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EnergyEfficiencyintheRACSector

JuergenUsingerHeatGmbH,Germany

TelAvivJune2016

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TypicalBarrierstoEE

Table 8. AC Market Barriers

Actors Barriers Description Institutions Information Lack of reliable and clear indication of AC energy performance Tariff distortion Subsidized electricity tariffs distort the market, causing energy efficiency to

be undervalued

Consumers Information - Lack of understanding of energy-efficiency benefits - Lack of information about the value of equipment energy performance - Uncertainties about energy savings; energy savings are not directly

measurable but can only be inferred Affordability High up-front costs Principal agent

problem This barrier occurs when the people who are purchasing ACs are not the ones paying for the electricity to operate them. This is frequent in rental homes.

Manufacturers /Retailers

Availability of products

- Lack of energy-efficient products available on the market - Lack of available capital for investment in production upgrades

Financial barriers

Energy-efficiency projects considered high risk by financial institutions

Technical barriers

- Large gap in technical capacity to produce efficient equipment in developing countries

- Little incentive to encourage local manufacturers to produce efficient products

3. AIR-CONDITIONER INCENTIVE PROGRAMS

3.1 GLOBAL OVERVIEW

United States: Globally, the number of incentive programs targeting ACs is limited. The U.S. has implemented, by far, the largest number of these programs. The Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) lists about 800 incentive programs across the U.S. that offer some form of rebate for energy-efficient ACs (DSIRE, 2014). Most of these programs are ratepayer-funded energy-efficiency programs; i.e., their costs are recovered by a small rate surcharge and are part of integrating energy efficiency into least-cost resource planning. Because resource energy planning is regulated at the state level and each state may mandate energy savings from several utilities11, there are numerous incentive programs in the U.S. Many U.S. programs target CACs as part of the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system. Our case studies include two programs from the U.S. Consolidated Edison (ConEd) in New York operates the first, which is one of the few U.S. programs targeting room ACs. The second program is a DR program implemented by Indianapolis Power and Light.

India: Utilities in India are regulated at the state level. Although the Energy Conservation Act of 2001 requires states to establish Energy Conservation Funds (PACE-D, 2013), implementation of state Clean Energy Funds has been slow. The state of Kerala was the first to establish a fund, the Kerala State Energy Conservation Fund, which facilitates the purchase of efficient refrigerators and air conditioners by providing zero-interest loans through a local financial institution. Reliance Infrastructure (RI), an electric utility, operates a downstream incentive program for efficient air conditioners, which we analyze in detail in the case studies in Section 4.

11 Public utilities can be privately owned or publicly owned. Publicly owned utilities include cooperative and municipal utilities.

32

Avoiding100NewPowerPlantsinIndia;Shaetal,2014

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Energysavingpolicies1

Building construction

Selection HVAC & Refrig.

Installation HVAC & Refrigeration

Manufacturing HVAC & Refrig.

Minimize need for cooling & heating

Focus on energy efficient solutions

Regular main-tenance & energy inspection of installations

Increase Energy efficiency of equipment

EnergyPerformanceofBuildingsDirecGve• EnergyLabelling• EcodesigndirecGve

EuropeanEcolabel

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DirectEmissions

•  ProjecGonsvarygreatlydependingonassumedemissionfactorsandGWP

•  Moststudies*refertoIPCCvaluesof~10%annualemissions

•  AstudyofHPMPs**resultsinaveragereportedannualemissionsof29%(4%-79%)

*e.g.Shahetal.2015**UNEPDocument7157

R22 R22 R22R410A R410A R410AR32 R32 R32R290 R290 R29000

05

10

15

20

25

30

10% 29% 79%

tCO2eqoverlifeGm

eofsp

litACun

it

Assumedannualleakagerate

DirectEmissions

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PerformanceStandards

OverviewStandards&Labels

16.06.16

Standards Label

PrescripGve MEPS Class-average

Endorsementlabel/HEPS

ComparaGvelabel

MakesfeatureorcharacterisGcmandatory

Setsaminimumlevelthatneedstobeachieved

Standardappliedatcompanylevelforonetypeofproduct

Oneortwocriterianeedtobefulfilled

Comparesallproductsofonetypeindifferentclasses

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16.06.16

2.CombinedMEPSandlabels:MEPsareseRngthefloorandlabelsarepromoGngenergyefficientsystemsinthemarket

“RAISETHEFLOOR!”• Eliminateinefficientproductsfromthemarket

• “Push”manufacturerstoproducemoreefficientappliancesandlighGng

PUSH

“RAISETHECEILING!”• SGmulateconsumerdemandforenergyefficientproducts

• HelpmanufacturersofapplianceandlighGngproductstoovercomeinvestmentandmarketbarriers

PULL

Label–Progress

16.06.16

ComparaGvelabel–voluntary

ComparaGvelabel–mandatory

ComparaGvelabelmandatory–linkedtoMEPSandregularreview

ComparaGvelabelmandatory&endorsementlabel(HEPS)

ComparaGvelabelmandatory&endorsementlabel(HEPS)&endorsementlabel(GWPrefrigerant&Productdesign)

MEPS-voluntary

MEPS–mandatory

MEPS–mandatory&labelling

MEPS–mandatory&labelling&regularreviewbasedonmarketdata

Ecodesign–mandatory&labelling&regularreviewbasedonmarketdata&basedonTEWI(SEERplusGWPofrefrigerant)&soundlevel

Standards–Progress

16.06.16

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Minimumefficiencyrequirementstakinginto

accountallproductemissions

includingrefrigerants

efficien

cy

LOW

HIGH

BAN

WhatisEUP?

EcodesignRequirementsforEnergyUsingProducts

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16.06.16

EcodesigndirecGveoftheEU:ProvidingincenGvesforlowGWPrefrigerants

EcodesigndirecGveprovides10%incenGveforR290systemsDesignofHFCsystems(R410a,R32[GWP700]R32/blends)will

becometooexpensive!!

Source:COMMISSIONREGULATION(EU)No206/2012

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InternaGonalMinimumEnergyPerformanceStandard(S)EERforsplitAC

0,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

4,0

5,0

6,0

7,0

8,0

9,0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

EER

CoolingcapacityinkW

EUEcodesign2014SEERGWP>150EUEcodesign2014SEERGWP<150USSEER2006

ChinaSEER2008

KoreaSEER2004

JapanSEER2012

IndiaMEPSEER2012-2013

EconomicpotenGalTechnicalpotenGal

SOURCE:IEA(2011),CLASP(2011),CLASP(2013)

Technologyisthere–itistheregulatoryframeworkandenergypricingpoliciesthatdrivedemandandavailabilityofenergyefficientequipment.

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RACTechnologyOpGons

HeatExchangerefficiency Variable

SpeedDrive

SmartPrecisionControls

HeatrejecGon/recoveryLowerleak

rates

ChargereducGon

LowGWPrefrigerants

ReducedVolume&Material

QualityinstallaGon,operaGon,service

Buildingenvelope

Qualitysupplies

EnergysupplyCO2

intensity

SeRngEEStandards:SystemBoundariesofRACTechnology- SufficienttechnicalopGonstoinnovateexisGngsystem

applicaGonsandsubstanGallyreduceemissions.

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Complexi9esofEnergySupply

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RelaGonshipbetweenSupplyandDemandpaderns

GujaratApplianceLoadCurveSummer/Winter

The energy consumed by air conditioning not only increases overall demand for electricity, it also contributes significantly to peak demand. Indeed, usage of ACs is concentrated in time, generally in the summer months. On very hot days, many air-conditioning units are set to a maximum position, and as a consequence demand for electricity spikes, requiring that power capacity be added to meet this peak demand. A study in the Indian state of Gujarat showed that ACs contributed about 60% of summer peak demand, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Gujarat Appliance Load Curve in “Summer” and “Winter”

Source: USAID ECO III, 2010.

The additional electricity demand resulting from new sales of ACs puts tremendous pressure on countries to supply power to meet this demand. Supplying this power is challenging because a significant portion of AC electricity demand coincides with peak demand. Meeting greater peak demand attributable to ACs requires costly investments in power plants and transmission and distribution infrastructure even though the demand might arise only during a short period of time each year. In the long term, if it is not possible to manage peak demand, capacity will have to be added to the electricity generation, transmission, and distribution system. This will impose significant costs on all electricity consumers (not just the users of ACs) because the low capacity utilization factor of peak generators will increase the marginal cost of peak power for all customers.

Moreover, many emerging economies are already running on thin reserve generation capacity margins and experiencing rolling blackouts and brownouts. In some cases, peak consumption is met with inefficient, carbon-intensive back-up diesel generation. Countries need to plan ahead for additional capacity to meet the rapid expected growth in demand attributable to increasing penetration of ACs.

Because of the costs of meeting added electricity demand to operate growing numbers of ACs, the opportunity to save peak energy by means of AC energy-efficiency improvements has a higher value than most efficiency measures. This is one of the drivers of incentive programs focused on ACs. Section 2.6. describes the costs and benefits of AC incentive programs.

2.3 SAVINGS POTENTIAL

AC energy efficiency can be improved by optimizing AC components and improving the thermodynamic cycle. A recent study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) for the Super-efficient Equipment and Appliance Deployment Initiative (SEAD) detailed the commercially available options for producing more efficient ACs, describing how efficient compressors, improved fan blade design, improved heat exchangers, and efficient motors can significantly reduce overall AC energy consumption (Shah et al., 2013).

20

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Increasing Efficiency of Room Air Conditioners in India: Opportunities and Challenges

18

In 2007, while the room AC penetration reached nearly 100% in urban China, the average per capita income was $5,224/year (2005 constant dollars) [23]. In India, the average per capita income would be $5,322/year (2005 constant dollars) in 2021 [23]. By 2030, the average per capita income in India would be $8,787/year (close to China’s projected per capita income in 2013) [23]. Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the empirical evidence that the ownership of an air conditioner is highly correlated with the household income. Therefore, we believe that the room AC penetration presented in Table 4 is only conservative.

4.2 Contribution of ACs to the Peak Electricity Demand In this section, we describe the usage pattern of the space cooling load in India and assess the impact of high penetration of room ACs on peak demand.

Several load surveys in India have found that the space cooling demand in India is highly coincident within a sector and also with the peak demand [11], [13], [18], [24]. Based on these surveys, the following observations could be made: (a) If a household or a commercial establishment owns an AC, its contribution to the peak demand is significant, (b) Residential and commercial space cooling demand has a significant seasonal correlation, (c) diurnally, residential AC demand peaks at night and commercial AC demand peaks in the afternoon. However, during the afternoon, there are a few hours where residential and commercial demands coincide, and (d) space cooling is the only end-use that shows significant seasonal variation.

The following charts show the hourly system demand curves on average summer and winter days in two major Indian cities: Mumbai and Delhi. More than 75% of the load in these cities is residential and commercial; moreover, these cities have a modest level of AC penetration in the residential and commercial sector. Therefore, the system level data essentially represents the pattern in which these two consumer types use the electricity.

(a) Mumbai (b) Delhi

Figure 10: Average Hourly Demands in Summer and Winter in Mumbai and Delhi

(Data Source: [25], [26])

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324

Hour

ly D

eman

d in

Mum

bai (

MW

)

Summer Winter

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Hour

ly D

eman

d in

Del

hi (M

W)

Summer Winter

Increasing Efficiency of Room Air Conditioners in India: Opportunities and Challenges

19

Both Mumbai and Delhi systems are afternoon peaking in the summer; coincidence of the residential and commercial space cooling demand in the afternoon causes the system demands to peak in summer afternoons. Since space cooling is responsible for the seasonal variation in electricity demand in both sectors, the peak demand in winter drops by nearly 40% and 25% respectively in Mumbai and Delhi.

4.3 Coincidence of the space cooling demand across regions in India So far, we have shown that the space cooling demand from residential and commercial sector makes a significant contribution to the peak demand. The following chart shows the hourly heat indices in four large Indian cities located in different geographic regions in the country.3

(a) May (b) June

Figure 11: Average Hourly Heat Indices of Major Indian Cities in May and June

(Data Source: [28])

It can be seen that the average heat index pattern during the summer months in India is very similar across geographic regions in India. There would be some daily variation due to local conditions, but in general, the space cooling demand may have a high peak coincidence across geographic regions.

4.4 Estimation of the Peak Demand from room ACs Because of the reasons mentioned in the previous section, we have assumed a peak coincidence factor of 0.7 for the room ACs in India.4 The demand for space cooling would peak during summer afternoons. The following table shows our estimates of the peak demand contribution from room ACs. 3 Heat Index measures the actual felt temperature to the human body. It is a combination of temperature and

relative humidity of the air [27]. 4 Peak coincidence factor is the probability of appliance use coinciding with the system peak demand. Lighting

appliances in India typically have a high peak coincidence factor (0.9 or 1) since they are typically used in the evening peak hours [11].

0

10

20

30

40

50

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23

Heat

Inde

x

Hour of the day

Mumbai Delhi

Chennai Calcutta0

10

20

30

40

50

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23

Heat

Inde

x

Hour of the day

Mumbai Delhi

Chennai Calcutta

AverageHourlyHeatIndicesofMajorIndianCiGesinMayandJune

AverageHourlyDemandsinSummerandWinterinMumbaiandDelhi

Avoiding100NewPowerPlantsinIndia;Shaetal,2014

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10

Figure E-3 Cost Curves and Market Transformation Programs

If the criteria for setting minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) are that efficiency improvements targeted should be cost effective from a consumer perspective, then the level of efficiency improvement that can be targeted will be where CCE is less than or equal to the consumer tariff (see Figure E-2).

In several cases, consumer tariff are lower than the cost of supply during the time when ACs are used. In such instances, efficiency levels targeted by financial incentive programs could be where CCE is less than or equal to cost of supply during those times (long run marginal cost of supply at the time when the ACs are used).

Metrics of cost effectiveness that are typically used for designing efficiency programs could be expanded beyond consumer cost-effectiveness perspective in several other ways. For example, such metrics could account for subsidies, the cost of peak power, the costs of backup generation, or the costs of power outages. The cost effectiveness data presented in Chapters 4 and 5 of this report could be used to design programs with such expanded considerations of cost-effectiveness, and therefore correspondingly target higher efficiency levels. While expanded metrics could also be used across multiple product categories, such expanded metrics are particularly relevant for AC use due to the high contribution of ACs to peak loads, power outages, and backup generation.

Note that the analysis presented in this report provides initial estimates of costs for various levels of efficiency improvements and is likely to need further refinement in order to be used for program design purposes.

CostofMarketTransformaGon

CCECostConservedEnergyShaetal,LNBL,2015

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Offsetofcostsfromavoidedsubsidies(Socialvs.Privatecosts)2. ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICIES: WHAT DELIVERS?

ECEEE SUMMER STUDY PROCEEDINGS 551

2-452-13 GOPAL ET AL

it downstream to consumers (e.g. how much of the incremental manufacturing cost could be covered by avoided subsidies vs. how much of the installed cost to a customer could be covered). We can also extend LEERA to quantify the additional benefits of energy efficiency to the government from avoided additions to generation capacity and reduced pollution from the energy system. Importantly, we can calculate the same benefits of en-ergy efficiency from a utility perspective in countries where they are not fully government owned.

LEERA could also be used to support standards and labelling programs. For example, together with Lawrence Berkeley Na-tional Laboratory’s Policy Analysis Modelling System (PAMS)

model, LEERA could be used to compare subsidy savings to consumer cost effective price levels for different appliances. This could show how financial incentives might be used to push minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) beyond lev-els that are cost effective for consumers (or support proposed levels that would push appliance prices beyond the consumer cost effective level). Where standards are in place, LEERA can be used to compare MEPS with efficiency levels that could be obtained with no net cash flow impact.

Finally, this model allows policymakers to compare and contrast the savings, both energy and financial, and the driv-ers of those savings, for different end uses. In countries that

Figure 3. Mexican government avoided subsidies and incremental manufacturing costs for refrigerators.

��

��Figure 4. Mexican government avoided subsidies and incremental manufacturing costs for TVs.

Contents Keywords Authors

Average SEER, Economic and Technical potential in selected countries. Source: SEAD, 2013

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UAC:UnexplointedenergyefficienypotenGal

19

Average SEER, Economic and Technical potential in selected countries. Source: SEAD, 2013

•  CurrenttechnologyonlyusesafracGonofthetechnologicalenergyefficiencypotenGal

•  InallcountriestheavailabletechnologydoesnotuGlizetheeconomicpotenGal

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Increasing Efficiency of Room Air Conditioners in India: Opportunities and Challenges

15

Figure 7: Penetration of key appliances in urban Chinese households between 1981 and 2010

(Source: [3])

In India, while average household incomes have risen significantly over the last decade, prices of electrical appliances have dropped in real terms as shown in the following chart.

Figure 8: Wholesale Price Indices of the key electrical appliances and average of all commodities (1994=100)

(Data Source: [19])

Moreover, most of the major Indian cities are populous and have very high number of cooling degree days compared to other cities in the world as shown in the following table:

Air Conditioners

Average (All Commodities)

TV

Ceiling Fans

Tubelights

0

50

100

150

200

250

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Who

lesa

le P

rice

Inde

x (1

994

= 10

0)

ComparedCostofAircondiGonersinIndia

Avoiding100NewPowerPlantsinIndia;Shaetal,2014

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CalculaGngyourpolicyimpactReducGoninenergycostscausescustomerstoincreasetheirenergyuse,diminishingtheactualenergysavingsachieved.SavingsfromprogramparGcipantswhowouldhaveundertakentheefficiencyacGviGesintheabsenceoftheprogramshouldbeexcluded.SavingsbeyondtheprogramparGcipantsthatresultedfromtheprogram’sinfluenceshouldbeincluded.Netsavingsalsoexcludethedemand-reducGoneffectsofotherprograms–suchasstandardsandlabeling,buildingcodes,andotherfinancialincenGvepolicies–andofexternalphenomenasuchaseconomicrecessionoracceleratedeconomicgrowth.

Reboundeffect(vs.preboundorsurpresseddemand)FreeridershipSpilloversOtherprograms

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59

Chapter 4. Cost Effectiveness Analysis

In this chapter we describe the methodology, assumptions, and results of the cost of conserved electricity (CCE) analysis which is used to assess the cost effectiveness of efficiency improvement options by comparing the CCE with the cost of supplying electricity. We briefly review the process used to estimate the costs of efficiency improvements from the design options discussed earlier in chapter 2, the cost-efficiency model, input data and assumptions, and present the results of this cost effectiveness analysis in the form of a cost-efficiency curve for each economy studied. Figure 4-1 illustrates the steps in the cost effectiveness analysis.

Figure 4-1 Cost Effectiveness Analysis

We created an engineering-economic model (described in this chapter) to calculate the energy efficiency changes and associated manufacturing costs from the application of higher efficiency design options to room air conditioners. We used the model to assess the impact of increasing room air conditioner energy efficiency on cost of conserved electricity in the following economies: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Europe, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Russia, the UAE and the USA.

Single packaged split room air conditioners dominate the global room air conditioner market and are by far the most commonly found room air conditioner technology in all markets except North America. As a

CostEffecGvenessAnalysisA/C

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30

Table 10 Range of Estimated Peak Load Reduction (GW) in 2030 and 2050 from 30% Efficiency Improvement and low-GWP Refrigerant Transition32 (Source: Author’s Calculations)

2030 2050

Efficiency

improvement33

Refrigerant

transition

Efficiency

Improvement

& Refrigerant

transition34

Number of

Avoided 500

MW Peak

Power Plants Efficiency

improvement

Refrigerant

transition

Efficiency

Improvement

& Refrigerant

transition

Number of

Avoided 500

MW Peak

Power

Plants

Brazil 14-32 2.3-5.4 15.4-36 31-72 41.3-96.4 6.9-16.1 46-108 92-216

Chile 0.44 -1.0 0.1-0.2 0.5-1.1 1-2 0.9- 2.2 0.2-0.4 1.0-2.0 2-4

China 118 -277 20-46 132-310 264-620 138.5-323.2 23.1-54 155-361 310-720

Colombia 1.9-4.3 0.3-0.7 2.1-4.8 4-10 4.7-10.9 0.8-1.8 5.0-12.0 10-24

Egypt 2.6-6.2 0.4-1.0 3.0-7.0 6-14 9.0-21.0 1.5-3.5 10.0-23.0 20-46

India 27.3-63.8 4.56 -10.63 31-71 61-142 98-229 16.4-38.2 110-256 219-511

Indonesia 17.8-41.5 3.0-7.0 20-46 40-92 27-63 4.5-10.5 30-71 60-140

Mexico 1.8-4.2 0.3-0.7 2.0-4.7 4-10 5-11.6 0.8-1.9 5.5-13 11-26

Pakistan 1.2-2.9 0.21-0.48 1.0-3.0 2-6 8.0-19 1-3.0 9.0-21 18-42

Saudi Arabia 1.7-4.0 0.3-0.7 2-4.4 4-9 2.2-5.1 0.4-0.9 2.4-6 5-12

Thailand 5.2-12.2 0.9-2.0 6-13.7 12-28 6-13.8 1-2.3 6.6-15 14-30

UAE 0.71-1.7 0.1-0.3 0.8-1.9 2-4 1-2.3 0.2-0.4 1.1-3 2-6

Vietnam 5.8-13.4 1-2.2 6.4-15 13-30 6.7-15.7 1.1-2.6 7.5-18 15-36

Global 302-705 50-117 338-788 676-1576 487-1137 81-190 544-1270 1090-2540

32 Note: These estimates assume a peak load coincidence with AC use of 0.3(30% of time) on the low end to 0.7(70% of time) on the higher end.

33 Note: The results for efficiency improvement from Shah et al, 2013 are under ISO 5151 T1 test conditions for both the baseline and efficient air conditioners. While it

is well known that performance degrades at higher ambient temperatures, the assumption of 30% efficiency improvement is justified as both the more efficient and less

efficient air conditioners will degrade roughly equally in performance at high ambient temperatures, for the same refrigerant.

34 Note: results for the policies enacted in parallel are lower than simple addition of the results for the policies in isolation simply because the results are multiplicative

and not additive. i.e. the results from efficiency improvement are multiplied to the results from refrigerant transition. For example an efficiency improvement of 30%

along with a 5% improvement in efficiency from refrigerant transition will result in a 33.5% reduction in energy consumption as follows:[1-(1-0.3)x(1-0.05)]=[1-

0.7x0.95]=1-0.665=0.335.

Shahetal,lnbl,10/2015

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Opera9onalEfficiency

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RACTechnologyOpGons

HeatExchangerefficiency Variable

SpeedDrive

SmartPrecisionControls

HeatrejecGon/recoveryLowerleak

rates

ChargereducGon

LowGWPrefrigerants

ReducedVolume&Material

QualityinstallaGon,operaGon,service

Buildingenvelope

Qualitysupplies

EnergysupplyCO2

intensity

SeRngEEStandards:SystemBoundariesofRACTechnology- SufficienttechnicalopGonstoinnovateexisGngsystem

applicaGonsandsubstanGallyreduceemissions.

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§  Principallythewaythatthemachinecreatescold–  Temperaturelit–  Temperatureofthecoldrefrigerant–  Temperatureofthehotrefrigerant–  SelecGonofrefrigerantcircuitry–  Pressurelosseswithinpipework–  ProperGesofrefrigerant(type)–  Oiltype

§  EssenGaltofocusoncomponentselecGonandcircuitdesign

Generalenergyefficiencyissues

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OpGmizeProcessHeatExchange

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OpGmisesystembalancing +++Refrigerantchargesize;criGcal/non-criGcalcharge +++Largerevaporator/condensersurfacearea;improvedsurfacetexture +++

OpGmiseevaporator/condensercircuitry ++Forcedvs.naturalconvecGonevaporator/condenser ++Cleanevaporator/condenser(surfacetreatment) +Minimisesuperheat ++Floodedevaporator ++Reducepipingpressurelosses ++OpGmisesub-cooling +

Improvementexamples

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SelecGonofcompressorwithopGmumcapacity ++AlternaGverefrigerants,purevs.mixtures ++Useofliquid-sucGonheatexchanger(somerefrigerants) +SelecGonofopGmallubricant +Useofoilseparator +AlternaGvecoolingcycles(e.g.,Lorenz,SGrling,etc) +++Two,mulG-stagesystem(e.g.,forLT) ++Improvedairflowoverproduct +Integratedevaporatorshelving +

Improvementexamples

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Best Practice GuideIndustrial Refrigeration

Solution 2 – Design a new system 22

A study into the most appropriate type of refrigerant for your needs should be undertaken, particularly given that refrigerant leakage can be highly toxic, have a large global warming and/or ozone-depletion effect, and leakage varies significantly by refrigerant type and application (for example, from <1% up to 40% per annum depending on the size and age of the system11

). Refrigerant choice also affects the energy efficiency of chiller operation, and some refrigerants are to be phased out over the coming years (such as HCFC). Chillers with greater than 100 kg of refrigerant will need to be registered under the new Australian National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Systems Policy.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) has recently been rediscovered as a good primary and secondary refrigerant. It has been successfully used in a number of large-scale storage and processing refrigeration plants around the world, including a new system in western Victoria, which is estimated to be saving 29% of its refrigeration costs compared to ammonia. Propane can also be used as a refrigerant, with similar efficiency to that of ammonia.

5.6 Step 6: Select the transfer fluids

Transfer fluids must be compatible with the materials in the distribution system. They should also be safe

lowest temperatures in the system, the fluid should allow satisfactory heat transfer and reasonable pressure drop. The advantages of using a transfer fluid distribution system include:

dangerous chemicals from food processing plant and working areas.

plant room area only, which means leak detection and repairs are more easily undertaken. Less primary pipework also means that pressure drops are reduced.

The disadvantage of this type of system is that a higher temperature lift is required, due to loss in the heat exchange transfer with the secondary fluid.

5.7 Step 7: Consider heat recovery

Some heat recovery is possible from oil coolers on the compressor, superheat from the compressor or the system condenser. Many industrial processes require heat at a much higher temperature than the reject stream of the compressor, but if your process requires heat at less than 80°C, then heat recovery should be considered.

5.8 Summary of savings

Throughout the document, potential savings of energy have been noted and are summarised in Table 9.

this demonstrates the importance of whole-systemapproaches, which includes design, installation, operation, maintenance and periodic review.

Table 9: Potential energy savings.

Method

Use of electronicexpansion valves

VSD on motors

VSD on evaporator andcondenser vans

Evaporator pressureregulators

Evaporator pressureregulators

Reduced temperature lift

Conversion from liquid injectionoil cooling to external oil coolers

Refrigeration system replacement if older than 10 years

Refrigerant selection

Potential Saving(Energy, unless otherwise noted)

20%

20%

2–3% of total refrigeration costs

2.5% greater compressor capacityfor each degree of saturated suctiontemperature

2% for each degree increase insaturated suction temperature

3–4% improvement for 1°C reduction

Over 3%

Up to 30–40%

3–10%

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Posibilities to improve the chiller EER

Measure ImprovementCOP

Cycleimprovements Inverter/variableSpeed(flow)

compressor/fans

Heatexchanger

Partload(system)controls

>30%

Changeinuse GoodpracGcemaintenance >30%(biois,2011)

Changeofrefrigerants i.e.HCforhighambienttemp 10-15%(Pedersen,2012)

31

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Nachhaltige Kälteversorgung in Deutschland an den Beispielen Gebäudeklimatisierung und Industrie

Abbildung 93: Relativer Vergleich der Anlageneffizienz für den Einsatz verschiedener Kältemittel abgeleitet aus der Marktübersicht (vgl. Abbildung 92).

Der Einfluss der HFKW-Kältemittel ist immer abhängig von den spezifischen Einsatz- und Anlagengegebenheiten (Anlagenauslastung, Leckrate, etc.). Der vorgenommene Vergleich verdeutlicht noch einmal prinzipiell, wie hoch der Einfluss der GWP-Werte des eingesetzten Kältemittels auf die Gesamttreibhauswirkung auch bei Kaltwassersätzen sein kann (Abbildung 85). Er fällt besonders hoch aus, wenn die Anlage mit geringer Auslastung betrieben wird (im Beispiel < 500 Vollbenutzungsstunden im Jahr). Auch wenn der direkte TEWI-Anteil aufgrund kleinerer Füllmengen wesentlich geringer ist als bei direktverdampfenden Systemen, beeinflusst die Wahl des Kältemittels den Gesamt-TEWI erheblich. Der Einsatz natürlicher Kältemittel kann hier einen großen Beitrag zur Reduzierung der von Kälteanlagen verursachten Treibhauswirkung leisten.

Abbildung 94: TEWI-Betrachtung für Kaltwassersatz mit unterschiedlichen Kältemitteln für das Klimaszenario Frankfurt mittleres Jahr (FM)

7.3.4.4 Variante 4: RLT - Raumlufttechnische Anlage mit DEC-System

Beim Einsatz einer RLT-Anlage mit DEC-System sind mehrere Vorteile miteinander kombiniert:

100%

100%

100%

100%

103% 96%

95%

98%95%

100%

97%

97%

124% 115%

120%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

140%

0-250 250-500 >500 Mittelwert

EER

rela

tiv

zu R

134a

(luf

tgek

ühlt

)

Kälteleistungsklassen [kW]

R134a R410A R407C R290

keine Werte

100%

100%

100%

100%

96%

97% 93%

95%86% 82%

85%

84%

109%

109%

118% 107%

104%

110%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

140%

0-250 250-500 >500 Mittelwert

EER

rela

tiv

zu R

134a

(was

serg

eküh

lt)

Kälteleistungsklassen [kW]

R134a R410A R407C R290 R717

keine Werte

keine Werte

1.317

1.352

1.326

1.313

1.314

1.453

1.339

686

1.002

2 0 0

2 324

0

500

1.000

1.500

2.000

2.500

R134a R410A R290 R717 R718 R1234yf R32

TEWI

-CO

2-Äq

uiva

lent

[kg

/a]

direkt

indirekt Strom

144

TEWIsimulaGonforequalChillercapacitywithvaryingrefrigerants

(ILKDresden)

Commissionedby

24

For water-cooled air conditioners which are not part of a Water Loop Heat Pump system, the water can originate from the water mains, a natural source or be supplied in a closed circuit system. In the first case, the heated water is not conserved (i.e. it is returned into the sewers), in the second case the heated water is rejected back into the source and in the third case, the heated water is conserved and is cooled using a heat exchanger (e.g. a dry cooler or cooling tower10). Therefore, in the two first cases, the water used to condense the refrigerant is taken from either a natural source or the public water supply but is not conserved and thus implies higher water bills. In the third case, the water used to condense the refrigerant is recycled either totally or partially in the cooling tower and the water bills are thus lower. In principle the water used in air conditioning systems does not need to be portable but this is rarely an option in practice. As a result, any environmental impact assessment should also account for the water used in the air conditioning system.

2.3 Opportunities to Increase Air Conditioner Efficiency

2.3.1 Classic Component Options Across all Economies In this section we describe possible efficiency gains from classic components of residential air conditioners such as: compressors, fans, heat exchangers, expansion devices, and refrigerant fluids. We also investigate improvements in the thermodynamic cycle in this section. These are summarized in Table 2-8 below.

Table 2-8: Summary of Efficiency Improvement Options

Option Description

% improvement

from base case Barrier to Implementation

Min Max

Efficient Heat Exchanger

high efficiency microchannel heat exchangers, larger sized heat exchangers 9.1% 28.6%

Heat exchanger size constraints, Tradeoffs with pressure drop and fouling for microchannel heat exchangers

Efficient Compressors

two-stage rotary compressors, high efficiency scroll compressors with DC motors 6.5% 18.7%

Cost of moving from single to two stage compressor is high

Inverter/Variable Speed

AC, AC/DC or DC inverter driven compressors 20% 24.8%

Costs of DC motors with variable speed drives

Expansion Valve Thermostatic and electronic expansion valves 5% 8.8%

Additional costs of electronic controller

Crankcase Heating

Reduced crankcase heating power and duration 9.8% 10.7%

Tradeoff in terms of starting/preheating time

Standby load Reduced standby loads 2.2% 2.2% Tradeoffs with all standby functions other than reactivation

10 In that case, the A/C cannot operate in the reverse cycle to supply heating.

TypicaltechnicalimprovementopGonsintheA/Csector

CoolingthePlanet:OpportuniGesforDeploymentofSuperefficientRoomAirCondiGoners,LNBL,2013

Commissionedby

190

Figure 1 - 40 . UK Example of Air Conditioning Consumption (cooling plus auxiliary energy)

Example of Air Conditioning Consumption (cooling plus auxiliary energy)

0

2040

6080

100

120140

160180

200

Chilled Ceilingand

DisplacementVentilation

Split systemand NaturalVentilation

Fan CoilSystem

Variable AirVolume

Constant AirVolume

TerminalReheat

Ann

ual C

onsu

mpt

ion

kWh/

m2

6. Health and safety In the UK, the relevant guidance is the Health and Safety Authority Guide “The control of legionella bacteria in water systems. Approved Code of Practice and guidance” . This approved code of practice and guidance gives practical advice on the requirements of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974, and the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health 1999, concerning the risk from exposure to legionella bacteria. The Code also gives guidance on compliance with the relevant parts of the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999. It includes risk assessment and management, guidance on management and treatment of cooling towers, treatment programmes.

Commissionedby

Significant decrease inenergy cost and carbonfootprint by up to 50%can be achieved inc o m p a r i s o n t os u b s t a n d a r dsonnissioning/servicing,by increased quality ofcommiss ion ing andservice.Benefitssuchasdecreased repair costand minimized bad-willfrom failures are alsokey driving forces toimplement improvedmethods to documentp e r f o r m a n c e a n dfuncGonality.

RelevanceofbestpracGceforenergyefficiency

Commissionedby

Commissionedby

Wheretrainingisneeded?Most low GWP alternatives have characteristics that require extra training

Extra training required for:

–  Technicians doing installation, maintenance and end-of-life decommissioning

–  Engineers doing design of systems and components

Commissionedby

Providing training and certification essential to the development of appropriate infrastructures. Where specific safety issues are related to the alternatives, certification of trained skills needs to be mandatory. For example, in the EU, standard EN 13313, “Refrigerating systems and heat pumps - Competence of personnel” sets training requirements for all refrigerants. This standard includes reference to safety issues.

Training courses need to meet the legislative and standard requirements, where gaps exist international standards can provide helpful guidance.

TrainingneedsaFramework

Commissionedby

CompetenceStandard(EN13313)•Althoughcompetencesarestrictlynotpartofsafetystandards.Competencesareimportantforsafety•EN13313isastandardforcompetencesforworkingonrefrigeraGngsystemsandheatpumps.•EN13313isbasedontheEUf-gasregulaGon,whichrequirespersonsinstallaGon,servicing,maintenance,repairordecommissioningtobecerGfied.•CerGficaGonrequirestraininginthecompetenceslistedinthelegislaGon(andduplicatedinEN13313)

Commissionedby

EU Legislation that affects alternative refrigerant training for technicians •  Directive 89/391/EEC - Framework Directive on Safety and Health at work. This Directive

provides general requirements for the training of employees. The employer is required to ensure that workers receive adequate safety and health training.

•  ATEX 137 – Directive 99/92/EC on minimum requirements for improving the safety and health protection of workers potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres. This Directive places a responsibility on employers to provide appropriate training for works in relation to risks from explosive atmospheres.

EU Legislation that indirectly affects alternative refrigerant training for equipment specifiers producers and distributors •  Pressure Equipment Directive (97/23/EC (and Recast 2014/68/EU)) •  ATEX 95 – Explosive Atmospheres Directive (94/9/EC (and Recast 2014/34/EU)) •  These Directives are potentially relevant to products and goods that contain refrigerants,

but focus on minimum safety standards which products must meet before they are placed on the market rather than training requirements for those handling refrigerants.

•  General Product Safety Directive (2001/95/EC) •  Directive - Low Voltage Directive (2006/95/EC (and Recast2014/35/EU)) •  Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive (2004/108/EC (and Recast 2014/30/EU)) •  Machinery Directive (2006/42/EC)

Example:EUlegislaGonthatdirectlyaffectstraining

Commissionedby

a.  Registeredascarriersofhazardouswaste;b.  PossessrecognizedcerGficaGoncompetencytohandle

refrigerants,atleastonecerGfiedtechnician;c.  Conformwithallcurrentlegalrequirements;d.  Operateauditableproceduresforthepropercontrolof

refrigerants;e.  Usepurposedesignedrefrigerantrecoveryequipment;f.  Canaccountforallrefrigerantusedandrecovered;g.  Areenvironmentallyawareandperformrefrigerant

transacGonswithminimumemissions.

RegistraGonandCerGficaGonofservicingenterprises

Commissionedby

•  Newly acquired competences develop multiple benefits: à higher energy efficiency from better servicing (15 % +, EU) à less wastes and operational failure - better economy à customers understand value and pay for it à local supplies of natural refrigerants, no dependence on imports à enhances local know how and production options à longer term application of framework and know how

•  High safety standards may generally improve services & performance

•  Cash saved during operation could be used to pay qualified workers

BestpracGceserviceprovidessustainableincome!

Commissionedby

WindtowerMasdarcity

Commissionedby

§  “ParasiGc” losses typically related to ancillary components, e.g.,–  Defrost heaters–  LighGng–  Trim heaters–  Fans–  Pumps–  VenGlaGon

§  All ‘sort of’ necessary to achieve the cold, but can normally be reduced

Parasitic losses

Commissionedby

EEincenGvesgoodpracGceprogrammes–exampleGermany

45

Programme IncenGve Criteria

Chilleraudit 75%oftheauditreportcosts •  EnergyconsumpGon>150.000KWhp.a.

•  Chillerconsumes>50%ofthebuilding‘senergyconsumpGon

Chiller-upfrontinvestmentgrant

•  15%ofnetinvestment•  25%ofnetinvestment

•  withenergyreducGonby35%•  withenergyreducGonof35%andusageofnaturalrefrigerants

Newchillerwithnon-convenGonalpowersources

•  25%ofnetinvestment(withenergyreducGonby35%)

•  35%ofnetinvestment(withenergyreducGonof35%andusageofnaturalrefrigerants)

ChillerpoweredbyalternaGve(non-fossil)energysources(includingthermalsolar)

Commissionedby

EEincenGvesgoodpracGceprogrammes–exampleUnitedKingdom

46

Programme IncenGve Criteria

Capitalprofittaxprogramme enhancedcapitalallowancewhichpermitsa100%firstyearcapitalallowanceastaxoffsettocorporateprofits.

•  CEmarking•  MinimumcoolingEnergy

EfficiencyRaGng(EER)foraircooledpackagedchillersthatprovidecoolingonlyofatleast2.7-2.8(from100kWto1,500kWcoolingcapacity)