeciesseenalongthe

lowerandupperportionsoftheriver.Theforestsalong

thelowerYanayacumaycontainanumberofspecies

ofinundatedhabitatsthatwedidnotfindatCurupaor

Piedras.Becauseforestslikethesearehighlydisturbed

alongmanyAmazonianrivers,suchspeciescouldhave

conservationvalue.ThecompletelyunsurveyedAlgodón

RivermayhavemoreofthesespeciesthantheYanayacu.

Nueva Vida

NuevaVidaisatypical,smallAmazonianrivervillage

withasmallclearingcontainingbuildings,smallnumbers

oflivestock,andsmallplotswithcrops,surrounded

bydisturbedforest.Wefoundanumberofspecies

characteristicofdisturbedhabitatsandsmallnumbersof

waterbirdsassociatedwiththeriver.Wedidnotseriously

exploretheforestaroundthetown,butfoundsmall

numbersofforestspecies.Whilethesecondaryhabitats

aroundNuevaVidacouldcontainanumberofadditional

speciesthatwedidnotencounter(andwouldnotexpect)

intheforestsofCurupaandPiedras,thesewouldmostly

becommon,widespreadspecies.Theymightaddtothe


species-richnessofanACRMaijuna,butwouldaddlittle

ifanyconservationvalue.

ComparisonwiththeAmpiyacurapidinventoryand

othersurveys

ThenearbyAmpiyacuinventory(StotzandPequeño

2004)isthemostimportantcomparisonforthis

inventory.There,wesurveyedsimilarhabitats,likewise

remotefromlargerivers,inboththeAmazonand

Putumayodrainageswithintheinterfluviumeastofthe

NapoandnorthoftheAmazon.Notunexpectedly,the

resultsoftheAmpiyacuinventoryareverysimilar.

Wefound59speciesinthisinventoryoftheproposed

ACRMaijuna(plusanadditional10speciesduringthe

advanceteamworkthatwerenotfoundduringthemain

surveyperiod)thatwerenotontheAmpiyacuinventory

(markedinAppendix5withanasterisk),while50

specieswerefoundatAmpiyacuandnothere.Mostof

thespeciesfoundintheproposedACRMaijuna,butnot

atAmpiyacu,wererarespecies(20);orspeciesfoundat

NuevaVidaandPuertoHuamánorthelowerYanayacu

River,andthusspeciesofsecondaryhabitatsorlarger

rivers(24);orNorthAmericanmigrants(10).The

Ampiyacusurveywasnotableforitslackofsecondary-

habitatspecies,althoughconsideringjustthemainsites

onthisinventory(CurupaandPiedras),speciesof

secondaryhabitatsalsowerepoorlyrepresented.Because

ofthetimingoftheAmpiyacuinventory(August),North

AmericanmigrantshadnotyetarrivedinPeru.There

wereonlyfivespeciesthatwefoundthatwereatleast

uncommoninMaijunathatwerenotfoundonthe

Ampiyacuinventory:twohummingbirds,Phaethornis

bourcieriandHeliodoxa aurescens;theundescribed

Herpsilochmusfromthehighterraces(butithasbeen

foundinpoor-soilareaswithintheAmpiyacuinventory

area);andtwospeciesfromlow-lyinghabitats,White-

beardedManakin(Manacus manacus)andChestnut-

crownedFoliage-gleaner(Automolus rufipileatus).

Similarly,themajority(35)ofthe50speciesfoundat

AmpiyacubutnotontheMaijunainventorywererareat

Ampiyacu.Tenwerespeciesassociatedwithlow-lying

forestsandasmalloxbowlakeattheYaguascamp.

Theremainingfiveareforestspeciesforwhichthereisno

obviousreasonwhytheywouldnotbeintheforestsof

oursurveysitesonthisinventory.TheseareAmazonian

Pygmy-Owl(Glaucidium hardyi),White-neckedJacobin

(Florisuga mellivora),BandedAntbird(Dichrozona

cincta),Slaty-cappedShrike-Vireo(Vireolanius leucotis),

andMoricheOriole(Icterus chrysocephalus).

ComparingthemainsurveysitesatMaijunato

thoseatAmpiyacu,wefoundthatourtwositesare

moresimilartoYaguasandApayacuoftheAmpiyacu

surveythanweretothethirdsiteontheAmpiyacu

RBI,Maronal.ValuesofJaccard’sIndexofSimilarity

amongthesurveysitesontheAmpiyacuinventory

rangedfrom0.66fortheYaguas-Apayacupairto0.55

forMaronal-Yaguas.Maronal,essentiallyonlyterra

firme,standsoutfromtheothertwoAmpiyacusurvey

sitesaswellastheMaijunasites.ThetwoMaijuna

siteshavehigherJaccard’sIndexvalueswhencompared

toYaguasandApayacuthanthosetwositeshavein

comparisonwithMaronal.Overall,thesevaluesreflect

theextremesimilarityofallofthesecampstoone

anotherandthefactthattheproposedACRMaijunais

verymuchthewesternextensionoftheACRAmpiyacu-

Apayacu.EstablishmentoftheACRMaijunawould

greatlyenhancethecurrentvalueoftheprotectionthat

areanowreceivesbyincreasingthecontiguousarea

underprotection.

Poor-soilavifauna

NorthofourPiedrascamp,themaintrailrunsthrough

aseriesofhighterracesthatreachanelevationof180m

(about20mabovethecampelevation)foradistanceof

about5km.Thesoilsonthesehillsarewell-weathered

claysandareverylowinfertility.Adistinctivevegetation

growshere,similartovarillalesalongthenorthsideof

theAmazonandMaranonRiversinLoreto.Wesurveyed

thesehillsforbirdsonfourdaysandfoundasomewhat

depauperateterrafirmeforestavifaunawithasmall

numberofspeciesthatareassociatedwithpoor-soils.

Therewerefourspeciesthatseemclearlytiedtothe

poorsoilsofthehighterraces:Percnostola rufifrons,a

newspeciesofHerpsilochmus,Lophotriccus galeatus,

andNeopipo cinnamomea.Besidesthem,ouronly

recordsduringtheinventoryofNeomorphus pucherani,

Deconychura longicauda, Platyrinchus platyrhynchos,

andSchiffornis turdinacamefromthehighterraces.


Wehadonlysingleobservationsofthefirstthree

species,sotheirtietothehighterracesassuchisnot

clear.However,Schiffornis wasfairlycommononthe

highterracesandnotfoundelsewhereateithercamp.

Whileitisnotaspeciesofpoorsoils,itisaspeciesoften

associatedwithareasofsignificantrelief.

TheundescribedHerpsilochmuswasverycommon

inthehigh-terracehabitats,withmultipleindividuals

singingfromeachhill.Ithadpreviouslybeenfound

attwositesonpoorsoilsfarthereast:birdsweretape-

recordedandcollectedalongtheAmpiyacuRiver,about

117kmsoutheastofthissite,andbirdsweretape-

recordedalongtheApayacuRiverabout90kmsoutheast

ofthePiedrascamp(LarsPomarapers.comm.).The

extentofthehighterracesnorthwestofourPiedras

camp(Fig.2B)suggeststhatthisareaprobablyharbors

thelargestpopulationofthisspecies.Totheeast,thehills

arelowerandmorebrokenup.

Percnostola rufifrons inPerubelongstothe

subspeciesjensoni,describedfromspecimenscollected

nearSucusari(Caparrellaetal.1997).Thispopulation

hasasmallknownrange,havingbeenrecordedat

Apayacu(StotzandPequeño2004)besidesthetype

locality.Thebirdswefoundarethefirstfromthe

Putumayodrainage,andarethenorthern-and

westernmostrecords.Inmanyways,thispopulationand

P. rufifrons minorfromeasternColombiaandwestern

Venezuelaaremoresimilartotherecentlydescribed

white-sandspecialistoftheTigreandNanaydrainages

westofIquitos(P. arenarum),thantonominaterufifrons

ofnortheasternAmazonia.P. rufifronsjensoniwerefairly

commononthehighterraces,suggestingthatecologically

thesubspeciesmayresemblemorethewhite-sand

specialistarenarum,insteadofthemoregeneralized

rufifrons.Lophotriccus galeatusisawidespreadspecies

innorthernAmazonia.Itwasregisteredduringthe

RapidInventoryatApayacu,whereitwasfoundinsmall

numbersinterrafirmeforest,notonparticularlypoor

soil(StotzandPequeño2004).Farthereastinitsrange,

itisnotparticularlytiedtopoorsoils,althoughit

appearstolargelybeapoor-soilspecialistinitsPeruvian

range.Neopipo cinnamomeaisapatchilydistributed

speciesthroughoutAmazoniathatisperhapsmost

commoninwesternAmazoniainpoorsoilareas.

BetweentheTigreandNanayRiverswestofIquitos

thereisasuiteofsome19speciesofbirdsassociatedwith

white-sandhabitatsthatreachmaximumdiversityand

abundanceatAllpahuayo-Mishana(ÁlvarezandWhitney

2003).Thissuiteincludesfiverecentlydescribedspecies

thatareendemictotheregion,butalsoincludesspecies

withmuchbroaderrangesacrossnorthernAmazonia.

MostofthemoccureasttotheGuianaShieldregionof

northeasternAmazonianBrazil.Someofthesespecies,

suchasSaffron-crestedTyrant-Manakin(Neopelma

chrysocephalum),arewhite-sandspecialiststhroughout

theirrange,butothers,includingNyctibius leucopterus,

havewiderecologicaltolerances.Thesespeciesthatare

notsostrictlytiedtowhitesandmightbelookedfor

onthehighterracesinfurtherinventories,e.g.,Gray-

leggedandBarredTinamous(Crypturellus duidaeand

C.casiquiare),Brown-bandedPuffbird(Notharchus

ordii ),Zimmer’sTody-Tyrant(Hemitriccus minimus),

Cinnamon-crestedSpadebill(Platyrinchus saturatus),

andPompadourCotinga(Xipholena punicea).

However,white-sandhabitatsarequitepredictive

ofthepresenceofthesebirds:Inathree-daysurvey

ofwhitesandforestsontheAltoNanay(Stotzand

Díaz2007),besidesfindingthreeofthefourrecently

describedendemicspecies,wefoundeightofthemore

widespreadpoor-soilspecialistsforatotalof11of19

speciesdescribedaspoor-soilspecialistsbyÁlvarezand

Whitney(2003).AtPiedraswefoundonlyfourofthese

poorsoilspecialists,plusthenewHerpsilochmusand

Percnostola rufifrons,neitherofwhicharefoundinthe

NanayorTigredrainages.Twoofthelistedpoor-soil

specialists,Nyctibius bracteatusandConopias parvus

werewidespreadintheinventory,asatAmpiyacu(Stotz

andPequeño2004),anddonotappeartobeparticularly

tiedtopoorsoilsintheregion.Thefactthatwefound

onlyasmallsetofpoor-soilspeciesatPiedrasmay

suggestthatthespecializedavifaunaintheNanay-Tigre

regionislargelyrestrictedinPerutothosewhite-sand

areas,andwillnotbefoundwithfurthersearchingofthe

high-terracehabitats.

Reproduction

Therewasrelativelylittleevidenceofactivebreedingat

thetimeofourinventory.Inafewspeciesinthemixed


speciesflocks,weobservedadultsaccompaniedbyolder

immatures.Oropendolas(Psarocoliusspp.)andcaciques

(Cacicus cela)wereactivelybuildingtheirpenduline

nestsincolonies,butfurthernestingactivitydidnot

appearimminent.On23OctoberatPiedras,Stotzfound

aReddishHermit(Phaethornis ruber)buildinganest

inasmalltreefall,about5mabovethegroundonthe

uppermostfrondofaspinyAstrocaryum palm.On25

October,thenestappearedtobecomplete,butthebird

wasnotseen.

On24OctoberatPiedras,ourherpetologist

colleague,PabloVenegas,foundanestofSootyAntbird

(Myrmeciza fortis)placedinacavitycreatedinthe

collectedlitteratthebaseoffrondsofasmallunderstory

palmabout1.3mabovetheground.Thefemalewas

activelyincubatingtwoeggsatthetimeofoursurvey

(Fig.7D).TwonestsfromManuNationalParkwere

thefirstdescribedforthisspecies(WilkinsonandSmith

1997).Thesenestsdifferedinplacementfromthe

currentnestbybeingplacedinmoundsofleaflitter

ontheground,butappearedsimilarinstructuretothe

nestwefound.

On2October,ÁlvarodelCampofoundasmall

cupnest(ca.7cmacrossandequallydeep)withtwo

whiteeggsonathinaerialroot(Fig.7A)hangingsome

2mabovethesurfaceoftheAlgodoncilloRiver.By21

October,thenestcontainedtwosmallnestlings(Fig.7B).

However,theidentityofthespeciestowhichthenest

belongedwasnotconfirmeduntil26Octoberwhenone

ofus(Stotz)sawafemaleFieryTopaz(Topaza pyra,

Fig.7F)ontheedgeofthenestshadingthechicksfrom

intensesun.ThenestofT. pyra isnotwellknown,but

anestdescriptionforthisspeciesfromW.H.Edwards,

quotedbyBrewer(1879),fromalongtheupperRio

NegroinBrazil,closelymatchesournest.Likewise,

Edwards’snest,andnestsfoundinEcuador(Hilty

andBrown1986),wereattachedtovegetationclosely

overhangingwater.Thenestofthecloselyrelated

CrimsonTopaz(Topaza pella)ofnortheasternAmazonia

alsoisquitesimilartoournest,butapparentlyisusually

adornedwithcobwebs.Thefibersmakingupthenest

inT. pellaarethoughttobefromlupuna(Ceiba) fruits,

butthisremainsunconfirmed(Tostainelal.1992).The

pale-browncolorationandspongytextureoftheT. pyra

nestwefound matchesdescriptionsofthenestsofboth

speciesofTopaza(Brewer1879;Tostainetal.1992;

HaverschmidtandMees1994),suggestingthatthese

speciesareusingthesamefibers.

Migration

Thetimingofourinventorycorrespondstothetime

manymigrantsfromNorthAmericaarriveinAmazonian

Peru.Sandpipers(Scolopacidae)areapotentiallydiverse

groupofmigrantsalongAmazonianrivers,butwe

recordedonlyonespecies,SpottedSandpiper(Actitis

macularius).Wesawsmallnumbersofthreespecies

ofmigrantswallows,Barn(Hirundo rustica),Bank

(Riparia riparia),andCliff(Petrochelidon pyrrhonota)

overtheYanayacuRiveratNuevaVida,althoughwe

sawlargeflocksnumberinginthehundredsofBarnand

BankSwallowsovertheNapoRiveron14October.

OthermigrantsfromNorthAmericaincludedBroad-

wingedHawk(Buteo platypterus);CommonNighthawk

(Chordeiles minor);threespeciesofflycatchers,Eastern

Wood-Pewee(Contopus virens),andOlive-sided

(Contopus cooperi )andSulphur-belliedFlycatchers

(Myiodynastes luteiventris);Gray-cheekedThrush

(Catharus minimus);andRed-eyed(Vireo olivaceus)and

Yellow-green(V. flavoviridis)Vireos.Weconsideredallof

themigrants,exceptRed-eyedVireo,toberare.

Whilenotaverydiversesetofmigrants,itisa

fairlytypicalassortmentforaforestareainlowland

northeasternPeru.CliffSwallowisknowninPeruonly

fromscatteredsightrecordsovermostofthecountry.

Broad-wingedHawkwintersinsmallnumbersinthe

AmazonianlowlandsofPeru.ThesightingbyStotzof26

ofthemmigratingsouthhighovertheAlgodoncilloRiver

on22Octoberinaseriesofsmallgroupsduringa15

minuteperiodmayrepresentthelargestnumberseenin

adayinPeru.

TheOctobertimeperiodofthisinventoryfell

afterthedepartureofmostaustralmigrants.Theonly

oneweobservedwassmallnumbersofCrownedSlaty

Flycatchers(Empidonomus aurantioatrocristatus)

atbothcamps.


Mixedflocks

Mixedspeciesflocksareanimportantcomponentof

tropical-forestavifaunas.InAmazonianforests,flocks

areyear-round,permanentfixtures.Thereareunderstory

flocksledbyThamnomanesantshrikes(Munnand

Terborgh1979;Powell1985)andless-stablecanopy

flockscomposedofinsectivorousspeciesandfluidgroups

offrugivoroustanagers.Otherthansomespeciesof

tanagers,speciestypicallyarerepresentedinaflockbya

matedpair,andperhapsyoungoftheyear.Manyspecies

occupytheentireflockhomerangeastheirterritory

(MunnandTerborgh1979),andareeffectivelyfull-time

membersoftheflocks.

TheflocksatbothCurupaandPiedrasweresomewhat

lessstablethanthewell-studiedsystemsatManaus,Brazil

(Powell1985)andCochaCashuinManuNationalPark

insoutheasternPeru(MunnandTerborgh1979;Munn

1985).TheunderstoryflocksresembledthoseatManaus

andCochaCashu,althoughsomewhatsmaller,but

independentcanopyflockswerequiterareandtypically

smallatbothsites.Canopy-flockspecieslargelyexistedin

conjunctionwiththestableunderstoryflocks.Therelative

lackoftanagersatbothcampsmayhavecontributed

tothisbyreducingthenumberanddiversityofcanopy-

flockingspecies.Itisunclearwhethertanagernumbers

werelowbecauseofaseasonallackofappropriatefood

resources,orwhetherdiversityandabundancearelow

year-round.Thelackofgoodcanopyflocksatbothsites

suggeststhatthismaybeapermanentcondition,sincein

mostlocalitiesstudiedinAmazonia(Munn1985;Powell

1985;Stotz1993),canopyflocksoccupypermanent

territoriesanddonotvaryinabundanceseasonally,

althoughattendancebytanagersmayvaryseasonally.

Flocksatthetwocampswerebroadlysimilarinsize

andcomposition.However,Stotzencounteredflocksat

PiedrasatahigherratethanatCurupa(0.75versus0.33

perhour,respectively).Althoughoverallflocksizewas

similaratthetwosites,understoryflocksweremorethan

30%largeratPiedras.Thislargersizewasdueprimarily

tomorespeciesofantwrensandFurnariidaein

understoryflocks.AmongantwrensatPiedras,flocks

averaged2.1speciesvs.3.2atCurupa;overhalfofthe

Piedrasflockshadafullcomplementoffourspeciesof

understoryantwrens(oneoftheEpinecrophylla

species,plusMyrmotherula axillaris, M. menetriesii and

M. longipennis),whilenoneoftheflocksatCurupahad

asmanyasfourspecies.ThespeciesofFurnariidaein

understoryflocksweremuchmorevariable,butflocks

atPiedrasweremuchmorelikelytohavespeciesof

woodcreepersbeyondthecommontwospecies—

Buff-throated(Xiphorhynchus guttatus)andWedge-

billed(Glyphorynchus spirurus)—andfoliage-gleaners

ofthegeneraAutomolus, Ancistrops, Philydor,and

Hyloctistesweremuchmoreregularin Piedrasflocks

thanatCurupa.AtCurupa,mixedflocksaveraged

1.5speciesofwoodcreepersand0.6speciesoffoliage-

gleanersperflock,whileatPiedras,theaverageflock

contained2.4speciesofwoodcreepersand1.2species

offoliage-gleaners.

Thisdifferenceinthesizeandabundanceof

understoryflocksbetweenthetwocampsislikelydue

tostructuralchangesintheforestunderstorybecause

ofselectiveloggingatCurupa.Stotz(1993)found,ata

sitethathadbeenselectivelyloggedinRoraima,Brazil,

thatunderstoryflocksavoidedthepartsoftheforest

wheretreeshadbeenremovedandthecanopyopened

up.Similarly,nearManaus,Stotzfoundthatunderstory

flocksavoidedtheedgesofforestpatcheswherelight

levelswerehighest,especiallyonthesideswhere

insolationwasdirect.

THREATSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

Threats

Theprincipalthreattotheavifaunaintheregionofthe

proposedACRMaijunaisclearlythelossofitsextensive

forestcover.Logginginitselfhasthepotentialtocause

localproblemsandforestdegradation,buttheproposed

roadacrosstheregionhasamuchstrongerpotential

tododamageonamuchlargerandmoreprofound

scaleboththrough(a)thedestructionofforestforthe

constructionoftheroadcorridorand(b)moregenerally

throughcolonizationandloggingmadepossiblebythe

accesstheroadwouldprovide.Huntingisasecondary

threat,affectingasmallnumberofspecies,andmost

likelytobeaprobleminareasbeingloggedorcolonized

bynon-Maijuna.


Recommendations

Protection and management

Tomanagefortheconservationtargetsforbirds,

littleneedstobedone.Forthemostpartmaintaining

forestcoverwillbeasufficientstrategy.Forgamebirds

astrategyformanaginghuntingpressureinpartsof

theregionmaybenecessary.Inordertomaintainforest

cover,colonizationoftheregionmustbelimitedand

illegalloggingeliminated.Iftheroadisnotbuilt,the

forestsalongtherivers,especiallytributariesoftheNapo,

aremostatrisk.Becausetheproposedroadthroughthe

heartoftheACRMaijunawouldopenupmuchmoreof

theareatobothillegalloggingandcolonization,finding

aviablealternativeisahighpriority.Thehighterraces

shouldreceivethestrictestprotectionpossiblebecause

ofthethreatoferosionwithdeforestationthereandthe

presenceofadistinctivesubsetofbirds.

Birdsaregenerallyalowerprioritytargetfor

subsistencehuntersthanmammals,soreductionsin

overallhuntingpressurebyendingillegallogging,as

wellasreducingtheentryofnon-Maijunahunters,

shouldallowgamebirdpopulationstorecoverinall

butthemostdisturbedareasclosetohumanpopulations.

Thereisprobablynoneedtolimithuntingbythe

Maijunaonanybirds,withthepossibleexception

ofMitu salviniinareaswherenumbershavebeen

substantiallyreducedalready.

Additional inventories

AdditionalinventorieswithintheproposedACRMaijuna

shouldfocusontwoareas:thehighterraces(Fig.2B)

andlow-lyingforestsalongmajorrivers.Thehigh

terracescouldhaveadditionalspeciesofbirdsspecialized

onpoorsoils.IfAllpahuayo-Mishanaisanyindication,

thepossibilityofotherundescribedspeciesonthehigh

terracesshouldnotbediscounted.Inadditiontoamore

thoroughbirdsurveyofthehighterraces(bothinterms

oftimeandgeography),aquickersurveyfocusedon

thenewHerpsilochmus shouldbeundertaken.Because

ofitsabundance,anddistinctive,persistentsong,the

extentofitsdistributioncouldbedeterminedrelatively

quicklybyvisitingmorepartsofthehighterracesfor

briefperiods.Werecognizethataccesstomostofthese

highterracescurrentlyislimitedornon-existent.

Theseasonallyfloodedforestsandaguajales

(Mauritia-palmswamps)alongthemajorNapo

tributaries(QuebradaCotoandYanayacuRiver),as

wellastheAlgodónandAlgodoncillorivers,shouldbe

inventoried.Thesehabitatsareverypoorlyknownon

thenorthsideoftheAmazoninPeru,andthePutumayo

drainageremainsalmostcompletelyunknown.The

possibilityexiststhatWattledCurassow(Crax globulosa,

listedbyIUCN[2009]as“Vulnerable”)mightstill

occupythesehabitats.Oxbowlakesassociatedwiththese

habitatsalsoareahighpriorityforinventorybecause

theyhaveaspecializedavifauna.

MAMMALS

Author/Participant: Adriana Bravo

Conservationtargets: Abundant populations of mammal

species threatened or locally extinct in other parts of the Amazon:

giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis, a top predator listed as

Endangered by INRENA and IUCN, and In Danger of Extinction

by CITES), pink river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis, listed as Vulnerable

by CITES and INRENA), and gray dolphin (Sotalia fluviatilis,

listed as In Danger of Extinction by CITES) along the Algodón

River; populations of primates, sensitive to intensive hunting, that

are important seed dispersers, such as common woolly monkey

(Lagothrix lagotricha, listed as Vulnerable by INRENA) and red

howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus, listed as Near Threatened

by INRENA, Fig. 8A); top predators, for example jaguar (Pantera

onca, a key regulator of prey populations, Fig. 8B); Brazilian tapir

(Tapirus terrestris, an important seed disperser, listed as Vulnerable

by CITES, INRENA, and IUCN, Fig. 8G); and rare species such

as short-eared dog (Atelocynus microtis ) and giant anteater

(Myrmecophaga tridactyla )

INTRODUCTION

Amazonianforestsarerichinmammaldiversity.

VossandEmmons(1996)estimatethatthereare

200speciesofmammalsintheAmazonlowlandsof

southeasternPeru,whichrepresents~40%ofallspecies

recordedinPeru(508species;Pachecoetal.2009).

Nonetheless,eventhoughsomeinformationexistsonthe

regionaldistributionandpresenceofmammalspecies

(VossandEmmons1996;EmmonsandFeer1997;

Pacheco2002;Pachecoetal.2009),informationatthe

localcommunitylevelintheAmazonianregionremains


limited.Despitetheresearcheffortsmadeincertain

areasofnorthernPeru,forexampletheItayabasin,

Napobasin,andPacaya-SamiriaNationalReserve

(AquinoandEncarnación1994;Aquinoetal.2001;

Aquinoetal.2009b),othermammalcommunitiesremain

poorlyknown.Thisisthecaseforthearealocatedin

theinterfluviumbetweentheNapoandPutumayoRivers,

inthedepartmentofLoreto.

Inthisreport,Ipresenttheresultsofarapid

inventoryundertakenintheproposedÁreade

ConservaciónRegionalMaijuna(“ACRMaijuna,”

Fig.2A),locatedintheareabetweentheNapoand

PutumayoRiversinthenorthernpartofLoreto,Peru.

Icomparethespeciesrichnessandabundanceof

mammalsintwosites,highlightnotablerecords,

identifythreatsandconservationtargets,andprovide

recommendationsforconservation.

METHODS

From14to31October2009,Ievaluatedthecommunity

ofmammalsintwolocationswithintheproposedACR

Maijuna:Curupa,intheYanayacuRiverbasin,and

Piedras,intheAlgodónRiverbasin(Fig.2A).Iemployed

directobservationandsignstoevaluatethecommunity

ofmedium-andlarge-sizedmammals,andmistnets

toevaluatethebatcommunity.Ididnotevaluatethe

communityofsmall,non-volantmammalsdueto

timeconstraints.

Ineachsite,Iwalkedataspeedof0.5–1.0km/h

foraperiodof6–8hours,commencingat7a.m.on

previouslyestablishedpaths.Ialsotooktwo-hournight

walksatthesamespeed,beginningatapproximately

7p.m.Foreachspeciesobserved,Irecordedthedate

andtime,location(nameanddistancefromthepath),

speciesname,andnumberofindividuals.Ialsorecorded

secondarysignssuchastracks,scats,burrows,dens,food

scraps,trails,and/orvocalizations.Inordertodetermine

thecorrespondencebetweenthesesignalsandaparticular

species,Iusedacombinationoffieldguides(Emmonsand

Feer1997;Tirira2007),myownexperience,andlocal

knowledge.Iutilizedobservationsmadebyothermembers

oftheinventoryteam,localassistants,andmembersof

theadvanceteam.Ialsoshowedlocalpeopleprintsfrom

afieldguide(EmmonsandFeer1997)todeterminethe

presenceofmedium-andlarge-sizemammalsinthearea.

Icapturedbatsusingfourtofivesix-metermist

netsthroughoutpreviouslyestablishedtransectsand/or

clearingsforthree-hourperiods(~5:45–9:00p.m.).

IidentifiedandthenfreedallthebatsIcaught.

Inadditiontotheinformationobtainedduringthe

studyinCurupaandPiedras,SebastiánRíosandMarco

Sánchez(fromtheMaijunacommunitiesofSucusari

andSanPablodeTotolla,respectively)andDr.Michael

Gilmoreprovidedinformationonthecommunityof

medium-andlarge-sizedmammalsoftheAlgodónRiver

(Appendix7).

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

TheproposedACRMaijunacontainsahighdiversity

ofmedium-andlarge-sizemammals.Iexpectedtofind

~59speciesinthisarea,basedonpublisheddistribution

maps(AquinoandEncarnación1994;EmmonsandFeer

1997;EisenbergandRedford1999).Duringtwoweeks

ofevaluation,Icovered52km(21inCurupaand31in

Piedras)andrecorded32species,representing~53%of

thenumberofspeciesIexpectedtofind(Appendix7).

Iregistered9ofthe13expectedspeciesofprimates,

7of16carnivores,fiveofeightrodents,fouroffive

ungulates,fourofnineedentates,twoofsixmarsupials,

oneoftwocetaceans,andnosirenids(manatees).

Basedonresearchonbatsinothertropicalareas

(EisenbergandRedford1997),Iestimatethatthe

proposedMaijunaRCAmayhave~70speciesofbats.

Withacaptureeffortof27net-hours(15inCurupaand

12inPiedras),Icapturedtenspeciesduringtwonights,

representing~14%oftheexpectedspecies.

Below,Ipresentanoverviewofthetwostudy

sites,followedbyacomparisonwitheachother,and

acomparisonwithotherstudiescarriedoutinthe

PeruvianAmazon.

Curupa

Infourdays,Irecorded22speciesofmedium-and

large-sizemammals,including7speciesofprimates,

5rodents,3ungulates,4carnivores,2edentates,and

1marsupial(Appendix7).Largespeciessusceptibleto


intensivehuntingwereabsent.Forexample,Ididnot

recordcommonwoollymonkey(Lagothrix lagotricha),

redhowlermonkey(Alouatta seniculus,Fig.8A),or

white-lippedpeccary(Tayassu pecari,Fig.8H).In

addition,somerecordedspecieswerenotveryplentiful.

Irecordedsmallgroupsofmonksakimonkey(Pithecia

monachus),yellow-handedtitimonkey(Callicebus

torquatus),andlittleevidencethatwouldindicatethe

presenceofBraziliantapir(Tapirus terrestris,Fig.8G).

Inadditiontocoveringthetrailsestablishedforthe

camp,wevisitedalargecollpa (saltlick),approximately

50by35minsize,ledbyGrapulioTamayofromthe

MaijunacommunityofNuevaVida.Thiscollpais

located~4kmfromourcamp,andapparentlyitwas

intensivelyusedbyloggersforhunting(G.Tamayo

pers.comm.).ThereIobservedahugenumberoffresh

tracksofBraziliantapir(T. terrestris, Fig.8G),including

tracksofyoungindividuals(determinedbythesizeofthe

tracks).Ialsorecordedsometracksofredbrocketdeer

(Mazama americana)andcollaredpeccary(Pecari tajacu)

inthesurroundingareas.Thepresenceoftheseungulates

inthecollpacanbeexplainedbytheimportancethat

theseplaceshaveassourcesofscarcemineralsinthe

Amazon,suchassodium(Montenegro2004;Tobler

2008;Bravo2009).Despitethestrongimpactthat

huntinghasonsensitivespecies,amemberoftheteam

(Á.DelCampo)observedajaguar(Panthera onca,

Fig.8B).Similarly,othermembersoftheteamrecorded

numerousfreshtracks,possiblyofthatsameindividual

andanoffspring(determinedbysize)onthetrailbetween

CurupaandLimón.

Irecordedeightspeciesofbats.Fiveofthesespecies

werefrugivores(CarollinaeandStenodermatinae),

twowereinsectivores(Phyllostomus elongatus,

Rhinchonycteris naso),andonewasomnivorous

(P. hastatus,seeAppendix8.)

Piedras

Infourdays,Irecorded28speciesoflarge-and

medium-sizemammals,including8primates,5rodents,

5carnivores,4ungulates,4edentates,1cetacean,and

1marsupial(Appendix7).Thewealthofspeciesfound

wasgreaterthaninCurupa.Irecordedspeciessusceptible

tointensivehunting,suchascommonwoollymonkey

(Lagothrix lagotricha),redhowlermonkey(Alouatta

seniculus, Fig.8A),white-lippedpeccary(Tayassu

pecari ),andBraziliantapir(Tapirus terrestris).Despite

thedecreaseinavailablenutrientsinthesoilalongthe

transectbetweenCurupaandPiedras(seethechapteron

vegetationandflora),theabundanceofcertainspeciesof

mammalsincreased.Forexample,Irecordedlargegroups

ofcommonwoollymonkey(30–40individuals),several

groupsofmonksaki(Pithecia monachus),andnumerous

trailsoftheBraziliantapir.Theabundanceofthese

speciescouldberelatedtotheminimalhumanimpact

inthearea.Thedifficultaccesstoandlittleevidenceof

logginginthisareasuggestthatintensivehuntinghas

notaffectedthepopulationsofmedium-andlarge-size

mammals.Nonetheless,tothenorthofthePiedrascamp,

inthehillyarea,Irecordedfewgroupsofprimates

andonlyonesmallgroupofwhite-lippedpeccaries(~4

individuals, Fig.8H).Theonlygroupofcommonwoolly

monkeythatIobservedinthehillshad~30individuals.

Thisgroupremainedforseveralhoursconsumingfruit

fromasingletreeofthefamilySapotaceae.Irecordedthe

majorityoftheprimatesandothermammals,including

theonlyobservationmadeofaredhowlermonkey,inthe

lowerpartoftheforestinthevicinityoftheAlgodoncillo

River.Ingeneral,whentheprimatesrealizedwewere

there,theywouldobserveuswithcuriosityandvery

rarelyflee.

Throughdirectobservation,membersofthe

teamrecordedaBraziliantapirandagiantanteater

(Myrmecophaga tridactyla)inthevicinityofChino,the

intermediatecampintheAlgodónbasinbetweenCurupa

andPiedras.Additionally,theyrecordedanindividual

graydolphin(Sotalia fluviatilis)intheAlgodónRiver.

Thisspeciescouldbeanindicatorofthegoodqualityof

thewaterandanabundanceoffishinthearea.

Irecordedfourspeciesofbats(Appendix8),among

themGlossophaga soricina(animportantpollinator

ofseveralplantspecies),twoinsectivorousspecies

(Glyphonycteris daviesiandRhinchonycteris naso),and

afrugivorousspecies(Mesophylla macconnelli , Fig.8E).

AlgodónRiver

TheareaoftheAlgodónRiver,locatedtothenorthof

Piedras,isrichwithmedium-andlarge-sizemammals.


Ríos,Sánchez,andGilmorerecordedasignificant

speciesrichness(26spp.,Appendix7)andabundanceof

mammals,especiallythosespeciessusceptibletohunting.

Forexample,theyrecordednumeroustroopsofcommon

woollymonkeys(Lagothrix lagotricha),manygroups

ofredhowlermonkeys(Alouatta seniculus,Fig.8A),

largedrovesofwhite-lippedpeccaries(Tayassu pecari ,

Fig.8H),andclearevidenceofthepresenceofBrazilian

tapir(Tapirus terrestris,Fig.8G).Theyalsodirectly

observedagroupofgiantotter(Pteronura brasiliensis)

intheAlgodónRiver,atoppredatorcurrentlylistedas

beingInDangerofExtinction(UICN2009)duetothe

heavypressureitsufferedfromhuntinginpastdecades.

Similarly,theyobservedgraydolphin(Sotalia fluviatilis)

andpinkriverdolphin(Iniageoffrensis).

Theabundanceofmedium-andlarge-sizemammals

neartheAlgodónRivermightbeduetothepresenceof

largeaguajales(wetlandsdominatedbyMauritiaflexuosa

palms)andthepresenceofmorethan30collpas(salt

licks,M.Gilmorepers.comm.).Thecollpasareakey

resourceformanymammalspeciesinAmazonianforests

(Montenegro2004;Gilmore2005;Tobler2008).

Comparisonoftheinventorysites

Thecompositionofmedium-andlarge-sizemammal

speciesrecordedinCurupaandPiedrasdifferedbymore

than40%,asonly18of32specieswererecordedinboth

camps(Appendix7).Basedontheliterature(Aquinoand

Encarnación1994;EmmonsandFeer1997;Eisenberg

andRedford1999),Iestimatedthateachsitemight

haveapproximately59species.Nonetheless,duringthe

evaluationIrecordedfewerspeciesinCurupathanin

Piedras(22and28species,respectively).Theabundance

ofcertainspecies,especiallythosesusceptibletohunting

pressure,alsodifferedbetweenthetwosites.

Thesedifferencesintherichnessandabundanceof

speciesmightbeduetoenvironmentalasmuchasto

anthropogenicfactors.Thus,thelowlevelofavailability

ofMauritiaflexuosafruitduringtheinventorymay

haveaffectedthepresenceand/orabundanceofcertain

speciesofprimatesandungulates.Nonetheless,dueto

theclearevidenceofintensiveillegallogginginthisarea

(numerousabandonedcampsandloggingroads),itis

likelythatthestrongpressureofhuntingassociatedwith

loggingistheprimereasonfortheabsenceofcertain

speciesandthelackofabundanceofothers.Asevidence,

alongthetrailsIfoundnumerousshotgunshells.

Additionally,localsreportthatmorethan100people

workedatagiventimeontimberextraction(L.Mosoline

pers.comm.).Suchalargenumberofpeoplerequired

greatquantitiesofbushmeatfortheirownconsumption.

Consequently,populationsofspecieswithlow

reproductionrates—suchaslargeprimatesandBrazilian

tapir—diminishedconsiderably.Forthisreason,

eventhoughtheseextractiveactivitieswerestopped

approximatelytwoyearsago,withtheexceptionofareas

nearcollpas,IrecordedlittleevidenceofBraziliantapir:a

fewoldtracksleftbyindividualsthatprobablyabandoned

theareauponnotingourpresence.Furthermore,primate

species,suchascommonwoollymonkeyandredhowler

monkey,werenotrecordedinthearea.

Inadditiontotheeffecthuntinghashadonthe

wealthandabundanceofmammalsinCurupa,their

behaviorhasalsobeenaffected.Primates,suchas

monksaki(Pithecia monachus)andyellow-handedtiti

(Callicebus torquatus)monkeys,wereunfriendlyand

fledrapidly,emittingvocalizationsofalarmuponnoting

ourpresence.

Ontheotherhand,despitethegradualdecrease

inavailablenutrientsinthesoilsbetweenCurupaand

Piedras,Irecordedagreaterwealthofspeciesfrom

Chinonorthward(Fig.2A),includingspeciesthatwere

absentinCurupa:commonwoollymonkey,redhowler

monkey,andwhite-lippedpeccary(T. pecari ,Fig.8H ).

Similarly,thenumbersweregreaterinChinoand

PiedrasascomparedwiththoseofCurupa.InPiedras,

Irecordedlargegroupsofcommonwoollymonkeyand

manygroupsofmonksaki,themajorityofwhichwere

tobefoundinplainforestsandlowhillocks.Irecorded

fewspeciesinthezoneofhighhills,whichhavepoor,

clayeysoils.

InbothCurupaandPiedras,therearerecords

ofrarespeciessuchasshort-eareddog(Atelocynus

microtis),aspecieswithbroaddistributionbutdifficult

toobserveduetoitsstealthybehavior.Additionally,

giantanteater(Myrmecophaga tridactyla)wasrecorded

nearPiedrasandagraydolphin(Sotalia fluviatilis)inthe

AlgodoncilloRiver.


NoteworthyRecords

Therewereseveralnoteworthyrecordsmadeduringthe

inventorycarriedoutintheproposedACRMaijuna.

CurupawastheonlysitewhereIrecordedbrown

capuchinmonkey(Cebus apella).Thepresenceof

thisspeciesnorthoftheNapoRivercontradictsthe

distributionpositedbyTirira(2007),whoindicates

thatthedistributionisrestrictedonthenorthbythe

NapoRiver,asfoundinGüeppí-Cuyabeno(Bravoand

Borman2008).

Animportantfindingwasthepresencewithin

theproposedACRMaijunaofspeciesincritical

statesofconservation.IntheAlgodónRiver,locals

andM.Gilmore(pers.comm.)reportthepresenceof

giantotter(Pteronura brasiliensis),aspecieslistedas

EndangeredunderDecretoSupremo034(INRENA

2004).Similarly,inCurupawerecordedjaguar(Pantera

onca),listedasaspeciesInDangerofExtinction

(CITES2009).

Duringtheinventory,werecordedtworarespecies.

InCurupaandPiedras,theteamobservedshort-eared

dog(Atelocynus microtis),aspeciesthatisbroadly

distributedbutrarelysighted,andaboutwhichlittle

isknownregardingitsbiology.Inasimilarfashion,

theteamobservedgiantanteater(Myrmecophaga

tridactyla)inPiedras,aspeciesrarelyobserved

notwithstandingitsbroaddistribution.

Conservationtargets

Twenty-ninespeciesofmedium-andlarge-sizemammals

observedintheproposedACRMaijunaareconsidered

tobeconservationtargetsinthecategoriesofInDanger

ofExtinctionandVulnerablebyIUCN(UICN2009)

and11speciesareconsideredEndangeredorVulnerable

byCITES(2009;Appendix7).AccordingtoDecreto

Supremo034(INRENA2004),11ofthespecies

observedareconsideredtobethreatenedatthenational

level.OnespecieslistedasbeingInCriticalDanger

(Pteronura brasiliensis)andtwoEndangeredspecies

(Inia geoffrensis andSotalia fluviatilis)arepresentinthis

area.Manythreatenedspecies,oftenlocallyexterminated

elsewhereintheAmazon(forexample,Lagothrix

lagotricha and Tapirus terrestris),arestillabundantin

intactpartsofthearea.

Comparisonwithothersites

Thediversityofmedium-andlarge-sizemammals

recordedinthisinventoryissimilartowhathasbeen

recordedinotherinventoriescarriedoutinthenorthern

PeruvianAmazon.IntherapidinventoryoftheGüeppí-

CuyabenoconservationareaintheNapo-Putumayo

watershed,BravoandBorman(2008)recorded46

speciesofmedium-andlarge-sizemammalsinfivesites

overaperiodoffourweeks.Theyrecordedtenspecies

ofprimates,ascomparedwithninespeciesrecorded

inourinventory.Unlikeinthisinventory,Bravoand

Borman(2008)recordedthepygmymarmoset(Callithrix

[Cebuella] pygmaea)andduskytitimonkey(Callicebus

cupreus)intheirsamplingsites.Inthepresentinventory,

thesespecieswererecordedwithintheproposedACR

Maijuna,althoughnotinthestudysites.Thefirstwas

spottedalongtheSucusariRiver(Fig.8C)andthesecond

wasreportedalongtheAlgodónRiver(M.Gilmore

pers.comm.).ThepresenceofC. cupreus intheNapo-

Putumayowatershedisinteresting,asthereisnoclear

consensusregardingitsdistribution.WhileEmmonsand

Feer(1997),Tirira(2007),andvanRoosmalenetal.

(2002)predicttheirpresence,AquinoandEncarnación

(1994)suggestthatthisspeciesisrestrictedtothearea

southoftheNapoRiver.Additionally,whilebrown

capuchinmonkey(Cebus apella)wasrecordedinCurupa,

itwasnotrecordedintheGüeppí-Cuyabenoinventory.

NoristhedistributionofthisspeciesintheAmazonvery

clear.AccordingtoAquinoandEncarnación(1994)and

EmmonsandFeer(1997),thisspeciesisexpectedtobe

foundintheNapo-Putumayowatershed;however,Tirira

(2007)suggestsitistobefoundsouthoftheNapoRiver.

DuringtherapidinventoryofAmpiyacu,inthe

Amazonas-Napo-Putumayowatershed,39species

ofmedium-andlarge-sizemammalswererecorded

(MontenegroandEscobedo2004).Theprincipal

differenceswiththeproposedACRMaijunaarethe

presenceofsaddlebacktamarin(Saguinus fuscicollis),

andtheabsenceofduskytitimonkeyandnightmonkey

(Aotus vociferans)inAmpiyacu.AccordingtoEmmons

andFeer(1997),S. fuscicollisisaspeciesexpectedinthe

Napo-Putumayowatershed;nonetheless,Tirira(2007)

restrictsthisspeciestothesouthoftheNapoRiver.

BrowncapuchinwasrecordedinAmpiyacu(specifically


intheYaguasRiver)aswellasintheproposedACR

Maijuna.Theabsenceofduskytitimonkeywaspredicted

byAquinoandEncarnación(1994),butcontrarytothe

distributionnotedbyEmmonsandFeer(1997)andvan

Rossmalenetal.(2002).White-belliedspidermonkey

(Ateles belzebuth)wasabsentinAmpiyacuandGüeppí-

Cuyabeno,aswellasinACRMaijuna.Accordingto

AquinoandEncarnación(1994)andEmmonsandFeer

(1997),thisspeciesshouldbepresentinAmpiyacu,but

MontenegroandEscobedo(2004)attributeitsabsence

tointensehuntingpressure.Nonetheless,incontrastto

AquinoandEncarnación(1994)andEmmonsandFeer

(1997),Tirira(2007)suggeststhatthedistributionof

white-belliedspidermonkey(A. belzebuth)isactually

tothesouthoftheNapoRiver.Irecommendthatmore

detailedstudiesbecarriedoutlocallyinordertoprecisely

determinethecorrectdistributionofthisspecies.

Thirty-fivespeciesofmedium-andlarge-size

mammalswererecordedintherapidinventoryof

theMazán-Nanay-Arabelaheadwaters,locatedto

thesouthoftheNapoRiverinPeru(BravoandRíos

2007).UnlikeourinventoryoftheproposedACR

Maijuna,BravoandRíosrecordedwhite-belliedspider

monkey(A. belzebuth),equatorialsaki(Pithecia

aequatorialis),saddlebacktamarin,andcommon

woollymonkey(Lagothrix poeppigii ).Accordingto

certainauthors(Tirira2007;Aquinoetal.2009a),the

distributionofthesespeciesisrestrictedtothearea

southoftheNapoRiver.Nonetheless,thedistribution

ofA. belzebuth,accordingtoAquinoandEncarnación

(1994)andEmmonsandFeer(1997),extendsto

theregionnorthoftheNapoRiver.Southofthe

Napo,L. lagotricha andS. fuscicollisarereplacedby

L. poeppigiiandS. nigricollis(Tirira2007).Duetothe

lackofconsistencyinthedistributionsofseveralprimate

species,Irecommendcarryingoutmoredetailedstudies

toclarifythem.

CONCLUSIONS

TheproposedACRMaijunacontainsanexceedinglyrich

anddiversemammalcommunity.Inonlytwoweeks,I

recorded32speciesofmedium-andlarge-sizemammals

andtenspeciesofbats.Manyofthesespeciesplay

importantrolesinthemaintenanceofthehighdegreeof

diversityoftropicalforests,includingasseeddispersers

(Braziliantapir,commonwoollymonkey,redhowler

monkey,andfrugivorousbats)andtoppredators(giant

otterandjaguar).Conservingthismammalcommunity

iscriticaltoensuringthepersistenceofafunctional

tropicalforestecosystemandgreatlythreatened(giant

otter)orlocallyextinct(commonwoollymonkey,white-

lippedpeccary,Braziliantapir)speciesinotherpartsof

theAmazon.

THREATSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

Threats

Commercialloggingistheprincipalthreattothe

mammalcommunityintheproposedACRMaijuna.

Thisactivitybringswithittheindiscriminatehunting

ofmammals,especiallyoflargeprimatesandungulates,

inordertoobtainthelargequantitiesofbushmeatthat

serveasfood.Theimpactofthisactivitycanbedramatic

andoftentimesirreversible.Thus,populationsof

commonwoollymonkeyandwhite-lippedpeccaryhave

beenlocallyexterminatedincertainpartsoftheAmazon

(Peres1990,1996;DiFiore2004),aswasobserved

inoneofthecampsvisitedduringthisinventory.As

withcommerciallogging,petroleumexplorationand

extraction,large-scaleagriculture,andintensivecattle

ranchingcanleadtothedestructionoftheregion’s

habitat.Forexample,watercontaminationresulting

frompetroleumextractionactivitieswouldputatrisk

theexistenceofspeciesthatcurrentlyareindangerof

extinction,suchasgiantotter,pinkriverdolphin,and

graydolphin.

Recommendations

Werecommendtheurgentprotectionoftheproposed

ÁreadeConservaciónRegionalMaijunaforseveral

reasons.Theareaharborsahighdegreeofmammal

diversity,includinggiantotter(Pteronura brasiliensis)

andAmazonianmanatee(Trichechusinunguis),bothin

dangerofextinction,aswellasseveralspeciesthatare

threatenedorlocallyextinctintheAmazonasaresult

ofunrestrainedanduncontrolledhunting.Inparticular,

werecommendcontrollingcommercialloggingactivities


thatbringwiththemtheconsumptionoflargequantities

ofbushmeatbytheworkerswholiveforlongperiodsof

timeintheforest.Additionally,wefeelitiscriticalthat

thefourMaijunacommunities,aswellasneighboring

communities,participateinthecontrolandmanagement

oftheconsumptionofbushmeatintheprotectedarea.

Iespeciallyrecommendthatastrictcontrolbeimposed

ontheconsumptionofspecieswithlowreproductive

rates,suchaslargeprimates(commonwoollyandred

howlermonkeys)andBraziliantapir.Thesemeasures

willensurethattheprotectedareafunctionsasarefuge

forthecommunityofmedium-andlarge-sizemammals.

Lastly,Irecommendimplementingenvironmental

educationprogramsforthearea’sinhabitants,including

theneighboringcommunities.

SOCIALOVERVIEWOFTHEREGION

Author: Alberto Chirif

INTRODUCTION

TheMaijunacommunitiesandtheirfederation

FECONAMAI1presentedarequesttoGOREL2in

August2008tocreatetheÁreadeConservación

Regional(ACR)Maijunaintheinterfluviumbetween

thelowerNapoandthemiddleAlgodón,anarea

representingtheirancestralland.Sincethentheyhave

hadthesupportofProyectoApoyoalPROCREL3(PAP)

tosecureofficialdeclarationoftheACR.Towardthis

end,theyhavereceivedgeneraltrainingaboutprotected

naturalareasandACRs,aswellasspecifictrainingon

thesustainableuseofnaturalresources.

DuringJuly2009,PAPcontractedourservices

“tocarryoutashortsocioeconomicevaluationofthe

communitieslocatedintheareaofinfluenceofthe

proposedACRMaijuna.”

Thestatedobjectives4ofourmissionwere:

1 Federación de Comunidades Nativas Maijuna.2 Gobierno Regional de Loreto.3 Programa de Conservación, Gestión y Uso Sostenible de la Diversidad Biológica en la

Región Loreto.4 These objectives are taken from the contract between A. Chirif and Proyecto Apoyo

al PROCREL.

(1)Tocollectsocioeconomicandculturalinformation

onthepopulationoftheindigenousandmestizo(mixed

race)communitiesinthestudyareaoftheproposedACR

Maijuna,includinginformationondemographics,social

services,resourceuse,conflictswiththirdparties,and

perceptionsoftheproposal;

(2)Toevaluatecurrentandpotentialthreatstothe

creationoftheACRMaijuna;

(3)Toinformcommunitiesintheareaabouttheobjec-

tivesandimportanceoftheproposedACRMaijuna;and

(4)Toprocessandanalyzeinformationcollectedinthe

communitiesandproduceareportthatdocumentstheir

situation,includingaspectsnotedinthefirstobjective,as

wellasotherrelevantaspectsthatcomeoutofthefieldwork.

METHODS

Themethodologyinvolvedreviewingandsystematically

organizingexistinginformationonthestudyareaand

thecommunities;creatingmechanismsforcollecting

theinformation;carryingoutfieldwork,whichconsisted

ofvisitingcommunitiesselectedbyPAPandconducting

interviewswithleadersandcommunitymembers;and

producingafinalreportofthestudyresults.

AftermeetinginthePAPofficewiththeinstitutional

coordinatorandwiththepersonresponsibleforwork

doneintheproposedACRMaijuna,Ischeduleda

fieldtriptovisitthecommunitiesfrom11to24July

2009,duringwhichtimeIparticipatedintheIV

CongressofFECONAMAI,whichtookplaceinthe

communityofSucusarifrom17to20July.

Giventheshorttimescheduledforthestudy,

Idecidedtomeetwithrepresentativesoftwoorthree

communitiesintheheadofficeofoneofthem,towork

togethertogathertheinformationIneeded.Inthose

meetingsIadministeredasurveypreparedbyPAP,to

whichImadesomeadditions(suchasquestionson

thefoundingdateofacommunityorsettlement,its

history,dateswhenclassesstarted,andlengthoftenure

ofteachersintheschool).Ialsoworkedwith“talking

maps,”inwhichrepresentativesofthecommunities

andsettlementscouldindicateareaswheretheyhunted,

fished,andextractedwoodandothernonwood

forestproducts.


Duringmycommunityvisits,Iwasaccompanied

bySr.RusbelTangoa,aleaderwithinFECONAMAI,

who,duringthelastcongress,waselectedvice-president

ofthefederation.DuringthecourseofthestudyIwas

accompaniedbybiologistNatalíPinedoandecology

studentAnaPuerta,whoworksasavolunteerforPAP,

twoexcellenttravelcompanionswhoprovidedinvaluable

helpinmakingthetalkingmaps.Attheendofthetrip,

andaftermeetingwiththecoordinatorandstaffof

PROCREL,withFECONAMAI,withIBC,5andwith

ethnobiologistMichaelGilmore,Iorganizedthefield

informationandproducedthepresentreport.


Establishment,population,andidentityof

communitiesandsettlements

Thefinalstudyincluded24communities,ofwhich9

arenative(4Maijunaand5Quechua),2arecampesino

(mestizo),and13aresettlements(Table7).Onlyoneof

theMaijunacommunitieswasnotvisited,SanPablode

Totolla,becauseofitsremoteness(itislocatedonthe

AlgodónRiver,inthePutumayobasin),butIdidspeak

withitsrepresentatives,whoattendedtheIVCongress

ofFECONAMAIinthecommunityofSucusari.The

communities,asaresultofrightsrecognizedbyspecial

laws,gainedownershipoftheirlandsthroughactionsof

theMinisteriodeAgricultura.Unlikethesettlements,the

nativeandmestizocommunitiesareregisteredaslegal

entities.Thesettlementshavenocollectivepropertyon

thelandstheyoccupy,althoughtheirmembersmayhave

individuallandtitles.

TheMaijunacommunitiesareliterallyinside

theproposedACRMaijuna—threeontributariesin

theNapobasinandthefourthonatributaryofthe

Putumayo—althoughtheyhavedecided,whenthe

proposedareaisdeclared,toconsidertheirterritories

outsidetheACR,soasnottolosetherightgrantedto

nativecommunitiesbylawtomakeuseoftheirforest

resources.Thereareonlytwononnativesettlementsin

thesamesituation:TutapishcoandNuevaFloresta,on

theleftbankoftheNapoanddownriverfromthemouth

oftheYanayacu(Fig.2A).Bothhaverequestedthatthey

5 Instituto del Bien Común.

beregisteredandgrantedtitlesasruralcommunities,but

asofnowtheirrequesthasnotbeenaddressed.Allother

communitiesareeitherontherightorleftbank

oftheNapobutarenotadjacenttotheproposed

ACRMaijuna.

Iwillnowpresentageneralpictureofallthe

communitiesinthestudyarea.TheNapo,which

encompassesalargepartoftheAmazonianplainin

Loreto,isaplacewheremanydiverseidentitiesconverge.

Thisistheresultofadynamicrecordedsincecolonial

times,whenmissionariesestablishedreservationswhere

peopleofdiverseethnicbackgroundscametogether,but

alsooflaterprocesses,liketheexpansionofpeopleof

QuechuanoriginaswellastheirlanguagefromEcuador,

thelatterwhichhasbecomeestablishedthroughout

thebasin.Forexample,residentsofMorónIslawho

wereinterviewedindicatedthatsomeofthemcame

fromEcuador.

Itcanbestatedwithcertaintythatallofthe

communitieshavepopulationswithindigenousorigins.

Toillustratethiswecanciteinformationobtainedfrom

interviewsconductedduringourfieldwork:inTutapishco

thereareQuechuasandMaijunas;inNuevaFloresta

thereareresidentswhoidentifythemselvesasIquitos;in

SanFranciscodeBuenPaso,Huitotos;inCruzdePlata,

Cocamillas;andinHuamánUrco,NuevoOriente,and

NuevoLeguízamo,Quechuans.Likewise,inLancha

Pozaweweretoldthatsomeofthefounderscamefrom

theIgaraparanáRiver,atributaryofthePutumayo,in

Colombia,atraditionalsettlementareaoftheHuitoto

people,sothepopulationisprobablyofthatorigin.

Infact,thecommunityofNegroUrco(whichwasnot

includedintheinventory),ontherightbankoftheNapo,

isHuitotoinorigin.Someofthesegroupsexpressed

interestinbeingregisteredasnativecommunities(such

asNuevaFlorestaandNuevoOriente)orcampesino

(mestizo)communities(SanFranciscodePinsha

andTutapishco).

TheoldestsettlementintheareaisTutapishco,

whichdatesbackto1902,followedbyHuamánUrco

andthenativeQuechuancommunityofCruzdePlata,

bothdatingfrom1920.Inthe1950sand1960s,seven

settlementswereestablishedinthearea(Table7);all

theotherscamelater.Thetwonewestsettlementsare


NuevaFloridaandNuevoOriente,whichdatefrom

2000and2002,respectively.Thepopulationofthelatter

indicatedthattheywishtoapplyforregistrationasa

nativeQuechuancommunity.Beforecomingtogether,

peoplewerescatteredaroundtheareaorlivedinvarious

othercommunities.ThefoundingoftwooftheMaijuna

communitiestookplaceinthe1960s(TotollaandPuerto

Huamán),whereasSucusariwasfoundedin1978and

NuevaVidain1986.

LikemanyindigenouspeopleintheLoretoregion,

theMaijunawerenotriver-dwellersinthepast,rather

theysettledintheinterfluvialareabetweentheNapo

andthePutumayo.Theyfavoredblocksofforestas

theirhabitatandusedtrailstotheriversasavenues

ofcommunication.Theirrelocationtoareasalongthe

riverbeganwhentheywereconcentratedonmissionary

reservations,theoldestofwhichdatefromthebeginning

ofthe18thcentury.Thisprocesscontinuedduringthe

rubberera,andwiththepatrones whoarrivedlaterto

exploitnaturalproductssuchasyarina(ortaguaor

marfil vegetal: Phytelephas macrocarpa),palo de rosa

(Aniba rosaedora),leche caspi(Couma macrocarpa),and

barbasco (Lonchocarpussp.).Thebuildingofschools

inthe1960sreinforcedtheriversidesettlementsandthe

concentrationoftheMaijunas.

Thepopulationsofthecommunitiesandsettlements

varyandrangebetween45(SanPablodeTotolla)

and547(HuamánUrco)inhabitants.Onlysixofthe

settlementsvisitedhave200ormoreinhabitants

(Table7).

Onlytwoofthepopulationcentersvisitedduring

theinventoryareformallyconstitutedascampesino

communities(Tables7and8):NuevoSanRomán

(registeredin2002)andHuamánUrco(registeredin

1998andtitledin2003,theonlycampesinocommunity

wevisitedthathadatitledeed).Inadditiontothefour

Maijunacommunities(NuevaVida,PuertoHuamán,San

PablodeTotolla,andSucusari),therearefourregistered

andtitledQuechuancommunities(CruzdePlata,Morón

Isla,NuevoSanAntoniodeLanchaPoza,andNuevo

SanRoque;Table8).Allothersettlementsconsistof

settlements,althoughsomewanttoberegisteredand

titledascampesino(mestizo)ornativecommunities.

PopulationandlandsoftheMaijunacommunities

TheofficialnameoftheSucusaricommunityis

Orejones.6Thepeopledislikethenameandsohave

changeditingeneralusage.Thepopulationpreviously

livedaboutanhourupstreamfromtheircurrentlocation

ontheSucusariRiver,inaplacecalledNuevaEsperanza,

wheretheysettledin1963.Theymoveddowncloserto

themouthoftheriverin1970tobelessisolated.Some

residentsareQuechuaninorigin.

Thecommunityisadjacenttopropertyownedbythe

touristagencyExplorama,withwhichithasambivalent

relations.Althoughsomeleaderscomplainthatthe

companyhasencroachedonpartoftheirterritory,

theyalsoseekaidfromit,especiallyforgasolinefor

itsvehicles.TheSucusarialsoreceiveregularsupport

fromtheConservacióndelaNaturalezaAmazónicadel

Perú(CONAPAP),anNGOformedbythecompanyto

maintainacertainleveloforderandcleanlinessinsome

ofthecommunitiesvisitedbyitstourists.Andinfactas

acommunitySucusariisclean(therearegarbagecansin

variouslocationsarounditstowncenter)andorderly.

ThecommunityofSanPablodeTotollahasthe

greatestareaofdeededlandofthefourMaijuna

communitiesbuthasthesmallestpopulation(barely45

people).Partofitspopulationcameoriginallyfromthe

communityofNuevaVida,accordingtoinformants.

Itsnamereferstothemuddinessofthewaterofthe

AlgodónRiver(totoyaintheMaijunalanguage).Itwas

registeredin1976andwasfirstdeededin1978,but

in1991itsterritorywasincreasedthroughasecond

deedingof9,923.50ha.Thiswasaccomplishedbythe

regionalofficeofAIDESEP7enIquitos(today,ORPIO8),

whichhasdoneextensive,similarworkthroughout

thePutumayobasin.Asaresultofthesetwodeeds,the

communityhas14,441.54ha.Curiously,morepeople

ofthiscommunityliveoutsideitthanwithinit.Infact,

52membersresideinElEstrecho.Thisfactistroubling

becauseitslowpopulationmayleadtotheclosingof

certainpublicservices,suchastheschool,whichhasonly

6 Its official name alludes to the old Maijuna custom of piercing the earlobe and inserting round pieces of topa wood (Ochroma pyramidale ), decorated with white sand and a piece of a huicungo seed (Astrocaryum murumuru ). Increasingly large pieces of wood are inserted, stretching the earlobe. This custom has not been practiced for several decades.

7 Asociación Interétnica de Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana.8 Organización Regional de Pueblos Indígenas del Oriente.


sevenstudents,andthehealthofficerunbyMINSA9(the

onlyonelocatedinaMaijunacommunity).Thereduced

sizeofitspopulationmayalsohaveanegativeeffecton

managementandcontroleffortsforanACRMaijuna.

NuevaVidaandPuertoHuamánareadjacent

communitiesintheYanayacubasin,andbothoccupyboth

sidesoftheriver.Someoftheinhabitantslivingtodayin

PuertoHuamánusedtoliveatCochaZapote(anoxbow

9 Ministerio de Salud del Perú.

lake),andotherslivedinthesameareabutinadispersed

pattern.Weweretoldthattheirnamecamefromabodyof

waterintheirterritorywherehuamaorguama(Ingasp.,

Fabaceae)wasabundant.TherearemestizoandQuechuan

residentsinthecommunity.NuevaVidawaspreviously

consideredpartofPuertoHuamánuntiltheygottheir

ownschool.Bothcommunitieswereregisteredin1976,

theyearthatPuertoHuamánobtainedtheirtitledeedfor

1,154ha,whichmadethemtheMaijunacommunitywith

Table7. Communities and settlements located in the area of influence of the proposed ACR Maijuna

(CC = campesino (mestizo ) community, CN = native community, SE = settlement).

a Nueva Argelia is not an independent community but an annex of Cruz de Plata.

b The directory of Loreto communities (PETT) mistakenly considers it a Huitoto-Murui community.

c Both Quechuas and Maijunas live in Tutapishco. It was an estate owned by patrón José Ríos, who produced palo de rosa, balata, and timber.

Name Category Foundingdate Families Individuals Identity

Copalillo SE 1973 26 200 Quechua

Cruz de Plata CN 1920 32 179 Quechua

Huamán Urco CC 1920 89 547 Mestizo

Morón Isla CN 1980 47 296 Quechua

Nueva Argeliaa CN 1988 14 91 Quechua

Nueva Floresta SE 1959 14 78 —

Nueva Florida SE 2000 18 98 Mestizo

Nueva Libertad SE 1962 30 160 Quechua

Nueva Unión SE 1981 14 89 Quechua

Nueva Vida CN 1986 25 130 Maijuna

Nuevo Leguízamo SE 1996 15 70 Quechua

Nuevo Oriente SE 2002 32 200 Quechua

Nuevo San Antonio de Lancha Poza CN 1981 33 199 Quechua

Nuevo San Juan SE 1965 ? 350 Mestizo

Nuevo San Román CC 1979 30 169 Quechua

Nuevo San Roque CN 1991 22 130 Quechua

Puerto Arica SE 1989 17 95 Quechua

Puerto Huamán CN 1963 22 176 Maijuna

San Francisco de Buen Paso SE 1962 26 180 —

San Francisco de Pinsha SE 1960 26 180 Quechua

San Pablo de Totolla CN 1968 18 45 Maijuna

Sucusari (Orejones) CN 1978 30 136 Maijunab

Tutapishco SE 1902 63 450 Mestizoc

Vencedores de Zapote SE 1989 30 180 Quechua


theleastamountofland.NuevaVidawasdeededwith

8,085haayearlater.

Communityservices

Educational services

Allofthecommunitiesandsettlementswevisitedhad

primaryschools,inwhichgenerallyallgradeswere

taughtbyasingleteacher(Table9).Thiswastrueofthe

fourMaijunacommunities.Onlynineofthepopulation

centersinthestudyareahadmorethanoneteacher,

andnonehadmorethanfour.Sinceelementaryschool

hassixgrades,inallschoolsitisnecessaryforteachers

toteachclassessimultaneouslytostudentsindifferent

grades.Schoolsareprobablythefirstservicedemanded

byresidentsofasettlement,evenbeforeobtainingatitle

deed.Infact,allofthesettlementshadschools,even

thosethatwerenotdeeded.

Onlyonecampesinocommunityandtwosettlements

hadpreschools(escuelas inicial ),elementaryschools,

andhighschools:HuamánUrco,NuevoSanJuan,and

Table8. General information about the registered and titled communities.

Name Yearofregistration Yeartitledeedobtained Deededland(ha) Identity

Copalillo — — 0 Quechua

Cruz de Plata 1978 1979 2,158.00 Quechua

Huamán Urco 1998 2003 3,348.28 Mestizo

Morón Isla 1990 1992 5,636.35 Quechua

Nueva Argeliaa — — 0 Quechua

Nueva Floresta — — 0 —

Nueva Florida — — 0 Mestizo

Nueva Libertad — — 0 Quechua

Nueva Unión — — 0 Quechua

Nueva Vida 1976 1977 8,085.00 Maijuna

Nuevo Leguízamo — — 0 Quechua

Nuevo Oriente — — 0 Quechua

Nuevo San Antonio de Lancha Poza 1990 1992 12,010.00 Quechua

Nuevo San Juan — — 0 Mestizo

Nuevo San Román 2002 — 0 Quechua

Nuevo San Roque 1990 1991 11,957.50 Quechua

Puerto Arica — — 0 Quechua

Puerto Huamán 1976 1976 1,154.00 Maijuna

San Francisco de Buen Paso — — 0 --

San Francisco de Pinsha — — 0 Quechua

San Pablo de Totollab 1976 1978 and 1991 14,441.54 Maijuna

Sucusari (Orejones) 1975 1978 4,470.69 Maijuna

Tutapishco — — 0 Mestizo

Vencedores de Zapote — — 0 Quechua

a Nueva Argelia is not an independent community but an annex of Cruz de Plata.

b San Pablo de Totolla obtained a title deed for the first time in 1978 (4,518.04 ha), but in 1991 its territory was increased through a second deeding of 9,923.50 ha.


Tutapishco,whicharealsothepopulationcenterswith

themostinhabitants.Althoughalmostallstudentsfinish

elementaryschool,veryfewcontinueintohighschool,

asshowninTable9,whichindicatesthatwhereas891

studentswereenrolledattheelementarylevel,only102

wereenrolledinhighschools.Fortheparentsofthe

families,sendingchildrentohighschoolrepresentsa

significantexpense:inthemajorityofcasesitinvolves

payingforlodgingandfoodinthepopulationcenters

wheretheschoolsarelocated.Thesituationismore

complicatediftheclosesthighschoolisinoneofthe

districtcapitals,insteadofinacommunityorsettlement,

becausethereitishardertofindrelativestoprovide

lodgingforthestudents.

a Two teachers are assigned to this school but only one conducts classes; the other has been reassigned because of a lack of students.

b The community wants to replace the teacher, who has been there for 22 years. They have decided to let him finish the year before replacing him.

c There are positions for two teachers in both of these schools but only one in each conducts classes.

d The high school has been operating since 1994. It offers lodging for students from other communities.

e There are two docent positions in this school but only one teaches classes.

Table9. Educational services in the communities and settlements.

Name Preschool Elementary Highschool

students teachers students teachers students teachers

Copalillo 18 1

Cruz de Plata 48 2

Huamán Urco 35 1 57 3 47 3

Morón Isla 73 2

Nueva Argelia 23 1

Nueva Florestaa 22 2

Nueva Florida — 1

Nueva Libertad 42 2

Nueva Unión 22 1

Nueva Vidab 26 1

Nuevo Leguízamo 25 1

Nuevo Oriente 51 1

Nuevo San Antonio de Lancha Poza 62 2

Nuevo San Juan 16 1 62 2 19 2

Nuevo San Románc 56 2

Nuevo San Roque 40 1

Puerto Arica 23 1

Puerto Huamán 28 1

San Francisco de Buen Paso 25 1

San Francisco de Pinsha 33 1

San Pablo de Totolla 7 1

Sucusari (Orejones) 35 1

Tutapishcod 25 1 56 4 36 ?

Vencedores de Zapotee 57 1

TOTAL 76 3 891 36 102 5


VeryfewstudentsfromtheMaijunacommunities

enterhighschool,andweweretoldinSucusarithat

nostudentfromthatcommunityhadeverfinished

highschool.OneoftheoutcomesoftheIVCongreso

hasbeenarequestforthecreationofahighschoolfor

MaijunastudentsinNuevaVida,whichcommunity

representativesdeterminedwasthemostcentrallocation.

Althoughthereareninenativecommunitiesinthe

areavisited(includingNuevaArgelia,theannexofCruz

dePlata),notoneofthemoffersbilingual,intercultural

education.Parentsweinterviewedtendtoattribute

thisabsencetothefactthatsometeachers,although

theyareindigenous,donotteachthelanguageoftheir

ancestors(MaijunaorQuechua),buttherealreason

forthegraduallossisthatinthehomethoselanguages

havebeenreplacedbySpanish.Schoolisnottheplace

wherelanguageislearned,butratherthehome.Native

languagesaredyingoutforvariousreasons.Oneismixed

marriagesbetweenindigenouspeopleandmestizos,in

whichcouplesneedtocommunicateinalanguageknown

tobothmembers.Anotherreason,whichmaybemore

ofafactoramongtheMaijuna,isshameatexpressinga

fundamentalelementoftheculturethatidentifiestheir

origin.Itislikelythatthelonghistoryofpatroneswho

havedominatedtheMaijunaandthecomplexesthat

theyhaveinternalizedasaconsequenceoftheserelations

explainthisbehavior.FECONAMAIshoulddevelopand

implementastrategytoovercomethiscomplex,whichis

seenmostinyoungpeople,ifitwantstofulfilloneofits

proposedobjectives:revaluingtheMaijunaculture.

Beyondthelinguisticissue,educationingeneralin

thearea(andinallruralareasofthecountry)canbe

describedasdistastrous.Twoindicatorsthatdemonstrate

thisarethatclassesbegin,inmostcases,onemonthafter

theofficialstartdate,andthatteachersfrequentlydonot

showupforclass,withoutbotheringtoexplainwhy.

Thefollowingexamplesillustratethesepoints.

Althoughtheofficialstartofclassesissetforallschools

inPeruinthemonthofMarch,inSanPablodeTotolla

classesstartedthisyearinMay,andinPuertoHuamán

andNuevaVidainApril.10Furthermore,inthisfirst

communitytheytoldusthatinpreviousyearsclasses

10 I could not get this information for Sucusari because the teacher interviewed apparently wanted to keep it secret.

hadnotstarteduntilJune.Inallthreecommunities,

peopleinterviewedindicatedthatteacherstraveled

frequently.Whenaskedtoestimatetheaverageamount

oftimeteachershadspentteachingsincethebeginning

ofschool,theyansweredthreemonths,twomonths,

andthreeweeks,respectively.11NuevaVida,wherethe

failureoftheteachertoteachisworsethanintheother

communities,hasformallyrequestedthattheMinisterio

deEducaciónreplacehim.Thishasnothappened

becauseoftheteacher’scontract,whichgiveshim

jobsecurity.

Thesituationintheothercommunitiesvisitedinthe

areaissimilar,withclassesstartinginAprilorMayand

withteachersrepeatedlyontripsawayfromtheschools.

TheexceptionisLanchaPoza,wheretheschoolyear

beganonMarch13,andasofthewritingofthisreport

[July2009]theinstructorhadtaughtthree-and-a-half

monthsofclasses.TheleasttimetaughtisinCopalillo,

withbarely22dayssinceschoolstartedinMay.

Inadditiontotheirresponsibilitythatteachers

demonstratethroughtheirbehaviorandthelackof

interestonthepartoftheMinisteriodeEducación

tocorrectthesituation,thewaythesystemrunsalso

indicateslittleinterestonthepartofparentstosolve

theproblem.Thesituationissooutofcontrolthatthe

teachersdonotevencommunicatetothemunicipal

authoritiesthattheyaregoingtobeabsent—they

simplydisappear.

Inmanyofthecasesweheardabout,noteven

parentswhoweremembersofanasociación de padres

de familia(APAFA)complainedtoteachersorthe

appropriateauthorities,whichmayindicatealackof

interestintheeducationtheirchildrenreceiveorthatthey

areconvincedthattheseauthoritieswillpaynoattention

totheircomplaints.Infact,inseveralcommunitiesthe

peopleweinterviewedtoldusthattheircomplaints

hadnotresultedinanyimprovements.Insomecases,

teachershadrespondedangrilytoformalcomplaints

fromparents,sayingthattheywereautonomousand

answeredonlytoauthoritiesfromtheMinisterio.These

11 The Ministerio de Educación itself contributed to this disaster by suspending classes in the entire country during the first week of July (usually everything comes to a standstill during the last week for Fiestas Patrias celebrations), giving as a reason the threat of “swine flu,” without even ascertaining in which specific areas the disease had occurred.


statementssuggestthatiftheAPAFAsweregivensupport

bytheMinisterio,theycouldhaveanimportantrolein

correctingteachers’behavior.

Health services

Thestateofhealthservicesisbetterthanthatof

education.ThereareMINSAhealthpostsinthe

communitiesofHuamánUrco,SanFranciscodeBuen

Paso,Tutapishco,andSanPablodeTotolla.Theseposts

arestaffedbytwohealthtechnicians,whodividetheir

timeamongsixtoeightcommunitiesandsettlements.

Insomeotherpopulationcenterstherearemunicipal

healthworkerswhooverseestocksofmedicinesand

first-aidsupplies(botequines),althoughthesehave

irregularschedules.

Publicrestroomfacilitiesinthetwocommunitiesthat

claimtohavethem(SucusariandNuevaVida)actually

belongtotheschools.InSucusari,althoughthereare

well-constructed,sanitaryrestrooms,thereisoftenno

water.InNuevaVida,therearerusticlatrines.InPuerto

Huamán,wesawalatrineinverypoorconditionnear

themunicipalcenter.

SanPablodeTotollaistheonlyMaijunacommunity

withaMINSAclinic,whichhasonetechnician.Inthe

fourcommunitiestherearehealthofficialsfromwithin

eachcommunity.Thesearepeoplewhoworkad honorem

andhavebeentrainedbyanNGO,theCatholicChurch,

ortheState.Theywhooverseestocksofmedicinesand

first-aidsuppliessetupwithseedmoneygivenbythe

MunicipalidaddeMazánandElEstrecho(Totolla).

However,notoneofthemisoperatingbecausetheyhave

runoutofmoney,aresultofcustomersnotpayingforthe

medicinetheyuse.Thiswasacommonphenomenonin

allthecommunitieswevisited,wherecommunitydwellers

wouldarguethatifthemedicinewasdonated,whyshould

theyhavetopayforit?

Ingeneral,however,publichealthservicesinthe

basinhaveanimportantrole,andthequalityofcareis

consistent.Thereisapermanentvaccinationprogram,

andeverythreemonthstechniciansfromthethreehealth

postsvisitcommunitiesintheirnetwork,accompaniedby

personnelfromhealthcentersinMazánorSantaClotilde,

toimmunizenewborns.

The“VasodeLeche”program,runbythe

municipalities,wasoperatinginallofthecommunities

andsettlementswevisited.Thisprogramprovides

breakfasttoelementaryschoolstudents.

Other services

NotoneofthefourMaijunacommunitieshastelephone

service,anddespitethefactthatthreeofthemclaim

tohaveradiotelephoneservice,noneoftheequipment

works.Thelackofbatteriesand/orcablesandaccessories

(PuertoHuamánandNuevaVida)isoneofthecauses

oflackofradiotelephoneservice.Inothercases,itis

becausetheapparatusitselfisbroken(Totolla).Sucusari

hadtheequipmentbutitwasstolen.Asfarastheother

communities,thereistelephoneserviceinHuamán

Urco,Tutapishco,andNuevoSanJuan.Inthefirstof

these,thehealthposthasinternetaccessandpermanent

electricalpowergeneratedbysolarpanels.Thefirsttwo

populationcenters,alongwithMorónIsla,alsohave

pedestriansidewalks.

Useofresources

General considerations

Nocommunitieswillbelocatedwithintheareaproposed

fortheACRMaijuna(Fig.2A).ThefourMaijuna

communitiesadjointheareaandtheyhavechosento

excludetheirterritoriesfromtheACRMaijunawhen

itisdeclared,asotherwisetheywouldlosetherightto

docommercialloggingontheirdeededland.Onlytwo

mestizosettlementsareadjacenttothearea:Tutapishco

andNuevaFlorida.

Althoughtheproposal’smainbeneficiariesare

rightfullytheMaijunacommunities(becausethey

promotedtheiniciativeanditisonpartoftheir

ancestrallands),theproximityofothercommunitiesand

settlements,andthefactthattheydouseresourceswithin

thearea,indicatesthattheybetreatedaspartofthe

“bufferzone.”Withtheexceptionofpeopleinterviewed

fromthecommunitiesofLanchaPozaandNuevoSan

Roque,12theinhabitantsofthesenearbycommunities

12 We want to note the subjective nature of this method and the resulting information; the fact that representatives of the community said that they do not hunt, fish, or extract resources from the proposed area does not guarantee that no one in the community does.


indicatedthattheyengageinactivitiesinthearea

oftheproposal.

TheregulationofthelawconcerningÁreasNaturales

Protegidas(ANP,Arts.61–64)statesthatthebuffer

zonesare“spacesadjacenttotheÁreasNaturales

ProtegidasdelSINANPE,which,becauseoftheirnature

andlocation,requirespecialtreatmentthatguarantees

theconservationoftheÁreaNaturalProtegida”

(Art.61.1)andthattheseshouldbeestablished“inthe

MasterPlanoftheÁreaNaturalProtegida”(Art.61.3).

Someexperts’definitionsemphasizethatthegoalofthese

areasis“toaffordadditionalprotectionforthereserve

andtocompensatelocalresidentsforthelossofaccessto

theresourcesofthebiologicaldiversityofthereserve.”

Thelanguageoftheregulationestablishespreciselythata

bufferzoneisthespaceadjacenttoanANPthatrequires

specialtreatmenttoguaranteeitsconservation.Forthis

reason,themasterplansoftheANPshouldcreatebuffer

zonesandestablishtheirboundariesandthefunctions

theyshouldperform.Asthenameindicates,thiszone

servesto“buffer”impactsontheconservationarea,so

theirrelationshipisoneofclosecollaboration.

A“bufferzone”isonlyeffectiveifitactually

functionsassuch;simplydeclaringanareatobeone

isnotenough.Atthispointwehavelearnedtwo

thingsfromourvisittothecommunitiesneighboring

theproposedACRMaijuna.Thefirstisthatthestrip

oflandsurroundingtheproposedACRMaijunais

theareawherepressuresonresourcesinsidethearea

originate;thesecondisthatPAP,beyondinformingthe

communitiesandsettlementsabouttheproposalontwo

occasions,hasnotdevisedastrategyfordevelopingthe

borderingareaasabufferzone.

Inreality,thegeneralattitudeoftheStatetoward

bufferzoneshasbeentoputthemtothesideandto

considerthattheirdeclarationfulfillspartoftheformal

requirementimposedbythelaw.Iknowofnocases

ofongoingworkwiththepopulationslocatedaround

ANPs,whoaretheoneswhohistoricallyhaveusedthe

resourcesinthem.ThepredominantconceptoftheANPs

isascloisteredspaces,thatis,asspacesclosedoffunto

themselves.Ontheotherhand,whentheStateorNGOs

giveattentiontocommunitiessettledintheseareas(e.g.,

inthecaseoftheReservaNacionalPacaya-Samiria),the

limitedmanagementinitiativestheyimplementarenot

closetobeingsufficienttoorganizeresourcemanagement

andpromotetheirsustainableuse.However,we

believethatworkingwiththecommunitiesinthearea

isasimportantasworkingwiththefourMaijuna

communitieswhowillbethedirectbeneficiariesofthe

ACRMaijuna.

InthefollowingparagraphsIspecifythelocations

whereresourcesusedbycommunitiesaroundthe

proposedACRMaijunaarefound,startingwiththe

Maijuna.Thisinformationwasobtainedthrough

“talkingmaps”drawnupduringinterviewswith

representativesofthe24communitiesthatmakeup

thisstudy.Irecognizethesubjectivenatureofthis

information,whichwasgatheredinbriefconversations

withpeoplewhodescribedthepresenceofresourcesas

“abundant,”“average,”or“poor.”Thustheinformation

Ipresentshouldbetakenasreferenceandshouldbe

correctedandsupplementedbythesecomplementary

studies:(1)therapidbiologicalinventoryoftheproposed

ACRMaijunaand(2)thedetailedstudycarriedout

byethnobiologistMichaelGilmore,whoalsomade

“talkingmaps”inMaijunacommunitiesandverifiedfield

informationandgeographiclocations.

Resource use by Maijuna communities

Sucusari

Peopleinterviewedinthiscommunityindicatedthat

theyextractvariousresourcesfromtheSucusariRiver

basin.Forhuntingtheyindicatedareasveryclose

tothecommunitysettlement,eastoftheriverinthe

directionoftheheadwatersoftheApayacu.Theystated

thatingeneraltherecontinuedtobeenoughanimals,

althoughthenumbersofsachavaca(Tapirus terrestris)

haddecreased.

Withrespecttologging,theysaidthatuntil2007they

extractedalargeamountoftimber,butthatnowtheywere

cuttinglessbecausethecommunityhadrealizedthatthe

populationsofvaluablespeciesweredecreasing,especially

cedro(Cedrela odorata).TheyalsoindicatedtheSucusari

basinasalocationforthisactivity.Theyobtainedapermit

forcommercialloggingoftheircommunityforests,which

theyturnedovertosomeloggerswhocheatedthem(not

payingwhattheyhadofferedthem).Theysuspectthatthe


permithadalsobeenusedtolegalizetimbertakenfrom

otherlocations.

TheyfishintheSucusaribasinwithhooksand

lines,traps(of2.5and3.0inches),andarrows.In

thepast,boatsequippedwithfreezersappearedinthe

Sucusari,buttheyhavebeenprohibitedfromthearea.

Theycatchvariousspecies,buttheyindicatedthatthe

sábalo(Bryconspp.)havedecreased.Inanareacalled

Tutapishco,twodaysuprivertowardtheheadwatersof

theSucusari,theycanfindaguaje(Mauritia flexuosa),

ungurahui(Oenocarpus bataua),andchonta(Bactrissp.).

San Pablo de Totolla

Thiscommunitydoesmuchofitshuntingwithinitsown

municipalterritory,althoughmembersalsogotothe

headwatersoftheAlgodoncilloRiver(withintheproposal

area),whichisaseveral-days’journeyaway,andnorthof

theAlgodón,inaforestwith“permanent-production”

status(abosque de producción permanente,orBPP).

Theydescribetheanimalsoftheforestasabundant.

“Wehunteverything,”ourintervieweestoldus.

Asfarasfishing,theysaidthattherewerelargelakes

outsidetheproposalarea,northoftheAlgodón,inthe

sameBPP,althoughwithinthecommunitytherewerealso

smallbodiesofwater,suchastheseoxbowlakes:Negra,

Sombrero,andArana.Thesaidthatinthatareatheyhad

seenottersaswellasmanatees.

Nonwoodproductsarefoundinmanyplaces:within

thecommunity,theBPP,andtheproposalarea.These

productsarevaried:ubos, ungurahui, aguaje, irapay,

chambira, camu-camu,andothers.

Nueva Vida

Membersofthiscommunityhuntinsidetheproposal

area,inanortheasterndirection,approximatelyasfar

asthepaththattheproposedhighwaywilltaketoward

ElEstrecho.Theyindicatedthatinthisareathereare

severalcollpas(salt/claylicks)wheredeer,peccaries,

andtapirscanbefound,aswellasavarietyofbirds.

TheyreportedthathuntersfromPinsha,NuevaUnión,

Zapote,andothersettlementscomeinbywayofthe

Yanayaquillo(whosewatersemptyintotheYanayacuclose

towhereitjoinstheNapo).Speciessuchassloth(pelejo),

andredhowler(coto),commonwoolly(choro),and

capuchin(machín)monkeyshavedecreased,accordingto

communitymembers.

FishingtakesplaceintheYanayaquilloandinsome

oxbowlakes.Theynotedthepresenceofvariousspecies,

includingarahuana,althoughthegamitanaandpaco

arenowgone(seeAppendix3forequivalentscientific

names).Theyhadseenotters,butnomanatees.

Since2007,theyhavenotparticipatedinlogging.

“Nowthetreesareskinny,”theytoldus.Theyused

tologaroundtheCotoandSabalillostreams,atthe

northwestboundaryoftheproposalarea.Another

informantindicatedthathehadworkednearstreamsin

themiddleoftheproposedACRMaijunaandaround

theheadwatersoftheYanayacu.Theysaidtheyhad

seenlupunaandcumalanearthecommunity’ssouthern

boundary.ThepatronespaidS/.0.20(i.e.,one-fifthofa

Peruviannuevo solperfootforcumalaandS/.0.50per

footforcedro.Currentlytheyextractnonwoodproducts

nearthecommunitytowardthenortheast,wherethey

findaguaje, irapay, ungurahui, huasaí, sinamillo, and

chambira,amongothers.

Puerto Huamán

Informantsfromthiscommunity,themajorityofwhom

wereyoungpeopleveryknowledgeableabouttheir

environment,saidthattheyhuntintheirownterritory

andtothenorthofit,withintheareaoftheproposal.

Theymentionedblackagouti(añuje)asanabundant

species,andcommonwoollymonkey(monochoro)as

onethathaddecreased.Theycomplainedaboutillegal

hunterscominginfromPuertoArica,CruzdePlata,

andNuevaArgelia,whoenterbywayofacut-offtrail

(varadero)thatrunsfromthislastsettlementtothe

headwatersoftheCotostream.“Itisathree-hourtrip,”

theysaid.

ResidentsfishinSapoLakeandPantalónLakeand

invariousstreams.Theycatchspeciessuchasfasaco,

shuyo, bujurqui, mojarra, and paña,using2.5-and

3-inchtraps.Theynotedthattucunaréandzúngarohave

decreased.Theysaidtheyhaveseenottersinthearea.

Outsiderscomeinandfishusingbarbasco,aplantthat

producesasubstancethatstunsorparalyzesfish.


Theyreportedthattheynolongerextracttimber,

althoughtheydiduntillastyear,enteringtheareabyway

ofvariousstreams:Coto,Sabalillo,Paña,andothers,

whichtheyalsousewhenhunting.PatronespaidS/.

0.25perfootforcumalaandS/.0.80perfootforcedro.

Theysaidthattherearenowoutsiderswhocomeinby

wayofthevaraderoinNuevaArgeliaandfromthere

gotothecenteroftheproposedACRtoextracttimber.

ThentheyleaveusingQuebradaCoto(theCotostream).

Theytakecumala, tornillo, cedro, marupá, moena, and

tornillo.“Thereislesswoodnow,”theynoted.Areas

wherenonwoodproductsareextractedareveryclose

tothecommunity,whichisagoodsignasfarastheir

abundance.Thereisirapay, shapaja, madera redonda,

aguaje, ungurahui,andothers.

Resource use by other communities and settlements

Huamán Urco

Communitymemberstoldusthattheyhuntedinareas

surroundingtheSupay,Huacana,andHuamánUrco

streams,allwithintheirlands,althoughtheyalso

indicatedthattheyfollowtherouteofthehighway

projecttowardElEstrecho,asfarupastheheadwaters

oftheSucusari.Theyclaimedthattheynolonger

practicedlogging,andwhentheypreviouslydiditwas

onlyinareasneartheircommunity,outsidetheproposed

ACRMaijuna.Theysaidtheyhadaconservationarea

thattheyprotected,withthehopeofgettinggoodprices

intheirnegotiationswithacompany.Thatareaprimarily

holdscapinurí, capirona,and cumala.Theyfishoutside

theproposalarea,inlakesandstreamswithintheir

communityandfromtherightbankoftheNapo.They

alsogathernonwoodproductsclosetotheirland.There

isirapay, shapaja, and chambira,butyarina, aguaje,

andhuasaíarescarce.

Buen Paso

InformantsfromthesettlementofBuenPasoreported

thattohunttheywentnorth,followingthepathof

theproposedhighwaytowardElEstrecho,asfaras

theheadwatersoftheAlgodoncillo,wheretheycould

findpeccariesanddeer,althoughtherewerenomore

tapirs.Sometimestheysellthemeat,“forS/.3perkilo

ifitisfreshandS/.5ifitisdried.”Theysaidthatthey

donotfishverymuch,“onlywhentherearemijano;

thereusedtobeeverykind.”Theycatchboquichicos

andpalometas,using2-inch-meshnets.Theyclaimto

havestoppedloggingin2008.Whentheydid,they

cuttimberwithintheboundariesoftheirsettlement.

Theyusedtoextractcedroandcumalaneartheupper

Yanayacuandtributarystreams,suchasCotoand

Jergón,aswellasalongtherouteofthehighwayproject

towardElEstrechoandstreamsneartheheadwatersof

theSucusari.“Weonlytookcedro,butnowthereisn’t

any,andthereisn’tmuchcumala.Thereistornillo,but

notalongtheedgeofthestreamanymore.”Nonwood

productstheysaidwereimportantwereirapay, aguaje,

chambira, and ungurahui. [SeetheVegetationandFlora

chapterofthisreportfortheequivalentscientificnames

formostofthesespecies.]

Nuevo San Juan, Copalillo, and Nuevo Leguízamo

Residentsindicatedthattheyhuntedmainlyintheareas

neartheYanayacuandastreamcalledYachapa,which

originatesinthecentralpartoftheproposedACR

MaijunaandflowssouthtoemptyintotheNapo,near

thecommunityofCopalillo.Theyreportedthattheir

huntingexpeditionstookthemclosetotheheadwaters

oftheAlgondoncillo.Theypracticeloggingonthelower

partoftheYachapastream,particularlyonastream

calledPavathatdischargesintheYachapa,locatedonthe

southernborderoftheproposedACR.Theyalsoextract

nonforestproductsthere,aswellasinareasneighboring

theircommunities.

Nueva Unión and Vencedores de Zapote

Membersofthesecommunitiessaidthattheyhunted

primarilyintheYanayacubasin,wheretheyalsoextracted

timber.“Timberextractioniswhatimpactsthefaunathe

most,becausetheteamsthatcutdownthetreeshave

tobefed,andthereisalsothenoiseofthechainsaws.”

PreviouslytheyalsoenteredtheproposedACRMaijuna,

goingasfarinastheheadwatersoftheAlgodoncillo.

Withregardtofishing,theyindicatedthatfisharenow

scarceandthattheyfishoutsidetheproposedACR

Maijuna.Theyalsoextractnon-woodproductsbyway

oftheYanayacuandYanayaquillo.“Theyareonlyforour

use,nottosell.”


San Francisco de Pinsha and San Román

Residentssaidthattheyhuntedontherightbankof

theNapo,withintheforestwithpermanent-production

status,inawideareathatextendstotheMazán.Inthe

sameareaarelakesandstreamsthatprovidethemwith

fish,andareaswheretheycanfindnon-woodproducts.

TheyharvesttimberintheYanayacuandYanayaquillo

basin,insidetheareaoftheproposedACR.

San Francisco de Pinsha and its neighbor Nueva Unión

Thesecommunitieswouldliketoobtaintitledeedsto

theirterritoriesbuthavenotbeenabletobecausea

stripoflandontheleftbankoftheNapo(betweenthe

riverandtheforestwithpermanent-productionstatus)

isverynarrowandsubjecttoflooding.Thefirstof

thesecommunitiesisalsolocatedonanisland,which

accordingtoPeruvianlawmaynotbedeeded.Theonly

areathatcouldbedeeded,becauseitcontainsuplands,

iswithintheforestwithpermanent-productionstatus,

andispartofaforestplotthathasbeentransferredby

contracttoawoman.“Shehasneverremovedastick

ofwoodfromthatplot,butshepaysherPOA[Plan

OperativoAnual]everyyear,”communitymemberstold

us.Thisisclearlyapretextforlegalizingtheremovalof

timberfromanywheretheywish.

Nuevo Oriente

Communitymemberstoldusthattheyhuntinawidearea

withintheproposedACRMaijunabehindTutapishcoand

NuevaFlorida;theeasternpartoftheareaincludesthe

headwatersoftheSucusariandtheApayacu.However,

theyalsohuntinareasnexttotheircommunityand

nexttotheirneighborsBuenPaso,PuertoLeguízamo,

andCopalillo.OntherightsideoftheNapo,theyhunt

insidetheforestwithpermanent-productionstatus.They

reportedthatsometimestheytraveledfarther,toward

theAlgodoncilloandeventheAlgodón:“therearemore

resourcestherethanclosertothecommunity.”Although

wesawfewmonkeys,therewerepeccaries,tapirs, and

deer.Theyindicatedthattheydonotregularlypractice

loggingbutthat,whentheydo,theylimitittotheirown

community,withoutenteringtheproposedACRMaijuna.

Theynotedthatcommercialforestspecies,suchascedro,

cumala,andlupuna,arescarce.Withregardtofishing,

theysaidthatitisdoneonlyforlocalconsumptionand

inlakes andstreamsclosetothecommunity,outside

theareaoftheproposal;theyreportedcatchingvarious

species,“althoughthereisnomoregamitana.”Nonwood

productsarealsogatherednearby;theycanfindirapay,

butungurahuiisscarceandthereisnoaguaje.

Tutapishco, Nueva Libertad, and Nueva Florida

Membersofthesesettlementstoldusthattheyhuntinthe

YanayacuandYanayaquillobasins,and,tothenorth,from

thecenteroftheproposedACRtotheheadwatersofthe

Algodoncillo.Thesesettlementsappeartoputthemost

pressureonresourcesinthearea.Infact,Tutapishcowas

theonlysettlementinwhichweencounteredopposition

toourproject.Residentstheresaidthattheycouldnot

bedeniedaccesstothearea,astheMaijunawerealready

doingwithacontrolpostatestablishedthemouthofthe

Yanayacu.TheyaccusedtheMaijunaofcuttingdown

aguaje palms(Mauritia)andinsinuatedthreatsagainst

themiftheycontinuedblockingtheiraccesstothearea.

Inthesameextensiveareatheyhunt,gathernon-wood

products—inparticularaguajeandungurahui—andfish,

althoughtheyalsofishinsomebodiesofwaterontheir

ownlands.

Cruz de Plata and its annex Nueva Argelia

ResidentsstatedthattheyhuntalongQuebradaCoto

(CotoStream),whichemptiesintotheNapobutappears

tooriginateinsidethenorthwesterncorneroftheproposed

ACRMaijuna.Theyentertheareaoftheproposalat

thatpoint.Theyalsohuntneartheheadwatersofthe

Yanayacu,wheretheycapturemonkeys,blackagoutis

(añujes), pacas(majaces),armadillos(carachupas), and

varioustypesofbirds,buttheyreportthatBrazilian

tapirs(sachavacas), currasows(paujiles),andpucacungas

(Spix’sGuan,Penelope jacquacu)arescarce.Theypractice

logginginthesameareasinwhichtheyhunt,some

withintheproposedACRMaijunaandsomeoutsideit,

wheretheyfindcumalaandmarupá.Loggingisrunby

middlemen(habilitadores).Residentsfishinlakeslocated

outsidetheproposedACR:Loma,Soldado,Shansho,

Puma,Papaya,andothers.Theytakeyaraquíes, sábalos,

andtucunarés.Non-woodproductsarecollectedoutside

theproposedarea,ontherightside(wherethepopulation


centerofCruzdePlataislocated)aswellasontheleft

side(wherethatoftheannexNuevaArgeliaissituated).

Accordingtotheirreports,shapaja, yarina, chambira,

ungurahui, aguaje,andotherspeciesareabundant.

Morón Isla

Communitymembersstatedthattheyhuntinthe

northwestcorneroftheproposedACR,alongtheMorón

andAguasBlancasstreams,whichemptyintotheNapo,

andfromtheretheyhuntinforestedareastowards

theAlgodón.Theyfinddiversespecies:blackagoutis,

bothspeciesofpeccaries,andseveralspeciesofbirds.

Sometimestheysellmeattheyhavehuntedbutonlyin

thecommunity,chargingbetweenS/.4.0and4.5per

kilo.Theylogwithinthecommunity,butalsoalongthe

streamsmentionedabove,whichareinsidetheproposed

ACRMaijuna.Loggingdoesnotinvolvepatronesbut

ratheriscarriedoutusingtheirownresources.Cumala

isthemainspeciestaken.TheyalsofishintheMorón,

AguasBlancas,andAchualstreams.“Thereareall

kindsoffish,althoughpacoandgamitanaarescarce.”

Nonforestproductsarecollectednearthecommunity,

outsidetheproposedACRMaijuna.

Puerto Arica

Membersofthiscommunitysaidthattheyhuntalong

theabandonedpathofthehighwayprojectfromPuerto

Arica(Vidal)toFlordeAgosto,onthePutumayo.Using

thistrailtheyreachtheupperpartoftheAlgodón.

Accordingtotheirstatements,theyonlytangentially

passbythenorthwesterncorneroftheproposalarea.

Theyreportedvariousspeciesthere.Theydonotpractice

loggingwithintheproposedACRMaijunabuthave

seenoutsiderslogginginthiscorner,althoughtheydo

notknowwheretheyarefrom.Theycutdowntreesin

theirowncommunity,wheretheyalsofishandgather

nonwoodproducts.

Lancha Poza and Nuevo San Roque

Residentshuntoutsidetheboundariesoftheproposed

ACRMaijuna,intheirownterritoriesaswellasonState

land,whichislocatedtothenorthasfarastheupper

Algodón.Inthesesameareastherearelakesandstreams

wheretheyfish,andforestsfromwhichtheycollectnon-

woodproductsfortheirownuse.Thesetwocommunities

maybetheonlyonesinthisstudythatdonotconduct

anytypeofresourceextractionwithintheproposedACR

Maijuna;however,thereremainsdoubtastowhetherthe

informationwereceivedwastruefortheentirecommunity

oronlyforthepeopleweinterviewed.

Extractionactivities

Petroleum activity

SuperimposedovertheareaproposedfortheACR

Maijunaanditszoneofinfluenceisanoil-extraction

site,designatedLote122,andtwoareasundertechnical

evaluation.Lote122,undercontractforexploitation

byGranTierraEnergy,Inc.,includesonitseastern

boundarythelowerpartoftheNapoRiver,between

MazánandthemouthoftheYanayacu.Thecompany,

headquarteredinCalgary,Canada,currentlyhas

operationsinArgentina,Colombia,andPeru.Asofnow,

however,ithasnotbegunoperatinghere.

Astheirnameindicates,theareasundertechnical

evaluationarenotyetnegotiableplots,astheyarestill

beingstudiedtodeterminetheirpotential.However,they

dorepresentapotentialthreattotheintegrityoftheACR

Maijunaandtheappropriateuseofitsresources.The

easternboundaryofÁreadeEvaluaciónTécnicaXXVI

runsnorthperpendicularly,alongtheSucusariRiver,

approximatelyasfarupastheheadwatersoftheApayacu,

wherethelineextendsnorthwestpastthecommunityof

MorónIslaontheNapoandcontinuesalongtheriver’s

leftbanktoapointaboveSantaClotilde(Fig.2A).Área

deEvaluaciónTécnicaXXIX,encompassestheentire

remainingareaoftheACRproposalandbeyond,asits

northernboundaryextendstothePutumayo,upriverand

downriverofthelocalityofElEstrecho.

Duringanevaluationoftheecologicalandeconomical

zoningoftheBellavista-Mazánarea(insidethetriangle

formedbythepointwheretheNapoemptiesintothe

Amazonand,onitswesternboundary,bythecourseof

theMomónfromitsmouthrisinguptoitsmiddlepart,

fromwherealineclosesthepolygoninthecommunity

ofSantaMartaontheNapo),watersamplesweretaken

todetermineitsqualityatvariouslocationsinthearea.

SamplestakenfromtheNapowerecollectedinthe


localitiesofFlautero,PetronaIsla,andSantaRosa,located

onthelowerpartoftheriver.Thedataareshownabovein

Table10.

Resultsoftheanalysisindicatethatoilandgrease

levelsatthethreesitesareclosetothemaximal

permissiblelimit(MPL).However,thebarium

concentrationisthreetoseventimeshigherthanthe

MPL,thatofcadmiuminFlauterois2.5timeshigher,

andthatofchromiuminFlauteroandIslaPetronais

50timeshigher.Thepresenceofheavymetalsinthe

basinisprobablyduetohydrocarbonexploitationinthe

equatorialNaporegion,sinceithasbeentakingplacefor

manyyears.

Itislikelythattheselevelswillincreaseinthenext

fewyearsbecauseofthepresenceofnewpetroleum

companiesinthearea.InadditionatoGranTierra

Energy,mentionedabove,twoothercompanieshave

signedcontractswiththeState,andatleastoneofthem,

Perenco,hasalreadybegunprospectingoperationsin

Lotes67A,67B,121A,and121B.Theothercompanyis

Petrobras,whoseLote117includestheupperpartofthe

NapoandPutumayoriverbasins,andissuperimposed

overtheZonaReservadadeGüeppí,whichisadjacent

toEcuadorandColombiaandconstitutespartofthe

traditionalterritoryoftheAiroPai(orSecoya),agroup

fromthesamelinguisticbranchastheMaijuna.

Inadditiontoheavymetals,levelsofoilsandheavy

petroleumwillriseasriver-boattrafficincreasesinthe

basin.These“tendtoformthinfilmsonthesurfacesof

thebodiesofwater,blockingsunlightfrompenetrating

thecolumnofwaterandimpedingphotosynthesis,

thusslowingthegrowthofphytoplankton.”Heavy

metals,“suchasbarium,cadmium,andhexavalent

chromium,aredangerousandcarginogenic;theyare

depositedonthebottomofbodiesofwater(assludge)

andareingestedandassimilatedbyaquaticspeciesthat

feedthere,accumulatingintheirtissues.Theyarenot

biodegradable.Theyarepassedontohumanswhenthey

consumethesespeciesandcompromisetheentirefood

chain”(SáenzSánchez2008:23).

Gold activity

Duringourrecentvisittothearea,Iobservedfive

dredgesoperatingintheNapoRiverbetweenBellavista,

locatedaboveNegroUrco,andTacshaCuraray.In

previousconversationswiththeDirecciónRegional

deEnergíayMinasdeLoreto,Iwasinformedthatthe

dredgesdidnothavepermissiontoextractgold,butonly

toprospect.Theintensityofworkthatweobservedand

thepermanentpresenceofthismachineryforsomeyears

nowindicatesthattheclaimthattheywereprospecting

wasonlyapretext,andaveryadvantageousonefor

thedredgeowners,whoapparentlywerenotpaying

mineralrightstotheStateandwerenotsubjecttoany

environmentalregulations.

Forest activity

ForestactivityintheNapobasinisillegal,asitisalmost

everywhereinthecountry,despitethefactthatthere

aredesignatedforestswithpermanent-production

statusthatareundercontractbytheStatewithvarious

companies.Theproblemisthatthesecompaniesend

uploggingwhereitismostconvenientforthem,rather

thanintheassignedareas.Maijunacommunitieshave

Samplesite Typeofanalysis

Oils and grasas Barium Cadmium Chromium (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

Flautero 1.1 2.0 0.01 0.01

Petrona Isla 1.2 1.0 0.001 0.01

Santa Rosa 1.0 1.0 0.001 not determined

Maximal permissible limit 0.5 – 1.5 0.3 0.004 0.0002

Table10. Heavy metals, oils, and grasas (heavy petroleum) in samples taken from the Napo River at

three sites (from Sáenz Sánchez [2008]).


begunhaltingillegalloggingwithintheproposedACR

andarecontrollingthemouthsofthemainrivers

thatallowaccesstothearea;thisisapositivesignof

theirorganizationalstrengthandconvictionabout

theinitiative.

InthethreeMaijunacommunitieslocatedon

tributariesoftheNapotherearefunctioning“control

posts,”whichdemonstratethewillofcommunity

memberstocontrolaccesstotheterritoryoftheproposed

ACRMaijuna.Thesecommunitiesarelocatedonthe

twomainwaterwaysthataccesstheinteriorofthearea,

namely,theYanayacuandtheSucusari.Thisisimportant

forcontrollingillegallogging,sincetheonlyotheraccess

routesfromtheNapototheproposalareaarevaraderos

(trailsrunningfromonerivertoanother),bywhichillegal

loggerscanenteronfoot,butwhichwouldnotprovidea

waytotransportthetimber.Itisimportanttonotethat

thissituationwillhelptocontrolhuntingandfishingas

well,sincetherewillbenologgershuntingandfishing

forfood.

SanPablodeTotolla(situatedontheAlgodón

River)doesnothaveacontrolpost,butaccording

toourinformants,theyhavesucceededinpreventing

ColombianextractorswhooperateinthePutumayo

basinfromenteringtheirdeededterritory.

Loggingisparticularlyheavyintheareaaround

Mazán,ariverthatcarriesalargepercentageofthe

timberproducedintheNapobasin.Severalsawmills

operateinthedistrictcapital.Anareaontheright

bankoftheNapoRiverdefinedbythesouthernand

southwesternboundariesoftheproposedACRMaijuna

isconsideredaforestwithpermanent-productionstatus

andhasbeendividedintoforestparcels.However,

loggershavenotlimitedthemselvestotheseparcels,and

theStatehasnopossibilityofcontrollingtheprocess

(besideswhich,thestateoftenshowsnointerestin

doingso).

OnecasethatweconfirmedwasthatofaSeñora

Rivadeneyra,auntofthepreviousregionalpresident,

whoobtainedacontractforoneofthoseparcels,

adjoiningthecommunityofPinsha,whilehernephew

wasinoffice.Membersofthisandneighboring

communitiestoldusthattheholderofthiscontracthad

notcutdownasingletreeintheparcelbutthateach

yearshepunctuallypaidherPlanOperativeAnual.Itis

clearthatthisdocumentisusedtolegalizetimbercutin

otherplaces.

Anotherwaycompaniesandmiddlemenlegalize

loggingoperationsisthroughsignedcontractswith

thecommunities,whichhelpthemnegotiateextraction

permitswiththeforestauthoritiesintheregion.With

thesecontracts,theycutwoodwherevertheywish,which

theyreportwiththeRUC13ofthecommunities.Manyof

thesehavebeennotifiedbySUNAT14becausetheamount

ofwoodthatthey,intheory,extractedisenoughtomake

them“primarytaxpayers”intheregion.Itisjustrecently

thatthecommunitiesrealizedtheyhadbeenswindled.

Regionalplans—Thehighway

In2008theState,throughPEDICP,15conducteda

studyofecological-economiczoningintheBellavista-

Mazánarea,whoselocationandgeneralboundaries

wehavealreadyindicatedabove.Thisisanareaof

approximately196,000ha,andincludesthreedistrict

capitals—FranciscodeOrellana(ontheNapoRiver),

Indiana(ontheAmazonRiver),andMazán(onthe

Napo)—andabout125ruralpopulationcenters,

includingnativeandcampesino(mestizo)communities

andsettlements.

Thisyear[2009],thesameinstitutioncontractedwith

agroupofspecialistsfromvariousdisciplinestodrawup,

onthebasisofresultsoftheZEE16andofnewstudies,

anorganizationalplanfortheterritoriesinthisarea.One

oftheissuesincludedintheplanistheconstructionofa

highwaythatwoulduniteBellavista(ontheNanay)with

Mazán.Infact,Mazánhasalreadybecomeanimportant

portontheNapo,becausethevaraderothatconnects

thisbasinwiththatoftheAmazonshortensthetravel

distancetoIquitos.

Thishighwayisthefirstsegmentofaproposed

thoroughfarethat,aftercrossingtheNapo,wouldrun

northeasttowardElEstrecho,onthePutumayo.The

plannedroutecutstheproposedACRMaijunaintwo,

goesthroughthenorthwestcorneroftheproposedACR

13 Registro Unificado del Contribuyente.14 Superintendencia Nacional de Administración Tributaria.15 Proyecto Especial Binacional de Desarrollo Integral de la Cuenca del Río Putumayo

(which previously belonged to INADE [Institución Nacional de Desarrollo] but since 2008 has been part of the Ministerio de Agricultura).

16 Zonificación Ecológica Económica para el Ordenamiento Territorial de Loreto.


Ampiyacu-Apayacu,andcrossestheAlgodoncilloand

AlgodónriversandthecommunityofSanPablode

Totollabeforeitends(Fig.11A).

Theproposedhighwayalsoincludesa“development

plan”thatconsistsofestablishingsettlersina5-km

bandalongeachsideoftheroute.Reasonsputforward

forbuildingthehighway,besides“development,”

include“nationalsecurity,”withtheargumentthatit

isdifficulttoreachthePutumayoregionfromIquitos

(rivernavigationtoElEstrechotakesatleast20days

andinvolvestravelthroughBrazil)andthatthereis

littlegovernmentpresencethere.(Thislastisnota

particularlyvalidargument,giventhatforatleastten

yearstherehavebeennumerousgarrisonsoftheFuerzas

ArmadasyPolicialesallalongthisriver,whichhavenot

improvedthelevelofnationalsecurityorprotection

ofthecountry’snaturalresources,sinceColombian

citizensenteronadailybasistoextracttimberfrom

Peruvianterritory.)

Morethan20yearsagotherewasanattempt

toconnecttheNapoandPutumayobasinswiththe

constructionofahighwaybetweenPuertoArica(Vidal)

andFlordeAgosto,aprojectthattheStatefinally

abandonedfortechnicalandfinancialreasonsafterhaving

madealargeinvestment(Fig.11A).

Theproposedhighwayisaseriousthreattothe

initiativecreatingtheACRMaijuna.Ifthehighway

constructionprojectprevails,itwouldmakenosense

toestablishaconservationareabecausetheareawillbe

floodedwithsettlersandloggers.

Itistroublingthattheregionalgovernmenthas

madenoattempttostoptheproject,andevenmore

troublingthatsomeofitshighestofficialssupportit,

citingthedevelopmentandnationalsecurityarguments.

Theirattitudeclearlyshowstheinconsistenciesthatexist

withinthegovernment:ontheonehandtheyendorse

thecreationoftheACRMaijuna,butontheotherthey

approveoftheconstructionofahighwaythatwillresult

inactivitiesdestructivetoit.

Inviewofthis,onlyaconvincingdemonstration

ofthevalueoftheproposalbytheMaijunacommunities

candefeatthehighwayconstructioninitiative.A

compellingargumentisthatonceagaintheStatehas

notconsultedwiththeindigenouscommunitiesabout

aprojectthatwillclearlyaffecttheirterritorialrights,

thosealreadyacquired(SanPablodeTotolla)andthose

theyhopetoacquire,sincetheareaispartoftheir

ancestralterritory.

CONCLUSION

ThegreatestcurrentthreattothefutureACRMaijuna

istheplantoconstructthehighwayconnectingIquitos

andElEstrecho,whichwouldcrossthroughtheareaof

theproposal.

Onlyresidentsfromtwocommunitiesreportedthat

theydidnotextractresourcesfromtheproposalarea.Itis

clearthattheactivitywiththegreatestimpactislogging,

whichispartiallyrestrainedbycontrolpostsestablished

bytheMaijunacommunitiesatthemouthsofthe

YanayacuandtheSucusari.Controllingtimberextraction

alsoreduceslevelsofhuntingandfishing,whichinmany

casesaresubsidiaryactivities.However,accordingto

informationwereceived,therearealsothosewhoenter

theareaonlytohunt.Fishingandtheextractionofnon-

woodproductsdonotseemtoconstituteaparticular

dangertothearea.

THEMAIJUNA:PAST,PRESENT,ANDFUTURE

Author: Michael P. Gilmore

INTRODUCTION

TheMaijunaofthenortheasternPeruvianAmazon

havearichanduniquecultureandhistorymarked

bybothpersistenceandchange.Thischapter

providesanethnohistoricalandculturalaccountof

theMaijuna—fromfirstEuropeancontacttothe

present—andadescriptionofthreatstoMaijuna

bioculturalresources,toconveyaproperunderstanding

ofthesocioculturalcontextoftheproposedÁreade

ConservaciónRegional(ACR)andtheplaceandrole

oftheMaijunawithinit.Ialsodescribetheongoing,

community-based,politicalempowermentofthe

Maijuna,withitspushtowardscommunityorganization

andculturalandbiologicalconservation,tohighlight

akeyMaijunasocioculturalassetthatisclearlyand


stronglycompatiblewiththesustainableuseand

managementoftheproposedACRMaijuna.

ANETHNOHISTORYOFTHEMAIJUNA

TheMaijunaareaWesternTucanoanpeople(Steward

1946;Bellier1993,1994,as“Maihuna”;Gordon

2005)presentlyfoundinthenortheasternPeruvian

Amazon.Bellier(1994)statesthatthereisnodoubt

thattheMaijunaareTucanoan,giventhestructureof

theirlanguage,theetymologyofMaijunawords,and

theirkinshipsystem,amongotherthings.Overall,25

languageshavebeenclassifiedasTucanoan(Gordon

2005).InadditiontoMaijuna,severalotherextantand

extinctlanguagesareclassifiedasWesternTucanoan,

suchasKoreguaje,Macaguaje,Secoya,Siona,Tama,and

Tetete.TheMaijunalanguageisclassifiedbyitselfinthe

southerndivisionoftheWesternTucanoanlanguages

whereastheotherWesternTucanoanlanguageslisted

aboveareclassifiedinthenortherndivision.

Likeotherindigenousgroups,theMaijunaareknown

byavarietyofdifferentnames.Themostcommonnames

fortheMaijunainthemorerecentliteratureareOrejón

orCoto(Koto),whereasPayaguaisthemostcommon

nameusedfortheMaijunaintheveryearlyliterature

(Steward1946;Bellier1993,1994).ThenameOrejón

isofSpanishoriginandliterallymeans“bigear,”in

referencetothelargebalsawoodeardisksthatMaijuna

mentraditionallywore(Fig.9E).ThenameOrejón

hasproducedaconsiderableamountofconfusiondue

tothefactthatitwasgiventoanumberofdifferent

indigenousgroupsinSouthAmericathatalsowore

eardisks,includinganearbyWitotoan-speakingtribe

(Steward1946;Bellier1993,1994).ThenameCotois

theQuechuawordfortheredhowlermonkey(Alouatta

seniculus,Fig.8A)referringtotheoldMaijunacustom

ofpaintingtheirbodiesandfacesredwithBixaorellana

L.(Velie1975;Bellier1993,1994).Marcoy(1866,cited

inBellier1994:37),whotraveledinthegeneralareaof

theAmazon,Napo,andPutumayoriversbetween1848

and1869,alsonotesthattheyweregiventhenameCoto

fortheirexcellentimitationoftheredhowlermonkey

call.Similarly,Velie(1975),inreferencetothename

Coto,alsomentionstheMaijunacustomofsingingina

monotonousmelodyformanyhoursinthenight.The

nameMaijunahasadifferentoriginthantheothernames

previouslymentionedbecauseitisanauto-denomination.

ThenameMaijunawillbeusedfromhereonwards

duetothefactthatthenamesOrejónandCotoare

derogatoryandthatthepeoplethemselvesuseandprefer

thenameMaijuna.

Bellier(1993,1994)providesaverydetailed

ethnohistoricalaccountoftheMaijuna,whichindicates

thattheOrejón,Coto,andultimatelytheMaijuna,are

descendantsofthePayagua.Thesetransitionsresulted

frommigrations,andintra-andinterethnicrelationsand

interactions.Abriefsummaryofherworkfollows.

Duringthesixteenthcentury,theWesternTucanoans

occupiedanextensiveareawithintheAmazonbasin.

AccordingtoBellier,theywerefoundintheareabetween

theNapoandPutumayorivers,inwhatisnowpartof

Peru,andextendedintothepresentdayColombian

regionsoftheCaguánandCaquetáriverstothenorth

andtheYaríRivertotheeast(Fig.23).In1682,Jesuit

missionariesmadecontactwithwhattheyreferred

toasthe“ProvinciadePayahua,”apparentlyinthe

regionofthelowerNapoRiver.Accordingtocaptured

individuals,theProvinciadePayahuaconsistedof16,000

people.Historiansconsiderthistobethefirstcontact

withthePayaguaeventhoughthelocationandcultural

affiliationofthepeoplecontactedarevague.Giventhe

purportedlylargepopulation,theProvinciadePayahua

mayhaveactuallyconsistedofallofthedifferentWestern

Tucanoangroups,notjustthePayagua,thatinhabited

thegeneralareabetweentheNapoandPutumayorivers

fromitslowertoitsupperreaches(Bellier1993).Bellier

ultimatelyhypothesizesanorthwesternoriginforthe

Payaguaandsuggeststhattheyarrivedandsettledinthe

generalregionofthelowerNapotowardtheendofthe

seventeenthcentury.

Duringtheeighteenthcentury,thePayaguawerevery

mobileandwereincontactwithavarietyofTucanoan

andnon-Tucanoanindigenousgroups.Theworkof

missionariesintensifiedatthebeginningoftheeighteenth

century,andthePayaguawereaffectedbyFranciscan

missionariestothenorthandJesuitmissionariestothe

south.Themissionarieswerenotverysuccessfulbecause

thePayaguagenerallycametomissioncampstoobtain


metaltoolsandthenleftsoonafterobtainingthem.

EpidemicsplaguedtheregionandthePayaguastaged

revoltsbecausetheyfearedbadtreatmentandslavery.

ThePayaguanpopulationultimatelydeclinedbecauseof

epidemics,poorlivingconditionsinthemissioncamps,

andinternalwarsduetotraditionalmotivesandtofeed

theslavemarket.

Towardtheendoftheeighteenthcentury,some

PayaguawerelivingintheareabetweentheNapoand

Putumayorivers,fromtheTamboryacuRivertothe

AmpiyacuRiver(Fig.23),anareaconsideredastraditional

ancestralterritorybythepresentdayMaijuna(allfour

Maijunacommunitiesarecurrentlylocatedwithinthis

area).AccordingtoBellier,thetiesbetweenthesesouthern

PayaguaandtheMaijunacanbedirectlytraced.Relations

betweenthenorthernTucanoansandtheMaijunaweaken

fromthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.During

thistimeperiod,thenorthernPayaguaarenolonger

mentionedintheliteratureand,accordingtoBellier,

theyweredividedorabsorbedbytheTama,Macaguaje,

andtheSiona.

Duringtheeighteenthcentury,thePeruvian

governmentbegantopromoteandencouragethe

immigrationofcolonists—especiallyEuropeansandtheir

descendants—intothisregion.TheJesuitmissionaries

wereexpelledin1768,markingtheendoftheirinfluence

onthePayagua.AftertheindependenceofPeruin1824,

theexploitationofindigenouspeoplesintensified.During

thisgeneraltimeperiod,thefirstpatrones(colonistsand

theirdescendantswhoexploitedindigenouslabor)settled

inthisregionandtrappedindigenouspeoples,including

thePayagua,undertheircontrolforyearstocome.From

themiddleofthe1800’sthenamesCotoandOrejón

(alongwithothers)begintobementionedwithincreasing

frequencywithinthehistoricalrecord.Thelastknown

referencetothePayaguaisduringtheearly1900’sand

theirlocationcorrespondsexactlytothatoftheCotoand

Orejón.Fromhereonout,theywouldbeknownbythe

namesthatmerchantsandpatronesgavethem,suchas

CotoandOrejón.

Therubberboomthatoccurredduringthelate1800s

andearly1900shadmajordemographicandcultural

impactsontheMaijunaandotherindigenousgroups

intheregion.Duringthistimeperiod,thePeruvian

governmentinstalledvariouspatronesofdifferent

nationalitiestooverseetheland.Withthelandgrantedto

thesepatronescameitsindigenousresidents,whomthey

workedandcontrolledbyforce.Duringtherubberboom

theMaijunaprincipallysuppliedsteamshipswithwood

andalsocarriedrubberbetweenriverbasins(i.e.,between

thePutumayoandNaporivers).

In1925,Tessmann(citedinBellier1993:72,and

1994:37)spenttimeamongthe“Koto”(Coto)and

notedthattheyresidedbetweentheNapoandAlgodón

rivers.TheKotothatheencounteredwerefoundnear

theZapotelagoon(ZapoteRiver)andalongtheSucusari

River(Fig.23).HenotedthattheKotowerealsocalledthe

Orejón,duetotheireardisks,andhegoesontomention

that“intheoldtimes”theywerealsocalledthePayagua,

Payaua,andTutapishco.Accordingtothecalculationsofa

colonist,therewereapproximately500Kotolivinginthis

generalareaatthattime.

Tessmann(1930)providesagoodphysicaldescription

oftheKoto,whichBellierhadtranslatedfromGerman

andsummarizesinherwork(Bellier1993,1994).When

TessmannencounteredtheMaijuna,menwentnaked,

tyinguptheirpenisfromtheageofsixyearsold,whereas

Maijunawomenworelargebarkclothshirtsthatwere

paintedred.Accordingtosomeconsultants,theseshirts

wereonlywornbymarriedwomen.Bothsexespainted

theirbodiesinvariousdesignswithBixa orellanaand

Genipa americana,blackenedtheirlipswithNeeasp.,

andlightlytattooedtheirfaces.Theyalsoworetheir

hairlonganddepilatedtheireyebrows,temples,armpits,

pubicregion,andchin.

TessmannalsonotedthatKotomenworeeardisks.

Theseeardisks(uptoseveralinchesindiameter)were

madefrombalsawood(Ochromapyramidale)andwere

adornedinthecenterwithablackseedfromthepalm

Astrocaryum murumuru(Bellier1993,1994).Boys’ears

werepierceduponpuberty,whichincorporatedtheminto

manhood.Thepiercingofapubescentboy’searsoccurred

during“theritualofthefirstpijuayo(Bactris gasipaes)

fruits”andtheeardisksweregraduallyenlargedoverthe

years.ItisimportanttonotethatMaijunawomendidnot

weareardisks;onlymenwerethebearersofthissymbol

andidentity.


Fig.23. Location of the four Maijuna communities (Sucusari, Puerto Huamán,

Nueva Vida and San Pablo de Totoya) and the surrounding area.


Afterthecollapseoftherubberboominthe

1920s,theMaijunafoundthemselvestrappedworking

underaseriesofpatrones.Severalofthesepatrones

wereparticularlybrutalandtheywereultimately

responsiblefordecimatingandkillingtheMaijunaofthe

TacshacurarayRiverandLagartococha,andcausingthe

MaijunatofleefromtheZapoteRiver,allareasthatthe

Maijunatraditionallyinhabited(Fig.23).Fromthe1920s

tothe1940stheMaijunaexploitedleche caspi(Couma

macrocarpa),vegetableivoryfromthepalmPhytelephas

macrocarpa,androsewood(Aniba rosaeodora)for

theirpatrones.Theyalsohuntedavarietyofanimals

fortheirskinsandfur.DuringthewarwithEcuador

in1941,thegovernmentofPeruusedtheMaijunato

carrymunitionsandsuppliestothesoldiers,among

otherthings.Afterthewar,theMaijunaworkedagain

forpatronesperformingavarietyoftasks,including

theextractionofvegetableivory,rubber,fishpoison

(barbasco,Lonchocarpus sp.),andanimalskinsand

furs.Thesesamepatronesalsohadthemcultivatesugar

caneandraisecattle.Morerecently,theexploitationof

vegetableivory,animals,rubber,andbarbascohasbeen

phasedout,andtheMaijunahaveworkedunderseveral

otherpatrones,loggingcommerciallyvaluablespeciesof

timberfromtheirtraditionalterritory.

From1955to1975anewoutsideinfluencedescended

upontheMaijuna.DuringthistimeperiodthePeruvian

governmentandtheSummerInstituteofLinguistics

(presentlyknownasSILInternational)enteredintoa

formalagreementthatopenedtheMaijunatoProtestant

missionaryinfluencesandteachings.Notsurprisingly,

theintroductionandsustainedteachingofChristianity

underminedtraditionalMaijunabeliefs.Abilingual

schoolwasalsoestablishedatthistimeandtheformal

schoolingofMaijunachildreninSpanishbeganultimately

favoringSpanishoverMaijuna.TheerosionofMaijuna

traditionalbeliefsandthemarginalizationandsubsequent

declineoftheirlanguagearekeyeventsintherecent

historyoftheMaijunathathavefueledthedegradationof

theirtraditionalknowledgeandculturalpractices.Ona

positivenote,towardtheendofthisgeneraltimeperiod

thePeruviangovernmentofficiallyrecognizedindigenous

groups,definedtheirrights,andgrantedthemtitleto

portionsoftheirancestralterritories.Itwasalsoduring

thisgeneraltimeperiodthattheMaijunafinallygotout

fromunderthecontrolofthepatroneswhoforcefully

andrelentlesslycontrolledentirecommunitiesofMaijuna

individuals.

THREATSANDCHALLENGESTOMAIJUNA

BIOCULTURALRESOURCES

Approximately400Maijunaindividualsnowlive

alongtheYanayacu,Algodón,andSucusaririversof

thenortheasternPeruvianAmazon.TheYanayacuand

SucusaririversaretributariesoftheNapoRiverand

theAlgodónRiverisatributaryofthePutumayoRiver

(Figs.2A,23).ThisisthegeneralareathatthePayagua

haveinhabitedsinceatleasttheendoftheseventeenth

centuryand,morespecifically,alloftheseriversfall

withintheareathatthesouthernPayagualivedintoward

theendoftheeighteenthcentury.

TherearefourMaijunacommunitieslocatedalong

theabove-mentionedrivers:PuertoHuamánandNueva

VidaalongtheYanayacuRiver,SanPablodeTotoya


SucusariRiver(Fig.2A).TheresidentsoftheseMaijuna

communitiesemployavarietyofsubsistencestrategies,

includinghunting,fishing,swidden-fallowagriculture,

andthegatheringofvariousforestproducts.Allfour

communitiesarerecognizedasComunidades Nativasby

thePeruvianGovernmentandallhavebeengrantedtitle

toparcelsoflandinwhichtheirrespectivecommunities

arelocated(Brack-Egg1998).Unfortunately,thetitled

landthattheMaijunahavereceivedisaverysmall

portionoftheirancestralterritory.Therefore,hundreds

ofthousandsofhectaresofMaijunatraditionalland

withintheYanayacu,Algodón,andSucusariwatersheds,

thevastmajorityofwhichisintactandundisturbed

primaryrainforest,currentlyremainsunprotected.

TheintactnatureoftheYanayacu,Algodón,and

Sucusariwatersheds,andthebiologicaldiversity

presentwithinthem,isatestamenttothepastand

presentenvironmentalstewardshipoftheMaijuna

andthesustainabilityoftheirtraditionalresourceuse

andmanagementstrategies.Unfortunately,because

Maijunaancestrallandsarerichinresources,theyare


nowundersiegebyillegalincursionsfromloggers,

hunters,fishermen,andresourceextractorsfromoutside

communities;thus,theyareinurgentneedofformal

protection.Inaddition,thePeruvianGovernmenthas

recentlyproposedtoconstructaroadthroughMaijuna

traditionalandtitledlands(MinisteriodeAgricultura

delPerú2007),whichtheMaijunaadamantlyoppose,

andhasyettoproperlyconsulttheMaijunaabout

theproposedroadanditspotentialbiologicaland

culturalramifications.

LikeotherAmazonianindigenousgroups,thepresent-

dayMaijunahavebeenculturallyinfluencedandchanged

overtheyearsbypressurefrommissionaries,thepatrón

system,thePeruvianGovernment,mestizos,theregional

society,andtheformaleducationsystem,amongother

things(Bellier1993,1994).Forthesereasons,many

Maijunatraditionsandculturalpracticesarenolonger

practicedorhavebeensignificantlyaltered.Forexample,

around1930theMaijunastoppedpiercingpubescent

boys’earsandpaintingtheirbodies,tominimizethe

disdainandscornthattheyexperiencedfrompatrones

andotheroutsidersand,accordingtoBellier(1994),the

lasttwoMaijunamenthatworeeardisksdiedin1982.

Inaddition,thestyleofhouseandlocationofresidence

describedbyBellierasbeingtraditionaltotheMaijuna

werealsoabandonedaround1930(Bellier1993,1994).

Beforethistimeperiod,theMaijunatraditionallylived

inlargepluri-familialhousesthatweresurroundedby

smallsleepinghouses(“mosquitohouses”).Theseclusters

ofhouseswerebuiltininterfluvialregionstowardthe

headwatersofriversorstreamsandwereapproximately

aday’swalkfromothergroupsofhouses.Inhabitants

livingineachgroupofhouses,consideredaresidential

unit,conductedtheiractivitieswithintheirownterritory.

Afterthistimeperiod,theMaijunamovedalongthelower

partsofriversandadoptedamestizoarchitecturalstyle

fortheirhomes.AccordingtoBellier,thesechangeswere

imposedontheMaijunabypatronesandmissionariesso

theycouldbettercontrolthem,andtheiradoptionhas

ultimatelyledtotheredistributionofsocialunits.The

Maijunacurrentlyliveinvillagesmadeupofsmaller

uni-familialorpluri-familialhousesarrangedingroups

thatexchangeproductsandservicesamongstthemselves.

Ultimatelythissettlementpatternhasbeenreinforcedand

perpetuatedbytheMaijunathemselveswiththeirdesire

tobeinbettercontactwithoutsidecommunitiesand

services(Gilmorepers.obs.).

Unfortunately,theintensityoftheseconverging

pressuresonMaijunaculturalpracticesandtraditional

beliefshasincreasedinseverityoverthepast50years

andasaresulttheMaijunalanguageisindangerof

extinction,Maijunatraditionalbiologicalandecological

knowledgeisrapidlydisappearing,andMaijunacultural

practicesandtraditions(i.e.,ceremonies,songs,stories,

etc.)arealsorapidlybeinglost(Gilmore2005;Gilmore

etal.inpress).Ifthistrendisnotreversedsoon,a

significantportionofMaijunaculturaltraditionswillbe

irreversiblylostwithinthenearfuture.Mostimportantly,

however,isthefactthattheMaijunarecognizeand

arecognizantofthedegradationoftheirtraditional

knowledge,culturaltraditions,andbiologicalresources

andarecurrentlytakingstepstoensurethesurvivalof

theirbioculturalresources.

FECONAMAIANDTHEPOLITICAL

EMPOWERMENTOFTHEMAIJUNA

Asdetailedabove,theMaijunafacemanychallenges

toboththeirbiologicalandculturalresourcesasthey

enterthefuture.Tomeetthesechallengesontheirown

termsandtakecontroloftheirowndestiny,leaders

fromthedifferentMaijunacommunitiesapproached

theauthorin2004forhelpinestablishingaMaijuna

indigenousfederation.Itisimportanttonotethat

thedifferentMaijunacommunitieshavebelongedto

anumberofmulti-ethnicindigenousfederationsin

thepastbut,accordingtoMaijunaconsultants,they

havenotbeensatisfiedwiththeseorganizationsdue

toaperceivedmarginalization,lackofhelpforthe

Maijunacommunities,andinsufficientoverallaction

andprogress.Additionally,consultantsalsoindicated

thatthereareoftensignificantgapsinunderstanding

amongtheindigenousgroupsinthesemulti-ethnic

indigenousfederations.Therefore,theMaijunafeltthata

purelyMaijunafederationwouldhelpincreaseeffective

communication,action,andprogressbecausetheirfour

communitiesspeakthesamelanguageandhavesimilar

challengesandneeds.


Throughthisinitiative,theFederaciónde

ComunidadesNativasMaijuna(FECONAMAI)was

establishedon11August2004(FECONAMAI2004).

However,notuntil8March2007didFECONAMAI

becomeofficiallyandlegallyrecognizedonanational

levelasaPeruviannon-profitorganizationbySUNARP

(SuperintendenciaNacionaldelosRegistrosPúblicos)

(FECONAMAI2007).Sinceitsinception,theprinciple

goalsofFECONAMAI,whichofficiallyrepresentsall

fouroftheMaijunacommunities,areto(1)conservethe

Maijunaculture,(2)conservetheenvironment,and(3)

improveMaijunacommunityorganization.Itsgoverning

structureconsistsofaboardofdirectorsmadeupofa

president,vice-president,secretary,treasurer,comptroller

(fiscal ),andspokesperson(vocal ).

UpuntiltheestablishmentofFECONAMAI,in

recenthistoryinhabitantsoftheSucusari,Yanayacu,

andAlgodónrivershavehadverylittlecontact,formal

orinformal,witheachother.Theywereeconomically

andpoliticallyindependentandnotlinkedbyformal

andrecurrentexchange,ultimatelyresultinginthe

communitiesinthedifferentriverbasinsbeingeffectively

isolatedfromoneanother(Bellier1993,1994;Gilmore

pers.obs.).ByestablishingFECONAMAI,theMaijuna

areworkingtoconnect,unite,andbuilddialoguebetween

theirdisjunctcommunities(RomeroRíos-Ushiñahua

pers.comm.2009).Ultimately,FECONAMAIprovides

acriticallyimportantmacro-levelinstitutiontopromote

thecultural,biological,andpoliticalinterestsofthefour

Maijunacommunitiesinaunifiedandcohesiveway.

SincetheestablishmentofFECONAMAItherehave

beenanumberofkeyandsignificantdevelopments

andactions.Forexample,FECONAMAIhasheldfour

multidayintercommunitycongresses,oneineachof

thefourMaijunacommunities(FECONAMAI2004).

DuringtheseintercommunitycongressestheMaijuna

gathertogethertodebate,discuss,andtackleissuesof

greatandcriticalimportancetotheircommunitiesand

federation.Forexample,theyhaveusedthecongresses

toaddressissuessuchastheconstitutionandbylawsof

thefederation,thecreationofanÁrea de Conservación

Regional(ACR),thedevelopmentandimplementation

ofstrategicplansforthefederation,thedevelopment

ofcommunalresourcemanagementplans,theplanning

ofhumanhealthrelatedprojects,andthedevelopment

ofculturalconservationinitiativessuchasalanguage

revitalizationproject,amongmanyotherthings

(FECONAMAI2004).

Alsoofgreatsignificanceisthefactthatthese

intercommunitycongressesbringtogetherdistant

Maijunafriendsandfamilyofallgenerations,manyof

whomhavenotseeneachotherfordecades,ultimately

reaffirmingfamilialandsocialbondsandMaijuna

identity.Toattendtheseintercommunitycongresses,

MaijunaindividualsandfamiliesfromtheSucusari,

Yanayacu,andAlgodónriverbasinsarerequiredto

travelgreatdistancesviaboatand/orfoot,ultimately

demonstratingtheextremededicationthattheyhaveto

FECONAMAIanditscoregoals.Forexample,several

pairsofMaijunaparentswalkedwiththeirsmallchildren

forthreedaysfromtheSucusaricommunitytoSanPablo

deTotoya(Totolla)throughtheforestedcoreofMaijuna

ancestrallandstoattendthethirdintercommunity

congressin2008.

Inadditiontoplanningandholdingintercommunity

congresses,FECONAMAIhasalsoworkedtobuild

strategicalliancesandpartnershipswithlocal,regional,

nationalandinternationalinstitutions,including

ProyectodeApoyoalPROCREL,TheFieldMuseum,

IBC(InstitutodelBienComún),andIIAP(Institutode

InvestigacionesdelaAmazoníaPeruana)(FECONAMAI

2004;RomeroRíos-Ushiñahuapers.comm.2009).

Theyarealsoaffiliatedwiththeregionalindigenous

organizationORAI(OrganizaciónRegionalAIDESEP

Iquitos),whichinturnisaffiliatedwiththenational

indigenousorganizationAIDESEP(AsociaciónInterétnica

deDesarrollodelaSelvaPeruana)andtheinternational

indigenousorganizationCOICA(Coordinadoradelas

OrganizacionesIndígenasdelaCuencaAmazónica).In

addition,FECONAMAIiscurrentlycollaboratingwithan

internationalteamofscientiststodevelopandimplement

acommunity-based,multi-disciplinary,biocultural-

conservationprojectthatwilltargetthesustainableuse

andmanagementofMaijunabiologicalresourcesandthe

documentationandrevitalizationoftheMaijunalanguage,

aswellasotherfacetsoftheirtraditionalknowledge,

practices,andbeliefs(FECONAMAI2004).Inshort,

allofthesenationalandinternationalinstitutionsand


strategicpartnershipshavehelpedFECONAMAIwork

towardstherealizationoftheirstrategicworkplansand

goals.IanticipatethatFECONAMAIwillcontinueto

workwiththesepartnersandseekoutadditionalkey

institutionalcollaboratorsandalliesastheycontinue

toworktowardtheirprincipleorganizationalgoalsof

environmentalconservation,culturalconservation,and

communityorganization.

AccordingtoRomeroRíos-Ushiñahua(pers.comm.

2009),thecurrentpresidentofFECONAMAIanda

foundingmemberofthefederation,outofallofthe

issuesandinitiativesthatFECONAMAIhasworkedon

todate,theMaijunaconsiderthecreationofanACR

thatwouldlegallyandformallyprotecttheirancestral

landsinperpetuitytheirnumberonegoalandpriority.

Theideatoconservetheirancestrallandsoriginally

camefromtheMaijunathemselvesandtheyhavebeen

workingnonstoptorealizethisobjective.Inshort,

theystronglyfeelthattheirsurvivalasapeopleandthe

survivalandmaintenanceoftheirculturalpractices,

uniquetraditions,andtraditionalsubsistencestrategies

dependonahealthy,intact,andprotectedecosystem.

Infact,thisbeliefbytheMaijunaissupported

scientifically.Forexample,ithasbeenfoundthatas

indigenouspeoplesareforcedtoliveinunprotected

areaswithdegradedecosystemsandbiodiversity,or

areremovedfromtheirtraditionalterritories,cultural

practicesthatrelyonsuchdiversitybegintolose

relevanceandtheintergenerationaltransmissionofsuch

knowledgebeginstobreakdown.Asthisoccurs,cultural

practices,suchastraditionalresource-usestrategiesand

managementpracticesthatoncemaintainedorfostered

biologicaldiversity,areoftenreplacedbyotheractivities

thatarebiologicallyandenvironmentallyunsound(Maffi

2001).Inshort,thishighlightstheinextricablelinkand

interdependencethatexistsbetweenbothbiological

andculturaldiversity,andreinforcesthenecessityof

protectingMaijunatraditionallandsiftheircultural

traditionsandbeliefsaretopersist—andviceversa.

Insummary,FECONAMAIisacriticallyimportant

macro-levelinstitutionthatofficiallyandlegallypromotes

andrepresentsthecultural,biological,andpolitical

interestsofallfourMaijunacommunities.Asrevealedby

itsprincipleorganizationalgoals,itisstronglycommitted

totheconservationofMaijunaculturaltraditionsandthe

ecologicalintegrityofMaijunaancestralterritorywithits

associatedbiologicaldiversityandresources.Ultimately,

FECONAMAIisakeysocioculturalassetwhosecore

values,goals,andorganizationalstructureandcapacity

arestronglycompatiblewiththesustainableuseand

managementoftheproposedACRMaijuna.

THEMAIJUNAPARTICIPATORYMAPPING

PROJECT:MAPPINGTHEPASTANDTHE

PRESENTFORTHEFUTURE

Authors:Michael P. Gilmore and Jason C. Young

INTRODUCTION

Participatorymappingconsistsofencouraginglocalpeople

todrawmapsoftheirlandsthatincludeinformationsuch

asland-usedata,resourcedistributions,andculturally

significantsites,amongotherthings(Smith1995;Herlihy

andKnapp2003;CorbettandRambaldi2009).These

mapsultimatelydepicthowtheyperceivetheirlandsand

resources,andthereforerepresenttheircognitivemaps.

Participatorymappinghasbeensuccessfullyusedby

indigenousandtraditionalcommunitiesthroughoutthe

worldforavarietyofreasons:toillustratecustomary

land-usesystemsandmanagementstrategies(Sirait1994;

ChapinandThrelkeld2001;Gordonetal.2003;Smith

2003);togatherandguardtraditionalknowledge(Poole

1995;ChapinandThrelkeld2001);tosetprioritiesfor

resource-managementplans(JarvisandStearman1995;

Poole1995;ChapinandThrelkeld2001);andtoestablish

theboundariesofoccupiedland(bothpastandpresent),

formthebasisoflandclaims,anddefendcommunity

landsfromincursionsbyoutsiders(Arvelo-Jiménezand

Conn1995;Neitschmann1995;Poole1995;Chapinand

Threlkeld2001).Perhapsmostimportantly,participatory

mappingalsohasbeenshowntoempowercommunities,

improveculturalandcommunitycohesion,andhelp

fosterthetransferofknowledgefromoldertoyounger

communitymembers(Flavelle1995;Sparke1998;Chapin

andThrelkeld2001;GilmoreandYoungpers.obs.).


Inthischapter,wedescribeindetailaparticipatory-

mappingprojectthatwecarriedoutinfourMaijuna

communitiesinthenortheasternPeruvianAmazon.

Weusedparticipatory-mappingtechniquestoprovide

aninformedunderstandingofhoweachoftheMaijuna

communitiesperceives,values,andinteractswiththeir

titledandancestrallandsandthebiologicalandcultural

resourcescontainedtherein.

METHODS

Fieldresearchforthisstudywascompletedduringfour

fieldseasonsbetween2004and2009.Allresearchtook

placeintheMaijunacommunitiesofPuertoHuamánand

NuevaVidaalongtheYanayacuRiver,SanPablodeTotoya


SucusariRiver,eachofwhichisfoundinthenortheastern

PeruvianAmazon(Fig.2A).Webegantheparticipatory-

mappingworkineachoftheseMaijunacommunitiesby

explainingtheobjectivesandmethodsoftheparticipatory-

mappingexercises,includingadiscussionofthe

potentialprosandconsofthistypeofresearch(Chapin

andThrelkeld2001).Inaddition,severalexamplesof

completedmapsproducedinotherstudieswereprovided

totheMaijuna(Kalibo2004)sothattheywouldfurther

understandtheprocessandpotentialendresultsofthe

researchproject.

Afterreceivingcommunityinputandconsent,

participatory-mappingexercisesineachcommunity

commencedwithMaijunaparticipantsdrawingthe

hydrologicalfeaturesofthewatershedsthattheyinhabit,

includingkeyfeaturessuchastherivers,streams,and

lakes.Afterthisbasemapwasproducedandagreedupon

byconsensus,participantswerethenaskedtoidentify,

locate,andmapbiologicalandculturalsitesthatthey

deemimportant,suchasoldandnewhousesitesand

swiddensandthevarioushunting,fishing,andplant

collectingsitesthattheyvisit.Thesespecificmethods

areamodifiedversionofthosedescribedbyChapinand

Threlkeld(2001).

Mappingsessionstypicallylastedforseveraldays.

Mappingwasgenerallydoneinthemorningandboth

breakfastandlunchwereprovidedtoparticipants;this

isverysimilartothestructureofmingasorcommunal

workpartiesthattheMaijunausetoclearswiddens,

collectpalm(Lepidocaryum tenue)leaves,buildcanoes,

etc.(Gilmoreetal.2002;Gilmore2005).Inaddition,the

Maijunaparticipantsofthesemappingsessionsconsisted

ofbothmalesandfemales,andindividualsofallages,

ensuringthatavarietyofperspectives,voices,and

expertisewereincludedinthemaps,andmakingthem

trulyrepresentativeofthecommunitiesthemselves.

Aftercompletingeachmap,ateamofMaijuna

individualswasthenselectedineachcommunityto

workwiththeresearcherstofixthelocationofasmany

oftheidentifiedsitesaspossibleusinghand-heldGPS

(GlobalPositioningSystem)units(Siraitetal.1994;

ChapinandThrelkeld2001).Importantly,Maijuna

teammembersincludedindividualswellknownintheir

respectivecommunitiesfortheirexpertiseintraditional

cultural,biological,ecological,andgeographical

knowledge.Physicallyvisitingandfixingthelocations

oftheidentifiedsitesgenerallyrequiredeachofthe

fieldteamstotravelhundredsofkilometersbyboth

riverandfootforseveralweeksatatimewithintheir

respectiveriverbasins.Uponreturningfromthefield,

theresearchersutilizedESRI’sArcGIS,ageographic

informationsystems(GIS)softwarepackage,tointegrate,

organize,analyze,andspatiallyrepresentallofthe

datacollected(Siraitetal.1994;Scott1995;Duncan

2006;CorbettandRambaldi2009;Elwood2009).

GeographershavewidelyusedGISsoftwareto“integrate

localandindigenousknowledgewith‘expert’data”and

therebyconferscientificlegitimacytoparticipatorymaps

(Dunn2007:619).

Datapresentedinthischaptercompriseonlya

smallportionoftheoveralldatacollectedandresearch

conducted.Forexample,keyanddetailedinformation

pertainingtotheethnohistory,resource-usestrategies,

andtraditionalstoriesforeachsitewasalsodocumented

viaethnographic-interviewingtechniquesandrecorded

usingvoicerecorders,cameras,andvideocameras.Allof

thisinformationisbeingusedtodevelopamultimedia

participatoryGISdatabasethatwillultimatelyserve

asareservoirofMaijunatraditionalknowledgeand

beliefsregardingtheirancestrallandsandthebiocultural

resourcesfoundwithinthem.

(Fig.2B)



EachofthefourMaijunacommunitiessketched

detailedandcomprehensivemapsoftheirrespective

titledandtraditionallands(e.g.,Fig.24),whichwere

thenusedbythefieldteamsasguidestolocateand

fixthegeographicalcoordinatesofover900culturally

andbiologicallysignificantsiteswithintheSucusari,

Yanayacu,andAlgodónriverbasins.Theseculturallyand

biologicallysignificantsiteshavebeenorganizedintoten

differentcategories,foreaseofdataanalysisandclarity

ofdisplay,andtheyhavebeenmappedusingArcGISto

spatiallyrepresentthedata(Fig.25).Thesecategoriesof

biologicallyandculturallysignificantsitesare:Maijuna

communities,fields(upto30yearsold),cemeteries,

historicalsites,battlesites, non-timberresourcesites,

animalminerallicks(huntingsites),specialfishingzones,

specialhuntingzones,andhuntingorfishingcamps.Each

ofthesecategorieswillbeexplainedindetailalongwith

adiscussionofitsimportanceintermsofunderstanding

howtheMaijunaperceive,value,andinteractwiththeir

landsandbioculturalresources.

Notsurprisingly,oneofthefirstthingsthateach

Maijunacommunitydidwhenmappingtheirtitledand

traditionallandswastoidentifythelocationoftheir

respectivecommunity.Thisultimatelyhelpedthemto

anchorandorientthemselvesthroughouttherestof

themappingexercise.PuertoHuamánandNuevaVida

arelocatedalongtheYanayacuRiver,SanPablode

Totoya(Totolla)alongtheAlgodón,andSucusarialong

theSucusari(Fig.25).Thesecommunitiesarerelatively

youngintermsoftheoverallhistoryoftheMaijuna.

PuertoHuamánwasfoundedin1963,SanPablode

Totoya(Totolla)in1968,Sucusariin1978,andNueva

Vidain1986.ThisisbecausetheMaijunatraditionally

livedininterfluvialregionstowardtheheadwatersof

theSucusari,Yanayacu,andAlgodóncillorivers,and

onlyafterthe1930smoveddownstreamtowherethey

eventuallyformedtheircurrentcommunities(seechapter

titled“TheMaijuna:Past,PresentandFuture”formore

detailedinformation).

Inadditiontomappingtheircommunities,Maijuna

consultantsalsoidentifiedfields(upto30yearsold)

andcemeteriesfoundwithintheirtitledandtraditional

lands(Figs.24,25).Theclearing,use,andexistenceof

cemeteries,calledmai tate taco1bytheMaijuna,

isasomewhatrecentandnontraditionalphenomenonas

Maijunaancestorsburnedtheirdeadinfunerarypyres

(Gilmore2005).Inregardstothefieldsoflessthan30

yearsofage,overonehundredandfortyofthesesites

wereidentified,located,andhadtheirgeographical

coordinatesfixedwithinthethreeriverbasinsthroughout

thecourseofthisproject.Itisnotsurprisingthatboth

thesefieldsandthecemeteriesarelocatedrelativelyclose

topresentdayMaijunacommunities(Fig.25).

Allfieldsthatweredeemedolderthan30yearsin

agewereclassifiedanddisplayedviaArcGISseparately

ashistoricalsites(Fig.25)becauseoftheirage,stageof

succession,andthefactthattheMaijunathemselves

classifyandnametheseareasdifferentlythanyounger

swiddensandfallows.NotablytheMaijunaclassify

andnameoldswiddenfallowswithmaturesecondary

forestasai bese yio(“ancientoroldswidden”)ordoe

bese yio (“ancientpreviousswidden”).Theseswidden

fallowsofMaijunaeldersandancestorsareidentifiedand

locatedbythepresentdayMaijunabasedonoralhistory,

memory,andcharacteristicplantspeciessuchasmaqui

ñi(Cecropiaspp.),edo ñi(Croton palanostigma),yibi ñi

(Ochromapyramidale),maso ñi(Ficus insipida),itayo ñi

(Miconia minutiflora),jati ñi(Xylopia sericea),neaca ñi

(Guatteria latipetala),and suña eo (Lonchocarpus nicou)

(Gilmore2005).Foreaseofdataanalysisandclarityof

display,oldMaijunahousesitesandoldhuntingorfishing

campsiteswerealsoclassifiedandmappedinArcGISas

historicalsitesalongwitholdfields(Fig.25).Importantly,

theMaijunathemselvesrecognizethedistinctionbetween

oldandnewhousesitesandcampsand,similartoold

fields,bothareidentifiedandlocatedbasedonoralhistory,

memory,indicatorplantspecies,and/orthepresenceof

potteryshards.

1 Transcription of Maijuna words was accomplished with the help of S. Ríos Ochoa, a bilingual and literate Maijuna individual, using a practical orthography previously established by Velie (1981). The practical orthography developed by Velie consists of 27 letters that are pronounced as if reading Spanish, with the following exceptions: In a position between two vowels, d is pronounced like the Spanish r ; i is pronounced like the Spanish u but without rounding or puckering the lips; and a, e, i, o, u, and i are pronounced like a, e, i, o, u, and i but nasalized. Also, the presence of an accent indicates an elevated tone of the voice; accents are only used when the tone is the only difference between two Maijuna words and the word’s meaning is not clarified by its context. The 27 letters that make up the Maijuna alphabet are a, a, b, c, ch, d, e, e, g, h, i, i, j, m, n, ñ, o, o, p, q, s, t, u, u, y, i, and i.


Fig.24. Results of the Maijuna participatory mapping sessions held in late July 2004. On the left, a portion of the

map (the entire map is a compilation of five pieces of easel paper, each 68 by 82 cm, positioned end to end). On the

right, a close-up of the map legend in its entirety, with English translations added.


180

Figure I-1. Results of the Maijuna participatory mapping sessions held in late July, 2004.A. Close-up of the Maijuna map legend in its entirety with English translations. B. The Maijuna map excluding those areas that the Maijuna designated as culturally significant and important. This map represents a compilation of 5 pieces of easel paper positioned end to end (each piece of easel paper is 68 x 82 cm).

A

English

Sucusari River

Stream

Titled land Trail Lake

Community

House

Old or ancient house site

Hunting camp

Old or ancient hunting camp

Old or ancient swidden fallows

Swiddens Lepidocaryum tenue palm forest

Attalea racemosa palm forest

Mauritia flexuosa palm swamp

Oenocarpus bataua palm forest

Special place to fish

Animal mineral lick

Special place to hunt

Cemetery

Maijuna

Socosani Ya

Yadi ya

Yiqui yao

Ma

Chitada

Mai jai juna baidadi

Ue

Ai bese taco

Maca ue tete taco

Maca ai ue tete taco

Ai bese yioma

Yioma

Mii nui nicadadi

Edi nui nicadadi

Ne cuadu

Osa nui nicadadi

Yadidbai baidadi

Tuada

Bai baidadi

Mai tate taco

Castellano

Río Sucusari

Quebrada

Terreno titulado

Camino

Cocha

Comunidad

Casa

Puesto viejo

Campamento

Campamento viejo

Purma antigua

Chacra

Irapayal

Shapajal

Aguajal

Ungurahual

Lugar especial para pescar

Colpa

Lugar especial para casar

Cementerio

English

Sucusari River

Stream

Titled land

Trail

Lake

Community

House

Old or ancient house site

Hunting camp

Old or ancient hunting camp

Old or ancient swidden fallow

Swidden

Lepidocaryum tenue palm forest

Attalea racemosa palm forest

Mauritia flexuosa palm swamp

Oenocarpus bataua palm forest

Special place to fish

Animal mineral lick

Special place to hunt

Cemetery


Fig.25. Map highlighting over 900 culturally and biologically significant sites to the Maijuna of the Sucusari, Yanayacu, and Algodón river basins.

Rí o

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Río

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od

on

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ma

yo

San

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lode

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olla

Suc

usar

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■

■

✺✺✺✺ ✺ ✺✺ ✺

✺✺✺

✺

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✺ ✺ ✺ ✺ ✺ ✺✺

✺✺

✺ ✺ ✺ ✺ ✺ ✺✺ ✺✺ ✺ ✺✺✺✺ ✺

▲▲

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▲ ▲

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▲▲▲▲▲▲▲

▲ ▲ ▲

▲▲

▲

0

10

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Kiló

met

ros/

Kilo

met

ers

Ecu

ador

Col

ombi

a

Bra

sil

Per

ú

Oce

ano

Pac

ífic

o

Cam

pam

ento

/Hun

ting

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fishi

ng c

amp

Cem

eter

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aiju

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Mai

juna

cem

etar

y

Cha

cras

(ha

sta

30

año

s)/

Fiel

ds (

up t

o 3

0 y

ears

old

)

Col

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(sitio

de

caza

)/A

nim

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min

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lic

ks (h

untin

g si

tes)

Com

unid

ades

Mai

juna

s/

Mai

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Com

mun

itie

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Con

flict

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tigu

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aiju

na/

Anc

ient

Mai

juna

bat

tle

site

Rec

urso

s no

mad

erab

les

(agu

ajal

es,

ungu

rahu

ales

, ir

apay

ales

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mu

cam

ales

, ya

rina

les)

/Non

-tim

ber

reso

urce

s

Sitio

s hi

stor

icos

(pue

stos

vie

jos,

ch

acra

s vi

ejas

, cam

pam

ento

s vi

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)/H

isto

rical

site

s (o

ld h

ouse

si

tes,

old

fiel

ds, o

ld c

amp

site

s)

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esp

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Spe

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Spe

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iona

l (A

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inos

/Tra

ils

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Mai

juna

bio

logi

cally

and

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ltur

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sig

nific

ant

site

s


Intotal,overonehundredandsixtyhistoricalsites

wereidentified,located,andhadtheirgeographical

coordinatesfixedthroughoutthecourseofthisresearch

project.Itiscriticallyimportanttonotethatthisnumber

ultimatelyrepresentsasmallportionofallofthe

MaijunahistoricalsiteswithintheSucusari,Yanayacu,

andAlgodónriverbasins.Thisisduetothefactthat

manyofthesesitesareincrediblyremoteanditwas

notpossibletovisitallofthemwithinthetimeframe

allotted.Inaddition,manyoftheexactlocationsofthese

sites(weonlygeographicallyfixedexactandspecific

locations)havebeenlostoverhistoricaltimebecause

theMaijunahaveanoral,notwritten,cultureandthey

donotcurrentlylivein,andrarelytravelto,theregions

wheretheirancestorspreviouslylived.Therefore,there

isalimittotheamountofdetailedknowledgeregarding

historicalsitesmaintainedbytheMaijuna.

Anothercollectionofculturallysignificantsites

thatwerealsoidentified,fixed,andgroupedtogether

includethreeMaijunabattlesites(Fig.25).According

toMaijunaconsultants,thesemarkthelocationsof

ancientbattlesbetweenMaijunaancestorsandhostile

outsiders(e.g.,colonistsorsoldiers).Interestingly,itwas

consistentlyandunanimouslystatedthattheMaijuna

werevictoriousineachoneofthesebloodyencounters.

TheseareaswerecategorizedandmappedinArcGIS

separatelyfromtheotherhistoricalsitesduetotheir

uniquenessandtheimportancethattheMaijunaplace

ontheselocations.

Withinthethreeriverbasins,over130non-timber

resourcesiteswereidentified,located,andhadtheir

geographicalcoordinatesfixed(Fig.25).Thesesites

include,Mauritia flexuosapalmswamps(ne cuadu

inMaijuna;aguajalesinSpanish),forestswithan

understorydominatedbythepalmLepidocaryum tenue

(miibi or mii nui nicadadi; irapayales),forestsdominated

bythepalmOenocarpus bataua(bosa nui nicadadi

or osa nui nicadadi; hungurahualesorungurahuales),

forestswithanunderstorydominatedbythepalm

Phytelephas macrocarpa(miibiormii nui nicadadi;

yarinales),andriversideareasdominatedbytheplant

Myrciaria dubia(atame nui nicadadi; camucamales).All

ofthesesitescorrespondtoMaijunanamedandclassified

habitattypes(asindicatedbythenamesabove)andall

oftheplantspeciesthatdominatethesehabitattypesare

usefultotheMaijunaindifferentwaysandatdifferent

timesoftheyear,bothculturallyandeconomically

(Table11)(Gilmore2005).

Over40animalminerallicks,calledtuadaoronobi

inMaijunaandcolpas2inthelocalSpanishdialect,

werealsoidentifiedandvisitedwithintheSucusari,

Yanayacu,andAlgodónriverbasins(Figs.24,25).

Animalminerallicksareincrediblyimportantboth

culturallyandeconomicallytotheMaijunabecausea

numberofmammalandbirdspeciesvisitthesesitesyear

roundduringbothdayandnight.AccordingtoMaijuna

consultants,ninedifferentanimalandbirdspecies

areencounteredandhuntedintheseareas(Table12).

Notably,thevastmajorityofanimalminerallickslocated

withinMaijunatitledandtraditionallandshaveproper

Maijunanames.TheMaijunanameanimalminerallicks

afterpeople,plants,animals,andhuntingdogs,among

otherthings(Gilmore2005).Theextensivenamingof

animalminerallicksisultimatelyasignofandtestament

totheirimportancetotheMaijuna.

Inadditiontomappingspecifichuntingsites,the

Maijunaalsomorebroadlyidentifiedspecialhunting

zones(bai baidadi )thattheyvisit(Figs.24,25).Instead

ofbeingspecificgeographicalpointsliketheanimal

minerallicks,thesearebroaderareastargetedforhunting

becausetheyareknowntohavehighconcentrationsof

gameanimals.Thesameholdstrueforspecialfishing

zones(yadibai baidadi ),whicharetargetedfortheirhigh

concentrationsofculturallyandeconomicallyimportant

fishspecies(Figs.24,25).

AlthoughtheMaijunamaytargetthesespecial

huntingandfishingzones,theyalsohuntandfish

aconsiderableamountinotherlessdesirableareas

throughouttheirtitledandancestrallands.Thisisbecause

manyofthesespecialhuntingandfishingzonesare

locatedinremoteareasgenerallytowardstheheadwaters

ofriversandstreams.Thisshouldbeofnosurprise

becausethemoreremoteanareaisthelesshuntingand

fishingpressurethatitexperiences,allowingmammal,

bird,andfishpopulationstomorereadilyflourish.

2 Also spelled as collpas.


SpeciesMaijunaname

Spanishname Use Harvestingmethod

Timeofharvesta

Lepidocaryum tenue Mart. (Arecaceae)

mii ñi irapay leaves: thatch for houses(this is the most popular and important plant for thatch and is occasionally sold)

not felled (except when tall)

year round

Mauritia flexuosa L.f. (Arecaceae)

ne ñi aguaje fruits: edible, also used to make a beverage and processed into an oil; fruits occasionally sold

climbed, felled, collected on ground

~May– August

fruits: pieces used as fishing bait as above as above

leaves: use old, dry leaves as a fuel for drying canoes and starting fires in newly cleared and dried agricultural fields

old and hanging leaves cut off of tree

year round

petioles: strips of fiber used to make mats and used as a form for weaving palm fiber bags

not felled (harvested from small plants)

year round

trunk: hosts two species of beetle larvae that are eaten and used as fishing bait

felled to promote larval growth (larvae also grow on natural tree falls)

year round

Oenocarpus bataua Mart. (Arecaceae)

bosa ñi,osa ñi

hungurahui,ungurahui

fruits: edible, also used to make a beverage and processed into an oil; fruits occasionally sold

climbed, felled, or collected from ground

~November-March and June – August

fruits(unripe): processed into a medicine (for tuberculosis)

climbed, felled ~year round

leaves: used to make temporary baskets not felled (harvested from small plants)

year round

leaves: thatch for temporary shelters not felled (except when tall)

year round

trunk: hosts a beetle larva that is eaten and used as fishing bait

felled to promote larval growth (also grow on natural tree falls)

year round

leaf-basefibers: sharpened and used to pierce men’s ears for ear disksb

not felled year round

leaf-basefibers: used as kindlingb felled year round

Phytelephas macrocarpa Ruiz & Pav.(Arecaceae)

mii ñi yarina fruits: edible (liquid, immature endosperm)

picked, felled year round

leaves: thatch for temporary shelters and the ridges of roofs

not felled (except when tall)

year round

fruits: the hard endosperm collected and sold as a source of vegetable ivory

collected from ground year round

Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh (Myrtaceae)

atame ñi camu camu fruits:edible, fruits occasionally eaten and used to make a beverage; fruits rarely, if ever, sold

picked unknown

a Harvest times indicated in the table are based on Maijuna consultant testimony and have not been independently verified by the researchers. Therefore all times (especially fruiting times) should be considered approximate and preliminary figures.

b Not currently used in this way by the Maijuna.

Table11. Ethnobotanical information for plant species dominant at non-timber resource sites that were mapped, located, and had their

geographical coordinates fixed within the Sucusari, Yanayacu, and Algodón river basins (Gilmore 2005).


Table12. Birds and mammals encountered and killed by the Maijuna at mineral licks used by animals within the

Sucusari, Yanayacu, and Algodón river basins (Gilmore 2005).

Species Englishname Maijunaname SpanishnameTimeencountered Use

BirdsPipile cumanensis(Cracidae)

Blue-throated Piping-Guan

uje pava day eat, sell (meat), used to make fans for fires (feathers), adornment (make “paint” from legs)

MammalsAgouti paca (Agoutidae)

paca seme, oje beco, pibi aco

majaz night eat, sell (meat), tourist crafts (teeth)

Alouatta seniculus (Cebidae)

red howler monkey jaiqui coto mono day eat, sell (meat), tourist crafts (bony pouch or hyoid bone from throat)

Mazama americana (Cervidae)

red brocket deer bosa, miibi aqui venado colorado night, rarely in day

eat, sell (meat), medicinal (antlers), adornment of houses (antlers), used to make drums (hide)

Dasyprocta fuliginosa (Dasyproctidae)

black agouti maitaco, moñeteaco, codome

añuje day eat, sell (meat), tourist crafts (teeth)

Coendou prehensilis (Erethizontidae)

Brazilian porcupine toto cashacuchillo night eat, tourist crafts (spines)

Tapirus terrestris (Tapiridae)

Brazilian tapir bequi, jaico sacha vaca night eat, sell (meat), medicinal (hooves), tourist crafts (hooves)

Tayassu pecari (Tayassuidae)

white-lipped peccary

sese, bidi huangana day eat, sell (meat and hide), tourist crafts (teeth), used to make drums (hide)

Tayassu tajacu (Tayassuidae)

collared peccary caocoa, yau sajino day eat, sell (meat and hide), tourist crafts (teeth), used to make drums (hide)


Therefore,manyMaijunafamiliescurrentlymaintain

huntingandfishingcamps(maca ue tete taco)inthese

remoteareas,whichtheyvisitforextendedperiodsto

provideeasieraccesstothesehighlyvaluedresources.

Over40currentlyusedhuntingandfishingcampswere

identified(Fig.25).

CONCLUSIONS

Over900biologicallyandculturallysignificantMaijuna

siteswereidentified,visited,andgeographicallyfixed

withintheSucusari,Yanayacu,andAlgodónriverbasins

duringthisparticipatory-mappingproject,highlighting

thehighlydetailedandextensivetraditionalknowledge

thattheMaijunahaveregardingtheirancestrallands.

Combinedwithhistoricaldocuments,anthropological

research,andMaijunaoraltraditions,thisinformation

irrefutablysupportstheclaimthattheproposedACRis

madeupofMaijunaancestralterritory.

Themapsproducedduringthisstudyalsofacilitate

abetterunderstandingofhowtheMaijunaperceive,

interactwith,andvaluetheirtitledandancestrallands

andthebioculturalresourcesfoundwithinthem;and

theycanbeusedtofacilitatetheconservationand

managementoftheproposedACR.Forexample,

knowledgeofthespatialuseofresourcesandhabitats

(Figs.24,25),includinghowandwhentheyareutilized

(Tables11and12),iscriticallyimportantbecauseitcan

beusedtoestablishresourcemanagementplansand

strategiesfortheproposedACRMaijuna.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Thefollowingthreecoursesofactionwillfacilitate

theconservationandmanagementoftheproposed

ACRandwillhelptovalidateandempowerthe

Maijunacommunities.Westronglyfeelthatthese

recommendations,iffollowed,willultimatelyhelp

toensurethelongtermsuccessoftheproposedACR

Maijunaandthemaintenanceofitsbioculturaldiversity.

■ TheresultsandArcGISmap(Fig.25)ofthisproject

shouldbeusedtoensurethatthefinalboundariesofthe

proposedACRaccuratelyreflectthespatialresource-

usepatternsandculturalhistoryoftheMaijunawithin

theSucusari,Algodón,andYanayacuwatersheds.In

addition,asmanyofthebiologicallyandculturally

significantsitesmappedbytheMaijunaaspossible

shouldbeincludedwithintheproposedACR.

■ TheresultsandArcGISmapofthisprojectshouldbe

utilizedtohelpestablishresource-managementplans

andstrategiesbecausetheycontaincriticalinformation

concerningthespatialdistributionandtemporaluse

ofculturally,biologically,andeconomicallyimportant

resources.

■ ThecentralcoreofMaijunaancestrallands—wherethe

headwatersoftheSucusari,Yanayacu,andAlgodóncillo

riversmeet—shouldreceivethestrictestpossible

protection.TheMaijunararelyenterandusethisarea

(Figs.2A,9D,25)anditcanserveasanimportant

breedinggroundand“sourcearea”forecologically,

economically,andculturallyimportantplantandanimal

species.Significantly,thisisthesameareawherehigh-

terracehabitatswereidentifiedduringthisinventory

(seechapteronFloraandVegetation),soastrictlevel

ofprotectionalsowouldprotectuniqueandpreviously

unknowntypesofvegetation.

HUMANCOMMUNITIES:CONSERVATION

TARGETS,ASSETS,THREATS,AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Author: Alberto Chirif

INTRODUCTION

Inviewoftheinformationpresentedinthepreviousthree

chapters,Ilisthereconservationtargets,assets,threats,

andrecommendationsfortheMaijunaandotherhuman

communitiesassociatedwiththeproposedÁreade

ConservaciónRegionalMaijuna.

CONSERVATIONTARGETS

Thesearethemostcriticaltargetsfortheconservationof

humancommunitiesintheproposedACRMaijuna:


01 TheMaijunalanguage

02 TheMaijuna’secologicalknowledge

03 Maijunaculturalpracticesthatarecompatiblewith

naturalresourceconservation,(Figs.10A–D)

04 Species traditionallyimportanttotheMaijuna

(medicinalplants,animals)andhabitatssuchasthat

oftheirapaypalm(Lepidocaryum tenue)

05 Cleanwater,withoutcontaminationfrompetroleum

orheavymetals

ASSETS

01 TheproposalfortheACRMaijunacomes

fromthecommunitiesthemselves,thatis,they

createdtheinitiativeanditisbeingpromotedby

FECONAMAI.1Theirpetitionisbasedonthefact

thattheareaispartoftheancestralterritoryofthe

Maijunapeopleandontheirdesiretoprotectits

biodiversity,nowthreatenedbyillegallogging.

02 Maijunaknowledgeoftheproposedconservation

areawasdemonstratedthroughtheparticipatory

mappingproject,coordinatedbytheethnobiologist

MichaelGilmoreandhisstudents.Usingthis

knowledge,communitymembersreconstructedthe

Maijuna’sculturalgeographyonthemaps,including

rivers,streams,aguajales (palmswamps),ancient

settlements,andplacesrelatedtohistoricaland

mythicaleventsoftheirpeople(Figs.9D,25).

03 Maijunacommunitiesareinterconnectedthrough

awidenetoffamilyrelationships,whichrepresents

anassetwithregardtogeneratingproposals

togetherandfollowingthemthroughtocompletion

andcompliance.

04 TheMaijunaeconomy,whichisorientedtoward

satisfyingtheirownconsumptionneeds,not

thoseofthemarketplace,guaranteesthatnatural

resourceswillnotbesubjectedtoexcessiveor

destructivepressures.

05 Althoughtheterritoryhassufferedincursionsof

illegalextractors(inparticular,thoseexploiting

1 Federación de Comunidades Nativas Maijuna.

commerciallumber),theirimpacthasnotyetaffected

thearea’sbiodiversity,whichhasmaintainedmost

ofitsfloralandfaunalrichness.Takingadvantageof

thisrichnesswillunquestionablybeimportantfor

improvingtheMaijuna’squalityoflifeoncethe

ACRMaijunahasbeenofficiallydesignated.

06 Thevigilancepracticedbythecommunities,

especiallyPuertoHuamán,NuevaVida,and

Sucusari,isaclearindicationthattheMaijuna

haveseriouslytakenontheprotectionofthearea’s

biodiversityandthecontrolofillegalactivities.

Somewhatlessaggressively,SanPablodeTotolla

hasstoppedtheactivityofColombianloggers

withinitsterritorywhocomeinbytheAlgodón

River,althoughtheycontinuetoaffectotherareas,

includingpartsoftheproposedACRMaijuna.

07 ThelocationofthethreeMaijunacommunitiesin

theNapoRiverbasin(Sucusari,PuertoHuamán,

andNuevaVida)hasstrategicimportanceforthe

protectionofthearea,becausetheycontrolthetwo

mainrivers,theSucusariandtheYanayacu,which

originatewithinit.Evenifillegalloggersmanage

toenterbythevariousvaraderos(trailsconnecting

rivers),timbercanberemovedonlybywayofthose

rivers,givingthecommunitiesveryeffectivecontrol,

which,afterafewconfiscations,willdiscouragenew

illegalincursions.

08 Controllingillegalloggingwillhavepositive

repercussionsforotherdestructiveactivities,such

ashuntingandfishingbyloggersassecondary

activities.Theseactivitieswilldecreasebecausefew

outsidersentertheareaonlytohuntorfish,andthey

tendtobefromneighboringcommunities.

09 Thepopulationhasrapidlyacceptedtheproposal

becausetheyunderstandthatpropermanagement

oftheareaoffersthemeconomicbenefits(e.g.,

sustainableharvestingofthepalmfruits)and

significantimprovementsintheirqualityoflife.

10 Anotherassetisthefactthatcommunitymembers

haveincorporatednewconceptsandstrategiesinto

theirlanguageandtheirknowledgebaserelatedto

biodiversitycontrol,suchassustainableharvesting,


resourcemanagementgroups,andcommunity-based

vigilanceandcontrolcommittees.

THREATS

01 Currently,theprincipalthreatagainsttheproposed

ACRisthenationalprojecttoconstructahighway

betweenIquitosandElEstrecho,whichwould

runthroughthemiddleoftheareaandcutoffthe

communityofSanPablodeTotolla(Fig.11A).The

threatismadegreaterbythefactthattheproject,

whichitselfwillgenerateamajorinfluxofcolonists

intotheareaanddisorganizedsettlementalongthe

highway,mayincludeacolonizationplanfora5-km

bandoneithersideofthethoroughfare.

02 Supportforthehighwayprojectonthepartof

someofficialsofGORELrepresentsathreattothe

proposalbecausethatmayweakenitfromtheinside.

ItiscriticalthatGOREL,whichwillguidethe

proposalthroughPROCREL,adoptaunifiedvoice

toopposethishighway.

03 Anotherseriouspotentialthreattotheproposed

ACRMaijunaispetroleumexploitation.Although

thisactivityisnotcurrentlyoccurring,thereare

disturbinglevelsofharmfulsubstancesinthe

NaporiveralongtheproposedACR(presumably

originatingintheEcuadoriansegmentofthatriver).

OilexploitationwithintheproposedACRwill

directlyaffectwatercoursesarisingthere.

04 TheillegalincursionofColombianloggersthrough

theAlgodónbasinintotheareaoftheproposalis

aseriousthreatbecausetheyhaveprovedcapable

ofviolencewhentheirinterestsarethreatened.

(Somewhotriedtostopthemwereassassinated

orforcedoutofthearea.)Itiscriticalthatthe

FuerzasArmadas,whichpatroltheriverandhave

surveillancepostsinstrategicareas,strictlycontrol

theincursionsoftheloggers.Ifnot,andthehighway

isbuilt,thecurrentdrugtradealsowillincrease.

05 CommunicationamongtheMaijunacommunities,

andbetweenthemandsupportinstitutionsand

GOREL,islimitedbythelackofradiotelephone

equipment.Coordinationofeventsand,inthe

future,ofdevelopmentstrategiesfortheareawillbe

limiteduntilthisproblemissolved.

06 Therealsoisalackofadequatecommunication

betweenMaijunacommunitiesandother

communitiesandsettlementsintheregion.

NotuntilMaijunacommunitiesareofficially

recognizedasguardiansofthearea,and

communicationwiththeothercommunities

andsettlementsintheareaisimprovedwillthere

beabroadunderstandingofthebenefitsthatthe

ACRMaijunawillbringtoallinhabitants.

07 Despiteadvancesthathavebeenmade,many

residentscontinueextractingresourcesusing

nonsustainablemethods,suchascuttingpalmsand

usingpoisonsinfishing.Thisisunderstandable,

however,sincetheseeffortshavejustbegunand

PAP’ssupportprojectwiththecommunitieshasnot

madesignificantprogress.

08 Theorganizingprocessofthecommunitiesand

ofthefederationisalsointhebeginningstages

andwillrequiregreatertrainingofleaders

andresidents,greaterclarityinthedesignand

implementationofstrategiesforachievingthe

objectives,moreopportunitiesforgroupdiscussion

amongcommunityrepresentatives,andbetter

communicationbetweenthemandtheofficials

ofFECONAMAI.

09 Maijunaidentityhasbeenaffectedbyevangelization,

colonization,anddominationimposedbypatrones

who,inthepast,cameinandusedtheMaijuna

aslaborersfortheirownbenefit.Alltheseoutside

influences,includingtheState,havehelpedto

underminethepopulation’ssenseoftheirown

identity,knowledge,values,practices,and

institutions.ThelossoftheMaijunalanguageis

importantinthissense,notbecausewebelievethat

culturesshouldremainunchangedthroughtime(in

fact,nocultureisstatic),butbecauseinthiscase

thelossisanexpressionofshameonthepartofthe

Maijunaandofadesirebythepeopletohidetheir

origin.Thissenseofself-shameisacorrosiveelement


fortheconstructionofanhonorablepresentlooking

confidentlyforwardtowardthefuture.

10 Problemsofidentityaffecttheyoungpeoplethe

most,whohavemorecontactwiththeworldofthe

citiesandaremoresensitivetomoderntrends,as

wellastomanifestationsofracism.Theyarealsothe

mostlikelytoemigratetothecities.

11 ThelossoftheMaijunalanguageisalsoa

consequenceofmanymixedmarriages,especially

withQuechuasoftheNapoandwithmestizos

(peopleofmixedrace),whichresultsindaily

communicationbeingconductedinSpanish,since

itisgenerallyknownbybothmembersofacouple.

Althoughmanypeopleinthecommunities,including

leadersofFECONAMAI,attributethelossofthe

languagetothelackofbilingualteachers,themain

causeisthedecreaseinuseofthevernacularlanguage

inthehome,whichistheplaceitmustbelearned.

12 Excessconsumptionofalcohol,whichhasincreased

inthepasttenyearsandhasespeciallyaffected

Yanayacucommunities,isprobablyaresultof

problemscausedbysocialdisarticulationandalack

ofconfidenceintheirownbeliefsandinstitutions.

13 Sanitationinthecommunities,althoughnotathreat

tothesuccessoftheproposedACRMaijuna,isa

threattopeople’shealthenvironmentinthebroader

sense,whichincludestheimmediateenvironment

whereonelives.Alongwiththeproblemoflatrines,

whicharescarceandinpoorcondition,thereisthe

relatedproblemofdomesticatedanimals,whichare

allowedtoroamatwill;thuscowsand“buffalos”

wanderthroughoutthecommunityandleavefeces

everywhere.Evenmoreseriousistheproblem

weobservedwithpigsinNuevaVidaandPuerto

Huamán,whicharemuchmorenumerousthanthe

otheranimalsandhaveagreateroverallimpacton

communities’health.Pigsarekeptinthebottompart

ofhouses,wheretheygenerateamixtureofdirt,

feces,andurine,whichisabreedinggroundforall

typesofdiseases.Thesituationbecomesevenworse

whenpigsrootaroundinthelatrines.

RECOMMENDATIONS

01 TheformaldeclarationoftheACRMaijunashould

clearlystatethattheinitiatorsoftheproposal,its

primarybeneficiaries,andthoseresponsiblefor

itsdevelopmentaretheMaijunacommunities,

representedbytheirfederation.Animportant

argumenttojustifythedecisiontoputforththis

proposalisthefactthatthearearepresentsancestral

territoryfortheMaijunapeople.

02 UsetheresultsoftheProyectoMaijunadeMapeo

ParticipativoandtheArcGISmapitproducedto

ensurethatthedefinedboundariesoftheACR

Maijunacloselyreflectthespatialpatternsof

resourceuseandculturalhistoryoftheMaijuna

withintheSucusari,Algodón,andYanayacu

basins.Themajorityofbiologicallyandculturally

significantmappingsitesshouldbeincludedwithin

theproposedACR,(Figs.9D,25).2

03 ThenucleusofMaijunaancestralterritories—

wheretheheadwatersoftheSucusari,Yanayacu,

andAlgodoncilloriversarefound—shouldreceive

thestrictestprotectionpossible.TheMaijunararely

enterorusethisarea(Figs.2A,9D,25),which

couldserveasabreedinggroundandasa“source

area”foreconomicallyandculturallyimportant

animalsandplants.Thisisalsotheareawhere

high-terracehabitatswereidentifiedduringthe

rapidinventory;thusahighlevelofprotectionhere

wouldalsosafeguardunique,previouslyunknown

vegetationtypes.3

04 Despitewhatisstatedintherecommendations

above,othercommunitiesshouldnotbeprevented

fromusingcertainresourcesiftheycomplywith

therulesestablishedtomanagethem,withregard

toharvestsustainability,extractionlevelforeach

resourcetype,andnoncommercialuse.

05 Tomaketheprecedingfeasible,itisnecessaryto

defineveryclearlythesettlementsandcommunities

aroundtheACRMaijunathatwillmakeuppart

ofitsbufferzone.Weproposethatthefollowing

2 This recommendation was provided by M. Gilmore.3 This recommendation was provided by M. Gilmore.


settlementsbedesignatedaspartofthebufferzone

oftheproposedarea:Tutapishco,NuevaFlorida,

andNuevaUnión(thefirsttwoareadjacenttothe

proposedACRMaijuna,andthethirdisveryclose);

upriver,CruzdePlata(whichdespitebeingonthe

rightbankoftheNapousesresourcesfromthearea

oftheproposedACR)anditsannexNuevaArgelia,

alongwithMorónIslaandNuevoSanRoque

(theselastthreeareontheleftbank,closetothe

boundaryoftheACRMaijuna);anddownriver

fromTutapishco:Copalillo,PuertoLeguízamo,

NuevoOriente,BuenPaso,andSaraIsla.Giventhe

locationofthesecommunities,PROCRELshould

considerthemtobepartofthebufferzoneand,

inkeepingwiththeANPlaw,givethem“special

treatmentthatguaranteestheconservationofthe

ProtectedNaturalArea”(Art.61.1),whichshould

includelegalactionssuchasconsolidatingtheir

legalstandingascommunities(whethernativeor

campesino)andgrantingtitletotheirlands.Inthe

caseofthetwolocatedontherightbankofthe

Napo,whichareneighborsoftheproposedACR

Maijuna,theirboundariesshouldextendtothe

area’sboundary.

06 Offertrainingintheimportanceofenvironmental

managementandonthesustainableharvestingof

nonwoodforestproducts,aswellasoffishand

otheranimals.Thereshouldalsobetraininginthe

rulesthatshouldbefollowedtogainaccesstothe

resourcesoftheACRMaijuna.

07 UsetheresultsandtheArcGISmapfromthe

participatorymappingproject(seethechapterin

thisreport)tohelpestablishplansandstrategiesfor

resourcemanagementbecausetheycontaincritical

informationconcerningthespatialdistribution

andseasonaluseofculturally,biologically,and

economicallyimportantresources.4

08 ReinforceeffortsonthepartofMaijunacommunities

intheNapobasin(Sucusari,PuertoHuamán,and

NuevaVida)tocontrolillegalresourceexploitation

withintheproposedareafortheACRMaijuna.Even

4 This recommendation was provided by M. Gilmore.

thoughtheareahasnotyetbeenestablished,the

factthataproposalexistsforitsestablishmentand,

aboveall,thatithasnotbeendesignatedaforest

ofpermanentproductionandthereforenoforest

contractshavebeenissuedaresufficientreasons

fortheGORELtosupportthesecommunitiesby

authorizingthemtocontrolillicitactivitiesinthearea.

09 Inaddition,theauthorizationmentionedinthe

previousrecommendationshouldbepublicizedon

theradio,ontelevision,andinthepress,aswellas

onsignsplacedinthethreecommunities—withthe

GORELlogo—andindicatethatthecommunities

havetheauthoritytocontroltheentryofoutsiders

whointendtoengageinprohibitedactivities(such

ascommerciallogging)oractivitiescontraryto

resourcemanagement(suchasfishingwithpoisons

orprohibitedequipment,ortakingmorefishthan

isnecessaryforpersonalconsumptionwiththe

presumedgoalofsellingthem).

10 InthecaseoftheSanPablodeTotollacommunity,

locatedontheAlgodón,inadditiontowhatis

recommendedforMaijunacommunitiesabove,it

isessentialtocoordinateeffortswiththeVRegión

Militar,sincealargepartoftheproblemofillegal

loggingbyColombiansisduetothearmy’spassivity.

ThecurrentgarrisonatthemouthoftheAlgodón

onthePutumayoshouldcontroltheentryofillegal

ColombianandPeruvianloggersthroughthatbasin

andnotaccedetotheirinterests,asisnowthecase.

11 Anadditionalrecommendationtoensurethatthe

Algodóngarrison,andallthoseinthePutumayo,

fulfillsitsfunctiontocontroltheillegalentryof

loggersisthattroopsassignedtotheVRegión

remainnolongerthansixmonths,toprotectthem

frompressurefromtheillegalextractors.

12 StoptheBellavista-Mazán-ElEstrechohighway

project(Fig.11A).Thecommunitieswerenever

consultedaboutthisplan,whichconstitutesaclear

violationoftheirrightofconsultation(Convention

169andtheUNDeclarationontheRightsof

IndigenousPeoples).Thehighwaywillaffecttheir

territorialrightsandtheirproposalforthecreation


oftheACRMaijunabecauseitgoesthrough

territorytheyconsiderancestral,whichincludesa

community(SanPablodeTotolla)towhichtheyhave

hadtitleformanyyears.Aswehavestatedelsewhere

inthisreport,ifthisprojectisnotstopped,itwould

notmakesensetocontinuewiththeproposalforthe

ACRMaijuna,sincetheprojectincludesaplanto

colonizebothsidesofthehighway.

13 PayattentiontotheissueofMaijunaidentity,which

isalsooneoftheobjectivesofFECONAMAI.

Importantsupportwillbeprovidedbyaprojectled

byanlinguistfromtheUnitedStatesthatwillbegin

studyofthelanguagenextyear—tosystematizeit

andproduceadictionaryandprimersforteaching

it.Itisvitalthatthesetextsbeusedtoteach

thelanguageandthattheynotendupsimplyas

archiveddocuments.

14 Visitsbyleadersofotherindigenousorganizations

tocommunicatetheirorganizationalexperiences

willbeveryimportantfortheMaijuna’sorganizing

efforts.ItwillbevaluablefortheMaijunatointeract

withindigenousleaderswhospeaktheirown

languagesandexpressinsimpletermstheelements

oftheirownidentities.

15 Solvetheproblemofcommunityisolationcausedby

radiotelephoneequipmentthatiseitherlackingor

malfunctioningbecauseithinderspeople’sabilityto

communicatewitheachotherabouteventsorabout

coordinatingactionstoprotectthearea,aswellas

theirabilitytocommunicatewithaidorganizations

andGOREL.

16 Reinforcetrainingintechniquesforsustainable

harvestingofbiodiversityproducts(aguajeandother

palms)andinthemanagementofbodiesofwater

andwildanimals,bothintheMaijunacommunities

andinthoselocatedinthebufferzone.

17 Withrespecttotheharvestingofpalmfruits,

instructionontechniquesforsustainable

management(e.g.,theuseofclimbinggearasan

alternativetocuttingthepalms,Fig.10D)should

beincorporatedintotheprimaryandsecondary

educationalcurriculums,becauseoftheimportance

oftheseresourcesfortheproposedACRMaijuna

andfortheentireLoretoregioningeneral.

18 Preparesimple,clearpublicitymaterialsthatexplain

whattheACRMaijunais,whowillberesponsible

foritsmanagement,whatactivitieswillbeprohibited

andallowed,andproceduresthatshouldbefollowed

toacquirepermissiontoaccessthearea.Lastly,the

documentshouldalsoincludethepenaltiesthatwill

beimposedifrulesarebroken.

19 PAPshouldstepupitstrainingprogramfor

communitymemberssothatthecontroland

surveillancecommitteecanbeassembled,atask

thatshouldbegivenahighpriority.

20 Bodiesofwaterwithintheareaandthebufferzone

shouldbeidentified,alongwiththeirusers,inorder

toassigntheirmanagementandaccessrightstothe

communitiesthatusethem.Thisstrategywillsolve

thecurrentsituationofchaoticuse,overseenbya

ministry(theMinisteriodelaProducción)thatisnot

on-site,isunabletocontrolfishingmethodsusedin

thearea,andissuesextractionpermitswithoutany

knowledgeofthearea.

21 Forthepreviousrecommendationtobesuccessful,

italsorequiresstrongerjointcommittees,involving

localcommunities,onfishingandthedrafting

ofclearrulesontheuseofequipment,openand

closedseasons,prohibitionoftoxicsubstances,and

catchlimits.

22 SolvethesanitationprobleminPuertoHuamán

andNuevaVidacausedbytheraisingofpigs,

cattle,andbuffalos,whichspreadfecesallaround

theresidentialareas.Raisinganimalsincontrolled

spaces(potreros)istheonlywaytocontrolhigh-

risksourcesofinfectionforthepopulationand,

atthesametime,takeadvantageofthepastures.

Sinceinthecaseofpigsthiswillrequireanew

feedingsystem,itwouldbeworthinvestigating

thepossibilityofconstructingsmallmillstogrind

aguaje-palmseedstomakeaconcentraterichin

proteinsandfats,whichcouldbesupplementedwith

fruitgrowninthearea,likepijuayo(aBactrispalm)

andpan de árbol (breadfruit,Artocarpus).


23 RequestcartographicinformationfromtheProyecto

EspecialdeDesarrolloIntegraldelaCuencadel

Putumayo(PEDICP),becausetheinformation

availablefromPAPisverylimited:inparticular,

up-to-dateinformationonthelocationofpopulation

centersalongtheNapoclosetotheproposed

ACRMaijuna.ItislikelythatPEDICPalsohas

cartographicinformationonpotentialresources

inthearea.

24 ForfutureprojectsundertakenbyPROCRELand

PAP,werecommendthattheybeginbystudyingthe

datathatwepresenthere,sincetheycomplementthe

rapidbiologicalinventoryandalsoprovidenecessary

backgroundfordevisingaworkplanbasedonfirst-

handinformationonthearea.

25 Carryoutacomprehensiveandsystematicstudyof

theMaijunalanguagethatwillfacilitateproduction

oflanguagematerials(e.g.,adictionaryandprimers)

andimplementationofalanguage-revitalization

program,insupportofMaijunadesirestoconserve

theiruniqueandendangeredlanguage.5

26 Undertakeethnobiologicalstudiestoinvestigate

anddocumentspeciesofplantsandanimalsthat

areeconomicallyandculturallyimportanttothe

Maijuna.Thisinformationwillservetohelpfocus

conservationeffortsandmanagementplansonthese

importantspeciesandtheirrespectivehabitats.6

27 InvestigateMaijunaculturaltraditionsandvalues

(includingtraditionalecologicalknowledge,stories,

songs,resourceuse,andmanagementpractices)and

workwithFECONAMAItoinvigorateandreinforce

thosetraditionsandvalues,whichwillstrengthen

themanagementandconservationoftheproposed

ACRMaijuna.7

5–7 These recommendations were provided by M. Gilmore.

Documents

ENGLISH CONTENTS - The Field Museumfm2.fieldmuseum.org/rbi/pdfs/RI22_English.pdfPERÚ: MAIJUNA JULIO/JULY 2010 141 ENGLISH CONTENTS (for Color Plates, see pages 23–42) 142 Participants