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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION
SECOND EDITION
Encyclopedia of Language and Education
VOLUME 3: DISCOURSE AND EDUCATION
General EditorNancy H. Hornberger, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
Editorial Advisory BoardNeville Alexander, University of Cape Town, South Africa
Colin Baker, University of Wales, UKMarilda Cavalcanti, UNICAMP, Brazil
Caroline Clapham, University of Lancaster, UKBronwyn Davies, University of Western Sydney, Australia
Viv Edwards, University of Reading, UKFrederick Erickson, University of California at Los Angeles, USA
Joseph Lo Bianco, University of Melbourne, AustraliaLuis Enrique Lopez, University of San Simon, Bolivia
Allan Luke, Queensland University of Technology, AustraliaTove Skutnabb-Kangas, Roskilde University, Denmark
Bernard Spolsky, Bar-Ilan University, IsraelG. Richard Tucker, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Leo van Lier, Monterey Institute of International Studies, USATerrence G. Wiley, Arizona State University, USA
Ruth Wodak, University of Vienna, AustriaAna Celia Zentella, University of California at San Diego, USA
The volume titles of this encyclopedia are listed at the end of this volume.
Encyclopedia of Language and EducationVolume 3
DISCOURSE AND EDUCATION
Edited by
MARILYN MARTIN-JONES
University of BirminghamSchool of Education
UK
and
ANNE-MARIE DE MEJÍA
Universidad de los AndesCentro de Investigación y Formación en Educación
Colombia
and
NANCY H. HORNBERGER
University of PennsylvaniaGraduate School of Education
USA
Volume Editors:Marilyn Martin-JonesUniversity of BirminghamSchool of EducationBirmingham, B15 [email protected]
Anne-Marie de MejíaUniversidad de los AndesCentro de Investigación y Formación en EducaciónBogotá[email protected]@uniandes.edu.co
Nancy H. HornbergerUniversity of PennsylvaniaGraduate School of EducationPhiladelphia, PA [email protected]
General Editor:Nancy H. HornbergerUniversity of PennsylvaniaGraduate School of EducationPhiladelphia, PA [email protected]
Library of Congress Control Number: 2007925265
ISBN-13: 978-0-387-32875-1
The electronic version will be available under ISBN 978-0-387-30424-3The print and electronic bundle will be available under ISBN 978-0-387-35420-0
Printed on acid-free paper.
# 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part withoutthe written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC., 233Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection withreviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage andretrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodologynow known or hereafter developed is forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms,even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as towhether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME 3: DISCOURSE AND EDUCATION
General Editor’s Introduction ixNancy H. Hornberger
Introduction to Volume 3: Discourse and Education xiiiMarilyn Martin-Jones and Anne-Marie de Mejía
Contributors xxxiii
Reviewers xxxv
Section 1: Discourse in Education: Theory and Method
1. Classroom Interaction, Situated Learning 3Judith Green and Carol Dixon
2. Conversation Analysis and Talk-in-interactionin Classrooms 15Junko Mori and Jane Zuengler
3. Genres and Institutions: Functional Perspectives onEducational Discourse 29Frances Christie
4. Official Pedagogic Discourses and the Construction ofLearners’ Identities 41Jill Bourne
5. Critical Discourse Analysis in Education 53Rebecca Rogers
6. Post-structuralist Analysis of Classroom Discourse 69Judith Baxter
7. Revoicing across Learning Spaces 81Janet Maybin
8. Linguistic Anthropology of Education 93Stanton Wortham
Section 2: Educational Discourses, Situated Practices and Identities
M. Martin-Jones, A. M. de Mejia and N. H. Hornberger (eds), Encyclopedia ofLanguage and Education, 2nd Edition, Volume 3: Discourse and Education, v–vii.# 2008 Springer Scienceþ Business Media LLC.
9. Language Socialization, Participation and Identity:Ethnographic Approaches 107Patricia A. Duff
10. Classroom Discourse and the Construction of Learnerand Teacher Identities 121Jasmine Luk Ching Man
11. Categorizing Learners Beyond the Classroom 135Eva Hjörne and Roger Säljö
12. Constructing Elites in Kenya: Implications forClassroom Language Practices in Africa 147Grace Bunyi
13. Discourse and the Construction of Gendered Identitiesin Education 159Harriet Bjerrum Nielsen and Bronwyn Davies
14. Ethnicity at Work in Peer-group Interactions at School 171Charlotte Haglund
15. Playful Talk, Learners’ Play Frames and the Constructionof Identities 185Vally Lytra
Section 3: Discourses about Language and Linguistic Diversity
16. Language Choice and Symbolic Domination 201Monica Heller
17. Language Planning Ideologies, CommunicativePractices and their Consequences 211Rani Rubdy
18. Teachers’ Practical Knowledge, Standard Languageand Multicultural Classrooms 225Jeff Bezemer and Sjaak Kroon
19. Discourses about English: Class, Codes and Identitiesin Britain 237Ann Williams
Section 4: Discourse and the Construction of Knowledge
20. The Guided Co-construction of Knowledge 253Frank Hardman
21. Talk, Texts and Meaning-making in Classroom Contexts 265Silvia Valencia Giraldo
22. Learners’ Collaborative Talk 279Susan Lyle
23. Role Play and Dialogue in Early Childhood Education 291Sheena Gardner and Aizan Yaacob
vi TA B L E O F CONT EN T S
24. Discourse and Second Language Learning 305Diana Boxer
25. Discourse, Mathematics and Mathematics Education 317Richard Barwell
26. Learning Science: Discursive Practices 329Gregory J. Kelly
27. Everyday Funds of Knowledge and School Discourses 341Elizabeth Birr Moje
28. Multimodal Discourses across the Curriculum 357Carey Jewitt
Subject Index 369
Name Index 373
Tables of Contents: Volumes 1–10 383
TAB L E O F CONT EN T S vii
GENERAL EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION1
ENCYCLO P ED I A O F LANGUAGE AND EDUCAT I ON
This is one of ten volumes of the Encyclopedia of Language andEducation published by Springer. The Encyclopedia bears testimonyto the dynamism and evolution of the language and education field,as it confronts the ever-burgeoning and irrepressible linguistic diversityand ongoing pressures and expectations placed on education aroundthe world.The publication of this work charts the deepening and broadening of
the field of language and education since the 1997 publication of thefirst Encyclopedia. It also confirms the vision of David Corson, generaleditor of the first edition, who hailed the international and interdisciplin-ary significance and cohesion of the field. These trademark characteris-tics are evident in every volume and chapter of the present Encyclopedia.In the selection of topics and contributors, the Encyclopedia seeks to
reflect the depth of disciplinary knowledge, breadth of interdisciplinaryperspective, and diversity of sociogeographic experience in our field.Language socialization and language ecology have been added to theoriginal eight volume topics, reflecting these growing emphases in lan-guage education theory, research, and practice, alongside the enduringemphases on language policy, literacies, discourse, language acquisition,bilingual education, knowledge about language, language testing, andresearch methods. Throughout all the volumes, there is greater inclusionof scholarly contributions from non-English speaking and non-Westernparts of the world, providing truly global coverage of the issues in thefield. Furthermore, we have sought to integrate these voices more fullyinto the whole, rather than as special cases or international perspectivesin separate sections.This interdisciplinary and internationalizing impetus has been immea-
surably enhanced by the advice and support of the editorial advisory boardmembers, several ofwhom served as volume editors in the Encyclopedia’sfirst edition (designated here with*), and all of whom I acknowledgehere with gratitude: Neville Alexander (South Africa), Colin Baker(Wales), Marilda Cavalcanti (Brazil), Caroline Clapham* (Britain),
1 This introduction is based on, and takes inspiration from, David Corson’s generaleditor’s Introduction to the First Edition (Kluwer, 1997).
M. Martin-Jones, A. M. de Mejia and N. H. Hornberger (eds), Encyclopedia ofLanguage and Education, 2nd Edition, Volume 3: Discourse and Education, ix–xi.#2008 Springer Science+Business Media LLC.
NANCY H . HORNBERGER
BronwynDavies* (Australia), Viv Edwards* (Britain), Frederick Erickson(USA), Joseph Lo Bianco (Australia), Luis Enrique Lopez (Bolivia andPeru), Allan Luke (Singapore and Australia), Tove Skutnabb-Kangas(Denmark), Bernard Spolsky (Israel), G. Richard Tucker* (USA), Leovan Lier* (USA), Terrence G. Wiley (USA), Ruth Wodak* (Austria),and Ana Celia Zentella (USA).In conceptualizing an encyclopedic approach to a field, there is
always the challenge of the hierarchical structure of themes, topics,and subjects to be covered. In this Encyclopedia of Language andEducation, the stated topics in each volume’s table of contents are com-plemented by several cross-cutting thematic strands recurring acrossthe volumes, including the classroom/pedagogic side of language andeducation; issues of identity in language and education; language ideol-ogy and education; computer technology and language education; andlanguage rights in relation to education.The volume editors’ disciplinary and interdisciplinary academic inter-
ests and their international areas of expertise also reflect the depth andbreadth of the language and education field. As principal volume editorfor Volume 1, Stephen May brings academic interests in the sociologyof language and language education policy, arising from his work inBritain, North America, and New Zealand. For Volume 2, Brian Streetapproaches language and education as social and cultural anthropologistand critical literacy theorist, drawing on his work in Iran, Britain, andaround the world. For Volume 3, Marilyn Martin-Jones and Anne-Mariede Mejia bring combined perspectives as applied and educational lin-guists, working primarily in Britain and Latin America, respectively. ForVolume 4, Nelleke Van Deusen-Scholl has academic interests in linguis-tics and sociolinguistics, and has worked primarily in the Netherlandsand the USA. JimCummins, principal volume editor for Volume 5 of boththe first and second editions of the Encyclopedia, has interests in the psy-chology of language, critical applied linguistics, and language policy,informed by his work in Canada, the USA, and internationally. ForVolume 6, Jasone Cenoz has academic interests in applied linguisticsand language acquisition, drawing from her work in the Basque Country,Spain, and Europe. Elana Shohamy, principal volume editor for Volume 7,approaches language and education as an applied linguist with interestsin critical language policy, language testing and measurement, and herown work based primarily in Israel and the USA. For Volume 8, PatriciaDuff has interests in applied linguistics and sociolinguistics, and hasworked primarily in North America, East Asia, and Central Europe.Volume editors for Volume 9, Angela Creese and Peter Martin, drawon their academic interests in educational linguistics and linguisticethnography, and their research in Britain and Southeast Asia. And forVolume 10, Kendall A. King has academic interests in sociolinguistics
x NANCY H . HORNBERGER
and educational linguistics, with work in Ecuador, Sweden, and theUSA. Francis Hult, editorial assistant for the Encyclopedia, has aca-demic interests in educational and applied linguistics and educationallanguage policy, and has worked in Sweden and the USA. Finally, asgeneral editor, I have interests in anthropological linguistics, educationallinguistics, and language policy, with work in Latin America, the USA,and internationally. Beyond our specific academic interests, all of useditors, and the contributors to the Encyclopedia, share a commitment tothe practice and theory of education, critically informed by research andstrategically directed toward addressing unsound or unjust language edu-cation policies and practices wherever they are found.Each of the ten volumes presents core information and is international
in scope, as well as diverse in the populations it covers. Each volumeaddresses a single subject area and provides 23–30 state-of-the-art chap-ters of the literature on that subject. Together, the chapters aim to com-prehensively cover the subject. The volumes, edited by internationalexperts in their respective topics, were designed and developed in closecollaboration with the general editor of the Encyclopedia, who is aco-editor of each volume as well as general editor of the whole work.Each chapter is written by one or more experts on the topic, consists of
about 4,000 words of text, and generally follows a similar structure. Alist of references to key works supplements the authoritative informationthat the chapter contains. Many contributors survey early developments,major contributions, work in progress, problems and difficulties, andfuture directions. The aim of the chapters, and of the Encyclopedia asa whole, is to give readers access to the international literature andresearch on the broad diversity of topics that make up the field.The Encyclopedia is a necessary reference set for every university
and college library in the world that serves a faculty or school of edu-cation. The encyclopedia aims to speak to a prospective readership thatis multinational, and to do so as unambiguously as possible. Becauseeach book-size volume deals with a discrete and important subject inlanguage and education, these state-of-the-art volumes also offer highlyauthoritative course textbooks in the areas suggested by their titles.The scholars contributing to the Encyclopedia hail from all continents
of our globe and from 41 countries; they represent a great diversity oflinguistic, cultural, and disciplinary traditions. For all that, what ismost impressive about the contributions gathered here is the unity ofpurpose and outlook they express with regard to the central roleof language as both vehicle and mediator of educational processesand to the need for continued and deepening research into the limitsand possibilities that implies.
Nancy H. Honberger
G EN ERAL ED I TOR ’ S I N T RODUCT I ON xi
INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 3: DISCOURSEAND EDUCATION
This volume of the Encyclopaedia surveys the diverse and changinglandscape of research on discourse and education. In order to capturethe full sweep of this landscape, we have adopted the broadest defi-nition of ‘discourse’, as embracing both the view of discourse as‘talk-in-interaction’, commonly espoused in studies of classroom dis-course, and the critical, post-structuralist view of discourse as ‘waysof understanding and constituting the social world’.The first view of discourse has, of course, been influential in research
on language in education, since the 1970s, and emerged as part of thebroad interactional turn which took place as new fields of socialscience, such as ethnomethodology, conversation analysis, interac-tional sociolinguistics and micro-ethnography were being established.Within this tradition of work, the contexts for teaching and learningare not taken as given but as being constituted in and through everydaydiscourse practices and interactional routines and therefore continuallyopen to change and negotiation. Meanings are seen as being situated,moment by moment, in the ongoing flow of talk-in-interaction.The second view of discourse has been developed, more recently, by
researchers concerned with the ways in which power relations areplayed out within educational institutions. In this body of work, theterm ‘discourse’ is often used in the plural (e.g. official pedagogic dis-courses; school discourses; discourses about language). Discourses areseen as socially constitutive systems of meaning, which are embeddedin particular social, institutional and historical contexts, and “as dif-ferent ways of structuring areas of knowledge and social practice”(Fairclough, 1992, p. 3). They are also viewed as sources of power—the power to define boundaries and categories and to construct objectsand social subjects.Different chapters in the volume draw on, and sometimes combine,
these two broad views of discourse in education. They do so in diverseand subtle ways and offer different means of conceptualising the rela-tionship between ideological and interactional processes. The first sec-tion of the volume presents different theoretical and methodologicalperspectives on discourse, encompassing ethnomethodology, conversa-tion analysis, genre theory, critical discourse analysis (CDA), post-structuralist approaches to discourse, recent theory-building around
MAR I LYN MART I N - J ONE S ANDANNE -MAR I E D E ME J I A
M. Martin-Jones, A. M. de Mejia and N. H. Hornberger (eds), Encyclopedia ofLanguage and Education, 2nd Edition, Volume 3: Discourse and Education, xiii–xxxii.#2008 Springer Science+Business Media LLC.
the notion of ‘voice’ and practice-based approaches, focusing onlanguage-in-use and on power relations, which have been developedwithin linguistic anthropology. Individual chapters in this section fore-ground the influence of different strands of social and anthropologicaltheory, including the work of Bakhtin (1953/1986), Bernstein (1996),Bourdieu (1991), Foucault (1972), Hymes (1974), Silverstein (1992),Walkerdine (1990) and Wetherell (1998), offering diverse lensesthrough which to view the links between the everyday interactions thattake place in schools and classrooms and wider social, cultural andideological processes.The second section focuses on the workings of discourse in local
cultural and institutional contexts. Here, we see different approachesto the study of situated discourse practices, including the ethnographyof communication, micro-ethnography, conversation analysis and dis-cursive psychology. We also see the ways in which constructionist per-spectives have been incorporated in these different strands of workon discourse in education. These chapters make reference to studiesof spoken interaction in classrooms and in other educational settings(e.g. in school staff meetings about pupil welfare, as in the chapter byEva Hjörne and Roger Säljö). Different authors have different foci:some provide accounts of discourse practices in routine educationalencounters, detailing some of the ways in which these practices contri-bute to language socialisation, to the construction of teacher or learneridentities (e.g. along the lines of class, ethnicity or gender) or to theconstruction of different categories of learners (e.g. ‘slow readers’,‘students with learning difficulties’, or ‘exceptionally gifted learners’).Identity is a recurring theme in this section. In some chapters, we seeprimacy given to the ways in which ‘identities’ are imposed fromabove, within prevailing social and institutional orders. And, in otherchapters, the focus is on the negotiation of identities within localinteractional orders.The third section foregrounds the ways in which ideologies about
language or linguistic diversity are constructed in language policies,in language planning processes and in national debates about languagein the media. As Monica Heller points out in her chapter, research onthe discursive processes involved in the choice and legitimisation ofparticular languages or language varieties as media of instruction pro-vides key insights into one of the central sociological issues of ourtimes, namely the role of education in social and cultural reproduction.Drawing on the work of Bourdieu (1977), she argues that educationis a key site for defining what counts as ‘legitimate language’, that is,language and literacy practices which are considered to be ‘good’,‘normal’, ‘appropriate’ or ‘correct’. By exercising control over thevalue of linguistic resources in societal domains such as education,
xiv M . MART I N - J ON E S AND A . -M . D E ME J I A
dominant groups in society contribute to the regulation of access toother resources (such as knowledge or material goods). The authorsin the chapters in this section provide different windows on the dis-cursive processes involved in defining ‘legitimate language’. Theseprocesses are uncovered through different levels of analysis: at theglobal or national level, at the level of local education or curriculumauthorities or in local school and classroom contexts.The fourth section deals with the role of disciplinary discourses and
of everyday interactional practices in classrooms in the construction ofknowledge and ‘ways of knowing’. Here, there are contributions whichfocus on classroom talk and multimodal communication in differentkinds of classrooms, in different kinds of classroom conversations withdifferent participant structures (e.g. conversations between teachers andlearners or among small groups of learners) and in different areas of thecurriculum (e.g. in the teaching and learning of mathematics, science orlanguage). Some authors (e.g. Elizabeth Birr Moje) are also concernedwith the nature and significance of the interface between everydayfunds of knowledge (from outside the classroom) and school dis-courses, and with identifying ways in which change-oriented thirdspace for knowledge-building can be created.
T H EME S R E SONAT I NG ACRO S S THE VOLUME
Several themes resonate across these four sections and the chapterswithin them. We will touch on just three here. All three relate to dif-ferent aspects of theory and method in research on discourse andeducation.
Widening the Scope of Enquiry, Combining Approaches to Discourse
Several authors in the volume propose ways of combining approachesto discourse so as to widen the scope of enquiry. Whilst rigour and fine-tuning of approach is achieved through specialisation within one parti-cular empirical tradition, these authors take the view that significantinsights can be achieved through interaction across research traditions.1
For example, Monica Heller argues for an approach to languagechoice which combines close analysis of the interactional order ofschools and classrooms with social and historical analysis of the widersocial and symbolic order, so as to explain why particular languagechoices in particular settings turn out to be the way they are. Harriet
1 This is part of a more general trend already identified in a special issue of AppliedLinguistics in 2002, focusing on approaches to the analysis of classroom discourse(see Rampton, Roberts and Harris, 2002).
I N T RODUCT I ON xv
Bjerrum Nielson and Bronwyn Davies suggest that different perspec-tives on discourse and gender in education, perspectives which empha-sise gender structures, gender identity formations and genderpositionings, need to be seen as complementary rather than as distinctand separate. They argue that it is by linking an account of the pro-cesses of “‘being’ gendered and ‘doing’ gender” that a full accountcan be given of the social and discursive processes involved in genderidentity construction. Rebecca Rogers sees considerable scope forcombining CDA with the critical ethnographic study of literacy, asdeveloped within the New Literacy Studies tradition. She cites, inparticular, the need for closer attention to multimodal literacies andto the uses of digital texts in schools and classrooms. Silvia ValenciaGiraldo echoes this concern, drawing attention to the profoundlytextually mediated nature of contemporary social life, in and out ofclassrooms.A significant proportion of the authors in this volume (e.g. Judith
Baxter, Jill Bourne, Grace Bunyi, Charlotte Haglund, Monica Heller,Carey Jewitt, Jasmine Luk Ching Man, Vally Lytra, Janet Maybin, RaniRubdy and Silvia Valencia Giraldo) mention that they are concernedwith identifying means of linking the analysis of macro-social struc-tures and of the discursive processes at work in educational institutions(e.g. the categorisation and positioning of learners, the production andreproduction of ‘legitimate language’) with the close study of day-to-day discourse practices in classrooms. At the same time, they aremindful of the significance of human agency and they argue that theimposition of dominant discourses about identity, about language orabout ways of knowing is always open to contestation and change.Among these authors, there is considerable consensus about the need
for close study of everyday interactional practices as an essential part ofany research endeavour, while also aiming to link analyses of thesepractices to wider social and ideological processes. Methodologically,this is what Judith Baxter calls a ‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-down’ approach.
Linking the Study of Discourse with Ethnography
A particularly salient theme in this volume is that of linking the studyof discourse in education with ethnography. This theme has its originsin early work on the ethnography of communication and in the work ofscholars such as Erickson (1986), Gumperz (1982) and Hymes (1974)who were concerned to ensure that the cultural context of discoursewas not taken for granted and that the perspectives of participants inday-to-day conversations, in and out of classrooms, should be takeninto account. However, since the 1970s, there has been considerablediversification within ethnographic studies of language and literacy in
xvi M . MART I N - J ON E S AND A . -M . D E ME J I A
education. Goals and methods have been conceptualised in differentways. This increasing diversity is reflected in the chapters of thisvolume.Some authors suggest ways of linking research on discourse, in their
particular area, with Hymes’ original approach to the ethnography ofcommunication. Jasmine Luk Ching Man stresses the value of thisapproach, in combination with other perspectives. Diana Boxer takesa similar stance, using the related term ‘ethnography of speaking’.Some authors note the contributions made to the study of discourse
in education in particular strands of ethnography. Thus, for example,both Jasmine Luk Ching Man and Vally Lytra mention the work onmicro-ethnography, developed by Erickson (1986), with its close focuson the interplay between verbal and non-verbal cues in speech events,in and out of classrooms. Junko Mori and Jane Zuengler suggest thatethnographic approaches can be particularly fruitful, when combinedwith conversational analysis, in the study of institutional discourse(although they do note that there is ongoing debate about this amongconversation analysts).Other authors give primacy to the link with sociolinguistics and to
the project of combining micro-analysis of everyday discourse prac-tices with the study of wider social and ideological processes. JeffBezemer and Sjaak Kroon use the term ‘sociolinguistic ethnography’.This was first employed by Monica Heller (1999/2006) in her ethno-graphic work in French Canada and was then taken up again by Hellerand Martin-Jones (2001) in an edited volume on discourse practices inmultilingual schools and classrooms. Vally Lytra describes her currentresearch collaboration with colleagues as being ‘ethnographicallyinformed sociolinguistics’, echoing recent writing on this topic byHornberger (1995). In looking ahead to future research on discoursepractices and identities among urban youth, Charlotte Haglund arguesthat critical ethnography will be best suited to such work, since futureresearchers will need to take into account not only micro-level interac-tional practices and narratives, but also asymmetries of power at themacro-level, along with widening processes of socio-cultural transfor-mation and change, such as globalisation and transnationalism.There are also chapters in the volume that orient to two distinct
strands of ethnographic research on language and literacy that havebeen developed in recent years, in the North American context (linguis-tic anthropology) and in the British context (linguistic ethnography).Over the last two decades, linguistic anthropologists in North Americahave become increasingly concerned with inequality and ideology inlanguage, with the discursive construction of authority and with reflex-ivity in fieldwork and ethnographic writing. Stanton Wortham islocated within this tradition and has brought particular insights into
I N T RODUCT I ON xvii
the ways in which linguistic anthropology can be applied to research ineducational settings (e.g. Wortham and Rymes, 2003). In his chapter inthe volume, he outlines a linguistic anthropological approach to the dis-course processes involved in the construction of social relations in edu-cational settings.Whilst North American linguistic anthropology is rooted within the
Boasian tradition of cultural anthropology, British ethnographic writingon language and literacy has emerged primarily from the field ofapplied linguistics. Rampton et al. (2004) trace this genealogy, arguingthat “UK researchers tended to develop their commitment to ethnogra-phy in the process of working from language, literacy and discourseoutwards” (2004, p. 11). This recent work in linguistic ethnography,developed over the last decade, is mentioned in the chapters by SheenaGardner and Aizan Yaacob and by Silvia Valencia Giraldo. It is alsoreflected (though not explicitly mentioned) in the chapter by JanetMaybin, a British researcher who has been a key contributor to thedevelopment of this particular strand of ethnographic research onlanguage, literacy and discourse.
Dealing with the Changing Nature of Contemporary Patternsof Communication
A third theme that cuts across the chapters in the volume is that ofmeeting the challenge of dealing with the rapidly changing natureof contemporary patterns of communication. We are witnessing far-reaching changes in forms of representation due to the advent of newtechnologies. In anticipating future directions in research on discourse,a substantial number of the authors in the volume draw attention to thechallenge posed to theory and method by the increasingly multimodalnature of contemporary communication.Frances Christie makes explicit reference to the new text types and
genres emerging in this new media age and notes that we need tofurther refine theory-building around the notion of ‘genre’. She saysthat: “the contemporary multimodal world will require much moresophisticated tools for analysis to explain the meanings of texts inwhich verbal, visual and diagrammatic resources . . .all operate”. JeffBezemer and Sjaak Kroon draw attention to the methodological chal-lenges posed by the increasing multimodality of educational practice.Their particular focus is on research on discourses about national stan-dard languages. They note that: “recent classroom studies show thatdiscourses on standard language teaching are indeed realised not onlythrough speech, but also, and often primarily, through image, gesture,wall displays, and other worlds of representation and communication”.Carey Jewitt reviews some of the ways in which the challenges of
xviii M . MART I N - J ON E S AND A . -M . D E ME J I A
multimodality are being addressed in classroom-based research, focus-ing on different areas of the curriculum, such as language and science.Jill Bourne points to the opportunities opened up by the changing
nature of contemporary modes of representation and communicationand, in particular, by the shift away from uni-directional to multi-directional communication, from a central ‘message producer’ aimingat a mass audience to multiple ‘message producers’ involved in morecomplex, and more egalitarian, communicative exchanges. As she putsit: “this shift offers space for a transformative remaking of pedagogicdiscourse”. However, she also acknowledges the need to remain waryof ‘management interests’ in exploring the potential of hypertextuallinks. This concern is echoed in Rebecca Rogers’ recommendationsregarding the future directions of critical research on multimodal dis-course. She warns of the dangers inherent in globalised flows, particu-larly in the circulation and commodification of educational softwareand calls for the development of critical approaches to ‘networkeffects’, on and off-line.
T H E I ND I V I DUAL CONTR I BUT I ON S TO TH I SVO LUME
Many of the contributions to this volume come from scholars who haveled the way in developing particular approaches to empirical work and/or theory-building. The volume also provides international coverage ofresearch on discourse in education. Our intention, as editors, was tobuild on the ground established by Bronwyn Davies, the editor of thevolume on Oral Discourse, in the first edition of the Encyclopaediaand to chart new directions opened up over the last decade, extendingand deepening our understanding of discursive processes in education.
Section 1. Discourse in Education: Theory and Method
Judith Green and Carol Dixon focus on the nature of the relationshipbetween classroom interaction and situated learning. They approachthis topic by tracing the distinct intellectual traditions within whichthe study of these two dimensions of classroom life have been devel-oped, by drawing attention to the key theoretical and disciplinary per-spectives that have been incorporated into these traditions and, then,by showing how greater convergence has been achieved in researchon classroom interaction and learning as a result of the emergence ofnew ways of theorising learning as a situated process.Junko Mori and Jane Zuengler chart the contribution of conversation
analysis to our understanding of the dynamics of talk-in-interaction inclassrooms and the interactional processes involved in construction of
I N T RODUCT I ON xix
local social orders. They discuss current controversies concerning theadequacy of this type of analysis for the investigation of classroominteraction and they consider whether other theoretical or methodologi-cal approaches, such as CDA, ethnography or socio-cultural perspec-tives, should be combined with conversational analysis with a viewto developing deeper insights into classroom discourse.The chapter by Frances Christie provides a detailed account of the
development and application of the notion of ‘genre’ in three areas ofeducational linguistics: in systemic functional linguistics (SFL), inEnglish for Special Purposes (ESP) and in the New Rhetoric Studies.Christie also weighs up the different points of view in the intensedebates that have taken place in the field of genre studies. Then, inthe final section of her chapter, there is a discussion of the particularchallenges facing researchers in this field, notably that of developingan adequate account of multimodality.Jill Bourne examines, in detail, a key concept from the later work
of Basil Bernstein—the concept of “official pedagogic discourse”(Bernstein, 1996)—and shows that it provides a means of theorisingthe link between macro-social structures, institutional processes ofcategorisation and the micro-interactional practices of classroom life.She also traces the ways in which pedagogic discourse and models ofpedagogy have been played out in multilingual contexts. Taking theUK as an example, she shows that not only have different models ofpedagogy been ushered in with shifts in educational policy over timebut, also, that particular models have predominated in the organisationof educational provision for different categories of student (e.g.students learning English as an additional language vs. monolingualEnglish speakers).Rebecca Rogers examines some of the ways in which CDA has been
applied to the interpretation and analysis of issues related language andliteracy education. She begins by tracing different strands of CDA,foregrounding commonalities across strands, and then shows hownew avenues of investigation are being explored in contemporaryresearch. She focuses, in particular, on research which links CDA andsocial action, on research where CDA is used to uncover different waysin which social identities are represented and research which revealsthe ways in which ideologies are constructed in written texts.Judith Baxter describes recent empirical work and theory-building in
a related field: that of post-structuralist discourse analysis (PDA).Researchers in this field share, with critical discourse analysts, a con-cern with developing means of conducting bottom-up and top-downanalyses of discourse in educational settings. As Baxter demonstrates,the development of PDA has been shaped by influences from researchon language and gender, so it foregrounds the multifaceted nature of
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subjectivity. It also explores the ways in which participants in class-room conversations can be positioned, as either powerful or powerless,by different discourses. The chapter provides an account of intersectinginfluences in the development of PDA, starting out from positioningtheory (Davies and Harré, 1990), early work by sociologists such asValerie Walkerdine (1990) on the construction of gendered identitiesand more recent work in discursive psychology which draws togetherpost-structuralist and conversation analytic approaches to discourse(e.g. Wetherell, 1998).Janet Maybin interrogates Bakhtin’s notions of ‘voice’ and ‘revoi-
cing’ and considers the ways in which they have been employed in dif-ferent kinds of educational research: research which draws primarily onsocio-cultural theory relating to learning and socialisation, and researchwhich focuses on the linguistic features of recontextualised discourseand the links between these features and wider social practices. Shealso provides examples of recent research on revoicing in both spokenand written discourse. This includes research with students in differentage groups and in different social and cultural contexts: for example,research on young children’s appropriation of fragments of texts frompopular culture in their own writing; research on revoicing in the infor-mal talk of 10–12-year-old children (Maybin’s own research); studiesof ‘language crossing’ among adolescents as part of everyday talkand social activity (i.e. the use of words and phrases from languagesnot associated with the speakers’ cultural inheritance) and research onthe use of different sources in academic writing by university students.In contemplating the significance of this strand of research, Maybinstresses that students’ revoicing practices constitute important strate-gies for exploring new kinds of knowledge, new relationships and iden-tities and suggests that closer attention could be paid to their practicesin studies of the daily cycles of life in and out of classrooms.Stanton Wortham locates his approach to language use in education
within the North American tradition of linguistic anthropology. Theconcepts that are central to his approach are ‘signs’ (e.g. languageforms), ‘sign use’ and ‘contextualisation’, ‘ideologies of language’and ‘domains’. ‘Domains’ are defined as “the set of people who recog-nize the indexical link between a type of sign and the relevant ideol-ogy”. This broad conceptual framework makes it possible to capturesome of the complexity of the semiotic processes at work in educa-tional settings and to show how signs come to have both referentialand relational meaning in different kinds of educational encounters.Wortham stresses, in particular, the value of the concept of ‘languageideology’ in building an account of the relationship between signs inuse, ideologies which circulate across space and time and wider socialstructures and he reminds us that educational institutions are key sites
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for the legitimisation of the ideological links between types ofspeakers and types of sign use.
Section 2. Educational Discourses, Situated Practices and Identities
In the first chapter in this section, Patricia Duff provides an overview ofethnographic research examining language socialisation, participationand identity, with particular reference to the North American tradition.She shows us how ethnographic research on educational discourse hasprovided insights into how students learn to engage with the ‘legiti-mate’ oral and written discourse practices associated with differentareas of the curriculum and, in particular, how, in the daily rounds ofclassroom life, they negotiate the routine questions, responses and eva-luative practices of their teachers and peers. Throughout the chapter,she emphasises the need to see these processes of negotiation andengagement as part of a broader process of language socialisation tak-ing place through participation in different learning communities.Jasmine Luk Ching Man examines the intricate relationship between
identity and contextualised use of language in the classroom and tracesthe ways in which this relationship has been explored in different tradi-tions of research. She also provides a useful overview of different per-spectives on identity, mapping the shift away from essentialist notionsof identity towards the more dynamic and fluid conceptualisationsadopted in recent work embracing social constructionist and post-structuralist viewpoints. She maintains that these recent perspectiveson identity enable us to gain deeper insights into the ways in whichteachers’ and students’ identities are negotiated, moment by moment,within the ebb and flow of classroom talk.Eva Hjörne and Roger Säljö focus on discourse practices outside of
the classroom. They draw on data from their own research in Swedenon ‘pupil welfare meetings’ conducted by multi-professional teamsfor example, school staff, school psychologists and social workers. Thisilluminating data are used to demonstrate how particular learners arecategorised, in the talk exchanged at such meetings, as having ‘learningdifficulties’. Hjörne and Säljö show that categories are defined invague, ambiguous and negative ways and that there is considerableconsensus among participants in these meetings. They also show thatthe learners’ difficulties are represented as traits located in individualsrather than being shaped in any way by the learning environment.The discussion of the data from the Swedish context is embeddedin a wider account of research on the discursive processes involvedin categorisation, focusing in particular on research in institutionalcontexts. The authors conclude by considering the implications ofsuch research in the context of the growing trend, in different public
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education systems, towards organising special education provision,outside the mainstream, for learners identified as having ‘specialneeds’.In the next chapter, Grace Bunyi begins by tracing the social and
historical processes involved in the construction of elites in Kenyavia the introduction of western type education and the use of Englishas a medium of instruction by missionaries in the eighteenth century.Using ethnographic evidence from contemporary research, she thenshows how social hierarchy continues to be produced and reproducedthrough school policies and classroom discourse practices and throughthe expansion of English-medium private education. She draws atten-tion, in particular, to the differences that have been identified betweenthe routine interactions between teachers and learners in elite schoolsand those in non-elite schools, often in rural areas, and she considersthe implications of these differences for learners of non-elite back-grounds. The issues addressed in this chapter regarding school lan-guage policy and classroom discourse practices resonate clearly withthe findings of research in other African countries (e.g. see Heller andMartin-Jones, 2001).Harriet Bjerrum Nielsen and Bronwyn Davies elaborate in detail on
research that has investigated the complex relations between usualpatterns of talk in classrooms and the formation of gendered identities.They show that early qualitative research revealed that the apparentsuccess of strategies aimed at ‘gender neutrality’ was illusory and thatgender inequality resulted from differential treatment and doublestandards in the classroom. They then chart a shift in research focus,from the 1980s onwards, towards an emphasis on the active role thatlearners play in constructing gendered social worlds and in respon-ding to gendered discourses. They note that, in this body of research,classroom discourse practices were seen as embedded within a broadercultural context and within wider social processes of gender identityformation. In the final part of their chapter, they consider researchthat incorporated social constructionist and post-structuralist perspec-tives, from the 1990s onwards. They demonstrate how this most re-cent body of research has challenged the representation of gender inbinary terms and has reconceptualised identity in a more dynamicand processual way.Charlotte Haglund approaches the question of identity through the
lens of ethnicity. She builds her chapter around ethnographic researchthat she has carried out recently, in Sweden, with young people ofmigrant origin (primarily Turkish and Kurdish) in a multi-ethnicneighbourhood. She gives an account of some of the ways in whichthe identifications and allegiances of these young people were playedout in everyday encounters in school and community contexts. She also
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draws attention to the resonances between the discourse practices sheobserved in these contexts and the findings of other studies in othercities which have become hubs for migration. Charlotte’s account ofher study in Sweden is embedded in a penetrating discussion of thewider research context. She review studies that have considerablyadvanced our understanding of how ‘new ethnicities of the margins’are begin constructed and what the social and cultural consequencesof these processes might be. She also considers the theoretical andmethodological challenges facing researchers who wish to probe therelationship between everyday social and cultural practices (includ-ing discourse practices) and the wider socio-historical and economicconditions of the late modern age.Vally Lytra focuses on learners’ active role in the construction of
identities in schools and classrooms and on the semiotic resourcesand discourse strategies they draw on in ‘doing’ identity work. Here,the starting point is with Janet Maybin’s (2006) observation thatresearch on classroom discourse has tended to adopt an ‘educationalgaze’, focusing on curriculum-oriented talk, often involving teacher-learner interaction. Vally Lytra argues for more focus on ‘off-task’ talkin school corridors, playgrounds and canteens. The term ‘playful talk’is used, in this chapter, as a general analytic category that includesritualised verbal activities, such as teasing, and other more fleetingverbal activities, like chanting, humour, joking, making inter-textualreferences to popular culture, parody, singing, verbal play. With refer-ence to a number of studies, including her own study in Greece, VallyLytra argues for adopting playtalk as a lens on the processes of identi-fication. She also points out that focusing on playtalk provides animportant means of uncovering some of the heterogeneity of voices,genres, practices and discourses in school and classroom life, andof exploring the ways in which these resources are drawn upon inidentification processes.
Section 3. Discourses about Language and Linguistic Diversity
The starting point for Monica Heller’s chapter is with the key questionof how schooling contributes to the reproduction of existing social hier-archies. Drawing on the early work of Bourdieu (1977), she argues thatlanguage is central to social and cultural reproduction and to the waysin which the symbolic domination of the privileged classes in society isachieved. She then makes the case for research which draws togetherthe strengths of the interpretive tradition within sociolinguistics andthe perspectives on symbolic domination and social and cultural repro-duction offered within French social theory. This approach is proposedas a means of going beyond earlier debates about how to account for
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different patterns of school achievement among children of differentbackgrounds, from different social classes and from different minorityethnic groups. The second section of her chapter provides a valuableoverview of three main ways in which differential patterns of achieve-ment have been conceptualised. The third section considers and exem-plifies some of the directions taken in research which seeks to identifythe linkages between the interactional order of schools and classroomsand the wider social and institutional order. Monica Heller emphasisesthat this is still work in progress and that these linkages still need to bemore fully understood. She anticipates that a deepening of our under-standing is likely to come from research that combines close analysisof interaction with institutional ethnography and socio-historical analy-sis. She also calls for moves towards comparison across socially andhistorically situated cases, so as to gain insights into the impact ofwider processes of change, such as globalisation.Rani Rubdy focuses on one particular field of research in sociolin-
guistics, namely that of the study of language planning and policy.She shows that, since the 1990s, there has been a significant shift inthe discourses about language planning and policy processes withinthis field: this was a shift from discourses about modernity and aboutthe ‘neutrality’ of top-down planning to a discourse about the centralrole of language and ideologies of language in social and culturalchange and about the ways in which asymmetries of power areconstructed through language policy-making. The second section ofher chapter considers the themes emerging in this new critical, post-modernist body of research on language planning processes. The thirdsection examines the issues that have been opened up through theextension of research on language policy-making from the countriesof the South to the countries of the North (e.g. those in North Americanand in Europe). These include issues related to bilingual education, toEnglish-only policies and to the impact of globalisation. In the con-cluding pages of her chapter, Rubdy draws attention to the increasinginterest among language policy and planning scholars in developingan understanding of the role of human agency in language change pro-cesses and, specifically, in ways of developing critical perspectives onthe link between ecology, ideology and agency.Jeff Bezemer and Sjaak Kroon focus on the teaching of national
standard languages in multicultural urban contexts in Europe, takingparticular account of the ways in which teachers’ practical knowledgeand monolingual bias is reflected in the discourses they produce inclassrooms and in interviews. The chapter draws on extensive empiri-cal work carried out as part of a European research project (IMEN—International Mother Tongue Education Network). The authors drawattention to the ideological processes of attribution and legitimisation
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at work in the teaching of the so-called ‘mother tongues’ of Europeannations and they remind us that the teaching of national standardlanguages has, since the nineteenth century, been seen as a key partof the process of cultivating future citizens and defining nationalculture.Ann Williams focuses on one particular standard language, standard
British English, and on the changing discourses about it in educationalpolicy and practice in England. She traces the ideological processeswhich led to standard British English being seen as the main code ofauthority and distinction in England and she examines, in detail, theconsequences of the rise of standard English for speakers of other vari-eties of English, particularly in the context of education. Her account isillustrated with reference to transcripts of classroom conversations andto interviews with teachers in different regions of England. From thedetail about language policy and practice in her chapter, we see howideologies of language become embedded in a particular social and his-torical context and what is at stake for speakers of different languagevarieties. There are clear resonances here with the ideological processesat work in other national contexts (e.g. those described by Jeff Bezemerand Sjaak Kroon).
Section 4. Discourse and the Construction of Knowledge
Frank Hardman’s chapter opens the section on the role of discourse inthe construction of knowledge. It surveys the ways in which research-ers working within a broadly social constructionist view of learninghave investigated classroom discourse. It also traces the roots of thisapproach to learning in the work of scholars such as Bruner (1996)and Vygotsky (1992). And, in addition, it considers different types ofeducational intervention which have drawn inspiration from construc-tionist thinking about learning. Frank Hardman interrogates the findingsof different studies of teacher–student interaction, including studies ofwhole class and small group settings and studies of small group inter-action between students. He also outlines some of the debates that havecentred on research topics such as teachers’ questions, teacher evalua-tions, the link between teachers’ theories of learning and the patterns oftalk in their classes and, most recently, the concept of ‘dialogic talk’.His concluding sections focus on ongoing research which draws atten-tion to the persistence of teacher-led recitation routines and on theimplications of such findings, especially for teacher education.Silvia Valencia Giraldo’s chapter draws our attention to the signifi-
cance of texts in day-to-day classroom routines and in meaning-makingin different kinds of classroom encounter. She defines the notion of‘text’ in the broadest sense, including students’ handwritten notes and
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electronic texts, as well as school textbooks and other printed materials(e.g. occasional handouts) used in teaching and learning. The chapterreviews a selection of studies which have investigated the uses of textsand talk around text in different kinds of classrooms, in monolingualand multilingual settings, and shows how pedagogy is enabled andconstrained by different kinds of textual practices. We see the impor-tance of taking account of the textual dimensions of classroom lifeand we also see how micro-analysis of talk around texts in classroomscan provide a window on wider processes of social and cultural change,such as globalisation.Susan Lyle opens a window for us on research that has focused on
collaborative talk between learners. She shows how this research isground in ‘hybrid’ fields of study, such as cultural psychology, socio-cultural studies and discursive psychology and she provides details ofearly ground-breaking work. She then identifies some of the directionsthat have been taken in the empirical work conducted within thesefields of study. These include explorations of the link between colla-borative talk and the development of learners’ thinking skills; the con-tribution of collaborative talk to second language learning; the role ofnarrative and playful talk in building understanding in group workand the role of teachers in planning opportunities for collaborative talk.The chapter concludes with an expression of concern about the ways inwhich the demands of national curricula and a shift back towards wholeclass teaching constrains teachers committed to encouraging dialogueand collaboration between learners.Sheena Gardner and Aizan Yaacob provide an account of studies
that have focused on sociodramatic play in early childhood and onthe ways in which these studies, in early years education and in homeand community contexts, have enhanced our understanding of role playand dialogue in child development. They begin with the interdiscip-linary work of the 1970s that first established the link between socio-dramatic play and the language and literacy development of pre-schoolchildren. They then outline different strands of research on role playand dialogue that have been developed since then. This includesexperimental research, involving role play in educational interventionsand research of an interpretive, ethnographic nature that explores roleplay in natural settings, at school and at home. In the former strand ofresearch, the concern is with the links between sociodramatic play andcognition. In the latter strand, the research aims to reveal the sponta-neous ways in which children incorporate other voices, genres, textsand languages into their play. Sheena Gardner and Aizan Yaacobalso review recent studies which focus on different contextual vari-ables, such as the resources available for sociodramatic play, the roleof adults, negotiation of play involving blind and sighted children and
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the availability of different channels of communication (e.g. pretenceplay using the telephone). In concluding, they allude to the fact that,despite this rich vein of research demonstrating the value of play,the early years curriculum in different countries is increasingly beingorganised in ways which close off opportunities for play.Diana Boxer presents a detailed and probing analysis of the ways in
which research on second language acquisition (SLA) has advancedthrough the incorporation of insights from discourse analysis and, spe-cifically, conversation analysis. She begins by reviewing studies in the1970s that laid the groundwork for the turn towards discourse in somestrands of SLA research. She then surveys three main ways in whichSLA research has been extended, in recent years, to take account oflearners’ points of view and learners’ contributions to conversations,in and out of classrooms. These include approaches that foregroundlanguage identity or language socialisation and those which are basedon social-cultural theory. She gives examples of recent empirical workto illustrate the different themes that have been addressed at the inter-face between discourse and language learning. She then outlines thedifferent positions taken in recent debates about the nature and signifi-cance of the insights that accrue from the application of conversationanalysis in SLA research. Diana Boxer’s final section calls for furtherextension of research on spontaneous use of language in both interac-tional and transactional contexts with a view to developing a baselinefor SLA research and practice.Richard Barwell directs our attention to research that has investi-
gated the use of language in the teaching and learning of mathematics.He starts out from seminal work on mathematical registers and showshow this laid the foundations for later discourse-oriented research. Hethen gives us a clear overview of three different areas of research onthe role of discourse in mathematics education. He covers studieswhich incorporate different perspectives from social theory, includingsociological, socio-cultural, social semiotic and post-structuralist per-spectives and he demonstrates how this empirical work has advancedunderstanding of the conventions of mathematics classroom talk(including talk around texts) and of the role of teachers in the sociali-sation of learners into local conventions. In his conclusion, RichardBarwell anticipates that the increasing multilingualism of the mathe-matics classrooms of the future will pose challenges and createopportunities for future research.Gregory Kelly opens a window for us on the world of research on
discursive practices in the teaching and learning of science. He chartsthe shift from research that focused on individuals acquiring ‘final formscientific knowledge’ to research that focuses on the social interactionsthat contribute to knowledge-building about the natural world and that
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enable or constrain learner participation in science classrooms. Hebegins with reference to the seminal work of Jay Lemke (1990) whoopened up the possibility of researching the day-to-day discursive prac-tices of science learning, by introducing a social semiotic perspectiveon classroom discourse. Then, in the central sections of the chapter,Kelly examines some of the insights gleaned from contemporaryresearch on scientific discourse (e.g. the discourse of published articles)and research on discourse in science education. These include insightsinto the diverse nature of science discourse, the uses of analogy, meta-phor and argumentation in the teaching and learning of the sciences, thesocio-cultural dimensions of learning science in small group work, theuses of written texts in science classes and the role of teacher educationin raising awareness of the discourse practices of science teachingand learning. He then identifies four directions in which research onthe discourse practices of science learning is moving. These relate toaccess and equity in science, the practical sense-making and knowl-edge-building that takes place in the daily routines of school science,the application of activity theory to the study of situated learning inscience classrooms and research taking on the theoretical and methodo-logical challenges posed by multimedia literacy and talk about differentkinds of texts, artefacts and electronic resources in science classrooms.In her chapter, Elizabeth Birr Moje explores the interface between
research that has documented the funds of knowledge, networks andways of knowing associated with students’ lives outside school andresearch on school discourses. School discourses include ways of talk-ing, reading and writing historically associated with different disci-plines and the discourse practices associated with the teaching andlearning of different subjects in the school curriculum. Taking exam-ples from school-based instruction in science and in history, ElizabethBirr Moje shows how practices vary across subjects, in the type ofevidence used to provide warrants for claims and in the types oftexts that are produced. Her main concern is with identifying waysin which teachers can provide students with practice in recognisingthe different school discourses that they encounter and, at the sametime, engage them in discussion about those discourses. The goal ofsuch discussions, she argues, should be to raise students’ awarenessof the privileged nature of different school discourses and to deve-lop a metadiscursive approach, that is, not only to get students to en-gage with different discourse communities but also to know how andwhy they are engaging and what these engagements mean for themin terms of social positioning and power relations. Her vision for meta-discursive pedagogy is that it can be a means of creating change-oriented third space for learners at different stages of their schoolexperience.
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The final chapter of the volume looks to the past and to the future,focusing on the study of multimodal discourse in educational settings.Carey Jewitt opens the chapter with a brief genealogy of research onmultimodality, tracing its origins to Halliday’s (1978) social semiotictheory of language. She shows how the first conceptual advances weremade through attempts to link verbal and visual signs as differentmodes of meaning making (e.g. in work by Kress and Van Leeuwen,1996 and by the New London Group, 1996). She also notes that theseattempts to develop new conceptual frameworks constituted a responseto the changing nature of the contemporary landscape of communica-tion. Carey Jewitt then goes on to consider major developments inresearch on multimodality. These include refinement in the descriptionand analysis of specific modes, including sound, movement, gestureand spatiality as well as verbal and visual signs; investigation of multi-modality in new media and exploration of the interplay of modes inteaching and learning in different areas of the curriculum. She also out-lines recent directions in theory-building, noting the shift from descrip-tive accounts to making more explicit connections with macro-social,political and cultural concerns in education. She concludes with a callfor future research which explores the ‘change potential’ of multimod-ality in education and for consideration of how research can link inwith future-thinking about educational practice.
D E S I GN I NG R E S EARCH ON D I S COUR S E ANDEDUCAT I ON FOR THE TWENTY- F I R S T C EN TURY
In addressing themes, issues and debates such as those detailed above,several authors point to the need to develop spaces for dialogue acrossacademic traditions and across approaches to discourse (e.g. RichardBarwell, Judith Baxter, Diana Boxer, Gregory Kelly, Jasmine LukChing Man, Elizabeth Birr Moje, Junko Mori and Jane Zuengler,Harriet Bjerrum Nielsen and Bronwyn Davies, Rany Rubdy and SilviaValencia Giraldo). We hope that this volume of the Encyclopaedia willcontribute to the facilitation of such dialogues. Setting out to survey,the broad landscape of research on discourse in education has beenfruitful in that it has not only enabled us to identify different traditionsof theory-building and empirical work, but also numerous areas ofoverlap and interaction. We have also been able to identify researchthat is conducted ‘bottom-up’ or ‘top-down’ (or both) and researchconducted with or without particular strands of ethnography.In a recent review of research on critical approaches to language,
culture and society, Blommaert (2005) demonstrates how linguisticanthropology, originating in the North American context, and CDA,originating in Europe, have become ‘separate worlds’ where there are
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‘untapped sources of mutual inspiration’ (2005, p. 9). The separation ofthese particular intellectual worlds has taken place despite the fact thatresearchers have broadly similar concerns, draw on overlapping strandsof social theory and sometimes employ similar analytic tools.The researchers contributing to this volume represent a much wider
range of intellectual worlds and participate in diverse scholarly net-works that span the countries of the South as well as the countries inNorth America and Europe. We thus hope that the readers of the chap-ters in the volume will be able to identify themes that are pertinent tothem and will find sources of inspiration that they can build on in theirown research. We also hope that there will be greater South-North andSouth-South dialogue (as well as North-North dialogue) in the comingyears. It is through dialogue and exchange of perspectives that we arelikely to be able to design and develop robust new approaches forresearch on discourse and education in the twenty-first century andmove towards deepening our understanding of the global processesof change at work in education.
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Bernstein, B.: 1996, Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, Research, Cri-tique, Taylor and Francis, London.
Blommaert, J.: 2005, Discourse, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Bourdieu, P.: 1977, ‘L’économie des échanges linguistiques’ [The economy of linguis-
tic exchanges]. Langue française 34, 17–34.Bourdieu, P.: 1991, Language and Symbolic Power, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, MA.Bruner, J.: 1996, The Culture of Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.Davies, B. and Harré, R.: 1990, ‘Positioning: The discursive production of selves’
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(ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching, Academic Press, New York.Fairclough, N.: 1992, Discourse and Social Change, Polity Press, Cambridge.Foucault, M.: 1972, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language,
Pantheon Books, New York.Gumperz, J.J.: 1982, Discourse Strategies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Halliday, M.A.K.: 1978, Language as a Social Semiotic, Edward Arnold, London.Heller, M.: 1999/2006, second edition, Linguistic Minorities and Modernity, Conti-
nuum, London.Heller, M. and Martin-Jones, M.: 2001, Voices of Authority: Education and Linguistic
Difference, Ablex, Westport, CT.Hornberger, N.: 1995, ‘Ethnography in linguistic perspective: Understanding school
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Lemke, J.: 1990, Talking Science: Language, Learning and Values, Ablex, Norwood,NJ.
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Vygotsky, L.: 1992, Thought and Language, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.Walkerdine, V.:1990, Schoolgirl Fiction, Verso, London.Wetherell, M.: 1998, ‘Positioning and interpretative repertoires: Conversation analysis
and post-structuralism in dialogue’, Discourse & Society 9, 387–412.Wortham, S. and Rymes, B. (eds.): 2003, Linguistic Anthropology of Education,
Praeger, Westport, CT.
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CONTRIBUTORS
VOLUME 3: DISCOURSE ANDEDUCATION
Richard BarwellUniversity of Ottawa,Faculty of Education, Ottawa, Canada
Judith BaxterThe University of Reading,Department of Applied Linguistics,Reading, UK
Jeff BezemerUniversity of London,Institute of Education, London, UK
Jill BourneUniversity of Southampton,School of Education, Southampton, UK
Diana BoxerUniversity of Florida,Department of Linguistics,Gainesville, USA
Grace BunyiKenyatta University, EducationalAdministration, Planning and CurriculumDepartment, Nairobi, Kenya
Frances ChristieUniversity of Sydney and University ofMelbourne, Faculty of Education and SocialWork, Sydney, Australia
Bronwyn DaviesUniversity of Western Sydney,Education and Social Change, School ofEducation, South Penrith, Australia
Carol N. DixonUniversity of California,Santa Barbara, USA
Patricia A. DuffUniversity of British Columbia,Department of Language and LiteracyEducation, Vancouver, Canada
Sheena GardnerUniversity of Warwick,
Centre for English Language TeacherEducation, Coventry, UK
Silvia Valencia GiraldoUniversidad del Quindio, Department ofModern Languages, Quindio, Colombia
Judith L. GreenUniversity of California,Santa Barbara, Gevirtz GraduateSchool of Education, Santa Barbara, USA
Charlotte HaglundStockholm University, Centre for Researchon Bilingualism, Stockholm, Sweden
Frank HardmanLa Trobe University, School of EducationalStudies, Melbourne, Australia
Monica HellerUniversity of Toronto, Ontario Institute forStudies in Education, Toronto, Canada
Eva HjörneGöteborg University, Department ofEducation, Göteborg, Sweden
Carey JewittUniversity of London, Institute ofEducation, London, UK
Gregory J. KellyPennsylvania State University,College of Education, USA
Sjaak KroonTilburg University, Babylon, Tilburg,The Netherlands
Susan LyleSwansea Institute of Higher Education,School of Education, Swansea, UK
Vally LytraKing’s College London,Department of Byzantine and ModernGreek, London, UK
M. Martin-Jones, A. M. de Mejia and N. H. Hornberger (eds), Encyclopedia ofLanguage and Education, 2nd Edition, Volume 3: Discourse and Education, xxxiii–xxxiv.#2008 Springer Science+Business Media LLC.
Jasmine Luk Ching ManUniversity of Hong Kong,Faculty of Education, Hong Kong
Janet MaybinThe Open University,Faculty of Education and LanguageStudies, Milton Keynes, UK
Elizabeth Birr MojeUniversity of Michigan,School of Education,Ann Arbor, USA
Junko MoriUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison,Department of East Asian Languages andLiterature, Madison, USA
Harriet Bjerrum NielsenUniversity of Oslo, Centre forWomen’s and Gender Studies,Oslo, Norway
Rebecca RogersUniversity of Missouri St. Louis,College of Education, St. Louis, USA
Rani RubdyNanyang Technological University,Department of English Language andLiterature, Singapore
Roger SäljöGöteborg University, Department ofEducation, Göteborg, Sweden
Ann WillamsUniversity of Wales Bangor,Department of Linguistics, Bangor, UK
Stanton WorthamUniversity of Pennsylvania, GraduateSchool of Education, Philadelphia, USA
Aizan YaacobUniversity of Warwick, CELTE,Coventry, UK
Jane ZuenglerUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison,Department of East Asian Languages andLiterature, Madison, USA
xxxiv CONTR I BU TOR S
REVIEWERS
VOLUME 3: DISCOURSE AND EDUCATION
Adrian BlackledgeDavid Block
Feliciano ChimbutaneAngela Creese
Anne-Marie de MejíaSimon GieveChristine Helot
Nancy H. HornbergerFrancis M. HultKathryn JonesEija KuyumcuPeter Martin
Marilyn Martin-JonesGemma Moss
David Poveda BicknellCelia RobertsHelen SauntsonJoan Swann
