Engine Technology

KEEP ON TRUCKINGHaving just met tough Euro 6 limits, heavy-duty diesel engineers must now find another wave of eciency gains

INSIDE JAGUAR LAND ROVERAll the tech details on the Ingenium architecture, plus an exclusive powertrain insight into what the future holds at JLR

SEARCH ENGINESUp close and personal with stunning new diesel developments from Audi, Volkswagen, GM Europe and BMW

www.enginetechnologyinternational.com

Forget meeting stringent emissions legislation is the lackof engineering graduates coming through the systemthe powertrain communitys greatest ever challenge?

NO TALENTJanuary 2015

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In this issue...WHATS NEW?

04. Family valuesJaguar Land Rover lifts the lid on the brand new Ingenium engine family fully designed and manufactured in-house by the British car maker and reveals why the project is so integral to its long-term future plans

08. Sports fansCalling on its wealth of motorsport experience for the RS5 TDi concept, Audi is ensuring that its next-generation diesel engines appeal to real driving enthusiasts

10. Twin agendaFor the all-new eighth-generation Passat, VWs MDB architecture has conceived a new biturbo diesel engine that combines high-end performance with hybrid-like efficiency

12. Lessons learnedUnveiled at the Paris Motor Show, GMs all-new 2.0CDTi learns more than a few lessons from its predecessor, and boasts reduced NVH, improved performance and lower emissions

14. Fantastic fourBMWs latest 2-liter, four-cylinder turbo diesel, making its front-engined debut in the 520d, is no slouch. But its also surprisingly frugal too

CONTENTS

Engine Technology International.com // January 2015 // 01

KEEP ON TRUCKINGHaving just met tough Euro 6 limits, heavy-duty diesel engineers must now fi nd another wave of e ciency gains

INSIDE JAGUAR LAND ROVERAll the tech details on the Ingenium architecture, plus an exclusive powertrain insight into what the future holds at JLR

SEARCH ENGINESUp close and personal with stunning new diesel developments from Audi, Volkswagen, GM Europe and BMW

www.enginetechnologyinternational.com

Forget meeting stringent emissions legislation is the lackof engineering graduates coming through the systemthe powertrain communitys greatest ever challenge?

NO TALENTJanuary 2015

JANUARY 2015

46. Technological breakthroughs aside, the future of powertrain engineering depends on the ability to attract the next generation of bright, young minds

THE GRADUATES

46

16. Engines on testETi gets up close and personal with a pair of Maseratis: the evocative Ghibli V6 S; and the Ghibli V6 diesel the Italian OEMs first-ever diesel 18. Personality profileSabino Luisi, assistant chief engineer for Fiat Chryslers 1.8TBi

FEATURES

26. Global aairsAs the quest to break into emerging markets continues, ETi looks at where some of the worlds car makers and suppliers are building new engine facilities or expanding their current powertrain operations

28. Best of truck Euro 6 legislation for heavy-duty diesel engines represents the latest step in major emissions reductions. And getting there has been no small task

36. Top cat Wolfgang Ziebart, director of group engineering at Jaguar Land Rover, and Ron Lee, head of powertrain, discuss the British OEMs resurgence while revealing future engine plans

28

BMWs latest 2-liter, BMWs latest 2-liter, BMWs latest 2-liter, BMWs latest 2-liter, BMWs latest 2-liter, BMWs latest 2-liter, BMWs latest 2-liter, four-cylinder turbo four-cylinder turbo four-cylinder turbo four-cylinder turbo four-cylinder turbo four-cylinder turbo four-cylinder turbo diesel, making its diesel, making its diesel, making its diesel, making its diesel, making its diesel, making its front-engined debut front-engined debut front-engined debut front-engined debut front-engined debut front-engined debut front-engined debut front-engined debut in the 520d, is no in the 520d, is no in the 520d, is no in the 520d, is no in the 520d, is no in the 520d, is no

surprisingly surprisingly surprisingly

08

20. Johnson22. Taylor92. Last word

REGULARS

04

The word wizardsEditor: Dean SlavnichDeputy editor: Matt RossAssistant editor: John ThorntonProduction editor: Alex BradleyChief sub editor: Andrew PickeringDeputy chief sub editor: Nick ShepherdProofreaders: Aubrey Jacobs-Tyson, Christine Velarde

Contributors from all cornersFarah Alkhalisi, Nargess Banks, Philip Borge, Josh Bentall, John Challen, Brian Cowan, Matt Davis, Rachel Evans, Adam Gavine, Dan Gilkes, Max Glaskin, Burkhard Goeschel, James Gordon, Graham Heeps, John Kendall, Andrew Lee, Mike Magda, Jim McCraw, Max Mueller, Bruce Newton, John OBrien, Greg Offer, Keith Read, Rex Roy, John Simister, Michael Taylor, Adam Towler, Karl Vadaszffy, Saul Wordsworth

The ones who make it look nice Art director: Craig MarshallArt editor: Ben WhiteDesign team: Louise Adams, Andy Bass, Anna Davie, Andrew Locke, James Sutcliffe, Nicola Turner, Julie Welby

Production people Head of production and logistics:Ian DonovanDeputy production manager:Lewis HopkinsProduction team: Carole Doran, Cassie Inns, Frank Millard, Robyn SkalskyCirculation manager: Suzie Matthews

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Those in charge CEO: Tony RobinsonManaging director: Graham JohnsonEditorial director: Anthony James

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The views expressed in the articles and technical papers are those of the authors and are not endorsed by the publisher. While every care has been taken during production, the publisher does not accept any liability for errors that may have occurred. This publication is protected by copyright 2015. ISSN 1460-9509 Engine Technology International. Printed by William Gibbons & Sons Ltd, Willenhall, West Midlands, WV13 3XT, UK. Engine Technology International USPS 016-699 is published quarterly by UKIP Media & Events Ltd, Abinger House, Church Street, Dorking, Surrey, RH4 1DF, UK.Airfreight and mailing in the USA by agent named Air Business Ltd, c/o Worldnet Shipping USA Inc, 155-11 146th Street, Jamaica, New York 11434. Periodicals postage paid at Jamaica, New York 11431.US Postmaster: send address changes to Engine Technology International, c/o Air Business Ltd, c/o Worldnet Shipping USA Inc, 155-11 146th Street, Jamaica, New York 11434. Subscription records are maintained at UKIP Media & Events Ltd, Abinger House, Church Street, Dorking, Surrey, RH4 1DF, UK. Air Business is acting as our mailing agent.

At the heart of every car is its engine, so at the very core of every car maker is the companys powertrain team. And its this group of engineers that over the years have continued to deliver, pushing technical and engineering boundaries further and further, raising the bar higher and higher. Simply put, IC motors are getting smaller, cleaner and far more efficient, but power and performance are not being lost. That same pioneering approach also applies to the alternative powertrain movement, be that hybrids, plug-ins, range-extenders, full battery electrics and hydrogen fuel cells. In fact, cars that emit nothing but water vapor from their exhausts are only a few years away from mass-market launch, if ones to believe the likes of Toyota, Honda, Hyundai-Kia, Daimler and Renault-Nissan.

But theres still a lot of work to be done. I visited Jaguar Land Rover earlier this year and former BMW engineering guru Wolfgang Ziebart now the British car makers director of group engineering told me that 50% of all future target achievements when it comes to emissions will come from the powertrain. This means the improvement of traditional engines and transmissions, and adding electrification to the IC engine, so everything from micro and mild hybrids, through to full hybrids, plug-ins and battery electric vehicles, he adds. Its a point worth repeating and taking stock of: half of all of future emissions cuts will come from the engine, this despite all the work and optimization thats already taken place on the powertrain. For me, thats a really rather staggering forecast on many levels.

Just how can these substantial cuts be achieved? Its the question on the lips of all engineers, and not just the ones answering to Ziebart. The truth is that nobody really knows where such powertrain-related efficiency gains will come from, but one thing is for certain: tomorrows world is wholly dependent on the next generation of engineers coming through the system, fresh young minds that have fresh new ideas.

At the Paris Motor Show in October, one very senior engine head of a leading European OEM told me off-the-record that the lack of young people graduating from courses relating to powertrain R&D (be that BA, MA or PhD) should be this sectors greatest worry. And its a concern thats gone under the radar, he said. In fact, when I look around, I just see my engineers getting a little older, a little rounder and a little grayer wheres the next generation? he asked me.

Like Zieberts point earlier, its worth taking in this latter question carefully, and it got me thinking while I was doing the rounds in Paris. Is there really a lack of grads coming through the system? Is this a problem that affects some countries more than others? Is the pain shared equally by OEMs and suppliers? Why are young people seemingly not enthused by engineering? What does it mean to be an engineer in their eyes? How will this impact tomorrows powertrains? And just what needs to be done to overcome this problem from an industry perspective, as well as from government and academic levels.

Fresh back from Paris, I started to investigate the matter further, digging deeper and talking to key contacts at Audi, Bentley, BMW, Brigham Young University-Idaho, Continental, Delphi, Hyundai-Kia, JLR, McLaren Automotive, Romax, Toyota, Stuttgart University and Volvo.

The result? A five-page feature starting on page 46 of this issue. But heres something to whet the appetite now: forget stringent emissions legislation and finding another 50% of efficiency gains the lack of graduates could be the single greatest challenge the powertrain arena has ever faced, and some countries are far closer to crisis point than others. There are solutions and all is not lost, but if we are to keep coming up with pioneering concepts and technologies in the future, nows the time to act in order to attract those young minds that will, in turn, unlock those all-important ideas.

Dean Slavnich

EDITORS NOTE

02 // January 2015 // Engine Technology International.com

CONTENTS

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CASE STUDIES

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WHATS NEW? JLR INGENIUM


Jaguar Land Rover is aiming high with its new Ingenium engine architecture. ETi takes

a close look at a project the car maker believes is at the very heart of its future

Jaguar Land Rover is aiming high with its new Ingenium engine architecture. ETi takes ETi takes ETi

a close look at a project the car maker

Modern family


Ill admit it, its pretty tempting to give you all the specs now, smiles Paul Whitwood, chief engineer of the new Ingenium engine family. Hes not quite hopping from one foot to the other, but his enthusiasm for Jaguar Land

Rovers new powertrain project is unmistakable. In actual fact, he doesnt have to wait long (JLR unveiled the full specs for its first Ingenium variants just a few weeks later at the Paris Motor Show), but even in early September, during a tour of the Solihull plant where the first vehicle to sport Ingenium power Jaguars new affordable sports sedan, the XE will be manufactured, its clear that the importance of this engine family to the companys future plans cannot be overstated. And that the new, modular architecture opens up a wealth of possibilities that JLR sees as key to the growth of the Jaguar, Land Rover and Range Rover brands.

WORDS: MATT ROSS

Family planningOf the initial Ingenium developments, the entry-level powerplant is particularly noteworthy. The 163ps, 380Nm turbocharged four-cylinder dieselis the British car makers most efficient engine to date, boasting CO2 emissions of just 99g/km and fuel consumption of 3.766 l/100km (75mpg) when coupled to a ZF six-speed manual transmission an accomplishment made possibleby a 17% reduction in internal friction over its predecessor, and realized through the use of roller bearings on the camshaft and balancer shafts, switchable cooling piston jets that deactivate when not required, computer-controllable oil and coolant pumps, a simplified low-friction camshaft drive system and a cylinderbore thats offset to the crankshaft centerline by 12mm.

Peak power and torque have been maximized, but the engine is also geared toward transient performance and low-speed torque. It would have been easy to trade one for the other, but weve not done that, explains Whitwood. Indeed, the 163ps derivative delivers peak torque at 1,750rpm thanks to a variable geometry turbo from MHI. And variable exhaust camshaft timing means that optimized emissions dont come at the expense of peak engine performance either.

The second Ingenium diesel in the XE line-up from launch a 180ps, 430Nm turbocharged

four-cylinder thats also all-aluminum and subject to the same quest for low friction and quietness as its

smaller sibling has one of the highest torque outputs in its class. Ingeniums petrol debutants use a single monoscroll turbo (as opposed to the VGT found in the diesels) and the two XE launch options boast 200ps and 280Nm, and 240ps with 340Nm respectively.

Using technology such as stop/start, smart regenerative charging, low viscosity lubricants in the engine and the transmission, and SCR throughout the family helps Ingenium to tick its efficiency boxes. But the goal was to retain that suitably Jaguar-esque driving experience at the same time. Attention


Of the initial Ingenium developments, the entry-

99g/km and fuel consumption of 3.766 l/100km (75mpg) when coupled to a ZF six-speed manual

controllable oil and coolant pumps, a simplified

Peak power and torque have been maximized,

weve not done that, explains Whitwood. Indeed,

from MHI. And variable exhaust camshaft timing means that optimized emissions dont come at the

The second Ingenium diesel in the XE line-up

four-cylinder thats also all-aluminum and subject to the same quest for low friction and quietness as its

smaller sibling has one of the highest torque outputs in


2

3

1

VITAL STATISTICS

Displacement: 1,999ccBore: 83mm

Stroke: 92.4mmCompression ratio: 15.5:1

Fuel injection: 1,800 bar common railFuel economy: 3.766 l/100km

Emissions: 99g/km CO2

1. Taking four years to develop, Ingenium engines are based around a deep-skirt aluminum cylinder block featuring thin-wall, press-fit cast iron liners

2. At JLRs new Engine Manufacturing Centre, one Ingenium engine will roll off the assembly line every 39 seconds

3. The Jaguar XE is the first JLR product to benefit from Ingenium


to detail, not only in the design of individual components, but also how those components fit together as an overall system, is what makes this powertrain so good, Whitwood explains. We truly believe that these powertrains have ensured that XE is a true drivers car, but also one that is fully relevant to todays challenges of things like excellent fuel efficiency, low emissions and low cost of ownership.

Key to the futureIn addition to the new engine family options, there will also be an XE S model, fitted with the supercharged 3-liter V6 from theF-Type. But JLRs future is heavily predicated on Ingenium: as if to underscore the scale of the architectures role, a new variant will be launched every three to six months over the nextthree years. And the Ingenium project, which began three years ago, has been delivered by a staff of about 2,000engineers.

We have a number of Ingenium programs running and they all overlap, Whitwood adds. Its a program of lots of engine variants but all based on a single, half-liter configuration, standard bore centers, standard deck heights, all going down the same manufacturing facility in Wolverhampton.

The significance of a project that will define JLRs engines for the coming decades was not lost on Whitwood and his team.

To say to someone that theyre going to be designing a brand new engine from a clean sheet of paper, he enthuses, and that it will go into a brand new engine family, and theres going to be a load more engines after that as well if youre an engine designer, thats all your Christmases come at once.

But thats exactly what JLR has done. And by opting for a modular, scalable platform, Ingenium is not only suitable for implementation in future models across all JLR brands, it also offers the car maker levels of quality control and production volumes that will surpass anything it has done before.

Mirroring the likes of what Toyota and Honda have traditionally been famed for, the manufacture of Ingenium will operate as a no faults forward system a production model that sees engines passing through quality checks at every station, and simply being removed from the line if any problems are detected, stripped back and then reinserted into the line before the fault occurred. Were going to turn the tide with Ingenium, Whitwood states. Were going to be matching the Japanese levels of engine quality, because thats what we have to do.

Such lofty goals are admirable. But theyre also, in Whitwoods opinion, achievable. JLR has come from a position of being a relatively niche player in the market. Were changing. Our growth will eventually take us to the likes of BMW, Mercedes, Audi-kinds of magnitude in terms of size, product offering and volumes.

If XE is JLRs statement of intent to diversify its product offering with the first affordable Jaguar, then Ingenium is the measure of how big its future plans are. The companys new Engine Manufacturing Centre, where the Ingenium engines will be built, is the result of more than US$800m of investment (see page 33). When all variants are in production, one engine will roll off the assembly line every 39 seconds.

Every machine is the best machine that money can buy, Whitwood adds. We havent scrimped. We know that weve laid down that factory and thats our future for the next 10, 15, 20 years. So were going to do it right. Once and for all.

GOING IT ALONE

JLR has a history of engine partnerships with other manufacturers and while these will be maintained Our relationship with Ford and PSA over the years has been very successful, and that will continue for the foreseeable future, explains Whitwood during the Ingenium briefing there exists a belief that such JVs will have a far smaller role to play as Ingenium ramps up. Could the end goal be to do away with these partnerships entirely?

Yes, eventually, Whitwood says after the briefing. Never say never. I think theres always the likelihood that well have a partnership with one OEM or another for an engine supply of some sort, but in the main, for the bulk of our engines, we want to be self-sufficient. We know what engines are best for our vehicles and we know how to make them. We can control the quality, the rate and flow, the volume availability, much better if we do it ourselves. Weve had some really good relationships in the past and theyll keep going for some years yet. And I suspect therell be some engine variants where we keep doing that, because it suits us and it suits them.

Flexibility and control aside, Ingenium also promises to give JLR a highly sought-after level of specificity. If were brutally honest, Whitwood says, if you tie up with a manufacturer unless theyre making a premium sports saloon like yours their needs are slightly different from yours and there lies some sort of compromise or balance to be struck. Making engines for Jaguars and Land Rovers, thats a bit of a challenge in itself, because they have different attributes and requirements. But we know what those attribute sets are.


4. Ingenium is JLRs most virtually developed powertrain to date, benefiting from an array of advanced CAD, CAM and virtual prototyping technologies

5. The wide use of aluminum means that the Ingenium petrol powertrains weigh just 138kg

4

5

WHATS NEW? AUDI PERFORMANCE DIESEL

Diesel powerplants have almost become as big a part of Audis identity as the iconic quattro technology. In fact, the German car makers dominance in diesel motorsport has spearheaded its engineering and marketing campaigns with equal vigor. And the latest chapter in Audis diesel story retains that motorsport and performance theme, and has resulted in the RS5 TDi concept.

The prototype engine (and car) uses innovations pioneered in Audis LMP1 racing exploits and features an electronic turbocharger to supplement its biturbo 3-liter V6. First featured in the R18 E-Tron Ultra, the electronic turbocharging technology uses an independent 48V system, which provides the extra power necessary to activate the e-turbo.

By using 48V power, and by being independent of exhaust gases, the Vaelo-supplied e-turbocharger is able to spin to over 70,000rpm in just 250ms. As Audi points out, this technology eliminates any form of turbo lag, and means that the RS5 TDi can deliver high levels of torque from very low revs.

And when Audi references such high levels of torque, it actually means a staggering 750Nm, available at just 1,250rpm through to 2,000rpm. The 3-liter IC base continues spinning up to 5,500rpm, producing 390ps at 4,200rpm. The free-revving nature of the RS5s diesel can be attributed to the weight lost by several reciprocating parts within the engine itself. The crankshaft, conrods and pistons have all been redesigned, with an emphasis on weight saving a total reduction of 20kg from these parts goes some way toward realizing the engines overall weight of just 192kg.

Instant boostThis total mass includes the e-turbocharger, which is located in the cars standard intercooler configuration. Nestled behind the RS5s front fender, the electric unit sits between the intercoolers cool side and the turbocharger. Between idle and 3,000rpm, the technology delivers instant boost to the engine this works on the move as well, with the e-booster acting as a torque fill device. The swept volume and output of the turbocharger are improved by the electric turbocharger, explains Christian Erglmeier, thermodynamics combustion engines engineer at Audi. It fills in the void, ensuring that full torque is available as soon as the driver accelerates.

The smaller turbo fed by the E-Booster (as Audi refers to it) is a Honeywell G17 product,

while the larger turbocharger, which engages from 3,000rpm, is a Garrett-supplied GT30. Audi states that the E-Booster will help deliver up to 7kW of additional power, which is stored in a lithium-ion battery in the rear of the car. Energy can be recaptured from a regenerative braking system, adds Erglmeier. The 48V system could also be used to power the cars other electrical systems. It allows for a cost-effective mild-hybrid.

This is currently achieved with a DC/DC converter, which provides the connection to the standard 12V electronics system. Audi states that the 48V setup has the potential to offer several key benefits: the system could be used to power thermoelectric heating elements, electromechanical rear brakes, or engine auxiliaries, such as oil and water pumps with more energy than what a 12V electrical system can deliver. Audi also speculates that the 48V breakthrough could be used as part of an e-quattro system. Already implemented on several show cars, the system is based on a TDi unit, complimented by an electric motor powering the front wheels, while a second motor drives the rear wheels. A further benefit of running a higher voltage system is the ability to use cables with a smaller cross-section, ultimately reducing the overall weight of the wiring loom.

Due to the increased torque loading over the standard 3-liter V6 TDi, the RS5 TDi loses the cars original 7-speed DCT and is instead fitted with a ZF 8HP 8-speed automatic. Audi states that, thanks to the modular toolkit platforms that underpin its current models, the technology can be easily implemented across a range of cars. However, the initial costs of the electronic turbocharger and accompanying 48V system mean that it will first be introduced on the next-generation SQ5 and performance version of the next-generation Q7.

Using technology pioneered inendurance racing, Audi is ensuringthat next-generation diesels canappeal to real driving enthusiasts

Sporting prowess

Right and above: The inner system workings of the RS5 TDi concept, which incorporates a 48V system and a Valeo developed electric turbocharger to deliver 750Nm from 1,250rpm


Charge air intercooler

Electrically driven compressor

Bypass valve

Throttle valve

Two-stage turbocharger

Electrically driven compressor

48 volt wiring DC/DC converter

12 volt generator

12 volt wiring12 volt battery

48 volt energy storage

AVL 48V Mild Hybrids for Commercial VehiclesOptimization of the entire vehicle system systemsimulationintheconceptphaseononeintegratedsimulationplatform combinedwithsmartpredictivecontrolstrategies virtuallyprovenconceptsonAVLHILtestbedlongbeforeHWavailability

results in reasonable benets upto5%fuelconsumptionreductioninreal-worlddrivingcycles lowproductcostforapositivereturnofinvestmentfortheendcustomer littleadditionalsystemweight&volume samedurabilityasconventionalsystems

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The importance of the all-new Passat cannot be underscored enough for Europes largest car maker. In 2013, on average, a Passat was sold every 29 seconds, making it one of Volkswagens best sellers. And in total, some 22 million examples have been produced since the models debut in 1973.

As a company, VW is keen to stress that this eighth-generation Passat development is really all new, and thats particularly the case with respect to its engines. The EA288 range of diesels will be the only options available in the UK market from launch, and have been built up around the Groups Modulare Dieselmotorbaukasten (MDB) architecture. Sitting at the top of that diesel family is a potent biturbo four-cylinder motor.

Common purpose As a rule, all MDB engines feature forced induction and, as a result, VW has developed three different crankcases to accommodate the variances in capacity and performance. One has a reduced displacement of 1,600cc, while the two 2,000cc variants are differentiated by the inclusion, or exclusion, of a balancer shaft. All three stablemates are made from the same GJL-250 cast iron base as the previous-generation VW diesels.

While performance is the main talking point of the biturbo, emissions were a key focus during the development of the EA288 range.

VW engineers placed the oxidation catalytic converter, diesel particulate filter and on the biturbo the selective catalytic reduction system as close as possible to the engine itself, enabling the emission-control components to react more quickly, ultimately reducing tailpipe emissions. This results in CO2 levels from just 109g/km for the lower-powered diesel and a still impressive 139g/km output for the biturbo. So,

while the latter is capable of delivering up to 5.3 l/100km (53.2mpg) on

highway runs, it is also the most powerful four-cylinder diesel

in VWs history, producing 240ps from 4,000rpm, and 500Nm from just 1,750rpm.

Scratch the surface and one will find that the powerful four-pot shares the same core system

underpinnings as the other EA288 offerings, but there

are also heavily uprated components thrown in to handle

the significant increases in power, and combustion pressure of 200 bar.

We took the crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons essentially every part that moves analyzed it and, where needed, either uprated or replaced it with something that can handle the power, explains Karsten Bennewitz, powertrain development engineer at VW. We also looked at the diameter of the main bearings in the crankshaft, purely because of the high loadings and stresses that the engine will face over its lifetime. We changed the material choice of most of the aforementioned components, and

Power play

WHATS NEW? VOLKSWAGEN EA288 BITURBO

The 2-liter biturbo (below) with two BorgWarner blowers, is VWs most potent four-cylinder diesel to date. The engine will debut in the eighth-generation Passat (main)

increased the diameter of the bearings for more strength and durability.

In terms of the blowers, the diesel benefits from two BorgWarner products, one high-pressure, the other low-pressure, developed especially for the Passat. Despite the differences in vane geometry, they operate at 3.8 bar to help the engine achieve a specific output of 120ps per liter. A high-performance cylinder head is also being used for the first time on the biturbo, while the Bosch CRS2-20 fuel injection system with piezo injectors is new as well, enabling injection pressures of up to 2,500 bar.

The pistons in the biturbo are slightly revised, with the addition of cooling channels. The pin diameter and length, however, remain the same at 26mm and 66mm respectively. The piston skirts feature a low-friction coating, while the piston pin is finished with a DLC coating.

The higher moving masses of the 2-liter biturbo means that the engine also features two vertically offset balancer shafts. Driven by the crankshaft via a helical spur gearset, the outlet side shaft has its rotation reversed by means of an intermediate gear. This was a challenge for us, explains Bennewitz. The car is at a point where there is no environmental noise within the cabin. Therefore we had to put a lot of effort in, as the rest of the car is so refined.

Installed in the Passats MQB-B platform, the biturbo is paired to a 7-speed DSG, and fifth-generation Haldex all-wheel-drive system. In order to optimize ride comfort at lower speeds, VW developed a new, centrifugal pendulum absorber in the gearbox. This enables gear shift points to be lowered further, decreasing RPM, and ultimately the fuel consumption of the unit.

Built around Volkswagens MDB engine kit, the EA288 family of powertrains is crowned with a biturbo creationthat boasts headline grabbing performance numbers

VITAL STATISTICS

Engine: 2-liter, diesel in-line biturbo four-cylinder

Bore: 95.5mm Stroke: 81mm

Compression ratio: 15.8:1Power: 240ps Torque: 500Nm

Efficiency: 5.3 l/100kmCO2: 139g/km

eighth-generation Passat development is really all new, and thats particularly the case with respect to its engines. The EA288 range of diesels will be the only options available in the UK market

Dieselmotorbaukasten (MDB) architecture. Sitting at the top of that diesel family is a potent biturbo

As a rule, all MDB engines feature forced induction and, as a result, VW has developed three different crankcases to accommodate the variances in capacity and performance. One has a reduced displacement

impressive 139g/km output for the biturbo. So, while the latter is capable of delivering

up to 5.3 l/100km (53.2mpg) on highway runs, it is also the most

powerful four-cylinder diesel in VWs history, producing 240ps from 4,000rpm, and 500Nm from just 1,750rpm.

Scratch the surface and one will find that the powerful four-pot shares the same core system

underpinnings as the other EA288 offerings, but there

are also heavily uprated components thrown in to handle

the significant increases in power, and combustion pressure of 200 bar.

We took the crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons essentially every part that moves analyzed it and, where needed, either uprated or

Stroke: 81mmCompression ratio: 15.8:1

Power: 240ps Torque: 500NmEfficiency: 5.3 l/100km

CO2: 139g/km

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With a focus on reducing NVH, improving performance and lowering emissions, GMs new 2-liter diesel is the latest step in the OEMs powerplant plan

Set to premier in the Opel/Vauxhall Insignia and Zafira Tourer in 2015, GM revealed its latest large diesel engine at the Paris Motor Show. The 170ps, 400Nm 2.0 CDTi is all-new with more than 95% new parts, according to GM diesel powertrain engineer Jens Wartha and boasts a power increase of nearly 5% and a torque improvement of 14% over the 163ps 2-liter CDTi it replaces. Starting from scratch on the new powerplant proved to be both an opportunity and a challenge. You can define challenging targets, Wartha states. Based on feedback you get from the old engine, you put targets in place that stretch you.

That feedback informed many of the design goals for the new four cylinder. The highest priority was on NVH refinement, Wartha says. We gave a lot of focus to understanding what we can do to improve NVH, and we put a lot of measures in place to have a very good-performing engine [in that respect].

There was, Wartha admits, a lot of negative feedback regarding the NVH of previous GM Europe diesel units. That was the reason that we started very early, even in the analysis phase, to focus on NVH. Its one of the reasons we set it as one of our key parameters.

A number of design decisions were made to optimize NVH in the new diesel, starting with the

stiffness of the components of the engine itself, Wartha explains. We also added a two-piece oil pan, with a structural upper [made from high-pressure, die-cast aluminum] and a sheet metal lower. This gives you much better stiffness and much lower mechanical noise from the engine it was one of the weak spots on the old engine.

On top of the engine, GM identified noise sources, which were addressed with a new aluminum cylinder-head design, including an isolated plastic cam cover. We also isolated our

intake manifold, Wartha continues, so we have a single shell around

it, which is absorption material. And we put a balancer shaft,

which was not in the old engine. The new balancer shaft module, made of die-cast aluminum, houses two counter-rotating shafts, offsetting up to 83% of secondary order vibrations

from the engine.As a result of all GMs

attention to NVH in the new engine, the unit is 5dB quieter than

its predecessor.

Best behaviorA second key design focus for GM was transient response. Even if the engine was very good now, we want it to be better, Wartha says. That

WHATS NEW? GM 2.0 CDTi

Top left: The Insignia will be the first GM Europe car to benefit from the new 2-liter diesel, which boasts far greater low-end torque than the engine it replaces

Above and below: GMs latest diesel powertrain really is new, with some 95% of parts and subsystems being original to this development program

means focusing on the low-end torque behavior, not so much on the high power number. Our power increase is not much just 5-7hp but weve added 50Nm, and maximum torque is available from 1,750rpm up to 2,500rpm. Contributing to this improved behavior is the turbo choice. GM wasnt disclosing supplier details in Paris, but Wartha did explain that it had opted for a VGT with electrical actuator rather than the previous engines vacuum actuation arrangement, granting the new powertrain a 20% improvement in boost response. The VGT and EGR were also developed as a single system.

Elsewhere in the engine, a redesigned combustion chamber (which was the subject of more than 80 computer simulations), reprofiled intake ports and a new fuel injection system are specified. The new injection system, with up to 2,000 bar and 10 injections per cylinder cycle, enables high power density and increases the overall combustion efficiency, lowering CO2 and other emissions.

The new diesel has an important role to play in GMs engine offensive, which has seen the company invest US$5.1bn in product and powertrain development. Diesel plays a different role in different markets, Wartha adds. In Europe, its a very important market we have an almost 50% share between gasoline and diesel. So the central point is really to serve the European market. But there are other challenges around the world, like the USA, China and other parts of Asia.

Smooth operator

Super frugal five


Its one of Europes favorite upper-medium exec machines and now its new-generation, four-cylinder turbo diesel gives it stronger performance with near-hybrid eco figures

Its big sixes, with anything up to three turbochargers, set the tone for BMWs performance diesels, but its the modest four-cylinder motor that accounts for the majority of sales volumes.

And now the 520d is even better, sporting BMWs all-new 2-liter, four-cylinder turbo diesel, shifting the 1,705kg eight-speed ZF automatic offering to 100km/h in 7.7 seconds. At the same time, its economical enough to post a hybrid-esque 4.5 l/100km (62.7mpg) figure for the NEDC combined cycle. And with a highway rating of 4.1 l/100km (68.9mpg), its the human tank rather than the 70-liter unit in the BMW sedan (or tourer) that will dictate the enforced autobahn stops.

The Bavarian car maker claims this is an all-new engine development and it was when it made its debut in the X3 earlier this year. And it still is, if you allow the BMW engineers plenty of leeway. Technically the diesel was turned sideways to sit inside the new Mini hatch and the 2-Series Active Tourer, but this is the first time its found a home in a traditional BMW front-engined, rear-drive passenger car. So thats something.

Lagging behindBMWs project director of diesel development for the 5-, 6- and 7-Series, Christian Hiemesch, knew the existing four-cylinder diesel could hang with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz offerings, but had lagged behind in the sophistication stakes. So the new version is based on the companys now-standard process of developing and fine-tuning an ideal single-cylinder concept (at almost 500cc) and turning it into

a modular production reality, meaning that the next all-new six-cylinder diesel will also look like this, plus 50% in addition.

Its undersquare, with a 90mm bore and a stroke of just 84mm, and besides its obvious east-west and north-south versions, it can also operate with all-wheel drive, with both the X3 and the Europe-only 520d xDrive as proof.

Theres enough power, with 190ps on offer at 4,000rpm, but the real story is the torque. The 520d delivers 400Nm (up 20Nm on its predecessor) from just 1,750rpm. It has a fairly peaky curve compared with modern diesel norms, though, with the taper beginning at 2,250rpm, but BMW has given it some eight automatically changed gears to try to maintain its strength across the speed ranges.

The odd spot with the new engine is that there is a 518d model (a car that hasnt sent BMWs non-European product planning outposts dancing with glee), which is 40ps and 40Nm down on the 520d, despite being architecturally identical.

The 518d is 5kg lighter than the 520d (body for body) but nearly two seconds slower to 100km/h and its top speed is 17km/h (10mph) down on the 520d autos 233km/h (145mph). Youd bet your house that the 518d delivers some sort of cracking fuel economy as a counterweight to the speed and performance shortfall, but it doesnt. The auto

is actually only a touch worse. Closer inspection reveals that BMW has pulled a

joker, giving the 520d precisely the same

gearing as the

The new BMW 2-liter four-cylinder diesel in

520d boasts new Bosch seven-hole fuel injectors

and a Honeywell VGT

90mm bore and a stroke of just 84mm, and besides its obvious east-west and north-south versions, it

VITAL STATISTICS

Engine: 2-liter, diesel in-line turbocharged four-cylinder

Power: 190psTorque: 400Nm

Transmission: eight-speed automaticFuel: 4.1 liters/100km (68.9mpg)Bore/stroke: 90mm x 84mmCompression ratio: 16.5:1

CO2: 109g/km

518d, but a far taller (3.077 to 3.231) final-drive ratio and then relying on the

more expensive models extra torque to cancel out the

expected acceleration shortfall. The smaller engine is a lesser

thing in other ways, too, with less vibration damping leading to some added

harshness whenever the stop/start function does either half of its name. Thats not an issue that is even noticeable on the 520d.

Hiemesch admitted most of BMWs work on this project centered on making a smoother, faster, more economical engine by reducing friction and lifting fuel-injection pressures.

Theres an entirely new combustion process, a new balancing system and its a completely new generation of engine, he adds.

The common-rail fuel injection unit now delivers diesel at 2,000 bar (up from the old cars 1,800), which allowed BMW to use new Bosch seven-hole fuel injectors and up to seven injections per bang.

This gives the car a more complete and cleaner burn thats further enhanced by a new Honeywell variable-geometry turbocharger, with a ball-bearing interface, Hiemesch explains.

The friction depends on the temperature, but the ball-bearings alone can give a friction reduction of more than 50% when its cold. It is closer to 20% in normal running.

A new electrically controlled oil pump also reduces friction by delivering the right pressure and volume at the right time.

The pistons are new, as is the bedplate, block, combustion system, cooling circuit and balancing system. The three-layer damping blanket that surrounds the engine (and also helps it to warm up faster) is also brand new.

The increasing efficiency of direct-injection turbo gasoline motors can make one wonder whether theres a real future for diesels, but this BMW four-cylinder pushes back against those thoughts pretty hard.

WHATS NEW? BMW FOUR-CYLINDER DIESEL

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ENGINES ON TEST

Designed by Maseratis powertrain team but manufactured at the Ferrari factory in Maranello, the Ghibli S V6 shares many of its core components with the new 3.8-liter V8 in the Quattroporte, although the smaller sibling runs a 60 vee angle and uses variable-geometry turbochargers rather than the twin-scroll blower employed in the larger unit. As a package, the 2,997cc powertrain is central to what the Ghibli S is all about: an evocative, stirring alternative to some of the German competition in this segment, giving a deep, raucous V6 howl with just the slightest touch of the accelerator pedal. In fact, during development, Maserati engineers spent a great deal of time in getting the sound of the V6 spot on and thats especially so for the S with much focus going on the exhaust. As such, the engine maintains Maserati tradition with bypass valves that open at 4,200rpm in normal mode, but which stay open throughout when in sport setting. Interestingly, the V6s peak power arrives earlier than that of the V8, with 409ps at 5,500rpm and 550Nm hitting at 1,500rpm and staying through to 5,000rpm, with redline being 6,500rpm. That means Ghibli S is quick in a straight line: 0-100km/h takes five seconds flat, a tenth of a second faster than the Quattroporte S. Top speed is 285km/h (177mph). The V6s bore is shared with the V8, along with bore spacings and the combustion chamber design. It also benefits from its larger brothers cam phasers to control valve timing. Ghibli S emits 242g/km of CO2, and with careful driving and when not tempted to arouse that tremendous V6 growl getting within reach of Maseratis claimed combined fuel economy figure of 10.4 l/100km (27.2mpg) is not too challenging.

Having finally agreed to launch its first ever diesel product, Maserati had to call in help from VM Motori when it came to designing and developing the Ghibli V6 Ds powertrain. Mostly based on the Italian diesel specialists V6 architecture, the 2,987cc six-cylinder diesel features a single, variable-geometry turbocharger and fabricated exhaust manifold (including air gap) to help it deliver 275ps at 4,000rpm. While that seems like a relatively unsophisticated setup when compared with tri-turbo BMW performance diesel sixes, the Maserati V6 has enough engineering aptitude to deliver a mega 600Nm of torque from a lowly 2,000rpm. And such power is needed if, on autobahns and country roads alike, the Ghibli diesel is to provide driving enjoyment as well as company car-satisfying fuel economy figures, ensuring that the Maserati sedan keeps up with the likes of BMW, Audi and Mercedes-Benz on all counts. As such, the 0-100km/h race takes 6.3 seconds while top speed is 249km/h (155mph). With the help of stop/start somewhat shockingly another (late) first for Maserati this Ghibli is the first development from the Italian luxury car maker to fall beneath the 200g/km of CO2 threshold, with output being 158g/km, which isnt bad at all when you factor in that 6.3-second sprint time as well as a 1,835kg mass. Maserati claims a combined fuel economy figure of 5.9 l/100km (47.8mpg) and having driven Ghibli V6 Diesel extensively, theres no doubt that its far happier eating up mileage on the motorway than dealing with tedious urban commuting. The thinking is that the A630 will be instrumental in Maserati increasing volume, and as an engine, its not a bad first diesel effort at all. Lets just hope its a case of better late than never.

Cylinders: Six Cubic capacity: 2,987ccBore/stroke: 83 x 92mm Compression ratio: 16.5:1Power output: 275ps Torque output: 600Nm

Style and substance?

Cylinders: Six Cubic capacity: 2,997ccBore/stroke: 86.5 x 85mm Compression ratio: 9.7:1Power output: 409ps Torque output: 550Nm


Maserati Ghibli V6 S Maserati Ghibli V6 diesel

Derived from the world of racing, in 1953 Maserati created the 740kg A6GCS 53 Berlinetta with a punchy 1.9-liter straight-six engine

Between 1954 and 1960, the 250F, with its 2.5-liter naturally aspirated engine, became an F1 winning benchmark, bringing home the drivers championship in 1957

The first of now six generations, the original 1963 Quattroporte boasted a smooth and refined 260ps 4.1-liter V8 powertrain

Shortly after Citrons takeover of Maserati, the stunning Bora was produced in 1971, featuring a 4.7-liter V8 pumping 310ps

In 1967, Maserati presented the Ghibli and two years later an open-top derivative followed, sporting a V8 that ensured a 272km/h (170mph) top speed

MASERATI: 100 YEARS IN THE MAKING

Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?Style and substance?

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PERSONALITY PROFILE


What career did you want when you were growing up, and what was your first job?I always wanted to work in engineering because my father was a mechanical engineer, although he now works in civil engineering. My first job was at the Polytechnic of Turin as a research fellow at the Internal Combustion Engines Advanced Laboratory.

When did you first start playing around with powertrains? I first became involved with engines when I was working on my master thesis, and while I was a research fellow at the Polytechnic of Turin. I worked on diesel engines, both on aftertreatment development and injection system definition. The aim was to optimize combustion efficiency and the trade-off between NOx and soot emissions.

What was your career path to the position you currently hold?My degree was in automotive engineering. As I mentioned, my first job was at the Polytechnic of Turin and I worked there for two

years, after which I joined the Fiat Research Center and worked on the MultiAir gasoline engines project. In May of this year I started work on the 1.8TBi engine as part of the team led by Aldo Marangoni, head of Fiat Chrysler EMEA Powertrain Engineering.

What are the best and worst elements of your job?The best thing is that you can apply your knowledge and background to continuously optimizing current technology. Nevertheless it is demanding to optimize many specific components in a synergistic way.

What would be your dream engine specification? It would have to be the 1.8TBi its a really high-performance engine. More generally, though, a proper specification for gasoline engines is to have a high compression ratio in order to increase thermodynamic efficiency at part load, but with technical solutions implemented to prevent knocking and cooling down the exhaust temperatures in high-load conditions. Advanced gasoline technologies

Job title: Assistant chief engineer for 1.8TBi engineCompany: Fiat Chrysler Powertrain Engineering

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PERSONALITY PROFILE


The engine that is particularly emotional is the 1.779l, which in 1967equipped the 1750 GT Veloce along with the 1750 Berlina and 1750 Spider

include a variety of new components and subsystems aimed at improving fuel economy. These technologies can act on pumping losses (downsizing with turbocharging, VVA, cylinder deactivation and hot EGR), thermodynamic efficiency (cold EGR and stratified combustion) and friction losses. Advanced gasoline engines are expected to remain competitive in vehicle applications for the near future, but the technologies to improve gasoline engines can obtain a better cost-to-benefit ratio in terms of CO2 reduction.

In your opinion, what is the greatest engine that has ever been produced?Related to the 1750 TBi, the engine that is particularly emotional is the 1.779l, which in 1967 equipped the 1750 GT Veloce along with the 1750 Berlina and 1750 Spider. It was a double overhead camshaft, two valves per

cylinder, 80mm bore, 88.5mm stroke development. Peak power was 120ps at 5,500rpm, with a peak torque of 186Nm at 3,000rpm. A higher ratio final drive was fitted but the same gearbox ratios were retained. This engine was one of the most powerful at the time and can be considered the grandfather of the 1.8TBi. In contrast to that natural aspirated engine, turbocharging today delivers higher performance levels at both low-end torque and full rated power. In particular what is really interesting is the use of scavenging to increase torque output during transient operation. This technical solution is based on a controlled post-combustion phase that takes place at the turbine inlet and not in the combustion chamber; its target is to increase the enthalpy level in order to ensure higher boost pressure and the fastest response of the engine.

What could legislators do to make your working life easier?Legislation is pushing toward a 100g/km CO2 fleet average by 2020/25. This requires not only detailed optimization of the engine, taking into account the combustion, pumping losses and engine/vehicle friction, but also technical powertrain hybridization solutions.

In your opinion, what will be powering a typical family sedan in 2030?The hybridization of engine architecture will increase, because it is a key technology in reducing CO2 on the NEDC cycle and under the other legislative regulations. Further improvements will focus on optimizing engine efficiency at specific operating points, using the best areas of the engine map to produce energy for the batteries so that the electric side of the powertrain can be used.

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OPINION


This is how Ford kied out its Dunton facility

for its recent product plaers conference

I had a humbling experience recently at Dunton, Fords UK-based engine research center, where I was

invited to give a presentation to its product planners about the success of the companys 1-liter EcoBoost engine, which has taken a record three International Engine of the Year Awards on the bounce.

Until that point in late September, I knew the awards were important but I hadnt realized the impact they have on employees motivation, future targets and sales. Indeed, I learned that Ford directly attributes the fact that the 1-liter was the best-selling gasoline engine in Europe in the first half of this year to the awards, with such success fully expected to carry throughout the year, making the little three-pot the most popular gasoline unit of 2014. In total, one in five Fords sold in Europe is equipped with the award-winning engine but until the tiny EcoBoost achieved such repeated international acclaim, car buyers had seen 1-liter units as too small and underpowered. Now they see an engine that has won the hearts of 82 of the most respected motoring journalists from 34 countries. And that equals great sales success.

What I found intriguing at Dunton was the number of questions I was asked. What makes an award-winning engine? Why has a diesel never won the overall title? Does the jury care about technology or just performance? And, what happened to Hondas and BMWs previous success?

The first question was easy to answer: the jury wants to see an engine that has good driveability,

great refinement and more than adequate performance but

not at the expense of economy or emissions.

It was also easy to discuss why a diesel

has never taken home an overall

International Engine of the Year trophy, and the answer isnt simply linked to the word international. While it is fair to say that the jury is global and thus the likes of the US, Australian, Chinese, Japanese and Canadian judges dont inherently like diesels, it is also a fact that Europeans often vote in favor of gasoline designs. When BMWs 3-liter diesel meets its 3-liter gasoline, the latter wins in Europe. The same goes for the two Mini 1.5-liter bases. Why? Its about

driveability, and now that gasoline engines are downsized, they are more fuel efficient but still entertain and encourage enthusiastic driving.

Its also a fact that the winner of the overall award has been less than 1.4 liters in displacement for the past five years. And each winner has been turbocharged or supercharged or both. So yes, advanced engine technology really does matter on ones way to the title a humble naturally aspirated unit has never won the overall prize in 16 years.

Finally, the question of Hondas and BMWs recent lack of success. The former hasnt won an award since it dropped its mechanical VTEC, and this comes against a backdrop of its continued pursuit of its dated IMA hybrid and fuel cell tech. BMW, on the other hand, hasnt done so well in recent years, perhaps because it started taking success for granted. In fairness, its new 1.5-liter engines are clever and rather good, but it didnt bother pushing their virtues. The result was that the aging 1.6-liter, jointly developed with PSA, beat the new units in the 2014 category honors. BMW was embarrassed by this faux pas, so Id fully expect it to educate buyers and journalists alike about its developments in 2015. I told Fords product planners the same. You have been warned!

Yes, advanced engine technologyreally does matter

on ones way to the title

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OPINION


R&D programs hardly ever go to waste, as the

pneumatic valvetrain and Camtronic projects show

If youve seen any sort of wildlife documentary, youll know that the natural world wastes nothing. Even the

biggest of animals that dies on the African savannah gets eaten first by the lions, then whats left goes to the hyenas, then the jackals, then the buzzards, then the creepy crawlies and finally the microbes. Nothing that ever breathed is wasted.

The thing is, Ive seen similar philosophies at work inside the R&D labs of car companies, and not just the stripping of the carcasses of the once mighty elephants in the room.

The truth is, car makers are full of research expeditions that never reach their goals, but end up delivering quite extraordinarily useful side yields. And thats exactly what you see all over the Mercedes-Benz S500 PHEV, at the launch of which I had a good discussion with boffin Dr Uwe Keller, starting on pneumatic valvetrains.

Using air to move valves up and down in tautly controlled ways has been the norm in F1 for more than two decades now. Its actually probably four but nobodys saying.

What Keller would admit to was that Benz started a program, in the early 1990s, to bring pneumatic valves over to road cars. A few years later, he found himself at the head of the project, but it

failed. Except it didnt really. True, you just dont see the pneumatic valvetrain on road cars today theres not one single car with it, which is odd given that it was perfected to the point of

managing 22,000rpm on old-school V10s. There were, Keller admitted, some

problems with pneumatic valves for road cars that Benz didnt

foresee. The first was noise, with engineers finding the bursts of air and the valves banging open and slamming shut so loudly you could hear them over the sound systems.

Still, the potential benefits were clear to see. You could vary, infinitely, the lift and the timing but you had, according to Keller, to be almost unbelievably quick to control it.

It took a long time, but they got the speed and noise issues solved, only to find the fatal flaw that nobody had spotted: it takes a fearful amount of energy to drive a pneumatic valvetrain. And there were more issues. The car world was heading toward turbocharging and the added

backpressure meant that whatever drove the pneumatic valves would need even more energy to drive it and to manage it. Other insurmountable problems included weight as well as engine down-speeding, meaning that in 2003, Benzs dalliance with pneumatic valvetrains finally ground to a halt.

But it wasnt a total loss, because these things rarely are. The company had an overlapping program working on lean stratified combustion and this, it turned out, combined with some

by-products of the pneumatic research, could deliver what the engineers were looking for in the first place.

We learned a lot and got a great deal on combustion development. We learned a lot about desotto, HCCI and Camtronic. It all came out of that research. And despite having a hybrid engineering title, Keller insists there is plenty that valvetrains can offer IC engines in the next few years.

In fact, the speed of development, insists the Mercedes engineer, isnt the actual problem. Its linking together disparate developments of odd musings and thought experiments and proofs so that the right quirk can meet the right problem and get it solved. And nothing not a single failed experiment should ever go to waste.

It took a long time,but they got thespeed and noise

issues solved, onlyto find the fatal flaw

failed. Except it didnt really. True, you just dont see the pneumatic valvetrain on road cars today theres not one single car with it, which is odd given that it was perfected to the point of

managing 22,000rpm on old-school V10s.There were, Keller admitted, some

problems with pneumatic valves for road cars that Benz didnt

foresee. The first was noise, with engineers finding the bursts of air and the valves banging open and slamming shut so loudly you could hear them over the sound systems.

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5


ENGINE MANUFACTURING

ETi looks at where some of the worlds car makers and suppliers are spending their powertrain money on when it comes to expanding production or building new facilities

Location, location, location

MEXICOMexico is proving attractive for both OEMs and suppliers alike. Metalforming specialist Waukesha Metal Products recently announced the acquisition of Revstone Fabrication in San Luis Potosi, expanding its presence in the country by taking on the 10,220m2 facility.

Denso will spend US$53.8m on expanding its Apodaca plant in Nuevo Len. In addition, Hamanakodenso (a Denso group company) has established a new facility in Salinas Victoria City, also in Nuevo Len, to produce solenoids for engine and airflow control units for its North and South American customers.

In August, Kia signed a US$1bn deal to build a state-of-the-art manufacturing plant in Monterrey, Nuevo Len. For the Korean OEM, facilities in Mexico not only allow it to expand its presence in the country, but also improve the supply chain into the USA. Kia joins a long list of OEMs that either already operate facilities in Mexico or have announced plans to do so including BMW, Daimler, Fiat-Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, Nissan, Toyota and VW.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the USA,

Canada and Mexico came into effect on

JANUARY 1, 1994

USATeslas much-hyped gigafactory in Nevada, slated to be operational by 2020, will cost an estimated US$5bn. Panasonic has come on board as an investor in the facility, which is projected to employ 6,500 people by the start of the new decade.

In July, Infiniti began production at its new, US$319m powertrain plant in Decherd, Tennessee.

Ford recently invested US$359m in retooling its Dearborn plant for production of the new aluminum body F-150, and is spending US$1.1bn to retool and expand its Kansas City base.

Approximately

of new car sales in the USA come from the so-called Big Eight manufacturers of GM, Ford, Toyota, Chrysler-Fiat, Honda, Nissan, Hyundai/

Kia and VW

90%

WORDS: MATT ROSS


ENGINE MANUFACTURING

CHINAThe worlds largest automotive market is an obvious draw for many companies. In September 2014, BorgWarner revealed that it had produced in excess of 1.5 million EGR valves at its plant in Ningbo. By 2016, the company plans to be making one million such valves every year. Also in September, BorgWarner announced the opening of a second plant in Taicang.

ZF is forecasting such growth in the Asia-Pacific market, and China in particular, that the company is virtually quadrupling the size of its Shanghai headquarters, offices and R&D laboratories. In October, ZF formed a joint venture with Chinese auto manufacturer BAIC and revealed plans for a new plant, located southeast of Beijing.

Volkswagen is expanding its Chinese presence with new plants in Qingdao and Tianjin. JLR announced plans for an engine plant in the country earlier this year, while Hyundai has upgraded its plans for China from one to two new factories. GM has also announced it will build five new plants in China, as part of US$14bn of investment through to 2018.

Chinas car production up to Q2

of 2014 was up

on the same period the previous year

UNITED KINGDOMThere was an estimated US$4bn plugged into the British automotive industry in 2013. Large-scale investments by JLR in Solihull and Mini in Oxford are now just the latest in the countrys resurgence there are more than 25 vehicle manufacturers in the UK today. One of them is Aston Martin, which is spending US$33.4m on expanding its Warwickshire engine R&D facilities and headquarters.

Theres also a strong focus on attracting more investment to the country. The Manufacturing Technology Centre in Coventry recently unveiled the UKs first digital factory demonstrator, which includes a customizable 3D virtual reality manufacturing environment, designed to attract potential investors.

cars built in the UK in 2013 were

exported

CZECH REPUBLICHome to koda and TPCA (a joint venture between Toyota and PSA Peugeot Citron), the Czech Republic is showing signs of increased investment from suppliers and OEMs alike. Continentals turbocharger for Fords award-winning 1.0 EcoBoost engine is now manufactured in Trutnov before switching to the Czech Republic in 2014, the part was made in Germany. Continental now operates seven facilities within the country.

Parts company Hyundai Mobis will invest US$121m in a new plant in Monov, near Ostrava, scheduled for opening in 2017 (Hyundai also produced its one millionth car at its Noovice facility in 2013), while South Korean tire manufacturer Nexen Tire will invest US$1.17bn in Czech facilities between 2016 and 2023.

Foreign investment in the Czech auto industry currently stands at around

US$14bn

FOUR OUT OF FIVE

12%

HEAVY-DUTY DIESELS


HEAVY-DUTY DIESELS

Starstruck

The latest round of emissions legislation represented the toughest yet for heavy-duty diesel engine developers. But just where do the next eciency gains come from? Its the

question on the lips of all truck engineers

WORDS: JOHN KENDALL

HEAVY-DUTY DIESELS


HEAVY-DUTY DIESELS

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HEAVY-DUTY DIESELS


Much recent engineering endeavor and hard work came to a head earlier this year when tough Euro 6 limits for heavy-duty diesel engines kicked into action,

representing the latest stage in a program extending over 20 years to reduce toxic emissions spewing from the exhausts of trucks. Compared with the original 1992 Euro I regs, the result has been a major reduction in all pollutants. Using EC steady-state testing cycle mandatory limits for comparison, CO has been slashed 66%, HC by 88%, NOx by 95% and PM by an astounding 98%.

For the truck makers and their suppliers, achieving the necessary reductions for Euro 6 might be mission complete, but the process has involved the use of costly and complex technologies. Before the latest European emissions stage, engine manufacturers could reach the required limits by using one of two control technologies: SCR or enhanced EGR. In the build-up to Euro 6, it was widely expected that a combination of the two systems would be needed to achieve the desired limits, but in practice some manufacturers, most notably Iveco and more recently Scania, have developed Euro 6 compliant engines using SCR only. However, this has increased the range of injection pressures that must be factored in by the new engines and equipment manufacturers, especially as at present peak injection pressures range from below 2,000 bar to around 2,700 bar.

Its difficult not to be impressed by the overall emissions reductions realized by truck makers, but the technologies needed to bring such reductions about in the real world have led to an upward trend in fuel consumption and CO2 emissions, especially as engine management systems have been designed to prioritize toxic emissions reductions over fuel consumption. This has been offset to an extent by the same engine downsizing trend that continues to take place with light-duty

gasoline and diesel units, essentially allowing for 10- and 11-liter IC bases producing 400ps to replace the larger 13 or 14-liter engines of a few years ago.

Improved aerodynamics and reduced rolling resistance will have a notable role to play in making further reductions in overall fuel consumption, but even so the general consensus within the industry is that there is still more that can be done to engines to boost efficiency.

Booster shotFor starters, fuel injection equipment suppliers can improve efficiency by reducing leakages and generally improving efficiency in the system, as David Draper, heavy-duty diesel systems engineering director at Delphi, explains: There are always leakages around clearances, pumping plungers and valves, so its a matter of reducing leakages within the whole system to a minimum. Then you also look at other ways of improving efficiency, which is reducing all the dead volumes, where we pump up to pressure unnecessarily and let it go again. If you put all that together, then purely by improving efficiency in generating pressure and delivering it to the engine you could aim to improve overall CO2 emissions, or vehicle efficiency, in the order of up to 2%. That may not sound a lot, but its pretty good, especially when you are trying to raise overall thermal efficiency from the engine to 49-51%.

Draper reckons even more can be done, and says that fuel injection suppliers will have to deliver equipment that provides the right fuel injection characteristics. This could mean injection pressure, multiple injections, rate shaping, or the type of injections generated. He believes that such inroads could enable another round of vehicle efficiency improvements in the order of 2%.

Maybe there will be more scope in future years to look at more novel combustion systems, he adds. But in the short term, Delphi does not expect big changes from current fuel injection systems: Fundamentally, its the

1. Tier 1s such as Delphi are undertaking new development work on injectors and injection systems to make heavy-duty diesel engines more efficient

2. Delphis F2 distributed pump diesel common-rail injector is part of a system that the supplier says is the worlds first ultra-high-pressure common-rail development to be mounted entirely within a cylinder head

3. Delphis heavy-duty diesel engineering director, David Draper, says inroads made in injection are key to efficiency

1

The cost/benefit equation still doesnt look sogood for HCCI the amount of information around

now has dropped to almost zero, whereas six orseven years ago there were papers upon papers

David Draper, heavy-duty diesel systems engineering director, Delphi

prioritize toxic emissions reductions over fuel

extent by the same engine downsizing trend

There are always leakages around clearances, pumping plungers and valves, so its a matter of reducing leakages within the whole system to a minimum. Then you also look at other ways of improving efficiency, which is reducing all the dead volumes, where we pump up to pressure unnecessarily and let it go again. If you put all that together, then purely by improving efficiency in generating pressure and delivering it to the engine you could aim to improve overall COefficiency, in the order of up to 2%. That may not sound a lot, but its pretty good, especially when you are trying to raise overall thermal efficiency from the engine to 49-51%.

fuel injection suppliers will have to deliver equipment that

compliant engines using SCR only. However,

pressures that must be factored in by the new engines and equipment manufacturers, especially as at present peak injection pressures range from below 2,000 bar to

Its difficult not to be impressed by the overall emissions reductions realized by truck makers, but the technologies needed to bring such reductions about in the real world have

11-liter IC bases producing 400ps to replace the larger 13 or 14-liter engines of a few years ago.

Improved aerodynamics and reduced rolling resistance will have a notable role to play in making further reductions in overall fuel consumption, but even so the general consensus within the industry is that there is still more that can be done to engines to boost efficiency.

Booster shotFor starters, fuel injection equipment suppliers can improve efficiency by reducing leakages and generally improving efficiency in the system, as David Draper, heavy-duty diesel systems engineering director at Delphi, explains: There are always leakages around clearances, pumping

seven years ago there were papers upon papersseven years ago there were papers upon papers

There are always leakages around clearances, pumping plungers and valves, so its a matter of reducing leakages

2

3

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injection needle movement

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piston secondarymovement

tooth belt tension

turbochargerspeed sensor

cylinder headbreathing

bearing gap

lubricating gapaxial movementof crankshaft


HEAVY-DUTY DIESELS

same diesel cycle, not HCCI and others. They are still way off and it might be a case of never, as they have been for 10 years, so theres no fundamental breakthrough that we see happening in the next 5 to 10 years, but improvements on existing cycles.

Once lauded as the great combustion hope, for Draper, HCCI falls into the too difficult box where heavy-duty diesels applications are concerned. It requires such a high level of control and fuel properties are important too, he reasons.

Its never been found feasible to make it work at high loads and the 50% load point is more typical where trucks run. It just looks too big a problem to solve. It also generates very high in-cylinder pressures, so structures

would have to be stronger and I think that other means of improving overall efficiencies look more achievable. The cost/benefit equation still doesnt look so good for HCCI the amount of information around now has dropped to almost zero, whereas six or seven years ago there were papers upon papers.

Sensing the frictionBut advancing fuel injection technology isnt the only avenue truck makers have open when it comes to raising overall efficiency. There also seems to be plenty of scope when it comes to friction, and specifically reducing it, especially when taking into consideration all the surfaces that are affected by this phenomenon in an IC unit, including pistons, bearings, rings and bores.

Piston rings and pistons are by far the largest contributor to mechanical friction in the engine, confirms Keri Westbrooke, Federal Moguls director of engineering and technology, who adds that the contribution is split roughly 50-50 between the piston and the rings. So we have to come up with durable piston ring coatings or treatments that will survive the life of the engine.

Those are now moving quite considerably from galvanic-type and chrome-based coatings to physical vapor deposition coatings, and were now getting into DLCs. The coatings themselves are getting more interesting. Its more of a revolution than an evolution. Were now not just looking for durable and wear resistance, we are looking for coatings with a much lower coefficient of friction.

The coatings themselves are getting moreinteresting. Its more of a revolution than anevolution. Were now not just looking for durableand wear resistance, we are looking for coatingswith a much lower coefficient of frictionKeri Westbrooke, engineering and technology director, Federal Mogul

1. Innovative polymer coated bearing shells have been developed by Federal Mogul that promise fuel consumption and CO2 emissions reduction by withstanding mechanical loads produced by heavily boosted powertrains

2. The Elastothermic piston from Federal Mogul allows for lower temperature of the first ring groove by about 50C, reducing carbon deposition and groove and ring wear for long life low oil consumption

3. The US Tier 1 estimates that its bearing coatings technology can increase the life of bearing shells by more than five times in extreme engine applications

1

3

2

HEAVY-DUTY DIESELS


The simplest way of getting good gas sealing and good oil control is to have rings with an enormous amount of spring force or tension in the bore. But what contributes to the friction? Higher tension rings. So were now coming up with new peripheral or new ring designs, new face designs, anything that allows us to reduce tension but maintain the oil or gas sealing capability.

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