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2-1 The Nature of Matter
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Biochemistry Notes
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Atoms
Atoms
The study of chemistry begins with the basic unit of matter, the atom.
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Atoms
The subatomic particles that make up atoms are
• protons
• neutrons
• electrons
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Elements and Isotopes
Elements and Isotopes
A chemical element is a pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom.
The number of protons in an atom of an element is the element's atomic number.
Atomic Mass is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom
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Elements and Isotopes
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons they contain are known as isotopes.
Because they have the same number of electrons, all
isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties.
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Chemical Compounds
Chemical Compounds
A chemical compound is a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions.
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Chemical Bonds
Chemical Bonds
The atoms in compounds are held together by chemical bonds.
The electrons that are available to form bonds are called valence electrons(electrons in the outermost orbit).
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Chemical Bonds
The main types of chemical bonds are:
• ionic bonds
• covalent bonds
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Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bonds
An ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
These positively and negatively charged atoms are known as ions.
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Chemical Bonds
Covalent Bonds
Sometimes electrons are shared by atoms instead of being transferred.
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The Water Molecule
A water molecule is polar because there is an uneven distribution of electrons between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
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The Water Molecule
Cohesion is an attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Because of hydrogen bonding, water is extremely cohesive.
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The Water Molecule
Adhesion is an attraction between molecules of different substances.
Capillary action
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Solutions and Suspensions
Solutions
A mixture is a material composed of two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed but not chemically combined.
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Acids, Bases, and pH
The pH scale
Chemists devised a measurement system called the pH scale to indicate the concentration of H+ ions in solution.
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
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Acids, Bases, and pH
At a pH of 7, the concentration of H+ ions and OH- ions is equal.
The pH Scale
Human blood
Milk
Sea water
Normal rainfall
Pure water
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Acids, Bases, and pH
Buffers
The pH of the fluids within most cells in the human body must generally be kept between 6.5 and 7.5.
Controlling pH is important for maintaining homeostasis.
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The Chemistry of Carbon
The Chemistry of Carbon
Organic chemistry is the study of all compounds that contain bonds between carbon atoms.
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Macromolecules
Macromolecules
Macromolecules are formed by a process known as polymerization(dehydration Synthesis).
Monomers
Polymers
Macromolecules are broken down by digestion(hydrolysis)
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Macromolecules
Four groups of organic compounds found in living things are:
•carbohydrates
•lipids
•nucleic acids
•proteins
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Carbohydrates
What is the function of carbohydrates?
Source of Energy
StructureDifferent sizes of carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, usually in a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.
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Lipids
Lipids
Lipids are generally not soluble in water.
The common categories of lipids are:
fats
oils
waxes
steroids
Lipids can be used to store energy. Some lipids are important parts of
biological membranes and waterproof coverings.
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers assembled from individual monomers known as nucleotides.
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides consist of three parts:
•a 5-carbon sugar
•a phosphate group
•a nitrogenous base
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary, or genetic, information.
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
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Proteins
Proteins
Proteins are macromolecules that contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• polymers of molecules called amino acids.
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Proteins
Amino acids – monomer of protein
The portion of each amino acid that is different is a side chain called an R-group.
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Proteins
The instructions for arranging amino acids into many different proteins are stored in DNA.
AminoAcids
Protein Molecule
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Proteins
Some functions of proteins:
–Control rate of reactions – Enzymes
–Used to form bones and muscles
–Transport substances into or out of cells
–Help to fight disease - antibodies
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Enzymes
Enzymes
Some chemical reactions that make life possible are too slow or have activation energies.
These chemical reactions are made possible by catalysts.
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that
take place in cells.
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Enzyme Action
The Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Enzymes provide a site where reactants can be brought together to react, reducing the energy needed for reaction.
The reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are known as substrates.
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Enzyme Action
An Enzyme-Catalyzed Reaction
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Enzyme Action
Regulation of Enzyme Activity
Enzymes can be affected by any variable that influences a chemical reaction.
• pH values
• Changes in temperature
• Enzyme or substrate concentrations
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