ENCYCLOPEDIA OFGEOLOGY

ENCYCLOPEDIA OFGEOLOGYEDITED BY

RICHARD C. SELLEYL. ROBIN M. COCKSIAN R. PLIMER

ELSEVIERACADEMIC

PRESS

Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York OxfordParis San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo

Elsevier Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK

© 2005 Elsevier Ltd.

The following articles are © 2005, The Natural History Museum, London, UK:

FOSSIL VERTEBRATES/HominidsPalaeontology

PALAEOZOIC/SilurianPRECAMBRIAN/Overview

Terranes, OverviewConservation of Geological Specimens

MINERALS/OlivinesMINERALS/Sulphates

TERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pleistocene and The Ice AgeEnvironmental Geochemistry

Biological Radiations and SpeciationPALAEOZOIC/Ordovician

TERTIARY TO PRESENT/EoceneTERTIARY TO PRESENT/Paleocene

FOSSIL PLANTS/AngiospermsFOSSIL PLANTS/Gymnosperms

BiozonesMESOZOIC/Cretaceous

MESOZOIC/End Cretaceous ExtinctionsStratigraphical Principles

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Molluscs OverviewFOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Trilobites

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/Echinoderms (Other Than Echinoids)FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/EchinoidsTERTIARY TO PRESENT/Pliocene

FOSSIL INVERTEBRATES/BryozoansMINERALS/Feldspathoids

Russia

The following article is a US Government work in the public domain and not subject to copyright:

NORTH AMERICA/Atlantic Margin

"Earth from Space" endpaper figure reproduced with permission from Reto Stockli, Nazmi El Saleous,and Marit Jentoft-Nilsen and NASA GSFC

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and

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First edition 2005

Library of Congress Control Number: 2004104445

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0-12-636380-3 (set)

This book is printed on acid-free paperPrinted and bound in Spain

EDITORS v

EDITORS

Richard C. SelleyImperial College

London, UK

L. Robin M. CocksNatural History Museum

London, UK

Ian R. PlimerUniversity of Melbourne

Melbourne, VAAustralia

CONSULTANT EDITOR

Joe McCallCirencester

Gloucestershire, UK

Editors

vi EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Editorial Advisory Board

Jaroslav Aichler Georg Hoinkes

Czech Geological Survey

Jesenık, Czech Republic

Andrew R ArmourR A Howie

Revus Energy A/S

Norway

John Collinson Shunsho Ishihara

Delos, Beech

Staffordshire, UK

Alexander M Davis Gilbert Kelling

Infoscape Solutions Ltd.

Guildford, UK

Peter Doyle Ken Macdonald

University College London

London, UK

Wolfgang FrankeNorman MacLeod

Institut fur Geowissenschaften

Giessen, Germany

Yves FuchsStuart Marsh

Joe McCall

Universite Marne la Valle

France

Paul Garrard

David R Oldroyd

Formerly Imperial College

London, UK

R O Greiling

Rong Jia-yu

Universitat Heidelberg

Heidelberg, Germany

Gwendy Hall

Mike Rosenbaum

Natural Resources Canada

Ottawa, ON, Canada

Robert D Hatcher, Jr. Peter Styles

University of Tennessee

Knoxville, TN, USA

Universitat Graz

Universitatplatz 2

Graz, Austria

Royal Holloway, London University

London, UK

Geological Survey of Japan

Tsukuba, Japan

Keele University

Keele, UK

University of California Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara, CA, USA

The Natural History Museum

London, UK

British Geological Survey

Nottingham, UK

Cirencester, Gloucestershire, UK

University of New South Wales

Sydney, NSW, Australia

Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology

Nanjing, China

Twickenham, UK

Keele University

Keele, UK

Hans D Sues S H White

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD vii

Carnegie Museum of Natural History

Pittsburgh, PA, USA

John VeeversMacquarie University

Sydney, NSW, Australia

Universiteit Utrecht

Utrecht, The Netherlands

FOREWORD ix

Foreword

Few areas of science can have changed as fast as geology has in the past forty years. In the first half of the lastandsics,arthwelle inrealiclesanyno

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nziences

, UK

century geologists were divided, often bitterly, between the drifters and those who believed that the Earthits continents were static. Neither side of this debate foresaw that the application of methods from phychemistry and mathematics to these speculations would revolutionize the study of all aspects of the ESciences, and would lead to accurate and detailed reconstructions of world geography at former times, asas to an understanding of the origin of the forces that maintain the continental movements. This changworld-view is no longer controversial, and is now embedded in every aspect of the Earth Sciences. It is apleasure to see this change, which has revitalized so many classic areas of research, reflected in the artof this encyclopedia. Particularly affected are the articles on large-scale Earth processes, which discuss mof the new geological ideas that have come from geophysics and geochemistry. Forty years ago we hadunderstanding of these topics, which are fundamental to so many aspects of the Earth Sciences. The edihave decided, and in my view quite rightly, not to include detailed discussion of the present technology thused to make geophysical and geochemical measurements. Such instrumental aspects are changing rapidlybecome dated very quickly. They can easily be found in more technical publications. Instead the editors hconcentrated on the influence such studies have had on our understanding of the Earth and its evolution, anso doing have produced an excellent and accessible account of what is now known.

Any encyclopedia has to satisfy a wide variety of users, and in particular those who know that some sublike sedimentation or mineral exploration is part of geology, and go to an encyclopedia of geology to findmore. The editors have made a very thorough attempt to satisfy such users, and have included sections on sunexpected geological topics as the evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, the geology of Jupiter, Saturn,their moons, aggregates, and creationism. I congratulate the editors and authors for producing such asummary of our present knowledge, and am particularly pleased that they intend to produce an online verof the encyclopedia. Though I have become addicted to using the Internet as my general encyclopedia, I widelighted to be able to access something concerned with my own field that is as organized and scholarly asthese volumes.

Dan McKeRoyal Society Professor of Earth Scie

Cambridge University

INTRODUCTION xi

Introduction

Civilization occurs by geological consent subject to change without notice....

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Will Durant (1885 1981)

Richard de Bury, Bishop of Durham from 1333 to 1345, divided all knowledge into ‘Geologia’, earknowledge, and ‘Theologia’, heavenly knowledge. By the beginning of the last century, however, Geowas generally understood to be restricted to the study of rocks: according to the old dictum of the GeologSurvey of Great Britain ‘If you can hit it with a hammer, then it’s geology.’ Subsequently geology has bsubsumed into Earth Science. This includes not only the study of rocks (the lithosphere), but alsoatmosphere and hydrosphere and their relationship with the biosphere. Presently these relationshipsform a nexus in Earth System Science.

The ‘Encyclopedia of Geology’ is what it says on the cover. What appealed to us when first approacheedit this work by Academic Press was a request that the encyclopedia should be rock-based. Readersreferred to the companion volumes, Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, Encyclopedia of the Solar SysEncyclopedia of Soils in the Environment and Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences for knowledge on the obranches of Earth Science. Nonetheless we have extended our brief to include articles on the other planetsrocky detritus of our solar system, leaving others to argue, as no doubt Bishop Richard would have dwhere the boundaries of earthly and heavenly knowledge might be. (His Grace would probably have chathe editors of the Encyclopedia of the Solar System with heresy.)

One of the first, and most difficult, tasks of editing this encyclopedia was to decide, not only which tomerited articles, but also how these articles should be grouped to facilitate the reader. This is easy for sbranches of geology, but difficult for others. It is relatively easy to logically arrange articles on mineralogypalaeontology, since they are defined by their chemistry and evolutionary biology. Articles that describe Ehistory may be conveniently arranged in a chronological order, and articles on regional geology maypresented geographically. Other topics present problems, particularly in the area of sedimentology. Therfor example, a range of inter-related topics associated with deserts. This area could be described geomorplogically, and in terms of the aeolian and aqueous processes of deserts, aeolian sedimentary structures,aeolian deposits. All of these aspects of deserts deserve mention, but there is no obvious logical waarranging the discrete topics into articles. To help us in this task we relied heavily on our editorial bowhose individual members had more specialized knowledge of their field than we. To the Editorial BoMembers, authors and anonymous referees of each article we give heartfelt thanks. We were also, of couconstrained by the willingness of expert authorities to contribute articles. To some degree therefore, the shof the encylopedia owes as much to the enthusiasm of experts to write for us, as for our ‘wish list’ of articlesfacilitate readers finding their way around the Encyclopedia of Geology great care has been taken in crreferencing within and between articles, in providing ‘See Also’ lists at the end of articles, and in the indexdoubt it will be easier for readers to navigate around the online version of the work, than to manipulateseveral hard copy volumes.

As geological knowledge expands there is always more to learn and understand. While preparing‘Encyclopedia of Geology’ we have ourselves learned a great deal about geology, both within and beyour own specialties. We invite you to read this encyclopedia and join us in the field trip of a lifetime.

Richard C. SeL. Robin M. Co

Ian R. Pli1 August 2

References to related encyclopedia published by Elsevier, Academic Press:

Encyclopedia of the Solar System, 1998Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 2001Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences, 2002Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2005

GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xiii

Guide to Use of the Encyclopedia

Structure of the EncyclopediaThe material in the Encyclopedia is arranged as a series of entries in alphabetical order. Most entries consist ofseveral articles that deal with various aspects of a topic and are arranged in a logical sequence within an entry.Some entries comprise a single article.

To help you realize the full potential of the material in the Encyclopedia we have provided three features tohelp you find the topic of your choice: a Contents List, Cross-References and an Index.

1. Contents ListYour first point of reference will probably be the contents list. The complete contents lists, which appears at thefront of each volume will provide you with both the volume number and the page number of the entry. On theopening page of an entry a contents list is provided so that the full details of the articles within the entry areimmediately available.

Alternatively you may choose to browse through a volume using the alphabetical order of the entries as yourguide. To assist you in identifying your location within the Encyclopedia a running headline indicates thecurrent entry and the current article within that entry.

You will find 'dummy entries' where obvious synonyms exist for entries or where we have grouped togetherrelated topics. Dummy entries appear in both the contents lists and the body of the text.

Example

If you were attempting to locate material on erosional sedimentary structures via the contents list:

EROSION see SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Fluxes and Budgets; Aeolian Processes; ErosionalSedimentary Structures.

The dummy entry directs you to the Erosional Sedimentary Structures article, in the SEDIMENTARYPROCESSES entry. At the appropriate location in the contents list, the page numbers for articles underSedimentary Processes are given.

If you were trying to locate the material by browsing through the text and you looked up Erosion then thefollowing information would be provided in the dummy entry:

EROSION

See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; Aeolian Processes; Fluxes andBudgets

xiv GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

Alternatively, if you were looking up Sedimentary Processes the following information would be provided:

SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES

Contents

Erosional Sedimentary StructuresDepositional Sedimentary StructuresPost-Depositional Sedimentary StructuresAeolian ProcessesCatastrophic FloodsDeep Water Processes and DepositsFluvial GeomorphologyGlaciersKarst and PalaeokarstLandslidesParticle-Driven Subaqueous Gravity ProcessesDeposition from SuspensionFluxes and Budgets

2. Cross-ReferencesAll of the articles in the Encyclopedia have been extensively cross-referenced.

The cross-references, which appear at the end of an article, serve three different functions. For example, atthe end of the PRECAM BRIAN: Overview article, cross-references are used:

i. To indicate if a topic is discussed in greater detail elsewhere.

Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic Biosediments andBiofilms Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science.Europe: East European Craton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny. IndianSubcontinent. North America:Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran, Russia, SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields. Terranes, Overview.

Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments andBiofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Earth System Science. Europe: East European Craton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Gondwanaland and Gondwana. Grenvillian Orogeny IndianSubcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacdran. Russia. SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields. Terranes, Overview.

ii. To draw the reader's attention to parrallel discussions in other articles.

GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA xv

iii. To indicate material that broadens the discussion.

Africa: Pan-African Orogeny. Antarctic. Asia: Central. Australia: Proterozoic. Biosediments andBiofilms. Earth Structure and Origins. Europe: East European Graton;Timanides of Northern Russia. Grenvillian Orogeny. IndianSubcontinent. North America: Precambrian Continental Nucleus; Continental Interior.Precambrian: Eukaryote Fossils; Prokaryote Fossils; Vendian and Ediacaran. Russia. SedimentaryRocks: Banded Iron Formations. Shields.

3. IndexThe index will provide you with the page number where the material is located, and the index entriesdifferentiate between material that is a whole article, is part of an article or is data presented in a figure ortable. Detailed notes are provided on the opening page of the index.

4. ContributorsA full list of contributors appears at the beginning of each volume.

Earth Syatem Science.Gondwantand and Gendwana.

Terranes, Overview.

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Contributors

Abart, RUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Aldridge, R JUniversity of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Al-Jallal, I ASandroses Est. for Geological, GeophysicalPetroleum Engineering Consultancy and PetroleumServices, Khobar, Saudi Arabia

Alkmim, F FUniversidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil

Allen, P MBingham, Nottingham, UK

Allwood, A CMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Al-Sharhan, A SUnited Arab Emirates University, AI-Ain,United Arab Emirates

Anderson, L INational Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh, UK

Arndt, N TLCEA, Grenoble, France

Arnott, ROxford Institute for Energy Studies, Oxford, UK

Asimow, P DCalifornia Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Atkinson, JCity University, London, UK

Bacon, MPetro-Canada, London, UK

Bailey, JAnglo-Australian Observatory and Australian Centre forAstrobiology, Sydney, Australia

Bani, PInstitut de la Recherche pour le Développement,Noumea, New Caledonia

Bell, F GBritish Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK

Bell, KCarleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Best, JUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Birch, W DMuseum Victoria, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Bird, J FImperial College London, London, UK

Black, PAuckland University, Auckland, New Zealand

Bleeker, WGeological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Bogdanova, S VLund University, Lund, Sweden

Bommer, J JImperial College London, London, UK

Boore, D MUnited States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Bosence, D W JRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Boulanger, R WUniversity of California, Davis, CA, USA

Braga, J CUniversity of Granada, Granada, Spain

Branagan, D FUniversity of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Brasier, M DUniversity of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Brewer, P AUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Bridge, MUniversity College London, London, UK

Brown, DInstitute de Ciencias de la Tierra 'Jaume Almera'CSIC, Barcelona, Spain

Brown, A JMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Brown, R JUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK

xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Bucher, KUniversity of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

Burns, S FPortland State University, Portland, OR, USA

Byford, EBroken Hill, NSW, Australia

Calder, E SOpen University, Milton Keynes, UK

Cameron, E MEion Cameron Geochemical Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada

Carbotte, S MColumbia University, New York, NY, USA

Carminati, EUniversita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy

Chamberlain, S AMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Charles, J AFormerly Building Research EstablishmentHertfordshire, UK

Chiappe, L MNatural History Museum of Los Angeles CountyLos Angeles, CA, USA

Clack, J AUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Clayton, CEardiston, Tenbury Wells, UK

Clayton, GTrinity College, Dublin, Ireland

Cocks, L R MThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Coffin, M FUniversity of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Collinson, JJohn Collinson Consulting, Beech, UK

Comerford, GThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Condie, K CNew Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM, USA

Cornford, CIntegrated Geochemical Interpretation Ltd, Bideford, UK

Cornish, LThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Cosgrove, J WImperial College London, London, UK

Coxon, PTrinity College, Dublin, Ireland

Cressey, GThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Cribb, S JCarraig Associates, Inverness, UK

Cronan, D SImperial College London, London, UK

Currant, AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Davies, HUniversity of Papua New Guinea, Port MoresbyPapua New Guinea

Davis, G RImperial College London, London, UK

DeCarli, P SSRI International, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Dewey, J FUniversity of California DavisDavis, CA, USA, and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Doglioni, CUniversita La Sapienza, Rome, Italy

Doming, K JUniversity of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Dott, Jr R HUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wl, USA

Doyle, PUniversity College London, London, UK

Dubbin, W EThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Dyke, G JUniversity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Echtler, HGeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Eden, M AGeomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK

Eide, E AGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway

Eldholm, OUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

CONTRIBUTORS xix

Elliott, D KNorthern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

Elliott, TUniversity of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Eriksen, A SZetica, Witney, UK

Payers, S RUniversity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Feenstra, AGeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Felix, MUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Figueras, DBFI, Houston, TX, USA

Fookes, P GWinchester, UK

Forey, P LThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Fortey, R AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Foster, D AUniversity of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Frýda, JCzech Geological Survey, Prague, Czech Republic

Franke, WJohann Wolfgang Goethe-UniversitatFrankfurt am Main, Germany

Franz, GTechnische Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany

French, W JGeomaterials Research Services Ltd, Basildon, UK

Fritscher, BMunich University, Munich, Germany

Frostick, LUniversity of Hull, Hull, UK

Fuchs, YUniversité Marne la Vallée, Marne la Vallée, France

Gabbott, S EUniversity of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Garaebiti, EDepartment of Geology and Mines, Port Vila, Vanuatu

Garetsky, R GInstitute of Geological Sciences, Minsk, Belarus

Garrard, PImperial College London, London, UK

Gascoyne, J KZetica, Witney, UK

Gee, D GUniversity of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden

Geshi, NGeological Survey of Japan, Ibaraki, Japan

Giese, PFreie Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Giles, D PUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Glasser, N FUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Gluyas, JAcorn Oil and Gas Ltd., Staines, UK

Gorbatschev, RLund University, Lund, Sweden

Gordon, J EScottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh, UK

Gradstein, F MUniversity of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Gray, D RUniversity of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Greenwood, J RNottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK

Grieve, RAFNatural Resources Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Griffiths, J SUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Hambrey, M JUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Hancock, J M†

Formerly Imperial College London, London, UK

Hansen, J MDanish Research Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark

Harff, JBaltic Sea Research Institute Warnemunde, Rostock,Germany†Deceased

xx CONTRIBUTORS

Harper, DATGeologisk Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark

Harper, E MUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Harrison, JPImperial College London, London, UK

Hatcher, Jr RDUniversity of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA

Hatheway, A WRolla, MO and Big Arm, MT, USA

Hauzenberger, C AUniversity of Graz, Graz, Austria

Hawkins, A BCharlotte House, Bristol, UK

Haymon, R MUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA

He GuoqiPeking University, Beijing, China

Head, J WBrown University, Providence, Rl, USA

Heim, N AUniversity of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

Helvaci, CDokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Izmir, Turkey

Hendriks, B W HGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway

Henk, AUniversität Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany

Herries Davies, G LUniversity of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Hey, R NUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

Hoinkes, GUniversity of Graz, Graz, Austria

Hooker, J JThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Home, D JUniversity of London, London, UK

Hovland, MStatoil, Stavanger, Norway

Howell, JUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

Howie, R ARoyal Holloway, University of London, London, UK

Hudson-Edwards, KUniversity of London, London, UK

Huggett, J MPetroclays, Ashtead, UK and The Natural HistoryMuseum, London, UK

Hughes, N CUniversity of California, Riverside, CA, USA

Hutchinson, D RUS Geological Survey, Woods Hole, MA, USA

Idriss, I MUniversity of California, Davis, CA, USA

Ineson, J RGeological Survey of Denmark and GreenlandGeocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Ivanov, M ARussian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Jäger, K DMartin Luther University, Halle, Germany

Jarzembowski, E AUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK and MaidstoneMuseum and Bentlif Art Gallery, Maidstone, UK

Jones, BUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

Jones, G LConodate Geology, Dublin, Ireland

Joyner, LCardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Kaminski, M AUniversity College London, London, UK

Kay, S MCornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

Kemp, A I SUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Kendall, A CUniversity of East Anglia, Norwich, UK

Kenrick, PThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Kogiso, TJapan Marine Science and Technology Center,Yokosuka, Japan

Krings, MBayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie undGeologic, Geo-Bio Center, Munich, Germany

Lancaster, NDesert Research Institute, Reno, NV, and United StatesGeological Survey, Reston, VA, USA

Lang,K RTufts University, Medford, MA, USA

Laurent, GBrest, France

Lee, E MYork, UK

Lemke, WBaltic Sea Research Institute Warnemünde, RostockGermany

Lesher, C MLaurentian University, ON, Canada

Lewin, JUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Liu, J GImperial College London, London, UK

Long,J AThe Western Australian Museum, PerthWA, Australia

Loock, J CUniversity of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa

Lowell, R PGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA

Lucas, S GNew Mexico Museum of Natural HistoryAlbuquerque, NM, USA

Liming, SUniversity of Bremen, Bremen, Germany

Luo, Z-XCarnegie Museum of Natural HistoryPittsburgh, PA, USA

Macdonald, K CUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA

Machel, H GUniversity of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

MacLeod, NThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Maltman, AUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, UK

Martill, D MUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Martins-Neto, M AUniversidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, Brazil

Marvin, U BHarvard-Smithsonian Center for AstrophysicsCambridge, MA, USA

Mason, P JHME Partnership, Romford, UK

Massonne, H-JUniversität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

Matte, PUniversity of Montpellier II, Montpellier, France

Mayor, APrinceton, USA

McCaffrey, WUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

McCall, G J HCirencester, Gloucester, UK

McCave, I NUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

McGhee, G RRutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

McKibben, M AUniversity of California, CA, USA

McLaughlin, Jr P PDelaware Geological Society, Newark, DE, USA

McManus, JUniversity of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, UK

McMenamin, MASMount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, USA

Merriam, D FUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Metcalfe, IUniversity of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia

Milke, RUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Milner, A RBirkbeck College, London, UK

Mojzsis, S JUniversity of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA

Monger, J W HGeological Survey of Canada, Vancouver, BC, Canadaand Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada

Moore, PSelsey, UK

Morris, N JThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Mortimer, NInstitute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, DunedinNew Zealand

Mountney, N PKeele University, Keele, UK

Mpodozis, CSIPETROL SA, Santiago, Chile

Mungall, J EUniversity of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Myrow, PColorado College, Colorado Springs, CO, USA

Naish, DUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Nickel, E HCSIRO Exploration and Mining, Wembley, WA, Australia

Nielsen, K CThe University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA

Nikishin, A MLomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

Nokleberg, W JUnited States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, USA

Norbury, DCL Associates, Wokingham, UK

O'Brien, P JUniversität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Ogg, J GPurdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Oldershaw, CSt. Albans, UK

Oldroyd, D RUniversity of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

Oneacre, J WBFI, Houston, TX, USA

Orchard, M JGeological Survey of CanadaVancouver, BC, Canada

Orr, P JUniversity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Owen, A WUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

Pälike, HStockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Page, K NUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Paris, FUniversity of Rennes 1, Rennes, France

Parker, J RFormerly Shell EP International, London, UK

Pfiffner, O AUniversity of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

Piper, D J WGeological Survey of Canada, Dartmouth, NS, Canada

Price, R AQueens University Kingston, ON, Canada

Prothero, D ROccidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Puche-Riart, OPolytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Pye, KRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Rahn, P HSouth Dakota School of Mines and TechnologyRapid City, SD, USA

Ramos, V AUniversidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Rankin, A HKingston University, Kingston-upon-Thames, UK

Rebesco, MIstituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di GeofisicaSperimentale (OGS), Italy

Reedman, A JMapperley, UK

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Reisz, R RUniversity of Toronto at MississaugaMississauga, ON, Canada

Retallack, G JUniversity of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Rickards, R BUniversity of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Riding, RCardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Rigby, J KBrigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

Rigby, SUniversity of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Rodda, PMineral Resources Department, Suva, Fiji

Rona, P ARutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

Rose, E P FRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Rosenbaum, M STwickenham, UK

Rothwell, R GSouthampton Oceanography Centre, Southampton, UK

Roy, A BPresidency College, Kolkata, India

Rushton, A W AThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Russell, A JUniversity of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle uponTyne, UK

Schmid, RETH-centre, Zurich, Switzerland

Scott, ENational Center for Science EducationBerkeley, CA, USA

Scon, A CRoyal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK

Scrutton, C TFormerly University of Durham, Durham, UK

Searle, MUniversity of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Searle, R CUniversity of Durham, Durham, UK

Seibold, IUniversity Library, Freiburg, Germany

Selley, R CImperial College London, London, UK

Sellwood, B WUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK

Shields, G AJames Cook University, Townsville, OLD, Australia

Simms, M JUlster Museum, Belfast, UK

Slipper, I JUniversity of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK

Smallwood, J RAmerada Hess pic, London, UK

Smith, A BThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Smith, IAuckland University, Auckland, New Zealand

Snoke, A WUniversity of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA

Soligo, CThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Stein, SNorthwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

Steinberger, BJapan Marine Science and Technology CenterYokosuka, Japan

Stemmerik, LGeological Survey of Denmark and Greenland,Geocenter Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Stern, R JThe University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA

Stewart, IUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Storey, B CUniversity of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Storrs, G WCincinnati Museum Center, Museum of Natural Historyand Science, Cincinnati, OH, USA

xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Strachan, R AUniversity of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Suetsugu, DJapan Marine Science and Technology Center, YokosukaJapan

Surlyk, FUniversity of Copenhagen, Geocenter Copenhagen,Copenhagen, Denmark

Tait, JLudwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany

Talbot, M RUniversity of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

Taylor, P DThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Taylor, T NUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Taylor, W E GUniversity of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK

Tazawa, JNiigata University, Niigata, Japan

Theodor, J MIllinois State Museum, Springfield, IL, USA

Timmerman, M JUniversität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Tollo, R PGeorge Washington University, Washington, DC, USA

Torsvik, T HGeological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway

Trendall, ACurtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia

Trewin, N HUniversity of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Turner, A KColorado School of Mines, Colorado, USA

Twitchett, R JUniversity of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

Tyler, I MGeological Survey of Western AustraliaEast Perth, WA, Australia

Valdes, P JUniversity of Bristol, Bristol, UK

van Geuns, L CClingendael International Energy ProgrammeThe Hague, The Netherlands

van Staal, C RGeological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Vanecek, MCharles University Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

Vaughan,D JUniversity of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Veevers, J JMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Verniers, JUniversity of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium

Wadge, GUniversity of Reading, Reading, UK

Walter, M RMacquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Wang, HChina University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

Ware, N GAustralian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia

Warke, P AQueen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK

Weber, K JTechnical University, Delft, The Netherlands

Welch, M DThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Westbrook, G KUniversity of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

Westermann, G E GMcMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

Whalley, W BQueen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK

White, N CBrisbane, OLD, Australia

White, S MUniversity of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Wignall, P BUniversity of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Williams, P AUniversity of Western Sydney, Parramata, Australia

CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Wise, W SUniversity of California-Santa BarbaraSanta Barbara, CA, USA

Worden, R HUniversity of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Wyatt, A RSidmouth, UK

Xiao, SVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, VA, USA

Yakubchuk, A SThe Natural History Museum, London, UK

Yates, A MUniversity of the Witwatersrand, JohannesburgSouth Africa

Zhang ShihongChina University of Geosciences, Beijing, China

Ziegler, P AUniversity of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

CONTENTS xxvii

Contents

Volume 1

AFRICAPan-African Orogeny A Kröner, R J SternNorth African Phanerozoic S LüningRift Valley L Frostick

AGGREGATES M A Eden, W J French

ALPS See EUROPE: The Alps

ANALYTICAL METHODSFission Track Analysis B W H HendriksGeochemical Analysis (Including X-ray) R H WardenGeochronological Techniques E A EideGravity / R SmallwoodMineral Analysis N G Ware

ANDES S M Kay, C Mpodozis, V A Ramos

ANTARCTIC B C Storey

ARABIA AND THE GULF / A Al-Jallal, A S Al-Sharhan

ARGENTINA VA Ramos

ASIACentral S G LucasSouth-East / Metcalfe

ASTEROIDS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

ATMOSPHERE EVOLUTION S J Mojzsis

AUSTRALIAProterozoic / M TylerPhanerozoic J J VeeversTasman Orogenic Belt D R Gray, D A Foster

B

BIBLICAL GEOLOGY E Byford

BIODIVERSITY A W Owen

BIOLOGICAL RADIATIONS AND SPECIATION P L Forey

BIOSEDIMENTS AND BIOFILMS M R Walter, A C Allwood

BIOZONES N MacLeod

BRAZIL F F Alkmim, M A Martins-Neto

BUILDING STONE A W Hatheway

11226

34

43547792

107

118

132

140

153

164169

197

208222237

253

259

266

279

294

306

328

A

xxviii CONTENTS

CALEDONIDE OROGENY See EUROPE: Caledonides Britain and Ireland; ScandinavianCaledonides (with Greenland)

CARBON CYCLE G A Shields 335

CHINA AND MONGOLIA H Wang, Shihong Zhang, Guoqi He 345

CLAY MINERALS / M Huggett 358

CLAYS, ECONOMIC USES Y Fuchs 366

COCCOLITHS See CALCAREOUS ALGAE

COLONIAL SURVEYS A J Reedman 370

COMETS See SOLAR SYSTEM: Asteroids, Comets and Space Dust

CONSERVATION OF GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS L Cornish, G Comerford 373

CREATIONISM E Scott 381

DELTAS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deltas

DENDROCHRONOLOGY M Bridge 387

DESERTS See SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS: Deserts

DIAGENESIS, OVERVIEW R C Selley 393

DINOSAURS See FOSSIL VERTEBRATES: Dinosaurs

EARTHMantle GJH McCall 397Crust GJHMcCall 403Orbital Variation (Including Milankovitch Cycles) H Palike 410

EARTH STRUCTURE AND ORIGINS GJH McCall 421

EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE R C Selley 430

EARTHQUAKES See ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: Aspects of Earthquakes;TECTONICS: Earthquakes

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY G R Davis 434

ENGINEERING GEOLOGYOverview M S Rosenbaum 444Codes of Practice D Nor bury Aspects of Earthquakes A W Hatheway 456Geological Maps / S GriffithsGeomorphology £ M Lee, J S Griffiths, P G Fookes 474Geophysics / K Gascoyne, A S Eriksen 482Seismology J J Bommer, D M Boore 499Natural and Anthropogenic Geohazards G J H McCall 515Liquefaction / F Bird, R W Boulanger, IM Idriss 525Made Ground / A Charles 535

c

D

E

448

463

CONTENTS xxix

Problematic Rocks F G Bell 543Problematic Soils F G Bell 554Rock Properties and Their Assessment F G Bell 566Site and Ground Investigation / R Greenwood 580

Volume 2

ENGINEERING GEOLOGYSite Classification A W Hatheway 1Subsidence A B Hawkins 9Ground Water Monitoring at Solid Waste Landfills / W Oneacre, D Figueras 14

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY W E Dubbin 21

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY P Doyle 25

EROSION See SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES: Erosional Sedimentary Structures; AeolianProcesses; Fluxes and Budgets

EUROPEEast European Craton R G Garetsky, S V Bogdanova, R Gorbatschev 34Timanides of Northern Russia D G Gee 49Caledonides of Britain and Ireland R A Strachan , J F Dewey 56Scandinavian Caledonides (with Greenland) D G Gee 64Variscan Orogeny W Franke, P Matte, J Tait 75The Urals D Brown, H Echtler 86Permian Basins A Henk, M J Timmerman 95Permian to Recent Evolution PA Ziegler 102The Alps O AP fiffnerMediterranean Tectonics £ Carminati, C Doglioni 135

160

FAKE FOSSILS D M Martill 169

FAMOUS GEOLOGISTSAgassiz D R Oldroyd 174Cuvier G Laurent 179Darwin D R Oldroyd 184Du Toit / C Loock, D F Branagan 188Hall R H Dott, JrHutton D R Oldroyd 200Lyell D R Oldroyd 206Murchison D R Oldroyd 210Sedgwick D R Oldroyd 216Smith D R Oldroyd 221Steno / M Hansen 226Suess B Fritscher 233Walther I Seibold 242Wegener B Fritscher 246

FLUID INCLUSIONS A H Rankin 253

F

194

Holocent W Lemke, J HarffA 147

160EVOLUTION S Rigby, E MEharper

169FAKEFOSSILS D I Martill

125