ENCYCLOPEDIA ofMARINE GEOSCIENCES

Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MARINE GEOSCIENCES

Volume EditorsJan Harff is Professor of Geosciences and SeafloorGeology at the University of Szczecin, Poland. His previous research focused on sedimentary basinanalysis at the Central Institute for Physics of the Earth (ZIPE, subsequently the GeoForschungsZentrum, GFZ), Potsdam, and marine geology at theLeibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde and the University of Greifswald, Germany. He cooperates, on a permanent basis, with marineresearch institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese universities, and the Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey, Guangzhou, China. Hisresearch interests concernmarine geology in general, sedimentology, coastal geology, paleooceanography, paleoclimatology,mathematical geology, andbasin modeling. In addition to having authored and coauthored numerous research papers and having served as editor of other scientific publications, heacted as corresponding editor ofModeling of Sedimentary Systems (Springer, 1999) and The Baltic Sea Basin (Springer, 2011).Martin Meschede is Professor of Regional and Structural Geology at the Institute of Geography and Geology, University of Greifswald,Germany. His research interests focus on geodynamic processes at plate margins, subduction, large igneous provinces, exhumation,paleogeography, paleoclimatology, basin evolution, and glacial tectonics. He participated in several marine research expeditions, among these arethe Joides Resolution of IODP and a diving cruise with Shinkai 6500. Besides a number of scientific publications, he is author and coauthor ofseveral textbooks on plate tectonics, structural geology, and regional geology of Germany.Sven Petersen is a senior researcher at GEOMAR, Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel in Germany. His research focuses on understandingthe processes that form and change seafloor hydrothermal systems and associated mineral deposits with time. He participated in more than 30research cruises to submarine hydrothermal systems in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. Major aims of his research are to understand theirchemical variability, the use of mobile drilling techniques and geophysical methods to investigate their subseafloor extent, as well as the use ofautonomous underwater vehicles for their exploration.Jörn Thiede is the leader of the KÖPPEN-Laboratory of the Institute of Earth Sciences of Saint Petersburg State University. He worked during1967–1987 at the universities of Aarhus (Denmark), Bergen (Norway), Oregon State University in Corvallis (USA), Oslo (Norway), and Kiel(Germany) and learned to sail the world’s oceans to understand their history. Afterward, he pursued the foundation of GEOMAR. In 1997, hejoined The Alfred Wegener Institute-Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research. In 2008, he served at the Geocenter Denmark as well as atUNIS (Longyearbyen/Svalbard) and in 2011 was invited to join the St. Petersburg State University (Russia).

Editorial BoardGerhard BohrmannUniversity of BremenBremen, Germany

Charles W. FinklThe Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc.Coconut Creek, FL, USAandFlorida Atlantic UniversityBoca Raton, FL, USA

Mark D. HanningtonUniversity of OttawaOttawa, ON, CanadaandGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchKiel, Germany

Roland von HueneGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchKiel, Germany

Carina B. LangeUniversidad de ConcepciónConcepción, Chile

Alexander P. LisitzinShirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of SciencesMoscow, Russia

Jason Phipps MorganCornell UniversityIthaca, NY, USA

Yujiro OgawaTsukubamirai, Japan

Manik TalwaniRice UniversityHouston, TX, USA

Di ZhouSouth China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CASGuangzhou, P. R. China

Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volumecomprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists.These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works

published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, andoceanographers as well as for teachers and students. Go to http://link.springer.com to visit the “Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series” online.

About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past25 years, he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal ofCoastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of theUniversity of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company ofCanada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia, the Caribbean, South America, SW Pacific islands, Southern Africa,Western Europe, and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career, he has workedas a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WWII intelligence officer in the SW Pacific, and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada,Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the GoddardInstitute for Space Studies.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA ofMARINE GEOSCIENCES

edited by

JAN HARFFUniversity of Szczecin

Szczecin, Poland

MARTIN MESCHEDEUniversity of Greifswald

Greifswald, Germany

SVEN PETERSENGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research

Kiel, Germany

JÖRN THIEDEInstitute of Earth Science, KÖPPEN-Laboratory

Saint Petersburg State UniversitySt. Petersburg, Russia

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957581

ISBN: 978-94-007-6237-4

This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-94-007-6238-1 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-94-007-6239-8

Springer Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York, London

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover photo: The submersibleDeepSee, some 600 feet below the surface of the Pacific, descends into a volcanic vent ofthe seamount Las Gemelas near Costa Rica. Photograph by: Brian J. Skerry/National Geographic Creative

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproducedfrom other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All rights reserved for the contributions: Coastal Engineering; Cobalt-rich Manganese Crusts; Hydrothermal Plumes;Marine Evaporites; Sea Walls / Revetments; Terranes

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the materialis concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting,reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to betrue and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express orimplied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Dedication

We dedicate the Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences to two scientists: Eugen Seibold and Terry Healy. Eugen Seibold has, directlyand indirectly, inspired the four of us and supported our enthusiasm for marine geosciences. While a coauthor of the entry “MarineGeosciences: A Short, Eclectic, and Weighted Historic Account,” he passed away in 2013 before the Encyclopedia of MarineGeosciences was completed. Terry Healy, a marine scientist from New Zealand, had initiated the Encyclopedia of MarineGeosciences project before he passed away in 2010. Terry influenced the geoscience community worldwide by his groundbreakingresearch in coastal erosion, sedimentation, and hazards (including tsunamis). While Eugen Seibold’s contributions represent basicsciences, Terry Healy’s address applied aspects of marine sciences. In this sense, the two scientists epitomize our intention for theEncyclopedia of Marine Geosciences to bridge the basic and the applied compartments of marine geosciences.

Eugen Seibold (May 11, 1918–October 23, 2013) initiatedresearch on marine geology at the University of Kiel, Germany,with the aim of understanding the fossil depositional environ-ments through the study and comparison of modern sedimentaryprocesses. He realized that marine geology would develop intoa fascinating research discipline. He will be remembered asone of the great geoscientists of our time; he was a true man ofthe Earth.

Terry Healy (November 28, 1944–July 20, 2010) was fordecades affiliated to the University of Waikato, New Zealand.His special field of research and academic education was theinner shelf oceanography and marine geology, studied on scalesfrom regional to global. Terry Healy’s major contributionto marine geosciences involved societal applications of earthscience principles.

“Throughout my professional career I have held to a philos-ophy of demonstrating in my teaching and research, the impor-tance, relevance, and application of earth science principles tothe problems of, and ultimate benefit to, the community.”

Editors and Editorial Board

Jan HarffInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of Szczecinul. Mickiewicza 1870-383 SzczecinPolandjan.harff@io-warnemuende.de

Martin MeschedeInstitute of Geography and GeologyErnst-Moritz-Arndt UniversityFriedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Str. 17A17487 GreifswaldGermanymeschede@uni-greifswald.de

Sven PetersenGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyspetersen@geomar.de

Jörn ThiedeInstitute of Earth SciencesSaint Petersburg State UniversityV. O., Sredniy prospect, 41St. Petersburg 199 178RussiaandAdW Mainz c/o GEOMARWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyjthiede@geomar.de

Gerhard BohrmannMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanygbohrmann@marum.de

Charles W. FinklDepartment of GeosciencesFlorida Atlantic University5130 NW 54th StreetBoca Raton 33073 FLUSAandThe Coastal Education and Research FoundationCoconut Creek, FLUSAcfinkl@cerf-jcr.com

Mark D. HanningtonGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyandGoldcorp Chair in Economic GeologyDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OttawaK1N 6N5 Ottawa, ONCanadamark.hannington@uottawa.ca

viii EDITORS AND EDITORIAL BOARD

Roland von HueneGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstraße 1-324148 KielGermanyrhuene@mindspring.com

Carina B. LangeCentro FONDAP-COPASUniversidad de ConcepciónCasilla 160-CConcepciónChileclange@udec.cl

Alexander P. LisitzinP.P. Shirshov Institute of OceanologyRussian Academy of Sciences (IO RAS)Nakhimovskii prospekt, 36Moscow 117851Russialisitzin@ocean.ru

Jason Phipps MorganDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric ScienceCornell University2122 Snee HallIthaca, NY 14853-1504USAjason.phipps.morgan@cornell.edu

Yujiro Ogawa1-127-2-C-740 YokodaiTsukubamirai 300-2358Japanfyogawa45@yahoo.co.jp

Manik TalwaniDepartment of Earth SciencesMS-126 Rice University6100 Main StreetHouston, TX 77005USAmanik.talwani@gmail.com

Di ZhouSouth China Sea Institute of OceanologyChinese Academy of Sciences164 West Xingang Road510301 GuangzhouChinazhoudiscs@scsio.ac.cn

Contents

Contributors xv

Preface xxxi

Acknowledgments xxxiii

Abyssal Plains 1David Voelker

Accretionary Wedges 6Martin Meschede

Active Continental Margins 9Serge Lallemand

Ancient Plate Tectonics 13Stephen F. Foley

Anoxic Oceans 20Christian März and Hans-Jürgen Brumsack

Asphalt Volcanism 24Gerhard Bohrmann

Astronomical Frequencies in Paleoclimates 25Andre Berger

Axial Summit Troughs 33Samuel Adam Soule and Michael R. Perfit

Axial Volcanic Ridges 36Isobel Yeo

Beach 41Charles W. Finkl

Beach Processes 47Charles W. Finkl

Bed forms 55Miwa Yokokawa

Biochronology, Biostratigraphy 55Felix M. Gradstein

Biogenic Barium 56Graham Shimmield

Bioturbation 57Gerhard Graf

Black and White Smokers 58Margaret K. Tivey

Bottom Simulating Seismic Reflectors (BSR) 62Jürgen Mienert and Stefan Bünz

Bottom-Boundary Layer 67Wenyan Zhang

Bouma Sequence 68Thierry Mulder and Heiko Hüneke

Calcite Compensation Depth (CCD) 71Wolfgang H. Berger

Carbon Isotopes 73Thomas Wagner and Jens O. Herrle

Carbonate Dissolution 78Leif G. Anderson

Carbonate Factories 80John J.G. Reijmer

Chemosynthetic Life 84Verena Tunnicliffe

x CONTENTS

Clay Minerals 87Rüdiger Stein

Coastal Bio-geochemical Cycles 93Jing Zhang

Coastal Engineering 99Louise Wallendorf

Coasts 103Charles W. Finkl

Cobalt-rich Manganese Crusts 113James R. Hein

Cold Seeps 117Marta E. Torres and Gerhard Bohrmann

Continental Rise 122William W. Hay

Continental Slope 124William W. Hay

Contourites 127Heiko Hüneke

Convergence Texture of Seismic Reflectors 132Christopher George St. Clement Kendall

Crustal Accretion 133Benoıt Ildefonse

Cumulates 137Jürgen Koepke

Curie Temperature 138Hans-Jürgen Götze

Currents 139Jüri Elken

Data 143Michael Diepenbroek

Deep Biosphere 144Axel Schippers

Deep-sea Fans 156Thierry Mulder and Heiko Hüneke

Deep-sea Sediments 156Mitchell Lyle

Deltas 171Duncan FitzGerald, Ioannis Georgiou and Mark Kulp

Depleted Mantle 182Andreas Stracke

Diatoms 185Arto Miettinen

Dinoflagellates 189Jens Matthiessen and Michael Schreck

Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push 193Carolina Lithgow-Bertelloni

Dunes 196Sara Munoz-Valles and Jesus Cambrolle

Dust in the Ocean 203Cecile Guieu andVladimir P. Shevchenko

Earthquakes 209Nina Kukowski

El Niño (Southern Oscillation) 216Janina Körper

Energy Resources 217Dieter Franke and Christoph Gaedicke

Engineered Coasts 226H. Jesse Walker

Epicenter, Hypocenter 231Nina Kukowski

Erosion-Hiatuses 231William W. Hay

Estuary, Estuarine Hydrodynamics 235Halina Kowalewska-Kalkowska andRoman Marks

Eustasy 238Reinhard Dietrich

Events 239William W. Hay

Explosive Volcanism in the Deep Sea 241Christoph Helo

Export Production 247Gerold Wefer, Gerhard Fischer andMorten Iversen

Fault-Plane Solutions of Earthquakes 249Wolfgang Frisch

CONTENTS xi

Fjords 250Antoon Kuijpers and Camilla S. Andresen

Foraminifers (Benthic) 251Anna Binczewska, Irina PolovodovaAsteman and Elizabeth J. Farmer

Foraminifers (Planktonic) 255Demetrio Boltovskoy and Nancy Correa

Gabbro 263Jürgen Koepke

General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans(GEBCO) 268

Hans Werner Schenke

General ocean circulation - its signals inthe sediments 269

Hermann Kudrass

Geochronology: Uranium-Series Datingof Ocean Formations 271

Vladislav Kuznetsov

Geohazards: Coastal Disasters 276Gösta Hoffmann and Klaus Reicherter

Geologic Time Scale 283Felix M. Gradstein

Glacial-marine Sedimentation 288Alexander P. Lisitzin andVladimir P. Shevchenko

Glacio(hydro)-isostatic Adjustment 294Kurt Lambeck

Gravity Field 299Udo Barckhausen andIngo Heyde

Grounding Line 302Antoon Kuijpers and Tove Nielsen

Guyot, Atoll 302Eberhard Gischler

High-pressure, Low-temperature Metamorphism 311Hayato Ueda

Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes 316William M. White

Hotspot-Ridge Interaction 328Colin Devey

Hurricanes and Typhoons 329Don Resio and Shannon Kay

Hydrothermal Plumes 335Edward T. Baker

Hydrothermal Vent Fluids (Seafloor) 339Andrea Koschinsky

Hydrothermalism 344John W. Jamieson, Sven Petersen andWolfgang Bach

Ice-rafted Debris (IRD) 359Antoon Kuijpers, Paul Knutz andMatthias Moros

Integrated Coastal Zone Management 363Gerald Schernewski

International Bathymetric Chart of theArctic Ocean (IBCAO) 365

Martin Jakobsson

Intraoceanic Subduction Zone 367Hayato Ueda

Intraplate Magmatism 372Millard F. Coffin and Joanne M. Whittaker

Island Arc Volcanism, Volcanic Arcs 379Jim Gill

Lagoons 385Andrzej Osadczuk

Laminated Sediments 391Alan Kemp

Layering of Oceanic Crust 392Juan Pablo Canales

Lithosphere: Structure and Composition 393Martin Meschede

Lithostratigraphy 397Rüdiger Henrich

Magmatism at Convergent Plate Boundaries 399Robert J. Stern

Magnetostratigraphy of Jurassic Rocks 407Marıa Paula Iglesia Llanos

Manganese Nodules 408James R. Hein

xii CONTENTS

Mangrove Coasts 412Norman C. Duke

Marginal Seas 423Di Zhou

Marine Evaporites 427Walter E. Dean

Marine Gas Hydrates 433Gerhard Bohrmann and Marta E. Torres

Marine Geosciences: a Short, Ecclectic andWeighted Historic Account 437

Jörn Thiede, Jan Harff, Wolfgang H. Berger andEugen Seibold

Marine Geotope Protection 448Aarno Kotilainen

Marine Heat Flow 449John G. Sclater, Derrick Hasterok,Bruno Goutorbe, John Hillier and Raquel Negrete

Marine Impacts and Their Consequences 460Henning Dypvik

Marine Microfossils 467Jakub Witkowski, Kirsty Edgar, Ian Harding,Kevin McCartney and Marta Bąk

Marine Mineral Resources 475Sven Petersen

Marine Regression 480Jan Harff

Marine Sedimentary Basins 481Paul Mann

Marine Transgression 489Jan Harff

Mass Wasting 490Jan Sverre Laberg, Tore O. Vorren andMatthias Forwick

Metamorphic Core Complexes 491Uwe Ring

Methane in Marine Sediments 495Gerhard Bohrmann and Marta E. Torres

Mg/Ca Paleothermometry 499Dirk Nürnberg

Mid-ocean Ridge Magmatism and Volcanism 501Ken H. Rubin

Modelling Past Oceans 514Jürgen Sündermann

Modern Analog Techniques 514Michal Kucera

Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho) 515Carolina Lithgow-Bertelloni

Moraines 519Anders Schomacker

Morphology Across ConvergentPlate Boundaries 523

Wolfgang Frisch

Mud Volcano 527Achim Kopf

Nannofossils Coccoliths 537Hans R. Thierstein

Nitrogen Isotopes in the Sea 539Thomas Pedersen

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) 540Erik Kjellström

Ocean Acidification 541Ulf Riebesell

Ocean Drilling 542Kiyoshi Suyehiro

Ocean Margin Systems 552Gerold Wefer

Oceanic Plateaus 558Andrew C. Kerr

Oceanic Rifts 567Adolphe Nicolas

Oceanic Spreading Centers 571Satish C. Singh and Adolphe Nicolas

Oil Spill 587Erich Gundlach

Ophiolites 592Adolphe Nicolas

Organic Matter 596Evgeny Romankevich and Alexander Vetrov

Orogeny 602Bernhard Grasemann and Benjamin Huet

CONTENTS xiii

Oxygen Isotopes 610Mark Maslin and Alexander J. Dickson

Paired Metamorphic Belts 619Wolfgang Frisch

Paleoceanographic Proxies 622Gerold Wefer

Paleoceanography 628Jörn Thiede

Paleomagnetism and Jurassic Paleogeography 632Marıa Paula Iglesia Llanos

Paleophysiography of Ocean Basins 638R. Dietmar Müller and Maria Seton

Paleoproductivity 648Paul Loubere

Palynology (Pollen, Spores, etc.) 653Anne de Vernal

Passive Plate Margins 659Paul Mann

Peridotites 665Eric Hellebrand

Phosphorites 666Hermann Kudrass

Placer Deposits 668Hermann Kudrass

Plate Motion 669R. Dietmar Müller and Maria Seton

Plate Tectonics 676Martin Meschede

Pteropods 680Annelies C. Pierrot-Bults andKatja T. C. A. Peijnenburg

Pull-apart Basins 687Alper Gürbüz

Push-up Blocks 692Alper Gürbüz

Radiocarbon: Clock and Tracer 695Pieter M. Grootes

Radiogenic Tracers 699Anton Eisenhauer

Radiolarians 700Kjell R. Bjørklund

Reef Coasts 710Charles W. Finkl

Reefs (Biogenic) 718Christian Dullo

Reflection/Refraction Seismology 721Christian Hübscher and Karsten Gohl

Regional Marine Geology 731Martin Meschede

Relative Sea-Level (RSL) Cycle 735Jan Harff

Salt Diapirism in the Oceans and ContinentalMargins 741

Sergey S. Drachev

Sapropels 746Rüdiger Stein

Sclerochronology 747Christian Dullo

Sea Walls/Revetments 747Louise Wallendorf

Sea-Level 748Reinhard Dietrich

Seamounts 754David M. Buchs, Kaj Hoernle andIngo Grevemeyer

Sediment Dynamics 761Wenyan Zhang

Sediment Transport Models 764Wenyan Zhang

Sedimentary Sequence 768Christopher George St. Clement Kendall

Seismogenic Zone 773Eli Silver

Sequence Stratigraphy 773Christopher George St. Clement Kendall

Serpentinization 779Niels Jöns and Wolfgang Bach

Shelf 787William W. Hay

xiv CONTENTS

Silica 792Paul Treguer

Source Rocks, Reservoirs 792Rüdiger Stein

Subduction 793Serge Lallemand

Subduction Erosion 803Martin Meschede

Submarine Canyons 807William W. Hay

Submarine Lava Types 808Michael R. Perfit and Samuel Adam Soule

Submarine Slides 817Roland von Huene

Subsidence of Oceanic Crust 821David Voelker

Technology in Marine Geosciences 825Sven Petersen

Terranes 835Maurice Colpron and JoAnne Nelson

Tethys in Marine Geosciences 838A. M. Celâl Şengör

Tidal Depositional Systems 849Achim Wehrmann

Transform Faults 859A. M. Celâl Şengör

Triple Junctions 876A. M. Celâl Şengör

Tsunamis 884Jose C. Borrero

Turbidites 888Thierry Mulder and Heiko Hüneke

Underwater Archaeology 893Geoffrey N. Bailey

Upwelling 900Colin Summerhayes

Volcanism and Climate 913Olav Eldholm and Millard F. Coffin

Volcanogenic Massive Sulfides 917John W. Jamieson, Mark D. Hannington,Sven Petersen and Margaret K. Tivey

Wadati-Benioff-Zone 925Nina Kukowski

Wadden Sea 933Achim Wehrmann

Waves 940Tarmo Soomere

Wilson Cycle 944Martin Meschede

Author Index 947

Subject Index 949

Contributors

Leif G. AndersonDepartment of Marine SciencesUniversity of GothenburgKemigården 4412 96 GothenburgSwedenleif.anderson@gu.se

Camilla S. AndresenGeological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS)Øster Voldgade 101350 CopenhagenDenmarkcsa@geus.dk

Wolfgang BachDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of BremenKlagenfurter Str. (GEO)28359 BremenGermanyandMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanywbach@marum.de

Geoffrey N. BaileyDepartment of ArchaeologyUniversity of YorkThe King’s ManorYork YO1 7EPUKgeoff.bailey@york.ac.uk

Marta BąkFaculty of Geology, Geophysics and EnvironmentalProtectionAGH University of Science and TechnologyAl. Mickiewicza 3030-059 KrakówPolandmartabak@agh.edu.pl

Edward T. BakerJoint Institute for the Study of Atmosphere and Ocean –NOAA/PMELUniversity of Washington7600 Sand Point Way NESeattle, WA 98115-6349USAedward.baker@noaa.gov

Udo BarckhausenFederal Institute for Geosciences and Natural ResourcesStilleweg 230655 HannoverGermanyudo.barckhausen@bgr.de

André BergerGeorges Lemaître Center for Earth and Climate ResearchCatholic University of Louvain3, Place Louis PasteurB-1348 Louvain-la-NeuveBelgiumandre.berger@uclouvain.be

xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Wolfgang H. BergerScripps Institution of Oceanography UCSD9500 Gilman DriveLa Jolla, CA 92093USAwberger@ucsd.edu

Anna BinczewskaInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of Szczecinul. Mickiewicza 1870-383 SzczecinPolandanna.binczewska@gmail.com

Kjell R. BjørklundMuseum of Natural HistoryUniversity of OsloP.O. Box 1172NO-0318 Blindern, OsloNorwayk.r.bjorklund@nhm.uio.no

Gerhard BohrmannMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanygbohrmann@marum.de

Demetrio BoltovskoyInstitute of Ecology, Genetics and Evolution of BuenosAires (IEGEBA)University of Buenos Aires – CONICETC1428EHA Buenos AiresArgentinaboltovskoy@gmail.comdemetrio@bg.fcen.uba.ar

Jose C. BorreroeCoast Ltd., Marine Consulting and Research47 Cliff Street3225 RaglanNew Zealandjose@ecoast.co.nzjborrero@usc.edu

Hans-Jürgen BrumsackInstitute for Chemistry and Biology of the MarineEnvironmentUniversity of OldenburgP.O. Box 250326111 OldenburgGermanybrumsack@icbm.de

David M. BuchsSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesCardiff UniversityCF10 3AT CardiffUKbuchsd@cardiff.ac.uk

Stefan BünzCentre for Arctic Gas Hydrate, Environment and Climate(CAGE)UiT The Arctic University of NorwayDramsveien 2019037 TromsøNorwaystefan.buenz@uit.no

Jesús CambrolléDepartment of Plant Biology and EcologyUniversity of SevillaAvda. de la Reina Mercedes, S/N41012 SevilleSpaincambrolle@us.es

Juan Pablo CanalesWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution266 Woods Hole Rd.Woods Hole, MA 02543-1050USAjcanales@whoi.edu

Millard F. CoffinInstitute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaPrivate Bag, 1297001 Hobart, TASAustraliamike.coffin@utas.edu.au

Maurice ColpronYukon Geological SurveyP.O. Box 2703 (K-14)Whitehorse, Yukon Y1A 2C6CanadaMaurice.Colpron@gov.yk.ca

Nancy CorreaDepartment of the Argentine Naval Hydrographic Serviceand School of Marine SciencesMinistry of Defence and Marine InstituteAv. Montes de Oca 2124C1270ABV Buenos AiresArgentinancorrea@hidro.gov.ar

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Anne de VernalCentre GEOTOP, University of Québec in MontréalCP 8888, succ. Centre-VilleH3C 3P8 Montréal, QCCanadadevernal.anne@uqam.ca

Walter E. DeanU.S. Geological SurveyP.O.Box 25046 MS980 Federal CenterDenver, CO 80225USAdean@usgs.gov

Colin DeveyGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanycdevey@geomar.de

Alexander J. DicksonDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OxfordSouth Parks RoadOxford OX1 3ANUKalex.dickson@earth.ox.ac.uk

Michael DiepenbroekMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanymdiepenbroek@pangaea.de

Reinhard DietrichInstitute of Planetary GeodesyTechnical University of DresdenHelmholtzstr. 1001062 DresdenGermanyreinhard.dietrich@tu-dresden.de

Sergey S. DrachevExxonMobil House, ExxonMobil International Ltd.Ermyn WayKT22 8UX LeatherheadUKsergey.s.drachev@exxonmobil.comsdrachev@gmail.com

Norman C. DukeJames Cook UniversityTropWATER – Centre for Tropical Water and AquaticEcosystem Research4811 Townsville, QLDAustralianorman.duke@jcu.edu.au

Christian DulloGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanycdullo@geomar.de

Henning DypvikDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of OsloP.O. Box 1047 Blindern0316 OsloNorwayhenning.dypvik@geo.uio.no

Kirsty EdgarSchool of Earth SciencesUniversity of BristolWills Memorial Building, Queen’s RoadClifton BS8 1RJUKkirsty.edgar@bristol.ac.uk

Anton EisenhauerGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyaeisenhauer@geomar.de

Olav EldholmDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of BergenRealfagbygget, Allégate 41P.O. Box 7800 5020 BergenNorwayolav.eldholm@geo.uib.no

Jüri ElkenMarine Systems InstituteTallinn University of TechnologyAkadeemia 15a12618 TallinnEstoniaJuri.elken@msi.ttu.ee

xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Elizabeth J. FarmerDepartment of Earth ScienceUniversity of BergenP.O. Box 7803Realfagbygget, Allégaten 415020 BergenNorwayelizabeth.farmer@uib.no

Charles W. FinklDepartment of GeosciencesFlorida Atlantic University5130 NW 54th StreetBoca Raton 33073 FLUSAandThe Coastal Education and Research FoundationCoconut Creek, FLUSAcfinkl@cerf-jcr.com

Gerhard FischerMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanygfischer@marum.de

Duncan FitzGeraldDepartment of Earth and EnvironmentBoston University685 Commonwealth AvenueBoston, MA 02215USAdunc@bu.edu

Stephen F. FoleyDepartment Earth and Planetary SciencesARC Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust FluidSystemsMacquarie UniversityBuilding E7A, Room 5032109 North Ryde, NSWAustraliastephen.foley@mq.edu.au

Matthias ForwickDepartment of GeologyUniversity of TromsøRealfagbygget, Dramsveien 2019037 TromsøNorwaymatthias.forwick@uit.no

Dieter FrankeFederal Institute for Geosciences and Natural ResourcesStilleweg 230655 HannoverGermanydieter.franke@bgr.de

Wolfgang FrischDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TübingenHölderlinstr. 1272074 TübingenGermanyfrisch@uni-tuebingen.de

Christoph GaedickeFederal Institute for Geosciences and Natural ResourcesStilleweg 230655 HannoverGermanychristoph.gaedicke@bgr.de

Ioannis GeorgiouDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of New Orleans1065 Geology and Psychology Building2000 Lakeshore DriveNew Orleans, LA 70148USAigeorgio@uno.edu

Jim GillEarth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of California1156 High StreetSanta Cruz, CA 95064USAjgill@es.ucsc.edu

Eberhard GischlerInstitute of GeosciencesJohann Wolfgang Goethe UniversityAltenhöferallee 160438 Frankfurt am MainGermanygischler@em.uni-frankfurt.de

Karsten GohlAlfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz-Centre for Polar andMarine ResearchAm Alten Hafen 2627568 BremerhavenGermanykarsten.gohl@awi.de

CONTRIBUTORS xix

Hans-Jürgen GötzeInstitute of GeosciencesChristian-Albrechts-University KielOtto-Hahn-Platz 124118 KielGermanyhajo@geophysik.uni-kiel.de

Bruno GoutorbeInstitute of GeosciencesState University FluminenseNiteroiBrazilbrunog@id.uff.brgoutorbe@hotmail.com

Felix M. GradsteinMuseum of Natural History, University of OsloP.O. Box 1172 Blindern0318 OsloNorwayfelix.gradstein@gmail.com

Gerhard GrafInstitute for Biological SciencesUniversity of RostockAlbert-Einstein-Strasse 318059 RostockGermanygerd.graf@uni-rostock.de

Bernhard GrasemannDepartment for Geodynamics and SedimentologyUniversity of ViennaAlthanstrasse 141090 WienAustriabernhard.grasemann@univie.ac.at

Ingo GrevemeyerGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyigrevemeyer@geomar.de

Pieter M. GrootesInstitute for Ecosystem ResearchChristian-Albrechts-University KielOlshausenstrasse 10024106 KielGermanypgrootes@ecology.uni-kiel.de

Cécile GuieuVillefranche sur Mer Oceanographic LaboratoryChemin du Lazaret 18106230 Villefranche sur MerFranceguieu@obs-vlfr.fr

Erich GundlachE-Tech International Inc.P.O. Box 4321Boulder, CO 80306USAericheti@cs.com

Alper GürbüzDepartment of Geological EngineeringUniversity of Ankara06100 Tandoğan, AnkaraTurkeyandDepartment of Geological EngineeringUniversity of Niğde51240 NiğdeTurkeyagurbuz@eng.ankara.edu.tragurbuz@nigde.edu.tr

Mark D. HanningtonGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyandGoldcorp Chair in Economic Geology, Department ofEarth SciencesUniversity of OttawaK1N 6N5 Ottawa, ONCanadamark.hannington@uottawa.ca

Ian HardingOcean and Earth Science, National Oceanography CentreUniversity of Southampton, Waterfront CampusEuropean WaySouthampton SO14 3ZHUKich@noc.soton.ac.uk

Jan HarffInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of Szczecinul. Mickiewicza 1870-383 SzczecinPolandjan.harff@io-warnemuende.de

xx CONTRIBUTORS

Derrick HasterokDepartment of GeosciencesThe University of AdelaideSA 5005 AdelaideAustraliaderrick.hasterok@adelaide.edu.audhasterok@gmail.com

William W. HayDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of Colorado at Boulder2045 Windcliff Dr.Estes Park, CO 80517USAwhay@gmx.de

James R. HeinU.S. Geological Survey400 Natural Bridges Dr.Santa Cruz, CA 95060USAjhein@usgs.gov

Eric HellebrandDepartment of Geology and Geophysics, SOESTUniversity of Hawaii1680 East West RdHonolulu, HI 96822USAericwgh@hawaii.edu

Christoph HeloInstitute of GeosciencesJohannes Gutenberg-University MainzJ.-J.-Becher-Weg 2155128 MainzGermanyhelo@uni-mainz.de

Rüdiger HenrichDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of BremenKlagenfurter Street28359 BremenGermanyhenrich@uni-bremen.de

Jens O. HerrleInstitute of GeosciencesGoethe University FrankfurtAltenhoeferallee 160438 FrankfurtGermanyjens.herrle@em.uni-frankfurt.de

Ingo HeydeFederal Institute for Geosciences and Natural ResourcesStilleweg 230655 HannoverGermanyingo.heyde@bgr.de

John HillierDepartment of GeographyLoughborough UniversityLE11 3TU LeicestershireUKj.hillier@lboro.ac.uk

Kaj HoernleGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanykhoernle@geomar.de

Gösta HoffmannDepartment of Geosciences and GeographyRWTH Aachen UniversityLochnerstr. 4-2052056 AachenGermanygoesta.hoffmann@gutech.edu.omg.hoffmann@nug.rwth-aachen.de

Christian HübscherInstitute of Geophysics, Center for Earth System Researchand SustainabilityUniversity of HamburgBundesstraße 5520146 HamburgGermanyChristian.huebscher@zmaw.de

Benjamin HuetDepartment for Geodynamics and SedimentologyUniversity of ViennaAlthanstrasse 141090 WienAustriabenjamin.huet@univie.ac.at

Heiko HünekeInstitute of Geography and GeologyErnst Moritz Arndt UniversityFriedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Str. 17A17487 GreifswaldGermanyhueneke@uni-greifswald.de

CONTRIBUTORS xxi

María Paula Iglesia LlanosIGEBA, National Scientific and Research CouncilUniversity of Buenos AiresPab. 2, Ciudad UniversitariaC1428EHA Buenos AiresArgentinampiglesia@gl.fcen.uba.ar

Benoît IldefonseGeosciences MontpellierCNRS and University of MontpellierCC 60 34095, Cedex 5 MontpellierFranceildefonse@um2.fr

Morten IversenAlfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar andMarine ResearchAm Handelshafen 1227570 BremerhavenGermanymiversen@marum.de

Martin JakobssonDepartment of Geological SciencesStockholm UniversitySvante Arrhenius väg 8SE-106 91 StockholmSwedenmartin.jakobsson@geo.su.se

John W. JamiesonGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyjjamieson@geomar.de

Niels JönsDepartment of Geology, Mineralogy and GeophysicsRuhr-University BochumUniversitätsstr. 15044801 BochumGermanyNiels.Joens@ruhr-uni-bochum.de

Shannon KayCoastal ProjectsManson Construction Co.4309 Pablo Oaks Court, Suite 1Jacksonville, FL 32202USAs.kay.98096@ospreys.unf.edu

Alan KempOcean and Earth Science, National Oceanography CentreSouthamptonUniversity of Southampton Waterfront CampusEuropean WaySO14 3ZH SouthamptonUKaesk@noc.soton.ac.uk

Christopher George St. Clement KendallEarth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of South Carolina2800 Gervais StreetColumbia, SC 29204USAkendall@geol.sc.edu

Andrew C. KerrSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesCardiff UniversityMain Building, Park PlaceCardiff, Wales CF10 3ATUKkerra@cardiff.ac.uk

Erik KjellströmSwedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute601 76 NorrköpingSwedenerik.kjellstrom@smhi.se

Paul KnutzGeological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS)Øster Voldgade 101350 CopenhagenDenmarkpkn@geus.dk

Jürgen KoepkeInstitute of MineralogyLeibniz University HannoverCallinstr. 330167 HannoverGermanykoepke@mineralogie.uni-hannover.de

Achim KopfMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanyakopf@marum.de

xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Janina KörperInstitute of MeteorologyFree University of BerlinCarl-Heinrich-Becker-Weg 6-1012165 BerlinGermanyjanina.koerper@met.fu-berlin.de

Andrea KoschinskyEarth and Environmental SciencesSchool of Engineering and ScienceJacobs UniversityCampus Ring 128759 BremenGermanya.koschinsky@jacobs-university.de

Aarno KotilainenGeological Survey of FinlandBetonimiehenkuja 4P.O. Box 9602151 EspooFinlandaarno.kotilainen@gtk.fi

Halina Kowalewska-KalkowskaInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of Szczecinul. Mickiewicza 1870-383 SzczecinPolandhalkalk@univ.szczecin.pl

Michal KuceraMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanymichal.kucera@marum.de

Hermann KudrassMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanykudrass@gmx.de

Antoon KuijpersGeological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS)Øster Voldgade 101350 CopenhagenDenmarkaku@geus.dk

Nina KukowskiInstitute of GeosciencesFriedrich-Schiller-UniversityBurgweg 1107749 JenaGermanynina.kukowski@uni-jena.de

Mark KulpDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity of New Orleans1065 Geology and Psychology Building2000 Lakeshore DriveNew Orleans, LA 70148USAcoastalsrg@gmail.com

Vladislav KuznetsovInstitute of Earth SciencesSaint Petersburg State UniversitySredniy prospect, 41199178 St. PetersburgRussiav.kuznetsov@spbu.ru

Jan Sverre LabergDepartment of GeologyUniversity of TromsøRealfagbygget, Dramsveien 2019037 TromsøNorwayjan.laberg@uit.no

Serge LallemandGeosciences MontpellierUniversity of MontpellierCC. 60, place E. Bataillon34095 MontpellierFranceserge.lallemand@gm.univ-montp2.frlallem@gm.univ-montp2.fr

Kurt LambeckResearch School of Earth SciencesAustralian National UniversityBuilding 142 Mills RoadActon, ACT 2601Australiakurt.lambeck@anu.edu.au

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Alexander P. LisitzinP.P. Shirshov Institute of OceanologyRussian Academy of Sciences (IO RAS)Nakhimovskii prospekt, 36Moscow 117851Russialisitzin@ocean.ru

Carolina Lithgow-BertelloniDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity College LondonGower StreetWC1E 6BT LondonUKc.lithgow-bertelloni@ucl.ac.uk

Paul LoubereDepartment of AnthropologyNorthern Illinois UniversityDeKalb, IL 60115USAploubere@niu.edupaul@geol.niu.edu

Mitchell LyleCollege of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric SciencesOregon State University104 CEOAS Administration BuildingCorvallis, OR 97331-5503USAmlyle@coas.oregonstate.edu

Paul MannDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of Houston312 Science and Research 1Houston, TX 77204-5007USApmann@uh.edu

Roman MarksInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of Szczecinul. Mickiewicza 1870-383 SzczecinPolandmarks@univ.szczecin.pl

Christian MärzSchool of Civil Engineering and Geosciences (CEGS)Newcastle UniversityDrummond Building, Room 4.02NE1 7RU Newcastle upon TyneUKchristian.maerz@ncl.ac.uk

Mark MaslinDepartment of GeographyUniversity College LondonPearson Building, Gower StreetWC1E 6BT LondonUKm.maslin@geog.ucl.ac.uk

Jens MatthiessenAlfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar andMarine ResearchAm Alten Hafen 2627568 BremerhavenGermanyJens.Matthiessen@awi.de

Kevin McCartneyDepartment of Environmental Studies and SustainabilityUniversity of Maine at Presque Isle302 Folsom HallPresque Isle, ME 04769USAkevin.mccartney@umpi.edu

Martin MeschedeInstitute of Geography and GeologyErnst-Moritz-Arndt UniversityFriedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Str. 17A17487 GreifswaldGermanymeschede@uni-greifswald.de

Jürgen MienertCentre for Arctic Gas Hydrate, Environment and Climate(CAGE)UiT The Arctic University of NorwayDramsveien 2019037 TromsøNorwayjurgen.mienert@uit.no

Arto MiettinenNorwegian Polar InstituteFram CentrePostbox 6606 LangnesNO-9296 TromsøNorwayarto.miettinen@npolar.no

Matthias MorosLeibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research WarnemündeSeestrasse 1518119 RostockGermanymatthias.moros@io-warnemuende.de

xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Thierry MulderUniversity of BordeauxUMR CNRS 5805 EPOC, Avenue des facultés33185, Cedex TalenceFrancet.mulder@epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr

R. Dietmar MüllerSchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneyMadsen Building F09, R. 4062006 Sydney, NSWAustraliadietmar.muller@sydney.edu.au

Sara Muñoz-VallésDepartment of Plant Biology and EcologyUniversity of SevillaAvda. de la Reina Mercedes, S/N41012 SevilleSpainsaramval@us.es

Raquel NegreteEnsenada Center for Scientific Research and HigherEducationDepartment of GeologyCICESECarretera Tijuana-Ensenada 3918Zona Playitas22860 Baja CaliforniaMexicornegrete@cicese.mx

JoAnne NelsonBritish Columbia Geological SurveyP.O. Box 9333Victoria, BC V8W 9N3CanadaJoAnne.Nelson@gov.bc.ca

Adolphe NicolasGeosciences MontpellierUniversity of Montpellier 2CC. 60, place E. Bataillon34095, cedex 5 MontpellierFranceadolphe.nicolas@um2.fr

Tove NielsenGeological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS)Øster Voldgade 101350 CopenhagenDenmarktni@geus.dktoveniel@gmail.com

Dirk NürnbergGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-3D-24148 KielGermanydnuernberg@geomar.de

Andrzej OsadczukInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of Szczecinul. Mickiewicza 1870-383 SzczecinPolandandros@univ.szczecin.pl

Thomas PedersenSchool of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of VictoriaP.O. Box 1700Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2Canadatfp@uvic.capicsdir@uvic.ca

Katja T. C. A. PeijnenburgInstitute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem DynamicsUniversity of AmsterdamMauritskade 61P.O. Box 942161090 AmsterdamThe NetherlandsandNaturalis Biodiversity CenterDarwinweg 22333 CR LeidenThe Netherlandsa.c.pierrot-bults@uva.nl

Michael R. PerfitDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of Florida241 Williamson HallP.O. Box 112120Gainesville, FL 32611-2120USAperfit@geology.ufl.edumperfit@ufl.edu

Sven PetersenGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyspetersen@geomar.de

CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Annelies C. Pierrot-BultsInstitute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem DynamicsUniversity of AmsterdamMauritskade 61P.O. Box 942161090 AmsterdamThe NetherlandsandNaturalis Biodiversity CenterDarwinweg 22333 CR LeidenThe Netherlandsa.c.pierrot-bults@uva.nl

Irina Polovodova AstemanBjerknes Centre for Climate ResearchAllégaten 555007 BergenNorwayirina.asteman@uni.no

Klaus ReicherterDepartment of Geosciences and GeographyRWTH Aachen UniversityLochnerstr. 4-2052056 AachenGermanyk.reicherter@nug.rwth-aachen.de

John J.G. ReijmerDepartment of Sedimentology and Marine GeologyVU University AmsterdamDe Boelelaan 10851081 AmsterdamThe Netherlandsj.j.g.reijmer@vu.nljohn.reijmer@falw.vu.nl

Don ResioTaylor Engineering Research InstituteUniversity of North Florida1 UNF DriveJacksonville, FL 32224-7699USAdon.resio@unf.edu

Ulf RiebesellGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchDüsternbrooker Weg 2024105 KielGermanyuriebesell@geomar.de

Uwe RingDepartment of Geological SciencesStockholm UniversitySvante Arrhenius väg 8106 91 StockholmSwedenuwe.ring@geo.su.se

Evgeny RomankevichP.P. Shirshov Institute of OceanologyRussian Academy of SciencesNakhimovsky prospekt, 36117997 MoscowRussiaandNational Research Tomsk Polytechnic University634050 TomskRussiaRomankevich@mail.ru

Ken H. RubinDepartment of Geology and Geophysics, SOESTUniversity of Hawaii1680 East West RdHonolulu, HI 96822USAkrubin@hawaii.edu

Hans Werner SchenkeAlfred-Wegener-Institute, Helmholtz-Centre for Polar andMarine ResearchAm Handelshafen 1227570 BremerhavenGermanyhans-werner.schenke@awi.de

Gerald SchernewskiLeibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research WarnemündeSeestrasse 1518119 RostockGermanygerald.schernewski@io-warnemuende.de

Axel SchippersFederal Institute for Geosciences and Natural ResourcesStilleweg 230655 HannoverGermanyaxel.schippers@bgr.de

xxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Anders SchomackerDepartment of Geology and Mineral ResourcesEngineeringNorwegian University of Science and TechnologySem Sælands Veg 17491 TrondheimNorwayanders.schomacker@ntnu.no

Michael SchreckArctic Research CentreKorea Polar Research Institute26 Songdomirae-roIncheon 406-840KoreaMichael.Schreck@kopri.re.kr

John G. SclaterScripps Institution of OceanographyUniversity of California San DiegoLa Jolla, CA 92093USAjsclater@ucsd.edu

Eugen Seibold(deceased)

A. M. Celâl ŞengörFaculty of Mines, Department of Geology and EurasiaInstitute of Earth SciencesIstanbul Technical University34469 Ayazaga, IstanbulTurkeysengor@itu.edu.tr

Maria SetonSchool of GeosciencesThe University of SydneyMadsen Building F09, R. 4062006 Sydney, NSWAustraliamaria.seton@sydney.edu.au

Vladimir P. ShevchenkoP.P. Shirshov Institute of OceanologyRussian Academy of Sciences (IO RAS)Nakhimowskii prospekt, 36117218 MoscowRussiavshevch@ocean.ru

Graham ShimmieldBigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences60 Bigelow DriveEast Boothbay, ME 04544USAgshimmield@bigelow.org

Eli SilverEarth and Planetary Sciences DepartmentUniversity of California1156 High StreetSanta Cruz, CA 95064USAesilver@ucsc.edu

Satish C. SinghLaboratory of Marine GeosciencesInstitute of Earth Physics of ParisBureau 364 – 1, rue Jussieu75238, cedex 05 ParisFrancesingh@ipgp.fr

Tarmo SoomereInstitute of Cybernetics at Tallinn University ofTechnologyAkadeemia tee 2112618 TallinnEstoniaandEstonian Academy of SciencesKohtu 610130 TallinnEstoniatarmo.soomere@cs.ioc.ee

Samuel Adam SouleWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution266 Woods Hole Rd.MS# 24Woods Hole, MA 02543-1050USAssoule@whoi.edu

Rüdiger SteinAlfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar andMarine Research (AWI)Am Alten Hafen 2627568 BremerhavenGermanyruediger.stein@awi.de

CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

Robert J. SternDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of Texas at Dallas800 West Campbell Road, ROC 21Richardson, TX 75080-3021USArjstern@utdallas.edu

Andreas StrackeWestphalian Wilhelms-UniversityInstitute of MineralogyCorrensstrasse 2448149 MünsterGermanystracke.andreas@uni-muenster.de

Colin SummerhayesScott Polar Research Institute (SPRI)Cambridge UniversityLensfield RoadCB2 1ER CambridgeUKcps32@cam.ac.uk

Jürgen SündermannInstitute of Oceanography (IFM)University of HamburgBundesstrasse 5320146 HamburgGermanyjuergen.suendermann@ifm.uni-hamburg.de

Kiyoshi SuyehiroIntegrated Ocean Drilling ProgramManagement International2-1-6, Etchujima, Koto-ku OLCR 3F135-8533 TokyoJapanksuyehiro@iodp.org

Jörn ThiedeInstitute of Earth SciencesSaint Petersburg State UniversityV. O., Sredniy prospect, 41St. Petersburg 199 178RussiaandAdW Mainz c/o GEOMARWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyjthiede@geomar.de

Hans R. ThiersteinDepartment of Earth SciencesSwiss Technical UniversitySonneggstrasse 58092 ZürichSwitzerlandthierstein@erdw.ethz.ch

Margaret K. TiveyMarine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods HoleOceanographic Institution266 Woods Hole Rd., MS# 08Woods Hole, MA 02543-1050USAmktivey@whoi.edu

Marta E. TorresCollege of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric SciencesOregon State University104 CEOAS Administration BuildingCorvallis, OR 97331-5503USAmtorres@coas.oregonstate.edu

Paul TreguerEuropean Institute for Marine Studies (IUEM)University of Bretagne Occidentale (UBO)Technopole Brest-Iroise, Place Copernic29280 PlouzanéFrancepaul.treguer@univ-brest.fr

Verena TunnicliffeDepartment of Biology and School of Earth and OceanSciencesUniversity of VictoriaP.O. Box 3020Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2Canadaverenat@uvic.ca

Hayato UedaDepartment of GeologyNiigata University8050 Ikarashi-2-nocho, Nishi-ku950-2181 NiigataJapanueta@mvf.biglobe.ne.jp

Alexander VetrovP.P.Shirshov Institute of OceanologyRussian Academy of SciencesNakhimovsky prospekt, 36117997 MoscowRussiavetrov@ocean.ru

xxviii CONTRIBUTORS

David VoelkerMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanydvoelker@marum.de

Roland von HueneGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyrhuene@mindspring.com

Tore O. Vorren(deceased)

Thomas WagnerSchool of Civil Engineering and GeosciencesNewcastle UniversityDrummond BuildingNE1 7RU Newcastle upon TyneUKthomas.wagner@ncl.ac.uk

H. Jesse Walker(deceased)

Louise WallendorfHydromechanics LaboratoryUnited States Naval Academy590 Holloway Rd.Annapolis, MD 21402-5042USAlou@usna.edu

Gerold WeferMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanygwefer@marum.de

Achim WehrmannMarine Research DepartmentSenckenberg am MeerSüdstrand 4026382 WilhelmshavenGermanyachim.wehrmann@senckenberg.de

William M. WhiteDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesCornell University4112 Snee HallIthaca, NY 14853USAwmw4@cornell.edu

Joanne M. WhittakerInstitute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaPrivate Bag 129 Hobart, TAS 7001Australiajo.whittaker@utas.edu.au

Jakub WitkowskiInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesUniversity of Szczecinul. Mickiewicza 1870-383 SzczecinPolandjakub.witkowski@univ.szczecin.pl

Isobel YeoGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean ResearchWischhofstr. 1-324148 KielGermanyiyeo@geomar.de

Miwa YokokawaLaboratory of GeoenvironmentFaculty of Information Science and TechnologyOsaka Institute of TechnologyOsakaJapanmiwa@is.oit.ac.jp

Jing ZhangState Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal ResearchEast China Normal University3663 Zhongshan Road North200062 ShanghaiChinajzhang@sklec.ecnu.edu.cn

CONTRIBUTORS xxix

Wenyan ZhangMARUM-Center for Marine Environmental SciencesUniversity of BremenP.O. Box 330 44028334 BremenGermanywzhang@marum.de

Di ZhouSouth China Sea Institute of OceanologyChinese Academy of Sciences164 West Xingang Road510301 GuangzhouChinazhoudiscs@scsio.ac.cn

Preface

The globally growing demand for energy and mineralresources, the need for reliable projections of future cli-mate processes, and the necessity for coast protection tomitigate threats and hazards of disasters require a compre-hensive understanding of the genesis and structure of themarine geosphere and processes involving it. The “classi-cal” research fields in marine geology are being currentlysupplemented by the development of more general con-cepts which strive to integrate marine geophysics, hydrog-raphy, climatology, marine biology, and ecology. The term“marine geosciences” has been broadly accepted to serveas an “umbrella” for this new complex field of researchand practical solutions in the marine realm.

We have reflected this development by putting togethertheEncyclopedia of Marine Geoscienceswhich appears asa volume of the Encyclopedia in Earth Sciences Series.When collecting entries for the Encyclopedia of MarineGeosciences, we intended to provide the current state ofknowledge in marine geosciences and to cover their theo-retical, applied, and technical aspects. However, as wewere working on the Encyclopedia, it became clear to usthat one printed volume cannot accommodate all the disci-plinary basics of marine geosciences. Therefore, thereader seeking explanation of a specific scientific term isadvised to consult not only the list of entries, but also totake a look on the back-of-the-book index. The indexcan be used as a search engine for text paragraphs in thisvolume dealing with the words of interest. Because ofthe complex nature of marine geosciences, we do realize

that some overlap with the “classical” researchgeosciences fields, already covered by other volumesof the Encyclopedia in Earth Sciences Series, musthave occurred in the present volume. We did our bestto avoid repetitions in this volume and we advise thereader to consult, whenever necessary, other Encyclope-dias in the Earth Science Series volumes such as Encyclo-pedia of Coastal Science, Encyclopedia of Geochemistry,Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environ-ments, or Encyclopedia of Sediments and SedimentaryRocks.

With this volume, we hope to reach out to a broad audi-ence of users concerned with marine sciences and technol-ogy, from students and scholars in academia to engineersin the industry to decision makers in administration andpolitics.

The editorial team of the Encyclopedia of MarineGeosciences reflects the diversity of disciplines cov-ered: Martin Meschede took over responsibility for man-uscripts related to plate tectonics, Sven Petersen dealtwith those focusing on magmatism, Jörn Thiede wasresponsible for entries on deep ocean processes, andJan Harff edited the entries related to ocean marginsand associated processes.

Jan HarffMartin Meschede

Sven PetersenJörn Thiede

Acknowledgments

The work on an encyclopedia covering a wide disciplinaryfield such as marine geosciences requires a well-established teamwork. First of all, we would like toexpress our thanks to the members of the Editorial Boardwho have helped to set up the list of entries that meansto define the scientific area to be covered by the encyclo-pedia. But members of the board also assisted in findingthe best authors for the topics defined and also to fosterthe review process. Thanks also go to our authors for theirengagement in the project but also for their patiencebecause of the longer time needed finally for the comple-tion than we expected at the beginning of the project. Anexcellent cooperation took place with the reviewers andwe have to convey our gratitude explicitly, among others,to Roger Anderson, Henning Bauch, Karl-HeinzBaumann, Thorsten Becker, Wolfgang Berger, JörgBialas, Svante Björck, Bodo von Bodungen, PeterBormann ({), Johannes Brumme, Hans Burchard,Suzanne Carbotte, Rebecca Carey, Ronald Clowes,Eduardo Contreras-Reyes, David Cronan, Colin Devey,Tim Dooley, Joanna Dudzinska-Nowak, Christian Dullo,Malte Elbrächter, Bob Embley, Wolfgang Fennel, CharlesW. Finkl, Burghard Flemming, Nicolas Flemming, ArminFreundt, Peter Fröhle, Gerald Gabriel, Dennis Geist, JörgGeldmacher, Bruce Gemmell, Chris German, Daniel Gib-son, Pieter M. Grootes, Marc Gutscher, Matthias Haekel,Peter Halbach, William W. Hay, James D. Hays, GeorgeRoss Heath, Jim Hein, Christoph Hemleben, RüdigerHenrich, Sebastian Hölz, Kaj Hoernle, Albrecht

Hofmann, Martin Hovland, Roland von Huene, Kim Juni-per, Heidemarie Kassens, Christian Koeberl, JürgenKoepke, Heidrun Kopp, Martin Van Kranendonk,Hermann-Rudolf Kudraß, Vladyslav Kuznetsov, CarinaLange, Gert de Lange, John Lupton, GianretoManatschal,Roman Marks, Jean Mascle, Philip A. Meyers, Paul Mor-gan, Johannes Mrazek, Yujiro Ogawa, Andrzej Osadczuk,Mike Perfit, Jörg Pfänder, Teresa Radzie-Jewska, MarkReagan, Eoghan Reeves, Klaus Ricklefs, Karol Rotnicki,Ralph Schneider, Michael Schnabel, B. CharlotteSchreiber, Detlef Schulz-Bull, Wolfgang Schlager, KlausSchwarzer, Andrew Short, Roger Searle, MonikaSobiesiak, Robert Spielhagen, Tarmo Soomere, KarlStattegger, Rüdiger Stein, Andreas Stracke, Kurt Stüwe,Colin Summerhayes, Adam D. Switzer, Fred Taylor,Frederik Tilmann, Barbara Teichert, Tony Watts, GordonWebster, Joanne Whittaker, Philip Woodworth, JiaxueWu, Isobel Yeo, and Anastasia Zhuravleva.

Last, but not least, we have to mention that the workwould not have been possible without supervision andactive cooperation of Petra van Steenbergen, SylviaBlago, and Johanna Klute from Springer’s publishinghouse.

Jan HarffMartin Meschede

Sven PetersenJörn Thiede