ENGLESKI JEZIK I

ELEKTROTEHNIKA 2011/12

INTRODUCTION Each unit of these texts is an interdisciplinary look at a topic which provides a focus for debate. My aim is to provide a good, intellectually challenging language education. All areas including engineering, engineering ethics, technology, language arts, social studies, mathematics, science and business English are covered. I suggest techniques involving all students as active participants in selecting topics and materials. Cooperative learning, put quite simply, is a type of instruction whereby students work together in small groups to achieve a common goal. Cooperative learning has become increasingly popular as a feature of Communicative language teaching (CLT) with benefits that include increased student interest due to the quick pace of cooperative tasks, improved critical thinking ability, and the opportunity to practice both the productive and receptive skills in a natural context. The array of benefits extends beyond increased language learning to include increased self-esteem and tolerance of diverse points of view. (Johson and Johnson 1989; Kagan 1995; McCafferty, Jacobs, and Iddings 2006; Slavin 1995). Johnson and Johnson (1999) indicate five features of a successful cooperative learning activity:

students learn that their success depend upon working together interdependently students are individually accountable while achieving group goals students support and assist one anothers success through face-to-face interactions students develop social skills by cooperating and working together effectively students as a group have the opportunity to reflect on the effectiveness of working

together When these principles are realized, cooperative learning creates a rich environment for students to learn language and simultaneously develop their capacities for collaborative twenty-first-century communication and problem solving. English Teaching Forum, Volume 47, Number 4, 2009 I also suggest techniques as elicitation the process of drawing out something, of provoking a response. Using elicitation as a questioning strategy in the language classroom focuses discussion on the learners on their ideas, opinions, imagination, and involvement. Classroom discussions that use elicitation as a technique allow students to draw on what they know on existing schemata/scaffolding and provide for a rich sharing of ideas within socio-cultural context (Huong 2003). Classroom discussions can so build on the experiences and language of learners by inviting them to discuss their experiences. I would also like to use students as resources by letting them share their knowledge and expertise with others in the class emphasizing their experience and knowledge and taking the focus off of the text as the source of authority. Therefore, elicitation helps learners become more self-reliant. The student could help by sharing their ideas, interests, and aims and by being engaged members in collaborative learning. Through the strategies of elicitation, gapping extension or adaption, students interact more, construct solutions together and with this e-mail book have the tools to participate in and contribute to their education.

The students will also be systematically taught English grammar and creative writing. My curriculum was developed to provide students of all the necessary support in the form of the roundtable discussion, which could give them opportunities to speak in front of an audience with confidence, enlarge their vocabulary and give them chances to learn from classmates - their colleagues. Any 'general statement' whether such a statement is made on human behaviour, art, science or history must be questioned. Man's knowledge of his world could be built up by analytical observation and pieced together rather like a jigsaw puzzle. Our history has taught us that objective observation is impossible because of the various strata of human and individual consciousness. Therefore, involving the science, technology and social studies, we not only lighten the curriculum and ideas but also allow students to see natural ties across curriculum and across cultures. I would also like to stress the genius of students by having students engage in this curriculum, dialogue with each other, sharing their attitudes and experiences with each other. We emphasize communication, scientific outlook, and deep insight into various phenomena by reassessing the common views and outlooks. Various units that are presented emphasize more student-centred approach that may fit their interests. Students shouldnt be afraid of holistic approach, an approach from various standpoints and an approach including activities such as listening, watching movies, reading, writing and discussing. Moreover, they should not be afraid of reassessing. Therefore, I offer you various texts, texts with various registers, styles and standpoints. In the end, you might also share with me how you go implementing your English. I wish you all a happy, healthy and prosperous new academic year full of exciting opportunities, high motivation, goodwill, good feelings, good intentions and good communication. Your teacher of English Senior lecturer Ksenija Mance

SOME USEFUL PHRASES FOR YOUR DISCUSSION Making a point/Stating an argument Whats your opinion / point of view . ? How do you feel about .? What do you think of .? In my opinion . . .. From my point of view . I reckon . Personally, I think/ feel . . . I believe (that). . . The point is this: ... If you ask me. I think. . . I'd like to say this: .. . As far as I'm concerned, ... But speaking of it, could you tell me . It seems to me that .. As I see it, .

Clarifying

What I said/meant was: .. . I did not say. . . . What I did say was. . . I think you (must have) misunderstood me/what I said. Let me repeat/rephrase what I said. I'm not saying that. What I am saying is (that)... Yes, but don't forget I was only referring to.. .

Disagreeing with an argument (I'm afraid) I disagree. On the other hand, of course, ... That's not (entirely) true, . .. I can't possibly agree with/accept that. I hate to disagree with you, but. . . Yes/All right, but don't you think.. .

Asking for an opinion Well? What do you think? Do/Don't you agree? What's your view (then)? How do you see it (then)? Let's have your opinion.

Challenging an argument That can't be (true/right). But what about. . . ? What's your answer to that? Do you mean to tell me that. . . ? Are you seriously suggesting that. .. ? If you don't. . ., then you should say what you mean.

Agreeing with an argument Quite. Exactly. That's (very) true. So (do) I. Neither/Nor (do) I. I entirely agree. I agree with you entirely. You're absolutely right. That's a good point. I couldn't agree with you more. That's just what I think. How interesting.

Interrupting an argument Excuse me, did you say/do you mean (that). . . Before you make your next point. .. So what you're saying is (that)... Qome to the point! What you really think k (that)... Does this make sense to you? Hoping to hear from you again before long. I must go home immediately, give my apologies to Mister XY Thats it. It was on the tip of my tongue. I cant help thinking I dont doubt that

Summarizing a discussion Then we agree. (Basically), we're in agreement. (I think) we'd better agree to differ. Can you admit that you are wrong?

LECTURE 1

Section 1 An Introductory Lecture to the Course as a Whole

Section 2 Placement Test

Section 3 Language Arts

LECTURE 2

Section 1 Presentations or Team Work Language Arts Where Does English Come From?

The American English American versus English

Section 2 Modal Verbs

Section 3 Engineering Ethics

The English language has come a long way since it first took shape in the island of Britain, sometime in the 5th century AD. It took another 700 years of evolution before it sounded anything like the English we recognise today. And when Shakespeare was writing, in what is often thought of as the golden age of the language, only about four million people spoke it. Now in the early 21st-century, English has become the pre-eminent global language. Nearly a quarter of the worlds population is estimated to have some knowledge of English and 400 million people speak it as their mother tongue. If beings from outer space landed on Earth tomorrow they would most likely assume that the human language was English. What is the future of the language? Will it be more important than ever or could it be supplanted as the global lingua franca by another language German, Spanish or Chinese perhaps or even by the artificial language Esperanto?

LANGUAGE ARTS by Isaac Asimov 1 The world has been shrinking for a long, long time. No place on earth is more than hours away from any place else by fast plane or more than fractions of a second away by radio and television. 2 What this means is that any two people on earthany two peoplemight potentially find themselves having to communicate with each other. What language will they use? If we were to pick at random two people on earth, the chances are they'll have to use sign language. 3 More people on earthperhaps 470 millionspeak Mandarin Chinese than any other language. Almost all of those millions are concentrated in China, however, and make up only 11 percent of the earth's population and perhaps not more than three-fifths of the population of China. 4 The next most common language is English, which is spoken by perhaps 340 million people. This represents only a little more than 8 percent of the earth's population, but it is a very widespread language, thanks to the British Empire. English is spoken by 10 percent or more of the population in 32 different nations and, in every case, by a much larger percentage of the educated and technologically trained in those nations (where it is not already the native tongue). 5 English is the almost universal language of science, business, and international politics. It might be thought, then, that as the world is knit together more closely by ever-improving means of transportation and communication, English will become ever more dominant and will, in effect, become the global languageeither the first or second language of every person on the planet. 6 But there's a catch! 7 There could be nationalistic reactions against English. It may seem to billions of people that those who speak English as a native language would have an advantage over those for whom it is a learned language. The English-language heritage in literature and in culture generally would cast all others into the shade. 8 It is easy to imagine a linguistic revolt: a refusal to speak English on the pretense of not understanding it. Many French Canadians today, for instance, feel that their own pride requires that they not understand English. There might well be movements to make Gaelic and Welsh stronger within the British Isles. 9 Other languages suffer revolts. India uses English as an official language because the domination of no one Indian language will be permitted by those speaking others. In the Caucasus, Georgians mounted a rare public demonstration against Soviet policy, when they protested an attempt to make Russian the official language of their Soviet Republic. 10 What's the alternative? Interpreters? Whether interpretation is human or computerized, could we trust it? How easy it would be to make small errors in interpretation and how costly those might be. 11 Can we have any other global language? Surely any language other than English would create even louder objections the world over. 12 There are artificial languages, of course. The best-known of these is Esperanto, invented in 1887. It is sensible and easy to learn, but it is essentially a distillation of the Romance languages and might therefore rouse non-European hostility. Besides, artificial languages seem to lack vitality. In fact there are only about 100,000 speakers of Esperanto. Other artificial languages are even less successful. 13 And yet the problem may well take care of itself, for on a smaller scale solutions have arisen with no one's purposeful interference. In the Mediterranean world in late medieval times, a lingua franca ("language of the Franks," i.e., Europeans) developed among the merchants of the area to handle absolutely necessary communication. It was a mixture of Italian, French, Spanish, Greek, and Arab. Similarly, in eastern Asia, various mixtures, called "pidgin English," were developed to break the language barrier. 14 As communications around the world improve, and as it will be increasingly the common folknot just educated businessmen and scientistswho wish to communicate, lingua terra, a "language of the world," may slowly arise. English will make up a large part of it, yes, but every other language will add vocabulary, idiom, and grammar. 15 It could end as a fearful construction, with rules all its own, bearing no clear mark of any one national language. All human beings would have to learn it, in addition to their own languages, and none would have an advantage over others by the mere accident of place of birth. Lingua terra could end up with a vocabulary, a flexibility, a richness, surpassing any other, so that it could develop a mighty literature of its own. 16 It might then, by its mere existence, do more to emphasize the familyhood of humanity than a million sermons on the subject laid end to end.

ASSIGNMENT 1 VOCABULARY LIST FIND SYNONYMS - a different shade of meaning shrink, shrank, shrunk make or become smaller, compress

The information age and information revolution has compressed, shrunk time and distance.

fraction small part or bit at random without aim or purpose pick choose, select

If we were to pick at random kad bi nasumce birali make up form, constitute, compose the most common language is English they can all use this language it is to the common advantage to everyones advantage the world is knit together united closely ever-improving means of communication increasingly improving dominant dominating, most important or influential there is a catch there is a tricky or concealed drawback have an advantage over other people cast others into a shade cause to appear small, unimportant on the pretence of, under the pretence of friendship pretending mount a rare demonstration against to demonstrate against the world over all over the world throughout the world - worldwide sensible reasonable, practical rouse hostility, rouse wake up arose hostility, suspicion awaken on a smaller scale in small proportion solutions have arisen have come into existence, have appeared a language of the world may slowly arise come into existence end to end in a line with the ends touching lingua terra global language lingua franca any language that is widely used as a means of communication among speakers of other languages ASSIGNMENT 2 Discuss in your group the idea that the global spread of lingua terra is unprecedented (never known before) and the fact that English has been an international language for more than 50 years.

ASSIGNMENT 3 Discuss the following text LANGUAGE ARTS written by Isaac Asimov in groups and summarize ideas of each group as introductory notes:

A Group ......................................................................................................

......................................................................................................

1 The world has been shrinking for a long, long time. No place on earth is more than hours away from any place else by fast plane or more than fractions of a second away by radio and television. 2 What this means is that any two people on earthany two peoplemight potentially find themselves having to communicate with each other. What language will they use? If we were to pick at random two people on earth, the chances are they'll have to use sign language. 3 More people on earthperhaps 470 millionspeak Mandarin Chinese than any other language. Almost all of those millions are concentrated in China, however, and make up only 11 percent of the earth's population and perhaps not more than three-fifths of the population of China.

B Group ......................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................

4 The next most common language is English, which is spoken by perhaps 340 million people. This represents only a little more than 8 percent of the earth's population, but it is a very widespread language, thanks to the British Empire. English is spoken by 10 percent or more of the population in 32 different nations and, in every case, by a much larger percentage of the educated and technologically trained in those nations (where it is not already the native tongue). 5 English is the almost universal language of science, business, and international politics. It might be thought, then, that as the world is knit together more closely by ever-improving means of transportation and communication, English will become ever more dominant and will, in effect, become the global languageeither the first or second language of every person on the planet.

C Group ......................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................

6 But there's a catch! 7 There could be nationalistic reactions against English. It may seem to billions of people that those who speak English as a native language would have an advantage over those for whom it is a learned language. The English-language heritage in literature and in culture generally would cast all others into the shade. 8 It is easy to imagine a linguistic revolt: a refusal to speak English on the pretense of not understanding it. Many French Canadians today, for instance, feel that their own pride requires that they not understand English. There might well be movements to make Gaelic and Welsh stronger within the British Isles. 9 Other languages suffer revolts. India uses English as an official language because the domination of no one Indian language will be permitted by those speaking others. In the Caucasus, Georgians mounted a rare public demonstration against Soviet policy, when they protested an attempt to make Russian the official language of their Soviet Republic.

D Group ....................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................... 10 What's the alternative? Interpreters? Whether interpretation is human or computerized, could we trust it? How easy it would be to make small errors in interpretation and how costly those might be. 11 Can we have any other global language? Surely any language other than English would create even louder objections the world over. 12 There are artificial languages, of course. The best-known of these is Esperanto, invented in 1887. It is sensible and easy to learn, but it is essentially a distillation of the Romance languages and might therefore rouse non-European hostility. Besides, artificial languages seem to lack vitality. In fact there are only about 100,000 speakers of Esperanto. Other artificial languages are even less successful. 13 And yet the problem may well take care of itself, for on a smaller scale solutions have arisen with no one's purposeful interference. In the Mediterranean world in late medieval times, a lingua franca ("language of the Franks," i.e., Europeans) developed among the merchants of the area to handle absolutely necessary communication. It was a mixture of Italian, French, Spanish, Greek, and Arab. Similarly, in eastern Asia, various mixtures, called "pidgin English," were developed to break the language barrier.

E Group ......................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................

14 As communications around the world improve, and as it will be increasingly the common folknot just educated businessmen and scientistswho wish to communicate, lingua terra, a "language of the world," may slowly arise. English will make up a large part of it, yes, but every other language will add vocabulary, idiom, and grammar. 15 It could end as a fearful construction, with rules all its own, bearing no clear mark of any one national language. All human beings would have to learn it, in addition to their own languages, and none would have an advantage over others by the mere accident of place of birth. Lingua terra could end up with a vocabulary, a flexibility, a richness, surpassing any other, so that it could develop a mighty literature of its own. 16 It might then, by its mere existence, do more to emphasize the familyhood of humanity than a million sermons on the subject laid end to end. Isaac Asimov, the author of this article, writes science fiction stories. When you write descriptions of the future, you cannot be sure what things will be like. When you examine the present and try to guess the future, you use words like may, might, seem, and could. You might also use the subjunctive mode if it were...and the future tense. ASSIGNMENT 4 Scan (look over quickly) the article and see how many times the author uses the following words: may, seem, might, could. Now write a short answer to the question Should there be lingua terra one international language using may, might, seem, and could. Anyway, there are points for and against lingua terra.

ASSIGNMENT 5 Answer the following questions or discuss the points in groups

A Group 1. More people speak English as an auxiliary language than as a first language. 2. When did the English language begin to spread to countries outside the British Isles? How was

it spread? 3. How did English become so firmly rooted in some parts of the world, and which countries

exactly? 4. Why was its use in other parts of the world of a completely different nature? Give some

examples of the countries where English was the old imperial language. 5. Why is English still used in some of these countries although they are no longer British

colonies?

B Group 1. What are the reasons for this country's success in confirming English as the world's No. 1

international language? 2. Some linguists fear that English is breaking up into unintelligible varieties; that the time will

come when interpreters will be needed to translateone form of English into another. Others say that modern means of transport and communication ensure ample protection against this danger, but awareness of the risk seems to be growing. Think about this and discuss.

3. Perhaps the best solution is to leave things as they are. After all, the same linguists also state that it will take over 200 years before any really serious linguistic difficulties arise. Discuss this attitude.

4. Mandarin Chinese is spoken by 700 million people whereas English is the most widespread, with 400 million speakers. English has the largest vocabulary, with approximately 300,000 technical words. Do you think that Chinese is too complex to be a world language?

5. Many varieties of English could be divided into three main categories: national, group and individual. Let us consider national varieties first.

C Group 1. George Orwell, the British writer, was very interested in both politics and language, and in his

novel Nineteen Eighty-Four one of the central themes is the manipulation of language by politicians in an attempt to shape the thinking of the people. Discuss this part from the book: Don't you see that the whole aim of Newspeak is to narrow the range of thought? In the end we shall make thought crime literally impossible, because there will be no words in which to express it. Every concept that can ever be needed will be expressed by exactly one word, with its meaning rigidly defined and all its subsidiary meanings rubbed out and forgotten. Every year fewer and fewer words and the range of ..

2. English has become the global language lingua terra. Discuss the advantages of the native speakers over the non native ones. Native speakers have an advantage over non native speakers by the mere accident of place of birth. Discuss this statement.

3. Is it easy for you to understand a linguistic revolt? 4. Can we have any other global language? 5. Can criteria like language or culture become the basis for political disintegration?

D Group 1. A language of the world as lingua terra might slowly arise? Discuss this point.

Can lingua terra contribute to the familyhood of humanity? 2. The dream about power is as old as the mankind: it started by building the Babel Tower and

has been continued by turning the world into a global village. The prerequisite for obtaining such a dream is a common language the language that will be used by all people in the world. Will finally people be allowed that their dream come true? The Babel Tower fell apart and people got disintegrated at the moment when being intoxicated with their own power: they forget to communicate in the same language.

3. International migrations have been in full swing, and therefore, they need greater tolerance, understanding and respecting differences. Taking into consideration the diversity of language groups, neither language can claim the right on the linguistic superiority.

4. What does the expansion of the English language mean: linguistic imperialism or completing the construction of the Babel Tower?

5. It goes without saying that no two persons ever have an identical command of their common language. Certainly they have not precisely the same vocabulary. No two men are identical; no two styles are the same. No two people speak the same language in exactly the same way. All of this is implicit in the well-known phrase, Style is the man. Discuss.

E Group

1. Which English-speaking country now seems to have taken over the task of promoting the English language internationally?

2. To what extent do you think political considerations affect language, and vice versa? 3. Could English as a global language end as a fearful construction as Isaac Asimov pointed

up? 4. Where did a lingua franca develop in the 11th century? 5. What two types of interpreters are available today?

ASSIGNMENT 6 Read and write notes! Where does English come from? English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the only language that is spoken there today. English was originally a foreign language, imported by foreign invaders. These invaders were two Germanic tribes living in what is now Northern Germany, along the North Sea coast. They were called the Angles and the Saxons, and they spoke different dialects of the same language. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended. Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained the language of English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150. The reason why it is not still the language of England is that there were two more foreign invasions of the Island by people speaking different tongues - first the Northman or Vikings from Denmark, and then the Normans from Normandy in France. The result of these further invasions, particularly the second by the French-speaking Normans in A.D. 1066, was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the course of the next three centuries, into a compound language which is known as Middle English. Middle English is recognizably the ancestor of the English spoken, today (which Old English is not, and it was the common language of the inhabitants of England from about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500. As there were no more foreign conquests of the Island the language was from then on able to develop under its own impetus. There were no more radical changes and so the Middle English merged imperceptibly into the Early English of Shakespeare's age and then into the language spoken now. Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has survived, in one form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words in modern English are Anglo-Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed, hunger most of the propositions and conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs. When it was mixed with Norman French there were three main results: the grammar was simplified, the pronunciation and spelling became -and still are- much more complicated, and the vocabulary was enormously extended. French is a Latin language so the major part of the English vocabulary is now Latin in origin. That is also one reason why there are so many synonyms. In pairs of words like "wed" and "marry", fat and "corpulent", and "lively" and "vivacious", the first word is derived from Anglo-Saxon, the second, from Latin. A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. These changes are rapid in primitive societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the spread of education have fixed traditional usage. D.H. Spencer and A.S. Hornby

Listen to the tape and jot down some new interesting information. ASSIGNMENT 7 Write the subtitles for the passages in question forms. Where does English come from?

Up to now nobody has been able to count all the languages spoken in the world today. But there must be

about 3,000, two of which are far more common than any of the others: Northern Chinese, which is spoken by almost six hundred million people, and English, which is spoken by three hundred and sixty million people in Europe, India, Africa, America, Australia and New Zealand; 1,000 among American Indians, 750 in Sub-Sahara, 150 in India, 750 just on one island: New Guinea. Though international conferences are often conducted simultaneously in three or four languages, more often than not scientists and politicians from Russia, Japan, Germany, India, France and some remote African state will speak English together.

However, English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the

only language that is spoken there today. So, where have all the English words come from? Only very few have survived from the time when

Britain was inhabited by the Ancient-Britons, a Celtic tribe. They were masters of the island from the 6th century B.C. up to 55 B.C. when the island was invaded by the Romans, who ruled the country for several centuries. During that time Britain, was a province of the Empire, but very few Latin words from that period have remained: castra (a camp) appears in Lancaster, Leicester, Gloucester and Worcester; strata (a paved way) in Stratford, etc. By the fifth century the Roman Empire was falling to pieces, and the occupying forces had left the country.

English as a separate identifiable language is over 1,200 years old. As it was originally a foreign

language, imported by foreign invaders, English, like German, belongs to a group of related languages which may ultimately be said to have descended from Common Germanic (or proto-Germanic) as a distinct branch of the Indo-European group of languages. Ethnic and linguistic differentiation within the Germanic language community sooner or later put an end to the original unity.

So, it all began with the biggest invasion of all, the invasion of the island of Britain by three Germanic

tribes from northern Europe the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, in the year 499 A.D. Anno Domini. Although the Island had been inhabited since pre-historic times indeed Stonehenge was built by ancient Britons some 3,500 years ago the beginning of English dates from this invasion, when the pagan adventurers from Denmark and the lowlands of the Continent, what is now Northern Germany, along the North Sea coast, drove the native Celts and Romans out of what is now England, into the mountains and protective regions of Wales, and Scotland where the Celtic languages have survived, as in Brittany (France). The languages that these invaders spoke were three forms of Germanic; they spoke different dialects of the same language which had many words in common. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended.

From the tribe of Angles comes the name Englalond, Land of the Angles, and the name of the language but it was primarily the dialect of the West Saxons which became the standard speech, and developed into Old English. The first written records in English date from 700 A.D. and about this time Britain was invaded yet again by Scandinavian adventurers the Vikings. Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained the language of English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150.

The Germanic tribes took over very little from the Celtic or Latin apart from a few place names. Different though it is from "Old English", modern English contains many words from it. Indeed, most of the vital every day words are of Germanic origin: and, bright, come, find, good, hand, in, Tuesday, through, two, under, was, we, well, when, all of which remind us of German words which we, too, use every day. The reason why it is not still the language of England is that there were two more foreign invasions of the Island by people speaking different tongues - first the Northman or Vikings from Denmark, and then the Normans from Normandy in France. Toward the end of the eighth century the Danish Vikings started invading the coast of England and settled among the natives. This was quite natural since the languages spoken by the Danes were not unlike the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons, all these languages being of Germanic origin. However, a very large number of new words were added: call, fellow, get, hit, knife, leg, skin, sky, Thursday, happy, wrong, egg, bank. After some 200 years of fighting with the Anglo-Saxons, the Vikings came to an agreement with the Saxon King, Alfred the Great, to divide the island the Saxons in the west the Scandinavians, who were Norse speaking, in the east. England was therefore bi-lingual until the two groups, through intermarriage, became one people. The linguistic blend of Saxon and Norse was also a marriage. In the verb to be, for example, the third person singular he is is pure Saxon, but the plural, they are pure Norse. The word wife is Saxon, but the word husband came from the Norse arm from the Saxon, but leg from the Norse. Duru was the Saxon word for door, but vindu was the Norse word which gave us window so from this marriage, we have one language which we call Old English. It was a very complicated language compared to modern English: it was highly inflected that is, had many different endings for all words as in Latin or modern German and Russian. It also gave grammatical gender to nouns masculine, feminine and neuter like modern German and not only did it have singular and plural, but a third form called the dual form to indicate precisely two no more and no less. For example, in addition to the pronouns I and we in the first person, Old English had wit which means the two of us... both of us... you-and me but not them. Many words in Old English are still close enough to modern English for us to understand them. See if you can guess what these Old English words mean: Thencan cild wifmann muth nosu god niht Perhaps you could hear that thencan is the verb to think, cild in modern English is child, wifmann became woman, muth mouth, nosu nose, god niht good night. But most of Old English is unintelligible today without studying it as a separate language. Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has survived, in one form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words in modern English are Anglo-Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed, hunger most of the propositions and conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs. The next invasion of Britain and incidentally the last foreign invasion of the island in English history was in the year 1066. This invasion was far-reaching in many ways: the invading forces were again Scandinavians, but with a difference these Norsemen called Normans came from the north coast of France and were French speaking. Their leader William of Normandy, known as the Conqueror, conquered the Anglo-Saxons and had a claim on the throne of England. As his forces were victorious, William established himself as king and set about building London's two greatest tourist attractions: The Tower of London and Westminster Abbey. Norman French became the language of the court, the aristocracy of England, and the country once again became bi-lingual. We often say history repeats itself and this is just what happened to the language: in the course of 300 years, Old English absorbed Norman French and emerged as one language, much as had happened with Saxon and Norse before. Linguistically, the Norman Conquest meant the domination in England of a non-Germanic language, which over a period of almost three and a half centuries was to play a significant (although progressively decreasing) role as a means of communication among certain sections of the populationUnlike the Germanic Conquest of the larger part of Britain in the fifth and following centuries and the later Scandinavian invasions, the establishment of Norman rule in England did not lead to large-scale immigration and mass settlements of compatriots of the conquerors.

As a consequence of the Norman Conquest, political and economic power became concentrated in the

hands of a small group of great feudal landlords, which included the king himself, the clergy and the vassals of the king (feudal aristocracy).

The Normans were descendants of the "Norsemen" who had come from Scandinavia and settled in the north of France. They had adopted French as their language. William set up a kingdom on the island, and for three hundred years all the kings and the nobility spoke Norman-French. Thus two languages were spoken from 1066 till early in the fourteenth century. The result of this invasion was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the course of the next three centuries, gradually into a compound language which is known as Middle English.

Middle English is recognizably the ancestor of the English spoken today (which Old English is not),

and it was the common language of the inhabitants of England from about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500. When Anglo-Saxon was mixed with Norman French there were three main results: the grammar was

simplified, the pronunciation and spelling became - and still are - much more complicated, and the vocabulary was enormously extended. French is a Latin language so the major part of the English vocabulary is now Latin in origin. That is also one reason why there are so many synonyms. In pairs of words like: wed - marry, fat corpulent, lively vivacious, child infant, freedom liberty, love charity, a hearty welcome a cordial reception, the first word is derived from Anglo-Saxon, the second, from Latin.

Norman French enriched the language and gave English its unique blend of Germanic and Latinate structures and vocabulary. This is why today we can say the world's population or the population of the world and why only English has different words to distinguish the names of animals from their flesh which we eat: from the cow, we get beef; from the calf we get veal; from the sheep, mutton; from the pig, pork; and from the deer, venison. The names of the animals are Saxon, and the words for the meat are from French. This is not only interesting as a point of language, but as a point of sociology, because it reflects that the animals were raised by farmers who spoke Old English, but eaten by the aristocrats who spoke French.

Because England was bi-lingual, many phrases appeared in the language which contained one word of

Saxon origin coupled with a word of the same meaning, coming from French such as law and order. This way everybody knew the meaning, whether they only understood the Old English word law or they only understood the French ordre order. Many of these set phrases dating from the Middle Ages are just as common today in modern English. How many politicians in Britain and in the U.S.A. call for more law and order at election time! In the U.S. Senate, as in the British Parliament, there is a ways and means committee to find the methods of achieving a goal. The word ways from the Saxon the word means from the French the phrase ways and means still common after some seven or eight hundred years in the language. This merger of Saxon and Norman French we call Middle English. Bilingualism obviously remained a more or less widespread phenomenon in the ranks of the lesser nobility throughout most of the thirteen century and could even be found in the fourteenth century. But on the whole, the importance of French in England was declining rapidly in the course of the fourteenth century (especially the latter half) until it approached the status of an ordinary foreign language in the early fifteenth century, which is about three hundred and fifty years after the Battle of Hastings.

The first great English poet, Geoffrey Chaucer, wrote in Middle English in the 14th century about the same time as Dante Alighieri and Boccaccio. His best known work, The Canterbury Tales was written in 1386 and its vocabulary reflects the blend of the two language sources. In the following century, the printing press arrived in England and libraries were founded at Oxford, Cambridge and in London. The first printer, William Caxton, began to stabilize the written language and its spelling, when he set up his printing press in the precinct of Westminster Abbey. Even by the 15th century, Old English seemed a foreign language to him. The language was changing even in his lifetime, which is what he wrote in 1490.

As there were no more foreign conquests of the Island the language was from then on able to develop under its own impetus. There were no more radical changes and so the Middle English merged imperceptibly into the Early English of Shakespeare's age and then into the language spoken now. The English language was destined to become still richer and more hybrid. The Renaissance in 1500 brought about the rediscovery of the classics, and English was greatly enriched by a profusion of words directly taken from Latin and ancient Greek. Words of Greek and Latin origin were adopted in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, it has been said that the greater part of the classical dictionaries was poured into the English language at this time and even today when a new word is needed to name a new thing, Latin or Greek words, or syllables may be used: cinema, telephone, bicycle, television (which is a mixture of Greek tele = from a far and Latin visus = vision), from Latin, words like accommodate, capable, persecute, investigate and from Greek, words like apology, climax, physical, emphasis and so on. The flood of words from Latin and Greek did not end with the Renaissance and whenever we have needed a new word or name, we have tended to look to the classics to provide it from Greek: aerodrome, telegraph and telephone; from Latin: escalator, penicillin and the prefix mini for cars and skirts, for example. There are words of Italian origin (concerto, pavement, and potato), Dutch origin (dock, yacht) or words taken from the Indian languages, Turkish, Arabic, Persian, Russian, Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish and various African languages. ...... But back to the 16th century now, for what could be one of the greatest influences on the English language the birth of William Shakespeare in 1564 appropriately enough on the 23rd of April, the day dedicated to St. George Patron Saint of England. Curiously enough, Shakespeare also died on the 23rd of April, 52 years later. It will forever be a mystery how this man, of modest education became the greatest poet of the English language and the worlds most produced playwright. It has been said that in the nearly 400 years since his death there has never been a day when one or more of Shakespeares plays has not been played somewhere in the world. But even more important, perhaps, was his contribution to the language. However poorly educated a native English speaker may be, he cannot help using the words and phrases created by Shakespeare they are too much a part of English. Shakespeare gave the language, through his inventive genius, so many words, phrases and memorable sayings which simply didnt exist before. Today English is the richest language in the world. There are about 800 000 words. But don't worry: you needn't learn all of them. The average speaking vocabulary of a well-educated person is 5 000 words. And if you are able to use 2 000 common English words, you can always make yourself understood and you will get along wonderfully. ................................................................................................................................. A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. It is also a very variable social phenomenon in the sense that it varies through time. For language to keep functioning as an efficient instrument of mutual communication among the members of a continually changing society, it must constitute a system which is non-static, dynamic flexible and open in character. It originates and develops in the process of social interaction between the members of a community. These changes are rapid in primitive societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the spread of education have fixed traditional usage.

Adapted from Speak Up

ASSIGNMENT 8 After listening comprehension exercise answer the following questions in pairs!

1. Where is English mainly spoken?

2. What was the biggest invasion of Britain?

3. Who were the first foreign invaders?

4. In which parts of Great Britain have the Celtic languages still survived?

5. How is Anglo-Saxon language called by the historians?

6. State why this language is not still the language of England?

7. State some words of Germanic origin.

8. What happened after the conquest by the Northman or Vikings from Denmark?

9. What was the name of the language spoken by the Vikings?

10. What do you know about bilingualism in Great Britain?

11. What happened after Williams conquest?

12. Why it is said that history repeats itself?

13. Why is language important from sociological standpoint?

14. What languages is the present-day vocabulary of English composed of?

15. Give some examples of two words of different origin for the same thing and for the

same concept.

16. When were words of Greek and Latin origin adopted?

17. We are not free to say just what we like. Ordinary everyday conversation is narrowly

determined. It is a sort of roughly prescribed social ritual in which you generally say

what your friends expect you to say.

18. So, the world is indeed a stage and society is the author of the play. The grown man

in a modern society has to play many parts, and unless he knows his roles and his

lines he is no use in the play. If you do not know your part, there are no clues for the

other and no place for his lines either. The play then just falls through.

19. This is a sort of paraphrasing and analogy of Shakespeares lines from As You Like

It, II, 7, 139;

All the worlds a stage,

And all the men and women merely players:

They have their exits and their entrances;

And one man in his time plays many parts.

ASSIGNMENT 9

THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE America is a nation of immigrants a melting pot of English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Scandinavian, African and many other cultures. As the country absorbed these various peoples and turned them into Americans, most lost their native language and customs. But no ethnic group left the American language untouched. American English grew in vitality and variety along with the nation itself.

The first English settlers to reach America arrived in Virginia in 1607 and in Massachusetts in 1620. They all spoke the English of the early seventeenth century the language of Shakespeare and Milton. Most of them came originally from the south and south east of England. Although some of them had spent some years of exile in Holland they spoke with the accents of the southern part of their home country. To a large extent they kept that form of speech, but they soon learned to give old words new uses. They also took words from the local Indian languages for plants and animals that were new to them. Until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 over two thirds of the settlers in what later became the U.S. came from England. After that date many other peoples came to make a new life for themselves in the New World. These included Irish, French, Germans, Dutch. Italians, Slavs, and Scandinavians. All these peoples gave new words to the language of North America. The French gave such words as chowder and prairie. Sleigh came from the Dutch settlers. The Afro-Americans who had been taken from Africa as slaves to work on the rice and cotton plantations added words and structures from their own native languages. Some people today think that the very American expression O.K. comes from a similar African expression which was brought to America by the Afro-Americans.

Although all these people contributed in various ways to the language which was to become American English, there is one man who can be singled out as the person who did most to give American English an identity of its own. He was Noah Webster (1758-1843) He worked as a teacher, lawyer, journalist and essayist; he wrote on many subjects, but his two best-known works were his Blue-Backed Speller* (1783) and his American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). He is largely responsible for the differences which exist today between British and American spelling.

Webster had a practical approach to language and he simplified many of the

traditional English spellings. For example, he wrote favor, humor, and labor for the English favour, humour and labour. Since Webster's time many of his spellings have become acceptable in England, such as author, tailor and visitor. Public, jail and cider in their original English versions were publick, gaol and cyder. But there are other differences apart from vocabulary between American and British English. The idioms of American slang are often very different from those we have in Britain. For example, Cool it!, which is a way of telling someone to calm down.

Also, like the early settlers, Americans today are constantly inventing new words

and usages to meet their needs. They have given us the verb to televise from the noun television and combined the words sport and broadcast to give us sportcast. From American English we have all learned that we park our cars. In fact the word park was used in a slightly different way in Shakespeare's time, but the Americans have revived it and given it a new meaning.

*Blue-Backed Speller book (with a blue cover) used to teach and improve spelling.

In terms of pronunciation, there are three main types in America. These are New England, General American and Southern. General American is by far the most widely used. New England is the pronunciation which was used by John F. Kennedy. President Carter, who comes from Georgia, speaks with a Southern accent. If you listen to a recording of these two presidents you will be able to hear the difference quite clearly. Some American pronunciations are related to English ones. Americans say the words dance, fast and grass like people from the North of England with a short a. But in spite of many small variations the three American accents do not differ greatly from one another. One reason for this is that an important fact of American life has always been travel. People have moved to wherever work could be found and this has tended to level out differences in pronunciation. There are more differences in pronunciation between the various areas of Britain than there are in the whole of North America.

During the twentieth century the differences between American and British English seem to have been getting smaller. The reasons for this include the interchange of books and newspapers and the large numbers of American soldiers who came to Britain in the two World Wars, importing many American expressions. But more important today are the films, television and radio programmes which can bring the latest American slang to Britain instantly.

There are words from many different languages in English: from Latin, French and

Danish as a result of invasions throughout history, from colonized countries like India, but also from America and many other countries. No other language has been so quick or willing to let itself be influenced by other languages. If the English stumble on to a new food or thing or concept, then the word for it is quickly and wholly taken over.

From the Italians, we have piano, opera, soprano, umbrella, influenza, fresco etc. Two Italian navigators have a special place of honor in the American language. The name of Christopher Columbus lives on in the District of Columbia, Columbus Day and many other towns and cities named Columbus. Amerigo Vespucci' the first navigator to recognize America as a new continent, gave us our name from his first name. Later Italian immigrants brought us the names of familiar foods like pizza, spaghetti, and tutti-frutti ice cream.

From Spain we have cigar, cigarette, cork, cargo and embargo. Spanish has contributed more words to American English than any other language. The Spaniards had an early start at it, since they were the first Europeans to explore much of the American continent. They gave the names to many of the natural phenomena they saw such as alligators, buffalo, and the mesa (a high, wide tableland). In the Southwest, which borders on Mexico, Spanish words are used for food. Later immigrants to the U.S. from Puerto Rico and Cuba also brought more Spanish words into the language.

From Portugal, we have our marmalade, verandah etc. From Mexico come cocoa, chocolate and tomato. The words hammock, hurricane and maize came to England from the Caribbean. Pyjamas, shampoo, bungalow and punch all came from India. The words caravan and bazaar came from Persia.

Bamboo and gong are Malaysian words. Australia provided boomerang, kangaroo and cockatoo.

From the Dutch we have yacht, deck, skipper, and cruise, smuggle and sketch. In the seventeenth century, New York City was known as New Amsterdam. The early Dutch settlers on the East coast introduced into the language such words as boss, hunky (which has become hunky-dory = fine, satisfactory), and Santa Claus from Sant Klaas , or Saint Nicholas. Because American colonists appreciated Dutch baking, the language picked up words like cookie, from the Dutchword for little cake and waffle, a crisp pancake baked in a waffle iron.

And we shouldn't forget that large numbers of Germans emigrated to the States during the nineteenth century, bringing with them the food and customs of their homeland. Frankfurters and hamburgers are two of the most popular American foods today. We also love to eat pretzels, pumpernickel, sauerkraut and other treats purchased at a delicatessen. frankfurter a small sausage also known as a wiener or hot dog hamburger a ground beef sandwich, from Hamburg.

Also, from the German come Rucksack, Wanderlust, Weltanschauung, Kindergarten and Schadenfreude.

There are still countless words alive from the old language of the British Isles, Celtic:

ass, cairn, clan, plaid, flannel, druid, bard, galore and, of course, whisky. The English language has never stood still. It is still changing: it is shaped by those who speak it all the time.

The Jewish immigrants loaned us schnozzle, bagel and nosh. The Scandinavians brought a smorgasbord of foods and customs with them. Some of the words which survived the suppression of the native African languages are gumbo and voodoo. pretzel a brittle, salted cracker in form of a loose knot pumpernickel rye bread sauerkraut sour cabbage delicatessen a store that sells food delicacies schnozzle a large nose bagel a hard, chewy bread nosh a snack between meals smorgasbord a buffet offering a wide variety of foods gumbo a thick soup voodoo magic or sorcery District of Columbia the area of land on which the nation's capital, Washington, is situated. tutti-frutti all fruits

French explorers left an early mark on the American language as well. In Canada and the northern part of the U.S., French trappers and fur traders known as voyageurs, or French-Canadian boatsmen and fur traders who explored much of the American continent for the first time carried their language with their canoes from river to lake and across portages, i.e. land between lakes over which boats have to be carried. These same adventurers gave the vast grassland in the continental interior its name the prairie. Way down in New Orleans, the French established their customs and language, e.g. Mardi Gras, Fat Tuesday, or Shrove Tuesday before Lent has become a time when the city erupts into a festival of merrymaking and parades. In the French Quarter of the city, residents-and tourists dine on excellent French cuisine.

Some passages are adapted from the text written by HUGH CORRIGAN, BBC English

ASSIGNMENT 10

BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH So which is correct - "theater", .or "theatre", "center" or "centre", "labor" or "labour" color/colour, fiber/fibre, neighbor/neighbour, sulfur/sulphur, favorite/favourite.? But this variety is not only confusing for the reader. For a copy editor, the differences between the two versions of English can be a nightmare. Most people know that the Americans say "sidewalk" for the British "pavement", or "subway" for "underground"; for example, in the past we've had "bond" (BE bail), "dumpster" (BE rubbish container, skip) or "realtor" (BE estate agent), all words which are not used in Britain.

It can work the other way too - when listening to two English girls discussing a new rucksack one had bought, an American bystander said: "Pardon me (American for excuse me), what's a rucksack?" She only knew "backpack".

Often when a letter is doubled in British English, it appears singly in American English, for example: traveling/travelling, instalment/installment. But just when you think you've understood the trick, they then double a letter where the British only have one, as in enroll/ enrol. A word like program/me presents the problem that even the British use the shortened version in the world of computers. You'll read words like "percent", "defense", "check", "movie" in an article on New York, but "per cent", "defence" "cheque" and "film" in one from London. The United States and Britain are two countries divided by a common language. An American colleague recalls a Canadian friend of his mother who tried to buy diapers in a store during a visit to the United States. She asked the clerk for "nappies". The clerk gave her napkins. The woman said, no, she wanted "nappies". The clerk kept handing her napkins. They did eventually straighten it out. Lucky for the woman's baby. Sometimes we run into trouble when we write our stories. We avoid the word "mad" because it means "crazy" to a Briton but means "angry" to Americans. When writing about parliaments and their doings Americans stay away from the verb "table", which means "introduce legislation" to the British colleagues but means "postpone action" to the Americans. Actually, it's a complete myth that American English is much richer and more varied than British English. The British absorb all the Americanisms, and then add a medley of regional and slang variations of their own.

"American English" (AE) and "British English" (BE) means that when I mention a "truck" for my American clients, I must render that is a "lorry" for my British customers. Similarly, an American "undershirt" is a British "vest", an American "buddy" is a British "mate". Then there is the problem of spelling, with Britain's "labour" becoming America's "labor", as just one example. We have to worry about group nouns, which in AE generally take a singular verb but in BE a plural verb. Thus, in AE "the government has" but in BE, "the government have", although a change may be forthcoming -I heard a BBC "news reader" (in AE, "news announcer") use the singular the other night. Jot down British equivalents for the American words in the text just read

ASSIGNMENT 11 Jot down British equivalents for the following words:

PLACES apartment baby carriage doctor's/dentist's office drugstore elevator hall, hallway hardware store intersection mailbox the movies one-room apartment, studio orchestra (seat) (in a theater) overpass parkway pedestrian crossing sidewalk store streetcar subway toilet (bathroom) traffic circle yard USEFUL OBJECTS absorbent cotton ballpoint eraser faucet flashlight garbage can, trash can loose leaf notebook, binder package rubber band shopping bag slingshot spool of thread stovec thread thumbtack water heater wrench

FOOD can (of solid food) candy cookie crackers dessert French fries fruit and vegetable store jello (gelatin dessert) ground beef molasses syrup potato chips powdered/confectioner's sugar rare (meat) string beans PERSONAL ITEMS bangs (of hair) cuffs diaper nail polish pants pantyhose raincoat ready to wear run (in a stocking) suspenders turtleneck (sweater) vest undershirt zipper sneakers - athletic shoes- PEOPLE attorney, lawyer faculty (of university) graduate student guy janitor patrolman (police) cop, policeman salesperson

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ASSIGNMENT 12 The following description is written in American English.

Fill in the correct British equivalent from the list below for each italicized American word.

We took the freeway ......... . out of New York but soon got onto a smaller divided highway in New Jersey. The traffic was heavy and cars and trailer trucks .. kept passing ............................ us.

Soon, ahead of us, we saw a detour .. sign just before a traffic circle ....................................... It was confusing, so we pulled off the road into a gas station. We asked for some gas ......... . and directions. The attendant washed our windshield ......................... opened the hood to check the oil, and gave us directions. He pointed to a stop light . where a truck ..................... was turning left. He said that was the correct route. After carefully watching the rear view mirror .. . we pulled back on the road.

articulated lorries, bonnet, diversion, petrol, lorry,

dual carriage-way, garage, motorway, overtaking, windscreen, roundabout, traffic light, wing mirror

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ASSIGNMENT 13

How was English imported from Britain into Australia?

Why did the British become interested in Australia? What port did Sidney develop from? Who were the first settlers? What did the Government take care of? A stream of adventures and rebels from other parts of

the world poured into the newly-discovered continent. Scots, Irish, English and others driven from the land by the industrial revolution, which created an army of the poor, left Europe for Australia with its seemingly* endless, empty expanses*.

The loss of their American colonies made British take a more serious interest in Australia, but at first, because of its great distance, it did not seem a very attractive economic proposition*. This distance was an advantage, though, for other purposes.

In may 1787, a fleet of eleven vessels under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail from England with 1 500 people on board, more than half of them felons. After an arduous voyage lasting eight months, the ships put in at Botany bay, where the passangers disembarked. A few days later they were transported to port Jackson, which was to grow into the largest Australian city, SIDNEY. Captain Arthur Phillip was named first governor of New South Wales, a new British colony. The British government could now breathe a sigh of relief, for it had found a solution for the overcrowding in prisnons by transporting convicts to Australia. It seems, though, that care was always taken to include a certain proportion of honest folk, ordinary immigrants, in the convoys.

*seemingly - apparently *expanse wide and open area *proposition matter to be dealt with *felon person guilty of felony, major serious crime, e.g. murder, armed robbery, arson

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ASSIGNMENT 14 Group Work Revision Discuss the following:

A Group Is English replacing other languages? Worldwide over 340 million people speak English. The number of people who speak

English as a second or foreign language will exceed the number of native speakers. English has a large and extensive vocabulary, of which 80% is foreign it borrows from

Spanish, German, French, Hebrew and Arabic, Bengali and Chinese it is unique in history.

English is inherently a borrowing and an Anglicising language. Ever since its earliest beginnings it has been part of the nature of the English language to incorporate ideas, concepts, expressions from other societies and to make them part of English.

Noboy guards the purity of the language. There is no standard pronunciation, but unity of grammar.

There is no Academy or other authority for English which determines the norm; The norms of English are, in practice, set in relation to the NS or NNS usages outlined above: that is to say, each community sets its own goals and targets, usually without conscious decision. At the same time, there exists an unspoken mechanism, operated through the global industry of English teaching, which has the effect of preserving the unity of English in spite of its great diversity.

For throughout the world, regardless of whether the norm is native-speaker or non-native-speaker variety, irrespective of whether English is a foreign or a second language, two components of English are taught and learned without variation: these are its grammar and its core, basic vocabulary.

English is not a property of only a few countries. Will English exert pressure toward global uniformity? Is the future predictable? English is keeping its monopoly and may form an oligopoly or a fearful construction, a

supranational language that all people would have to learn. Paraphrase the following:

A language of the world could end as a fearful construction, with rules all its own, bearing no clear mark of any one national language. All human beings would have to learn it, in addition to their own languages, and none would have an advantage over others by the mere accident of place of birth. Lingua terra could end up with a vocabulary, a flexibility, a richness, surpassing any other, so that it could develop a mighty literature of its own.

Can we have any other global language? Economics and demogaphics will have more influence on language than governments

political powers.

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B Group Read and retell the text in an abstract form in English! Izumiranje svjetskih jezika U cijelome svijetu manjinski jezici i dijalekti nestaju ili ih odrava tek aica starih govornika. U Junoj Australiji kod Adelaidea, narod kaurna surauje s lingvistima I glazbenicima kako bi nanovo oivjeli kaurna jezik koji se ve smatrao izumrlim. Nicolas Ostler iz Zaklade za ugroene jezike vjeruje da jezici ipak ne moraju nestati ako nove generacije pokau interes za njih. Strunjaci smatraju da prosjeno svaka dva tjedna jedan od 6500 jezika svijeta nestane sa smru posljednjeg govornika, odnosei sa sobom i veliko kulturno bogatstvo, pie Reuters. Ugroeno znanje Na nedavnom sastanku u malezijskom glavnom gradu lingvistiki strunjaci su rekli da je najgore stanje u SAD-u, Kanadi i Australiji, a da je u opasnosti i bogatstvo azijskih jezika. To je golema riznica ljudskog znanja. I kada jezik nestane, to nisu samo rijei, ve i odreeno znanje - objanjava Nicholas Ostler, predsjednik Foundation for Endengered Languages (Zaklada za ugroene jezike) sa sjeditem u Velikoj Britaniji. Prema izvjetaju amerikog asopisa Cultural Survival (Preivljavanje kulture), ak 89 posto od 154 plemenska jezika u SAD-u u neposrednoj je opasnosti od izumiranja, a vie od polovice na ivotu odrava tek aica starijih govornika. Primjerice, u amerikoj dravi Oklahomi barem 14 jezika, ukljuujui indijanske hitchiti, kaw, kitsai i peoria, vie se ne govori. Stanje nije nita bolje ni u mnogim dijelovima Azije, usprkos kulturalnoj raznolikosti tog podruja. Strunjaci kau da mnoge vlade nisu voljne dotaknuti se tog problema u ime nacionalnog jedinstva. Tradicionalno se smatra da veliki broj jezika pridonosi razdijeljenosti zemalja kojima je teko vladati, u kojima su neredi ili su siromane. Na raznolikost se gleda kao na veliki i nepotreban teret - kae Ostler. Na Andamanu, otoku u Indijskom oceanu, najraireniji tamonji jezik je spao na svega 20 govornika. U Bruneju pak lingvisti predviaju nestanak manjinskih jezika u sljedee dvije generacije i opstanak samo dva ili tri jezika. Svi manjinski jezici u Bruneju su ugroeni, a veina nije ni dokumentirana - kae Adrian Clyne, profesor engleskog na Brunejskom sveuilitu. Lingvisti se boje i za siraiki, jezik to ga je u jugozapadnoj pakistanskoj pokrajini Punjabu govorilo 40 milijuna ljudi. Sada je njegov opstanak doveden u pitanje jer se ljudi okreu engleskom i urdskom kako bi poboljali svoj socijalni i ekonomski status. Oni vjeruju da im siraiki nita ne prua. Studenti koji govore siraiki smatraju se manje vrijednima. Siraikiji moraju nauiti engleski i urdski da bi preivjeli i dobili bolje poslove - smatra Saiqa Imtiaz Asif, pakistanska lingvistica. Marginalizacija malih Ni Kina s otprilike 235 ivih jezika i dijalekata nije imuna na gubitak jezika. Prema Picusu Sizhiju Dingu, predavau na Politehnikom institutu u Makau, kao prevladavajui jezik mandarinski se naveliko promovira u programu jezine edukacije, ime se marginaliziraju svi ostali jezici i dijalekti. Iz iskustva drugih vidljivo je da na ouvanju jezika treba sustavno raditi jer se nikada ne zna kada e postati ugroen. MEX

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VOCABULARY LIST strunjaci = experts na nedavnom sastanku = in/during the recent meeting malezijski glavni grad = the Malaysean capital bogatstvo = richness riznica = treasury nestati = disappear sjedite = headquaters izvjetaj = report neposrednoj opasnosti = directly endengered izumiranje = dying out, extinction, izumirati = be dying out, be extinct odravati na ivotu = keep alive by, maintain aica starijih govornika = a few elderly speakers barem = at least usprkos = despite; inspite of kulturno bogatstvo = cultural heritage pridonijeti = contribute to razdijeljenost = split, division, disunion vladati = govern, is governed by; rule Asia Manor u opasnosti, ugroen = in jeopardy, be endengered nisu voljne dotaknuti se problema = are not willing to face the problem tradicionalno = traditionally, by tradition prosjeno = ON THE AVERAGE nered =disorder, chaos najraireniji tamoji jezik = the most spread local language kulturalna raznolikost = cultural diversity gledati na neto = look at, regard, judge, consider Cultural diversity is considered to be a large and an unnecessary burden teret = burden spasti na = be reduced down dokumentiran = documented bojati se za = be afraid for Urdu is an Indic language, an official language of Pakistan Brunei is situated on the NW coast of Borneo predvidjeti = forsee; envisage manjinski jezici = minority languages nestanak = disappearance, extinction opstanak = preservation imuna na = immune to/against promovirati = promote marginalizirati = marginalizing, making marginal sustavno = systematically prevladavajui = dominating pakistanska pokrajina = Pakistani province otprilike = approximately

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C Group Read and jot down the origins of present-day English English is not the first language in the world from a numerical point of view the 1 -billion Chinese speakers hold that place , but it is the most widespread. Yet, up to the beginning of the 17th century, the English language was little used outside the British Isles. Why should it be English that has come to occupy this unique position? English is after all a young language compared with Chinese, or Greek, or Japanese, or Sanskrit. Nor is it convincing simply to reply that English was the language used for exploration, trade, conquest, and dominion from the 16th century onwards: so also was Portuguese, and Spanish, and Arabic, yet they do not have dominant NNS populations. There is of course an element of historical luck about it: the explorations of Captain Cook and Captain Vancouver, the establishment of trading posts in Africa and the Orient, the colonial and penal settlements in North America and Australasia, the profit-dominated grip on India, the infamous triangular slaves-for-molasses-for-manufactured-goods traffic between Britain, West Africa, and the Caribbean, the early stages of the Industrial Revolutionall these and others since were happenings dominated by people who spoke English. But one can also view the development of the English language as having passed through several stages, since 1600, which cumulatively yet inevitably led to the present state of affairs. It all began on a tiny scale. English first came into existence in roughly the form in which we know it today around 1350, when the influence of 300 years of Norman French occupation had been assimilated on to a basis of Germanic dialects with some additions from the Norse of the Scandinavian invaders. For 150 years, until 1600, English was spoken only in England, probably not even by all the seven million inhabitants. But then between 1600 and 1750 were sown the seeds of today's global spread of English, as explorers, merchant adventurers, buccaneers, traders, settlers, soldiers, and administrators went out from Britain to begin settlements and colonies overseas. And it is necessary to realize that before about 1750 all these settlers regarded themselves as English speakers from Britain who happened to be living overseas. Yet after about 1750 and until c. 1900, three major changes took place. First, the populations of the overseas NS English-speaking settlements greatly increased in size and became states with governmentsalbeit colonial governmentsand with a growing sense of separate identity, which soon extended to the flavour of the English they used. Second, in the United States first of all but later in Australia and elsewhere the colonies began to take their independence from Britain, which greatly reinforced the degree of linguistic difference: Noah Webster, for example, urged Americans to take pride in the fact of their English reflecting the dynamic new life of the United States. And third, as the possessions stabilized and prospered, so quite large numbers of people, being non-native speakers of English, had to learn to use the language in order to survive, or to find employment with the governing class. These NNS learners were of two kinds: indigenous people (e.g., in India, Hindus and Moslems; in the United States, settlers of other European origins such as Dutch, Spanish, and French, and freed slaves) and immigrants. Learning English (though not, generally speaking, being taught English) now became a major activity. After 1900, and until about 1950, a fourth stage in the creation of today's global English took place, at an increasing pace, when the colonies began to build schools and to offer education, in English, to a small but growing fraction of the indigenous population, while in the United States, Canada, and Australia the provision began of English language classes for immigrants.

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D Group WHY ENGLISH? Jot down the answer in note-taking form.

The most recent stage, which is still going on, began around 1945 and contains two distinct strands:

The first strand concerns nearly all the remaining colonies of Britain became independent states, and at once the role and function of English changed from being an instrument of subservience to other, quite different ends, such as a "window on the world of science and technology," or as the only language not rejected by one section of the population or another. This has been a period, in such former British statesand also in many of the equivalent countries in the former possessions of France and Holland, and in the formerly U.S.-related territories of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Samoafor the immense explosion of English teaching, both for adults and, even more, for children of school age. The second strand of the current stage in the development of English concerns the emergence of a number of activities, movements, and subjects that are carried out predominantly (though not exclusively) in English, across the world. One of the earliest examples was the international agreement to adopt English for air-traffic control; another, which began with the establishment of the United Nations, was the use of English in the numerous bodies providing international aid and administration. As the telecommunication revolution got under way, English became dominant in the international media, radio and TV, magazines and newspapers. The international pop-music industry relies on English; so, too, do space science and computing technology. The importance of this strand within the recent development of English has been not just the vast numbers of people who now need or want English for these activities, but the fact that using English suddenly has nothing to do with one's nationality or with the historical facts of the spread of English-speaking colonies: the Peruvian air pilot, from a country relatively untouched by past British (or American) expansionism, nevertheless needs English for his job; the Polish doctor, spending two years working for the World Health Organisation in tropical countries, also needs English; pop-music cults generate maniausing English wordsin the Soviet Union as well as in Hong Kong or Germany or the United States. strand line of development in this history of English subservient subordinate or subject to subservience subjection end purpose, aim

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E Group 1. The language spoken in each society is a reflection of its own particular culture. The type of language spoken by each individual within a society is a symbol of his personality, background and status. People, therefore, classify each other according to the way they speak. 2. If people can measure each other's speech, they must be measuring against some implicitly acknowledged standard. In British English this standard accent is known as R.P., or Received Pronunciation it is the accepted norm. 3. Although the speakers carry both a geographical and a social label, the more socially mobile someone is, the more complex his accent becomes, and so the more difficult he is to label. 4. The relationship between language and social status, between linguistic skills and class distinction makes language a powerful social weapon. 5. What are basic characteristics of English? In Britain nowadays people often cultivate regional accent. 6. What do you think of artificial languages? Considering the variety of languages world-wide, it would seem logical for everyone to learn an international language, like Esperanto. But that idea has never really taken off. Maybe it's because speech is not merely a practical tool of communication. It's much more than that. The way we speak reveals something about ourselves and who we are, about our culture and our attitudes. No wonder we fight so hard to preserve our languages, accents and dialects. They form a great part of our identity, both national and personal. And ethnical.

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Section 2

MODALS

Strong obligations

Strong obligations are formed by using be + passive infinitive or be + infinitive, e.g.: The plans that are to be submitted for approval are to indicate clearly details of the welded connections of main structural members.

Modal verbs expressing obligations Must is used when the obligation comes from the speaker. Have to is used when the obligation comes from someone else, often a law or a rule. Need to expresses a weaker obligation than have to and must. Mustnt expresses a negative obligation. Neednt expresses that there is no internal obligation. Dont have to indicates that there is no legal requirement at all. Should and ought to are used when the obligation is not so strong and when they express advice or duty. Should have done is used when past actions werent performed. Shouldnt have done shows that an action was done even though it wasnt advisable.

Neednt have done shows that an action was done even though it wasnt necessary. Didnt need to shows that an action wasnt necessary and it wasnt performed.

Cant have done expresses deduction.

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ASSIGNMENT 1 Complete the sentences with the appropriate modals expressing obligation. (Autocorrective test) 1. Motorcyclists .. .. wear a crash helmet in Croatia. 2. Also we . drink alcohol while driving. 3. I really finish my lunch? Im not hungry. 4. No, you .. finish your lunch, but you . to wash up the dishes. 5. I go now. Its getting dark. 6. I have a nasty headache after reading. I . wear glasses. 7. You .. . write to your friends more often. 8. You . .. pay a months rent in advance. 10. We had plenty of cash so we .. .. pay by cheque. 11. I .. .. booked the seat for the bus because the bus was half empty. 12. Ive no idea when the agreement will be finely drawn up and signed. It .. . . .. and .. weeks ago. 13. Beggars . .. no choosers. 14. Desperate diseases .. desperate cures. 15. I ............................ cooked all this food. 16. You ask me when you want to use the telephone. 17. You wash up. Ill do it later. 18. I know that I . get overtired. 2 Didnt need to do something OR neednt have done something Write sentences using didnt need to do OR neednt have done something. He didnt take his umbrella because the sun was shining and the forecast was good. He didnt need to take his umbrella. He took his umbrella but it did not rain. He neednt have taken his umbrella.

1. I cleaned my shoes and then walked across a muddy field. 2. He went to room 107 for the meeting but found it was cancelled. 3. She took her money with her but her boyfriend paid. ............... 4. She didnt take her money with her because she knew her boyfriend would pay. ... 5. He knew I loved him so I didnt tell him. 6. We didnt pack our towels because we knew the hotel would provide some. 7. I was going to ring my friend yesterday but he unexpectedly came to see me.

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8. They telephoned the landlady but the flat had already been let. . 9. There was a buffet car on the train so he didnt bring any sandwiches. . 3 Translate into English the following (auto corrective test): 1. Nisu mi dozvolili da platim kreditnom karticom pa sam morao platiti gotovinom. 2. Za svaki sam sluaj ipak uzeo gotovinu ali deki su me pustili da uem bez plaanja. Nisam trebao uzimati gotovinu sa sobom. 3. Kako sam mislio da je ulaz slobodan nisam uzeo gotovinu. 4. Znao sam da je ulaz slobodan, pa tako nisam uzeo sa sobom gotovinu. Ti takoer nisi trebao nositi gotovinu sa sobom. ...........................................................................................................................................................

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4 Complete the sentences with the appropriate modals: Can, could, be able to express ability. Can and could express general events whereas be able to and was able to denote particular events.

Cant help doing expresses avoidance.

May, might be likely to express permission granted and conjecture about the present future or past. (It may/might rain tomorrow. It may/might be raining now. It may/might have rained in Italy yesterday.)

May and can are used in polite requests, the only difference being that may is more polite. Might is used in a slightly hesitant request. I dont want to disturb you but might I use your dictionry for a moment? Of course you may use it. (might can never be used in a short reply to such a request.)

They might have found your car, but they havent mentioned it. (conjecture but with a feeling of doubt.

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1. An open door . tempt a saint. 2. I .. .. . to visit him so far. 3. He . . to swim the crossing from Crikvenica to ilo. 4. Im sure you ... . to do it when the time comes. 5. He .. .. to learn Technical English in few months. 6. How old do you think he is? He . be forty. 7. He isnt yet here. Im afraid he have had an accident. 8. I go with my friends, Mummy? Yes, you .. . 9. .. they be successful! they live happily! 10. I think they .. be interested in that. 11. He . be right, but I dont think he is. 12. I not write to him. I didnt have time. 13. I take your pencil? Yes, you . No, you .. 14. You .. be right. It .. rain. 15. It .... . . raining all night. The streets are wet. 16. It . raining in England right now, who knows. 17. You be good at English if you studied harder. 18. .. I keep this book a few more days? 19. You . smoke in this room. 20. The match .. end in a draw. 21. I easily swim across the river if I wanted to. 22. He . .. run a mile in five minutes when he was younger. 23. I .. .. .. to get these tickets because I was willing to stand in the queue. 24. It rain tomorrow. 25. It ...................... in Zagreb yesterday. 26. I laughing at him. 27. He telephoned last night. I dont know, but its quite likely.

28. He telephoned last night. Yes, its possible, but I doubt it. 5 Tell what you deduce from the following. Use the cue word. Use the modal verb must (autocorrective test) Must be general truth

Must have been doing past continuous

Must have done past finished

Must be doing present moment activity

Must be going to do future situation

1. I smell smoke. (burn)

2.