3
Formigari L (1988). Language and experience in 17th- century British philosophy. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Salmon V (1988). The study of language in 17th-century England (2nd edn.). Amsterdam: Benjamins. Subbiondo J (1992). John Wilkins and 17th-century British linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Dance S Rubinelli and L Cantoni, University of Lugano, Lugano, Switzerland ß 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Dance as a Communicative Art From the 1970s onward, scholarship on dance has grown significantly, reflecting a change of attitude toward dance. Contrary to a tradition in which dance was considered merely emotional behavior rather than a communicative art form J. L. Hanna in To dance is human: a theory of nonverbal commu- nication (1979), published the first and generally most significant analysis of the phenomenon as ‘‘cognitive and language-like’’ (Hanna, 1987: xv). According to Hanna, dance could be defined ‘‘as a human behaviour composed, from the dancer’s perspective, of (1) purposeful, (2) intentionally rhythmical, and (3) culturally patterned sequences of (4a) nonverbal body movements (4b) other than ordinary motor activities, (4c) the motion having in- herent and aesthetic value’’ (Hanna, 1987: 19). Dance may appear to be a semiautonomous system that is distinct from any sociocultural context. When this occurs, it has an internal meaning, to be found in ‘‘the stylistic and structural manipulation of the elements of space, rhythm, and dynamics, and the human body’s physical control’’ (Hanna, 1987: 24). Dance can be seen, however, as determined by an outside social structure that is responsible for the criteria of its creation and performance. Within the domains of playful gestures, or gestua- lite ´ ludique (Greimas, 1970: 70–81), and gestural texts (Greimas and Courte ´s, 1982: 136), dance is a form of nonverbal communication composed of a set of signifiers referring to things other than themselves. Borrowing from Goodman’s (1969: 64–65) distinction between denotative and exemplificative elements, what is signified in dance can be concepts, objects, emotions, gestures of daily life, or simply rhythms and dynamic shapes that have no antecedent denota- tion. The communicative orientation of dance plays around the interaction of three modalities: energy, space, and rhythm. Energy is the source responsible for ‘‘the dynamic quality of movement and its subsequent meaning’’ (Ajayi, 1998: 18). Following Hawkins’s (1964) distinction, Ajayi (1998: 18–20) discusses four types of movements that communicate different sensations. These are sustained movements resulting in ‘‘a sense of smoothness and stability’’ (Ajayi, 1998: 18); swinging movements whose effect is a ‘‘mid-air imbalance similar to a swaying or pendu- lum action’’ (Ajayi, 1998: 18); percussive movements ‘‘usually regarded as the outcome of high tension or bottled-up emotions which suddenly explode’’ (Ajayi, 1998: 19); and vibratory movements, which create ‘‘a high sense of excitement and sometimes of suspense’’ (Ajayi, 1998: 19). Space is the ‘‘receptacle’’ of the different expressions of energy (Ajayi, 1998: 19). Movements are articulated and acquire different meanings through the spatial structures. If aerial movements tend to arouse feelings of lightness, floor patterns are more likely to determine sensations of firmness and security. In the realm of space, communi- cative power is exercised through spatial dimensions of movements, directions followed by the performer, and the body balance. Thus, although vertical and horizon- tal patterns usually transmit a sense of stability, diago- nal directions are perceived as imbalances. Rhythm is the component of dance that is responsible for its harmonious constitution and coordinates its manifes- tation in a continuous flow (Aiayi, 1998: 20). The communication process through energy, space, and rhythm is activated by three key actors: the choreographer, the performer, and the observer. Per- former and choreographer may be the same person. In fact, one performer can embody the entire commu- nication process. The performer communicates main- ly through the physical image of the body. Other channels of nonverbal communication can highly impact the perceived significance of a dance. These include both proxemic channels, such as the proximal relationship of dancer/dancers, dancer/audience, or dancer/objects; tactile and olfactory channels result- ing from energetic movements; and kinesthetic chan- nels playing on the sense of motion naturally imprinted in the human soul (Ajayi, 1998: 21–22; Argyle, 1975: 154–161). Dance 347

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Page 1: Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics || Dance

Formigari L (1988). Language and experience in 17th-century British philosophy. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Salmon V (1988). The study of language in 17th-centuryEngland (2nd edn.). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Subbiondo J (1992). John Wilkins and 17th-century Britishlinguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Dance 347

Dance

S Rubinelli and L Cantoni, University of Lugano,

Lugano, Switzerland

� 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dance as a Communicative Art

From the 1970s onward, scholarship on dance hasgrown significantly, reflecting a change of attitudetoward dance. Contrary to a tradition in whichdance was considered merely emotional behaviorrather than a communicative art form J. L. Hannain To dance is human: a theory of nonverbal commu-nication (1979), published the first and generallymost significant analysis of the phenomenon as‘‘cognitive and language-like’’ (Hanna, 1987: xv).According to Hanna, dance could be defined ‘‘as ahuman behaviour composed, from the dancer’sperspective, of (1) purposeful, (2) intentionallyrhythmical, and (3) culturally patterned sequencesof (4a) nonverbal body movements (4b) other thanordinary motor activities, (4c) the motion having in-herent and aesthetic value’’ (Hanna, 1987: 19). Dancemay appear to be a semiautonomous system that isdistinct from any sociocultural context. When thisoccurs, it has an internal meaning, to be found in‘‘the stylistic and structural manipulation of theelements of space, rhythm, and dynamics, and thehuman body’s physical control’’ (Hanna, 1987: 24).Dance can be seen, however, as determined by anoutside social structure that is responsible for thecriteria of its creation and performance.

Within the domains of playful gestures, or gestua-lite ludique (Greimas, 1970: 70–81), and gesturaltexts (Greimas and Courtes, 1982: 136), dance is aform of nonverbal communication composed of a setof signifiers referring to things other than themselves.Borrowing from Goodman’s (1969: 64–65) distinctionbetween denotative and exemplificative elements,what is signified in dance can be concepts, objects,emotions, gestures of daily life, or simply rhythmsand dynamic shapes that have no antecedent denota-tion. The communicative orientation of dance playsaround the interaction of three modalities: energy,space, and rhythm. Energy is the source responsible

for ‘‘the dynamic quality of movement and itssubsequent meaning’’ (Ajayi, 1998: 18). FollowingHawkins’s (1964) distinction, Ajayi (1998: 18–20)discusses four types of movements that communicatedifferent sensations. These are sustained movementsresulting in ‘‘a sense of smoothness and stability’’(Ajayi, 1998: 18); swinging movements whose effectis a ‘‘mid-air imbalance similar to a swaying or pendu-lum action’’ (Ajayi, 1998: 18); percussive movements‘‘usually regarded as the outcome of high tension orbottled-up emotions which suddenly explode’’ (Ajayi,1998: 19); and vibratory movements, which create ‘‘ahigh sense of excitement and sometimes of suspense’’(Ajayi, 1998: 19). Space is the ‘‘receptacle’’ of thedifferent expressions of energy (Ajayi, 1998: 19).Movements are articulated and acquire differentmeanings through the spatial structures. If aerialmovements tend to arouse feelings of lightness, floorpatterns are more likely to determine sensations offirmness and security. In the realm of space, communi-cative power is exercised through spatial dimensions ofmovements, directions followed by the performer, andthe body balance. Thus, although vertical and horizon-tal patterns usually transmit a sense of stability, diago-nal directions are perceived as imbalances. Rhythm isthe component of dance that is responsible for itsharmonious constitution and coordinates its manifes-tation in a continuous flow (Aiayi, 1998: 20).

The communication process through energy, space,and rhythm is activated by three key actors: thechoreographer, the performer, and the observer. Per-former and choreographer may be the same person.In fact, one performer can embody the entire commu-nication process. The performer communicates main-ly through the physical image of the body. Otherchannels of nonverbal communication can highlyimpact the perceived significance of a dance. Theseinclude both proxemic channels, such as the proximalrelationship of dancer/dancers, dancer/audience, ordancer/objects; tactile and olfactory channels result-ing from energetic movements; and kinesthetic chan-nels playing on the sense of motion naturallyimprinted in the human soul (Ajayi, 1998: 21–22;Argyle, 1975: 154–161).

Page 2: Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics || Dance

348 Dance

Dance Notation

According to Goodman (1969: 211–218), dance no-tation can be as influential as music notation. Indeed,advances in the semiotics of dance were fostered byattempts to record dance. ‘Labanotation’ is the mostrecognized system for transcribing movement bymeans of symbols. It is specifically used to archieveballet. The system was originally developed in Viennaby Rudolf von Laban (1879–1958) as KinetographieLaban. Further progress was made by a series ofauthors, among whom the most famous is AnnHutchinson, who wrote Labanotation in the UnitedStates in 1954. At the core of Laban’s invention wasthe desire to create ‘‘a literature of movement anddance’’ (Hutchinson, 1954: foreword) that could,first, facilitate the communication of movementideas to other people and thus be a teaching aid and,second, enable the preservation and future recon-struction of ballets. Following a tradition that goesback to the Egyptian and Chinese movement symbolsand continues with the attempts of Thoinot Arbeau(1588), Raoul Feuillet (1700), Arthur Saint-Leon(1852), Albert Zorn (1887), Vladimit Stepanoff(1891), and Margaret Morris (1928) (see Hutchin-son, 1954: 1–4), labanotation is the first system ofmovement notation that captures the varied three-dimensional motions of dance. It offers a notationfor revealing with clarity each of the specific move-ments of each performer. In this context, labanotationpermits comparisons between different styles ofdance and facilitates the reconstruction of complextechniques without the need of long verbal descrip-tions. The basic principle of labanotation is thatmovement must be first recorded in its essence andthen described in its eventual modifications or embel-lishments resulting from the style of the performer.Movements are noted down by means of a staffconsisting of three vertical lines. The columns be-tween the lines register both gestures and the centerand transference of weight. Additional symbolsinclude quantity signs for recording whether stepsare long or small or whether arms and legs are bentor extended; accent signs; and key signatures for de-marking the general style of the dance (Hutchinson,1954: 9–22).

Dance in Sociocultural Settings

Divisions of dance are not clearly established. Hannaenumerated the main oppositions between ‘‘primitiveversus theatre, classical versus folk, social versusethnic, ballet versus modern.’’ Additional elementsHanna sets forth include ‘‘participation (purpose,recruitment pattern, motivation and participation

action); elements of movement and body emphasized(movement elements, body parts pattern of motionand pose and exhibition of intention to move,movement transformation); genetic classification(independently invented, imposed, borrowedvoluntarily, elaborated creation); and consciousness(transcendental or temporal-cognitive, temporal/transcendental).’’ (1987: 54–56)

In the different social contexts where it occurs,dance has the power to translate mental concepts inmovements that transfer information about and forsocial exchanges. Because of its being ‘‘extraordi-nary,’’ dance is ‘‘an attention-getting device, arrestingand seductive’’ (Hanna, 1987: 101), with a uniquecapacity for impressing itself on human minds.

Aside from contexts in which dance is a form of socialentertainment, it plays a significant role in the domain ofreligion. In the ancient Christian tradition, music, poet-ry, and dance were performed together, with the samerhythms, as a way to glorify God. Among the remark-able dances in the Bible, it is worth mentioning thatof the prophetess Miriam after the passage through theRed Sea and that of David while moving the ark toJerusalem (Exodus chapter 15, verse 20 and 2 Samuelchapter 6, verses 12–15). Although St. Tomas andSt. Bonaventura warned their audience against thepower that dance may have to provoke libido, theChurch enhanced dancing as an instrument forstrengthening morality and spreading belief(Pontremoli, 2003: 22).

From a more general point of view, Hanna recog-nized four main communication functions of dancein the religious field: ‘‘worship or honour,’’ ‘‘conduct-ing supernatural beneficence,’’ ‘‘affecting change,’’and ‘‘embodying the supernatural’’ (Hanna, 1987:106–125, with an extensive bibliography on therelevant ethnographic and anthropological studies).As part of the rituals of the African population, dancecovers multifunctional roles. It can be a sign ofreverence, an act of propitiation, an expression of adesire toward the divine, or more generally, a way ofgreeting. Through dance, individuals can become themediators of supernatural power and instill desiredgifts into others. Changes of status and emotions,such as the passage from childhood to adulthoodand from the denial to the acceptance of death, canalso be codified by certain dances. Finally, in posses-sion and masked dance, the deity is seen as revealedthrough the movement of the captured body, and thedancer acquires the right of dictating a normativebehavior.

In addition to religion, the efficacy of dance ismainly recognized for its social power over self andothers. This power is enhanced by the combinationof two factors: ‘‘one is that dance has cognitive

Page 3: Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics || Dance

Dance 349

dimensions. Second, dance is an autonomic systemwith multi-sensory immediacy that causes excite-ment, fear, and pleasure for performers and observer’’(Hanna, 1987: 147). While dancing in ballet especial-ly, the trained body seems to free itself from thebarriers of gravity; it shows its spirituality throughcorporeity and thus achieves what for others mightappear unattainable. Dance is a device for markingsociopolitical status and magnifying the supremacy ofstates. It has been used to introduce competitions,influence the outcome of wars, or enhance socialcontrol. For its didactic nature, dance can be used asa vehicle to convey political messages or inspirevalues.

See also: Greimas, Algirdas J.: Theory of the Sign; Kine-

sics; Nonverbal Communication; Proxemics; Social Semi-

otics; Space: Semiotics.

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