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DEDICATION

Tomymother,Kerttu

CONTENTS

CoverTitlePageCopyrightDedicationPrefaceHowtoUseThisBook

PartI:AnIntroductiontoAromatics1.HistoricalRootsNaturalPlantOriginsAncientCivilizationsTreasuresfromtheEastAlchemyTheScientificRevolution

2.AromatherapyandHerbalismTheBirthofAromatherapyHerbalMedicineTherapeuticGuidelinesSafetyPrecautions

3.TheBody-ActionsandApplicationsHowEssentialOilsWorkTheSkinTheCirculation,MusclesandJointsTheRespiratorySystemTheDigestiveSystemTheGenito-urinaryandEndocrineSystemsTheImmuneSystemTheNervousSystemTheMind

4.HowtouseEssentialOilsatHomeMassageSkinOilsandLotionsHotandColdCompressesHairCareFlowerWatersBathsVaporizationSteamInhalationDoucheNeatApplicationInternalUse

5.CreativeBlendingTherapeuticandAestheticPropertiesCorrectProportionsSynergiesFragrantHarmonyPersonalPerfumes

6.AGuidetoAromaticMaterialsHabitatChemistryMethodsofExtractionNaturalversus‘NatureIdentical’

PartII:THEOILS

AjowanAllspiceAlmond,BitterAmbretteSeedAmyrisAngelicaAnise,StarAniseedArnicaAsafetida

Balsam,CanadianBalsam,CopaibaBalsam,PeruBalsam,ToluBasil,ExoticBasil,FrenchBay,WestIndianBenzoinBergamotBirch,SweetBirch,WhiteBoldoLeafBorneolBoroniaBroom,SpanishBuchuCabreuvaCadeCajeputCalaminthaCalamusCamphorCanangaCarawayCardamonCarrotSeedCascarillaBarkCassiaCassieCedarwood,AtlasCedarwood,TexasCedarwood,VirginianCelerySeedChamomile,GermanChamomile,MarocChamomile,RomanChampaca

ChervilCinnamonCitronellaCloveCorianderCostusCubebsCuminCypressDeertongueDillDoradoAzulElecampaneElemiEucalyptus,BlueGumEucalyptus,Broad-leavedPeppermintEucalyptus,Lemon-ScentedFennelFenugreekFirNeedle,SilverFragoniaFrangipaniFrankincenseGalangalGalbanumGardeniaGarlicGeraniumGingerGoldenrodGrapefruitGreenlandMossGrindeliaGuaiacwoodHoWoodHopsHorseradish

HyacinthHyssopImmortelleJaborandiJasmineJuniperLabdanumLaurelLavandinLavender,SpikeLavender,TrueLemonLemongrassLimeLinaloeLindenLitseaCubebaLotusLovageMandarinManukaMarigoldMarjoram,SweetMasticMelilotusMelissaMimosaMint,CornmintMint,PeppermintMint,SpearmintMugwortMustardMyrrhMyrtleNarcissusNeroliNiaouli

NutmegOakmossOnionOpopanaxOrange,BitterOrange,SweetOregano,CommonOregano,SpanishOrrisOsmanthusPalmarosaParsleyPatchouliPennyroyalPepper,BlackPetitgrainPine,DwarfPine,LongleafPine,ScotchPlaiRavensaraRavintsaraRose,CabbageRose,DamaskRosemaryRosewoodRueSage,ClarySage,CommonSage,SpanishSandalwoodSantolinaSassafrasSavineSavory,SummerSavory,WinterSchinusMolle

SnakerootSpikenardSpruce,HemlockStyrax,LevantTagetesTansyTarragonTeaTreeThujaThyme,CommonTonkaTuberoseTurmericTurpentineValerianVanillaVerbena,LemonVetiverVioletWintergreenWormseedWormwoodYarrowYlangYlang

ReferencesBibliographyUsefulAddressesGeneralGlossaryTherapeuticIndexBotanicalClassificationBotanicalIndexAcknowledgementsAbouttheAuthorAboutthePublisher

WoodcutfromthetitlepageoftheCreteHerball,1526

PREFACE

Myowninterestinessentialoilsandherbalremediesderivesfromthematernalside of my family who came from Finland, where home ‘simples’ retainedpopularitylongaftertheyhadvanishedfrommostpartsofBritain.MyFinnishgrandmotherknewagreatdealaboutherbsandwildplantswhichshepassedontomymother,assherecalls:

Mama’smostimportantherbwasparsley,whichalongwithdill,marjoram,hopsandothers,weredriedinbunchesintheautumn,danglingattheendsofshortlengthsofcotton,allstrungonalonglengthofthinropestretchingrightacrossthekitchenstove.Asscentsareveryevocativeforrememberingoldthings,Irememberitsowell–thestrongandheadysmellemanatingfromtheseherbswhentheywerehungup,andthestovewaswarm.

Later, as a biochemist, my mother became involved with the research ofessentialoilsandplants,andhelpedinspireinmeafascinationforherbsandtheuse of natural remedies.Without her early enthusiasm and guidance, I’m surethisbookwouldneverhavebeenwritten.In1992thefirsteditionofthisbookwaspublishedintheUK.Sincethenit

hasbeentranslatedintomanylanguagesaswellbeingreleasedinseveraldifferentformats,includinganillustratededition.Now,withthisnew2014edition,Iamverygladtohavetheopportunitytoupdatemyoriginalwork.Apartfromrevisingmyoriginaltext,Ihavealsoincludedfifteennewoils,whichhavebeenchosenespeciallyfortheirtherapeuticpotential:theseincludeafewlittle-knownessentialoils.Inthetwenty-yearperiodsincetheoriginalpublicationofTheEncyclopedia

ofEssentialOils,theuseofessentialoils,togetherwiththepracticeofaromatherapyintheWest,hasundergonearadicaltransformation.Atthebeginningofthe1990s,aromatherapywasstillconsideredafringepracticeandtheuseofessentialoilsinthehomewasbynomeanswidespread.However,asscientifictrialsandclinicalresearchhavecontinuedtoconfirmthepotentialityofessentialoils,theyhavebecomeincreasinglyrespectedwithinthemedicalarena.Thishasbeenaccompaniedbyasteadyincreaseofpublicinterestinholistictherapiesworldwide,andasociologicaltrendtowardsembracingallthings‘natural’overthepasttwodecades.

Nowadays,aromatherapytreatmentsarewidelyavailable,includinginhospitals,whileessentialoilscanbepurchasedoneveryhighstreet.Thischangeinattitudecanonlybeofbenefit,butitisworthconsideringthatthecommercializationofaromatherapyhasbroughtitsowndangers.Althoughessentialoilsareallwhollynaturalsubstances,theycanbesubjecttoadulteration,soitisimportantalwaystobuythemfromareputablesupplier(seehere).Itisalsovitaltocheckthatanyspecificsafetyguidelinesarefollowedwithcareathome.Itismyhopethatthisneweditionwillbringfreshlifetothemultifacetedandmulticulturalstudyofessentialoilsandtothefieldofcontemporaryaromatherapy.

HOWTOUSETHISBOOK

TheEncyclopediaofEssentialOilsisdividedintotwoparts:

PartIisageneralintroductiontoaromatics,showingtheirchangingrolethroughouthistory,fromtheritualparttheyplayedinancientcivilizations,throughmedievalalchemy,totheirmodern-dayapplicationsinaromatherapy,herbalismandperfumery.PartIIisasystematicsurveyofover160essentialoilsshowninalphabeticalorderaccordingtothecommonnameoftheplantsfromwhichtheyarederived.Detailedinformationoneachoilincludesitsbotanicalorigins,herbal/folktradition,odourcharacteristics,principalconstituentsandsafetydata,aswellasitshomeandcommercialuses.

Thisbookcanbeapproachedinseveralways:

1.Itcanbeemployedasaconcisereferenceguidetoawiderangeofaromaticplantsandoils,inthesamewayasatraditionalherbal.

2. Itcanbeusedaself-helpmanual, showinghowtousearomatherapyoilsathomeforthetreatmentofcommoncomplaintsandtopromotewell-being.

3. Itcanbereadfromcover tocoverasacomprehensive textbookonessentialoils,showninalltheirdifferentaspects.

1.Whenusing thebookasareferenceguide toessentialoils, thenameof theplantoroilmaybefoundintheBotanicalIndexatthebackofthebook,whereitislistedunder:

a)itscommonname:forexample,frankincense;b)itsLatinorbotanicalterm:Boswelliacarteri;c)itsessentialoiltradename:olibanum;d)orbyitsfolknames:gumthus.

Othervarieties, suchas Indianfrankincense (Boswelliaserrata),maybe foundin the Botanical Classification section under their common family name‘Burseraceae’, along with related species such as elemi, linaloe, myrrh and

opopanax. Less common essential oils, such as blackcurrant (which is usedmainlybythefoodindustry),donotappearinthemainbodyofthebook,butareincluded in the Botanical Classification section under their common familyname,inthiscase‘Grossulariaceae’.

2.When using the book as a self-help manual on aromatherapy, it is best toconsult the Therapeutic Index at the end of the book, where commoncomplaintsaregroupedaccordingtodifferentpartsofthebody:

SkinCareCirculation,MusclesandJointsRespiratorySystemDigestiveSystemGenito-urinaryandEndocrineSystemsImmuneSystemNervousSystem

Ifforexample,wehavebeenworkinglonghoursatadeskandhavedevelopedapainful cramp in our neck, we should turn to the section on Circulation,MusclesandJointswherewefindtheheading‘MuscularCrampandStiffness’.Of the essential oils which are listed, those shown in italics are generallyconsidered tobe themostuseful and/or readily available, in this case allspice,lavender,marjoram,rosemaryandblackpepper.Thechoiceofwhichoiltousedepends on what is to hand, and on assessing the quality of each oil byconsultingtheirentryinPartIIofthebook.Specialattentionshouldbepaidtothesafetydataoneachoil:bothallspiceandblackpepperareknowntobeskinirritantsifusedinhighconcentration;rosemaryandmarjoramshouldbeavoidedduringpregnancy;rosemaryshouldnotbeusedbyepilepticsatall.Onthebasisofourassessment,wemaychoosetouselavender,marjoramandalittleblackpepper which would make an excellent blend. Some of the principles behindblendingoilscanbefoundinChapter5,CreativeBlending.ThevariousmethodsofapplicationareindicatedbythelettersM,massage;

C,compress;B,bathetc.TurntoChapter4,HowtoUseEssentialOilsatHome,whereyouwillfindinstructionsonhowtomakeupamassageoilorcompress,andhowmanydropsofoiltouseinabath.FurtherinformationonhowessentialoilsworkinspecificcasescanbefoundinChapter3,TheBody–ActionsandApplications.

3. Used as a comprehensive textbook, The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils

providesawealthofinformationabouttheessentialoilsthemselvesinall theirvariousaspects,includingtheirperfumeryandflavouringapplications.Itshowsthe development of aromatics through history and the relationship betweenessential oils and other herbal products. It defines different kinds of aromaticmaterialsandtheirmethodsofextraction,givingup-to-dateareasofproduction.Inaddition,itincludesinformationontheirchemistry,pharmacologyandsafetylevels.The‘Actions’ascribedtoeachplantrefereither to thepropertiesof thewhole herb, or to parts of it, or to the essential oil. Difficult technical terms,mainlyofabotanicalormedicalnature,areexplainedintheGeneralGlossaryattheendofthebook.

However, since the therapeutic guidelines presented in the text are aimedprimarily at the lay personwithoutmedical qualifications, the section dealingwith the aromatherapy application of essential oils at home is limited to thetreatmentofcommoncomplaintsonly:Althoughthereisagreatdealofresearchbeing carried out at present into the potential uses of essential oils in thetreatment of diseases such as cancer,AIDS andpsychological disorders, thesediscussions fall beyond the scope of this book.References to themedical andfolkuseofparticularplantsinherbalmedicineandtheiractionsareintendedtoprovidebackgroundinformationonly,andarenot intendedasaguideforself-treatment.

PartI

ANINTRODUCTIONTOAROMATICS

1.HISTORICALROOTS

NaturalPlantOriginsWhenwepeelanorange,walkthrougharosegardenorrubasprigoflavenderbetweenourfingers,weareallawareofthespecialscentofthatplant.Butwhatexactlyisitthatwecansmell?Generallyspeaking,itisessentialoilswhichgivespicesandherbstheirspecificscentandflavour,flowersandfruittheirperfume.Theessentialoilintheorangepeelisnotdifficulttoidentify;itisfoundinsuchprofusionthatitactuallysquirtsoutwhenwepeelit.Theminutedropletsofoilwhicharecontainedintinypocketsorglandularcellsintheouterpeelareveryvolatile, that is, they easily evaporate, infusing the airwith their characteristicaroma.

AHerbalist’sGarden;LeJardindeSanté,1539

Butnotallplantscontainessentialorvolatileoilsinsuchprofusion.Thearomaticcontentintheflowersoftheroseissoverysmallthatittakesonetonofpetalstoproduce300gofroseoil.Itisnotfullyunderstoodwhysomeplantscontainessentialoilsandothersnot.Itisclearthatthearomaticqualityoftheoilsplaysaroleintheattractionorrepulsionofcertaininsectsoranimals.Ithas

oilsplaysaroleintheattractionorrepulsionofcertaininsectsoranimals.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthattheyplayanimportantpartinthetranspirationandlifeprocessesoftheplantitself,andasaprotectionagainstdisease.Theyhavebeendescribedasthe‘hormone’or‘life-blood’ofaplant,duetotheirhighlyconcentratedandessentialnature.Aromaticoilscanbefoundinallthevariouspartsofaplant,includingthe

seeds,bark,root,leaves,flowers,wood,balsamandresin.Thebitterorangetree,forexample,yieldsorangeoilfromthefruitpeel,petitgrainfromtheleavesandtwigs,andnerolioilfromtheorangeblossoms.Theclovetreeproducesdifferenttypesofessentialoilfromitsbuds,stalksandleaves,whereastheScotchpineyieldsdistinctoilsfromitsneedles,woodandresin.Thewiderangeofaromaticmaterialsobtainedfromnaturalsourcesandtheartoftheirextractionandusehasdevelopedslowlyoverthecourseoftime,butitsoriginsreachbacktotheveryheartoftheearliestcivilizations.

AncientCivilizationsAromatic plants and oils have been used for thousands of years, as incense,perfumes and cosmetics and for theirmedical and culinary applications.Theirritual use constituted an integral part of the tradition in most early cultures,wheretheirreligiousandtherapeuticrolesbecameinextricablyintertwined.Thistypeofpracticeisstillinevidence:forexample,intheEast,sprigsofjuniperareburntinTibetantemplesasaformofpurification;intheWest,frankincenseisusedduringtheRomanCatholicmass.

Intheancientcivilizations,perfumeswereusedasanexpressionoftheanimistandcosmicconceptions,respondingabovealltotheexigenciesofacult…associatedatfirstwiththeophaniesandincantations,theperfumesmadebyfumigation,libationandablution,grewdirectlyoutoftheritual,andbecameanelementintheartoftherapy.1

The Vedic literature of India dating from around 2000 BC, lists over 700substances including cinnamon, spikenard, ginger, myrrh, coriander andsandalwood.But aromaticswere considered to bemore than just perfumes; inthe Indo-Aryan tongue, ‘atar’means smoke,wind, odour andessence, and theRig Veda codifies their use for both liturgical and therapeutic purposes. Themanner inwhich it iswritten reflects a spiritual and philosophical outlook, inwhichhumanityisseenasapartofnature,andthehandlingofherbsasasacredtask: ‘Simples, youwho have existed for so long, even before theGodswereborn, I want to understand your seven hundred secrets! … Come, you wise

plants, heal this patient forme’.2Their understanding of plant lore developedintothetraditionalIndianorAyurvedicsystemofmedicine,whichhasenjoyedanunbrokentransmissionuptothepresentday.TheChinesealsohaveanancientherbaltraditionwhichaccompaniesthe

practiceofacupuncture,theearliestrecordsbeingintheYellowEmperor’sBookofInternalMedicinedatingfrommorethan2000yearsBC.Amongtheremediesareseveralaromaticssuchasopiumandgingerwhich,apartfromtheirtherapeuticapplications,areknowntohavebeenutilizedforreligiouspurposessincetheearliesttimes,asintheLi-kiandTcheou-Liceremonies.BorneocamphorisstillusedextensivelyinChinatodayforritualpurposes.ButperhapsthemostfamousandrichestassociationsconcerningthefirstaromaticmaterialsarethosesurroundingtheancientEgyptiancivilization.PapyrusmanuscriptsdatingbacktothereignofKhufu,around2800BC,recordtheuseofmanymedicinalherbs,whileanotherpapyruswrittenabout2000BCspeaksof‘fineoilsandchoiceperfumes,andtheincenseoftemples,wherebyeverygodisgladdened’.3Aromaticgumsandoilssuchascedarandmyrrhwereemployedintheembalmingprocess,theremainsofwhicharestilldetectablethousandsofyearslater,alongwithtracesofscentedunguentsandoilssuchasstyraxandfrankincensecontainedinanumberofornatejarsandcosmeticpotsfoundinthetombs.Thecompleteiconographycoveringtheprocessofpreparationforsuchoils,balsamsandfermentedliqueurswaspreservedinstoneinscriptionsbythepeopleoftheNilevalley.TheEgyptianswere,infact,expertsofcosmetologyandrenownedfortheirherbalpreparationsandointments.Onesuchremedywasknownas‘kyphi’;amixtureofsixteendifferentingredientswhichcouldbeusedasanincense,aperfumeortakeninternallyasamedicine.Itwassaidtobeantiseptic,balsamic,soothingandanantidotetopoisonwhich,accordingtoPlutarch,couldlullonetosleep,allayanxietiesandbrightendreams.

TreasuresfromtheEastNatural aromatics and perfume materials constituted one of the earliest tradeitemsoftheancientworld,beingrareandhighlyprized.WhentheJewishpeoplebegan their exodus fromEgypt to Israel around 1240 BC, they tookwith themmany precious gums and oils together with knowledge of their use. On theirjourney, according to theBook of Exodus, the Lord transmitted toMoses theformula fora specialanointingoil,which includedmyrrh,cinnamon,calamus,cassiaandoliveoilamongitsingredients.Thisholyoilwasusedtoconsecrate

Aaron and his sons into priesthood, which continued from generation togeneration.Frankincenseandmyrrh,astreasuresfromtheEast,wereofferedtoJesusathisbirth.ThePhoenicianmerchantsalsoexportedtheirscentedoilsandgumstothe

ArabianpeninsulaandgraduallythroughouttheMediterraneanregion,particularlyGreeceandRome.TheyintroducedtheWesttotherichesoftheOrient:theybroughtcamphorfromChina,cinnamonfromIndia,gumsfromArabiaandrosefromSyria,alwaysensuringthattheykepttheirtradingroutesacloselyguardedsecret.TheGreeksespeciallylearntagreatdealfromtheEgyptians;Herodotusand

Democrates,whovisitedEgyptduringthefifthcenturyBC,werelatertotransmitwhattheyhadlearntaboutperfumeryandnaturaltherapeutics.Herodotuswasthefirsttorecordthemethodofdistillationofturpentine,inabout425BC,aswellasfurnishingthefirstinformationaboutperfumesandnumerousotherdetailsregardingodorousmaterials.DioscoridesmadeadetailedstudyofthesourcesandusesofplantsandaromaticsemployedbytheGreeksandRomanswhichhecompiledintoafive-volumemateriamedica,knownastheHerbarius.

‘LentiscodelPeru’(MasticTree)fromDurante’sHerbarioNuovo,1585.GumsandoilswereregardedashighlyprizedtradeitemsthroughouttheMediterraneanregion

HippocrateswhowasborninGreeceabout460BCanduniversallyreveredas

the‘fatherofmedicine’,alsoprescribedperfumedfumigationsandfomentations;indeed‘fromGreekmedicalpracticethereisderivedtheterm‘iatralypte’,fromthephysicianwhocuredbytheuseofaromaticunctions’.4OneofthemostfamousoftheseGreekpreparations,madefrommyrrh,cinnamonandcassia,wascalled‘megaleion’afteritscreatorMegallus.LiketheEgyptian‘kyphi’,itcouldbeusedbothasaperfumeandasaremedyforskininflammationandbattlewounds.TheRomanswereevenmorelavishintheiruseofperfumesandaromaticoils

thantheGreeks.Theyusedthreekindsofperfumes:‘ladysmata’,solidunguents;‘stymmata’,scentedoils;and‘diapasmata’,powderedperfumes.Theywereusedtofragrancetheirhair,theirbodies,theirclothesandbeds;largeamountsofscentedoilwereusedformassageafterbathing.WiththefalloftheRomanEmpireandtheadventofChristianity,manyoftheRomanphysiciansfledtoConstantinopletakingthebooksofGalen,HippocratesandDioscorideswiththem.ThesegreatGraeco-RomanworksweretranslatedintoPersian,Arabicandotherlanguages,andattheendoftheByzantineEmpire,theirknowledgepassedontotheArabworld.Europe,meanwhile,enteredtheso-calledDarkAges.

AlchemyBetween the seventh and thirteenth centuries the Arabs produced many greatmen of science, among them Avicenna (AD 980‒1037). This highly giftedphysicianandscholarwroteoverahundredbooksinhislifetime,oneofwhichwasdevotedentirelytotheflowermostcherishedbyIslam,therose.Amonghisdiscoveries, he has been creditedwith the invention of the refrigerated coil, abreakthrough in theartofdistillation,whichheused toproducepureessentialoils and aromatic water. However, in 1975 Dr Paolo Rovesti led anarchaeological expedition to Pakistan to investigate the ancient Indus Valleycivilization. There, in themuseum of Taxila at the foot of the Himalayas, hefound a perfectly preserved distillation apparatus made of terracotta. Thepresence of perfume containers also exhibited in themuseum dating from thesame period, about 3000 BC, confirmed its use for the preparation of aromaticoils.ThisdiscoverysuggeststhattheArabssimplyrevivedorimproveduponaprocessthathadbeenknownforover4000years!RosewaterbecameoneofthemostpopularscentsandcametotheWestat

thetimeoftheCrusades,alongwithotherexoticessences,andthemethodofdistillation.Bythethirteenthcentury,the‘perfumesofArabia’werefamousthroughoutEurope.DuringtheMiddleAges,floorswerestrewnwitharomatic

plantsandlittleherbalbouquetswerecarriedasaprotectionagainstplagueandotherinfectiousdiseases.GraduallytheEuropeans,lackingthegum-yieldingtreesoftheOrient,begantoexperimentwiththeirownnativeherbssuchaslavender,sageandrosemary.Bythesixteenthcenturylavenderwaterandessentialoilsknownas‘chymicaloils’couldbeboughtfromtheapothecary,and,followingtheinventionofprinting,theperiod1470to1670sawthepublicationofmanyherbalssuchastheCreteHerballpublishedin1526,someofwhichincludedillustrationsoftheretortsandstillsusedfortheextractionofvolatileoils.Inthehandsofthephilosophers,theartofdistillationwasemployedinthe

practiceofalchemy,thehermeticpursuitdedicatedtothetransformationofbasemetalsintogold,thegrossintothesubtle.Itwasprimarilyareligiousquestinwhichthevariousstagesofthedistillationprocesswereequatedwithstagesofaninnerpsychictransmutation,‘dissolutionandcoagulation’:separation(black,lead),extraction(white,quicksilver),fusion(red,sulphur)andfinallysublimation(goldor‘lapis’).Inthesamewaythataromaticmaterialcouldbedistilledtoproduceapureandpotentessence,socouldthehumanemotionsberefinedandconcentratedtorevealtheirvaluablefruit,ortruenature.Inthiscontext,volatileoilscanbeequatedwiththepurifiedhumanpsycheor‘quintessence’ofthealchemists,beinganemanationofmatterandmanifestationofspirit,mediatorbetweenthetworealms.Alchemywasthebridgeacrosswhichtherichsymbolismoftheancientworld

–Arab,Greek,Gnostic–wastransportedintoourownera…thussymbolismfellfromtherarefiedheightsintothemelting-pot,andbegantobetestedinacontinuous,dynamicinteractionwiththefindingsofchemistry.5

TheScientificRevolutionThroughout the Renaissance period, aromatic materials filled thepharmacopoeiaswhichformanycenturiesremainedthemainprotectionagainstepidemics.Overthenextfewcenturiesthemedicinalpropertiesandapplicationsof increasingnumbersofnewessentialoilswereanalysedandrecordedbythepharmacists. The list included both well-established aromatics such as cedar,cinnamon, frankincense, juniper, rose, rosemary, lavender and sage, but alsoessenceslikeartemisia,cajeput,chervil,orangeflower,valerianandpine.Theperfumeryanddistillationindustriesattractedillustriousnamesoftheday

andinthenortherncountriesofEurope,especiallyatGrasseinFrance,flourishingcommercialenterprisessprangup.Bytheendoftheseventeenth

century,theprofessionofperfumerybrokeawayfromthealliedfields,andadistinctionwasmadebetweenperfumesandthearomaticsthathadbecomethedomainoftheapothecary.Alchemygavewaytotechnicalchemistry,andwithitwenttheinterestinthe

inter-relatednessofmatterandspirit,andtheinterdependenceofmedicineandpsychology.Theredevelopedtheideaofcombatingspeculationwithlogicanddeductivereason.Withthescientificrevolutionoftheearlynineteenthcentury,chemistswereabletoidentifyforthefirsttimethevariousconstituentsoftheoils,andgivethemspecificnamessuchas‘geraniol’,‘citronellol’and‘cineol’.IntheYearbookofPharmacyandTransactionsoftheBritishPharmaceuticalConferencein1907,wefindforexample:

Apileaofundeterminedbotanicalspecieshasyieldedawhiteessentialoilwithanodourofturpentine…Asmallamountofpinenewasdetectedbutitsotherconstituentshavenotyetbeenidentified.ThisoilisofinterestasbeingthefirstinstanceofanessentialoilderivedfromthefamilyUricaceae.6

Itisironicthatthisenthusiasticresearchlaidthegroundforthedevelopmentofthe oils’ synthetic counterparts, and the growth of the modern drug industry.Herbal medicine and aromatic remedies lost their credibility as methods oftreatmentwentoutofthehandsoftheindividualandintothoseofprofessionals.By the middle of the twentieth century, the role of essential oils had beenreduced almost entirely to their employment in perfumes, cosmetics andfoodstuffs.

2.AROMATHERAPYANDHERBALISM

TheBirthofAromatherapyThe term ‘aromatherapy’ was first coined in 1928 by Gattefossé, a Frenchchemistworkinginhisfamily’sperfumierbusiness.Hebecamefascinatedwiththetherapeuticpossibilitiesoftheoilsafterdiscoveringbyaccidentthatlavenderwasabletorapidlyhealasevereburnonhishandandhelppreventscarring.Healso found thatmany of the essential oilsweremore effective in their totalitythan their synthetic substitutes or their isolated active ingredients.As early as1904CuthbertHallhadshownthattheantisepticpowerofeucalyptusoilinitsnaturalformwasstrongerthanitsisolatedmainactiveconstituent,‘eucalyptol’or‘cineol’.AnotherFrenchdoctorandscientist,DrJeanValnet,usedessentialoilsaspart

ofhisprogrammebywhichhewasabletosuccessfullytreatspecificmedicalandpsychiatricdisorders,theresultsofwhichwerepublishedin1964asAromatherapie.TheworkofValnetwasstudiedbyMadameMargueriteMaurywhoapplied

hisresearchtoherbeautytherapy,inwhichsheaimedtorevitalizeherclientsbycreatinga‘strictlypersonalaromaticcomplexwhichsheadaptedtothesubject’stemperamentandparticularhealthproblems.Hence,goingfarbeyondanysimpleaestheticobjective,perfumedessenceswhencorrectlyselected,representmanymedicinalagents.’7Insomerespects,theword‘aromatherapy’canbemisleadingbecauseit

suggeststhatitisaformofhealingwhichworksexclusivelythroughoursenseofsmell,andontheemotions.Thisisnotthecasefor,apartfromitsscent,eachessentialoilhasanindividualcombinationofconstituentswhichinteractswiththebody’schemistryinadirectmanner,whichtheninturnaffectscertainorgansorsystemsasawhole.Forexample,whentheoilsareusedexternallyintheformofamassagetreatment,theyareeasilyabsorbedviatheskinandtransportedthroughoutthebody.Thiscanbedemonstratedbyrubbingacloveofgarliconthesolesofthefeet;thevolatileoilcontentwillbetakenintothebloodandtheodourwillappearonthebreathalittlewhilelater.Itisinterestingtonotethatdifferentessentialoilsareabsorbedthroughtheskinatvaryingrates,for

thatdifferentessentialoilsareabsorbedthroughtheskinatvaryingrates,forexample:

Turpentine:20minsEucalyptusandthyme:20–40minsAnise,bergamotandlemon:40–60minsCitronella,pine,lavenderandgeranium:60–80minsCoriander,rueandpeppermint:100–120mins

Itisthereforeimportanttorecognizethatessentialoilshavethreedistinctmodesof action with regard to how they inter-relate with the human body:pharmacological,physiologicalandpsychological.Thepharmacologicaleffectisconcerned with the chemical changes which take place when an essential oilenters the bloodstream and reacts with the hormones and enzymes etc; thephysiologicalmodeisconcernedwith thewayinwhichanessentialoilaffectsthe systems of the body, whether they are sedated or stimulated, etc; thepsychological effect takesplacewhenanessence is inhaled, andan individualresponds to itsodour.Withrelation to thefirst twopoints,aromatherapyhasagreatdealincommonwiththetraditionofmedicalherbalismorphytotherapy–in other words, it is not simply the aroma which is important but also thechemical interaction between the oils and the body, and the physical changeswhicharebroughtabout.

HerbalMedicineThepracticeofaromatherapycouldbeseenaspartofthelargerfieldofherbalmedicine,sincetheessentialoilisonlyoneofmanywaysinwhichaplantcanbepreparedasaremedy.Sinceallessentialoilsarederiveddirectlyfromplants,itcanbevaluabletoseethemwithinabotanicalcontextratherthanasisolatedproducts.Insomewaystheuseofaromaticoilsfortherapeuticpurposesbenefitsfrombeingplacedwithin aherbal contextnotonlybecause it givesus furtherinsight into their characteristics, but because the two forms of therapy are notsynonymous,butcomplementary.

Growingandstoringherbs:thewomanisscentingthelinenchest;fromDasKerfiterbuchoderHerbarius,1534

Althoughmostplantswhichyieldessentialoilsarealsousedinmedicalherbalism,itisimportanttodistinguishthetherapeuticqualitiesofaparticularoilfromthoseoftheherbtakenasawholeorpreparedinanothermanner.Germanchamomile,forexample,isusedextensivelyintheformofaherbalpreparationsuchasaninfusion,tinctureordecoction,apartfrombeingutilizedforitsvolatileoil.Chamazulene,amajorconstituentoftheoil,helpstoaccountfortheherb’sage-oldreputationasageneralrelaxantandsoothingskincareremedy,duetoitspain-relieving,antispasmodic,wound-healingandanti-inflammatoryactivities.Forthetreatmentofnervousconditions,insomniaanddermalirritationordisease,theessentialoilisbothusefulandeffective.Butalthoughthearomaticprincipleoftheplantplaysacentralroleinitsoverallcharacter,theherbalsocontainsabittercomponent(anthemicacid),tannins(tannicacid),mucilageandaglycosideamongotherthings.TheoveralleffectoftheherbistheresultoftheactionofallitspharmacologicallyactiveconstituentswhichinthecaseofchamomileorMatricariaincludestheastringencyofthetanninsandthestimulationofthebitters.Thevolatileoilis,ofcourse,lessconcentratedintheformofaninfusion,tinctureordecoction,thepotencyoftheoilisreduced(andinherentlythesafetymarginincreased),thusmakingtheherbalpreparationmoresuitedtointernaluse.Similarlywithpeppermint.Whilsttheoiliseminentlysuitedtothetreatment

ofrespiratoryconditionsasaninhalant,dueinparticulartoitsantispasmodicandantisepticactions,forthelonger-termtreatmentofdigestivedisordersitis

andantisepticactions,forthelonger-termtreatmentofdigestivedisordersitisbettertouseextractsfromthewholeherb,wheretheactionofthevolatileoilissupportedbythepresenceofbittersandtannins.Inaddition,inherbalmedicine,theeffectofoneherbisusuallysupportedandbackedupbycombiningitwithothers.Neitherisitcorrecttoassumethattheessentialoilisalwaysthemostactive

ortherapeuticallyusefulpartofaplant.Forexample,althoughmeadowsweetcontainsanessentialoiloutstandinginitsantisepticstrength(accordingtoCavel,83.3ccofmeadowsweetessencerendersinfertile1000ccofmicrobicculturesinsewage,comparedto5.6ccofphenolper1000cc),italsopossessesseveralothervaluablecomponents,notablysalicylicglycosideswhicharecharacterizedbytheirexcellentpain-relievingandanti-inflammatoryqualities.Indeed,thefamiliardrugaspirin,beingderivedfromsalicylicacid,isnamedafterthisherb,itsoldcountrynamebeing‘spiraea’.Thekernelsofthe(bitterandsweet)almondtreeareusedtoproduceafixed

oilcommonlyknownassweetalmondoil,whichhasagreatmanycosmeticuses.Thekernelsfromthebitteralmondtree,whichareusedtoproducetheessentialoilwhichgivesmarzipanitscharacteristictaste,alsocontaincyanide,thewell-knownpoison,initsunrefinedform.Thisshowsthattherecanbeagreatdifferenceinthepropertiesofaplant,eventhesamepartofaplant,dependinguponhowithasbeenprepared.

TherapeuticGuidelinesAsageneral rulewhich is in linewith thepresent-day aromatherapy ‘codeofpractice’,itisbesttouseessentialoilsasexternalremediesonly.Thisismainlydue to thehighconcentrationof theoils and thepotential irritationordamagethat they can cause to themucousmembranes and delicate stomach lining inundiluted form. There even seems to be some kind of natural order in thisscheme, in that volatile oils mix readily with oils and ointments suited toexternal application,whichare absorbed readily through the skinandvaporizeeasily for inhalation. When inhaled, they can affect an individual’s mood orfeelings,andatthesametimecausephysiologicalchangesinthebody.Indeed,in a Japanese experiment carried out in 1963, itwas found that the effects ofessential oils on the digestive system were likely to be stronger if they wereinhaled thanif theywere ingested.Herbs,on theotherhand,yieldupmanyoftheir qualities towater and alcoholwhich are appropriate for internal use but,lacking the concentrated aromatic element, they do not have the same subtle

effectsonthemindandemotions.Theseareonlysuperficialguidelines,fortherearealwaysexceptionstothe

rule.Plantain,forexample,isanexcellentwound-healingherbvaluableforexternaluse,althoughitdoesnotcontainanyessentialoil.Norcanweignorethefactthatagreatmanyaromaticoilsareusedforflavouringourfoodandbeveragesandareconsumeddailyinminuteamounts.Peppermintoil,forexample,isusedinawidevarietyofalcoholicandnon-alcoholicbeverages,confectioneryandpreparedsavouryfoods,althoughthehighestaverageusedoesnotexceed0.104percent.Themintoils,whichincludespearmintandcornmint,arealsousedextensivelybythepharmaceuticalandcosmeticindustriesinproductssuchastoothpaste,coughandcoldremedies,andasfragrancecomponentsinsoaps,creams,lotions,aswellascolognesandperfumes.Inaddition,cornmintisfrequentlyusedasthestartingmaterialfortheproductionof‘menthol’foruseinthedrugindustry.Itcanbeseenthattheuseofessentialoilscoversawideandvariedspectrum.

Ontheonehandtheysharetheholisticqualitiesofnaturalplantremedies,althoughitistruethatsomeherbalistsviewessentialoilsinmuchthesamelightastheyregardsyntheticdrugs,beinga‘part’ofthewhole,ratherthantheentireherb.Ontheotherhand,theyplayanactiveroleinthemodernpharmaceuticalindustry,eitherintheirentiretyorintheformofisolatedconstituentssuchas‘phenol’or‘menthol’.Itisnottheaimofthisbooktoglorifynaturalremedies(someofwhicharein

facthighlytoxic)attheexpenseofscientificprogress,nortoupholdtheprinciplesofourpresent-daydrug-orientatedculture,butsimplytoprovideinformationabouttheoilsthemselvesintheirmultifacetednature.

SafetyPrecautionsSafetyData:Always checkwith specificSAFETYDATAbeforeusing anewoil,especiallywithregardtotoxicitylevels,phototoxicity,dermalirritationandsensitization.

Contra-Indications: Take note of any contra-indicationswhen using particularoils.Forexample,fennel,hyssopandsageshouldbeavoidedbyepileptics;clarysage should not be used while drinking alcohol; hops should not be used byanyonesufferingfromdepression.

HighBloodPressure:Avoidthefollowingoilsincasesofhighbloodpressure:

hyssop,rosemary,sage(alltypes)andthyme.

Homoeopathy: Homoeopathic treatment is not compatible with the followingoils:blackpepper,camphor,eucalyptusandthemintoils.

Pregnancy:Duringpregnancyuseessentialoilsinhalftheusualstatedamount.Takenoteofthoseoilswhicharecontra-indicatedinpregnancy.

BabiesAndChildren:Usewithcare,inaccordancewithage.Babies(0–12months)–use1dropoflavender,rose,chamomileormandarindilutedin1tspbaseoilformassageorbathing.Infants(1–5years)–use2–3dropsof‘safe’essentialoils(non-toxicandnonirritanttotheskin),dilutedin1tspbaseoilformassageorbathing.Children(6–12years)–useasforadultsbutinhalfthestatedamount.Teenagers(over12years)–useasdirectedforadults.

3.THEBODY–ACTIONSANDAPPLICATIONS

HowEssentialOilsWorkThetherapeuticpotentialofessentialoils,likeotherplant-derivedremedies,hasyet to be fully realized.Although numerousmedical herbs have been utilizedsinceantiquity,manyofwhichhavebeenexploited toprovide thebiologicallyactivecompoundswhichformthebasisformostofourmoderndrugs(suchasquinine and cocaine), there is still a great deal to be learnt about their precisepharmacology. This is particularly true of aromatic oils, which by their verynaturehavesuchaconcentratedyetmultifacetedmakeup. Inaddition, ‘onlyasmall proportion of the world flora has been examined for pharmacologicallyactive compounds, but with the ever-increasing danger of plants becomingextinct,thereisarealriskthatmanyimportantplantsourcesmaybelost’.9Modernresearchhaslargelyconfirmedthetraditionallyheldbeliefsregarding

thetherapeuticusesofparticularplants,althoughwithtimetheterminologyhaschanged.Aherbsuchasbasil,atonetimedescribedasa‘protectionagainstevil’,or‘goodfortheheart’whosescent‘takethawaysorrowfulness’,mayinmodernusagebedescribedasanexcellentprophylactic,nervetonicandantidepressant.Likeherbalremedies,anessentialoilcancoverawidefieldofactivities;indeedthesameherboroil(suchasMelissa)canstimulatecertainsystemsofthebodywhilesedatingorrelaxingothers.Inordertogainaclearerunderstandingofthewayessentialoilswork,andsomeoftheirparticularareasofactivity,itmaybehelpfultotakeanoverallviewofthesystemsofthehumanbody.

TheSkinSkinproblemsareoftenthesurfacemanifestationofadeepercondition,suchasabuild-upoftoxinsintheblood,hormonalimbalanceornervousandemotionaldifficulties. In this area the versatility of essential oils is particularly valuablebecause they are able to combat such complaints on a variety of levels. Sinceessentialoilsaresolubleinoilandalcoholandimparttheirscenttowater,theyprovidetheidealingredientforcosmeticsandgeneralskincareaswellasforthe

treatmentofspecificdiseases.Withinthiscontextthefollowingactivitiesareofparticularbenefit:

Antisepticsforcuts,insectbites,spots,etc;forexample,thyme,sage,eucalyptus,teatree,clove,lavenderandlemon.Anti-inflammatoryoilsforeczema,infectedwounds,bumps,bruises,etc;forexample,GermanandRomanchamomile,lavenderandyarrow.Fungicidaloilsforathlete’sfoot,candida,ringworm,etc;forexample,lavender,teatree,myrrh,patchouliandsweetmarjoram.Granulationstimulatingorcicatrizing(healing)agentsforburns,cuts,scars,stretchmarks,etc;forexample,lavender,chamomile,rose,neroli,frankincenseandgeranium.Deodorantsforexcessiveperspiration,cleaningwounds,etc;forexample,bergamot,lavender,thyme,juniper,cypress,Spanishsage,lemongrass.Insectrepellentsandparasiticidesforlice,fleas,scabies,ticks,mosquitos,ants,moths,etc;forexample,spikelavender,garlic,geranium,citronella,eucalyptus,clove,camphor,Atlascedarwood.

TheCirculation,MusclesandJointsEssentialoilsareeasilyabsorbedviatheskinandmucosaintothebloodstream,affecting the nature of the circulation as a whole. Oils with a rubefacient orwarmingeffectnotonlycauseabetterlocalbloodcirculation,butalsoinfluencethe innerorgans.Theybringawarmthandglowto thesurfaceof theskinandcanprovideconsiderablepain relief through theiranalgesicornumbingeffect.Suchoils can relieve local inflammationby setting freemediators in thebodywhich in turncause thebloodvessels to expand, so theblood is able tomovemorequicklyandtheswellingisreduced.Someoilslikehyssoptendtohaveabalancingorregulatingeffectonthecirculatorysystemasawhole,reducingthebloodpressureifitistoohighorstimulatingthesystemifitissluggish.

Hypotensivesforhighbloodpressure,palpitations,stress,etc;forexample,sweetmarjoram,ylangylang,lavender,lemon.Hypertensivesforpoorcirculation,chilblains,listlessness,etc;forexample,rosemary,spikelavender,eucalyptus,peppermint,thyme.Rubefacientsforrheumatismofthejoints,muscularstiffness,sciatica,lumbago,etc;forexample,blackpepper,juniper,rosemary,camphor,sweetmarjoram.

Depurativeorantitoxicagentsforarthritis,gout,congestion,skineruptions,etc;forexample,juniper,lemon,fennel,lovage.Lymphaticstimulantsforcellulitis,obesity,waterretention,etc;forexample,grapefruit,lime,fennel,lemon,mandarin,whitebirch.Circulatorytonicsandastringentsforswellings,inflammations,varicoseveins,etc;forexample,cypress,yarrow,lemon.

TheRespiratorySystemNose, throat and lung infections are conditions which respond very well totreatmentwithessentialoils.Inhalationisaveryeffectivewayofutilizingtheirproperties, for ‘although after arriving in the bronchi the main part will beexhaled directly by the lungs, they cause an increased bronchial secretion (aprotective reaction) which is beneficial for many respiratory ailments’.10 Byinhalation theyareabsorbed into thebloodcirculationevenfaster thanbyoralapplication.Inaddition,mostessentialoilswhichareabsorbedfromthestomacharethenexcretedviathelungs,onlyasmallpartintheurine.

Expectorantsforcatarrh,sinusitis,coughs,bronchitis,etc;forexample,eucalyptus,pine,thyme,myrrh,sandalwood,fennel.Antispasmodicsforcolic,asthma,drycough,whoopingcough,etc;forexample,hyssop,cypress,Atlascedarwood,bergamot,chamomile,cajeput.Balsamicagentsforcolds,chills,congestion,etc;forexample,benzoin,frankincense,Tolubalsam,Perubalsam,myrrh.Antisepticsfor’flu,colds,sorethroat,tonsillitis,gingivitis,etc;forexample,thyme,sage,eucalyptus,hyssop,pine,cajeput,teatree,borneol.

TheDigestiveSystemAlthoughit isnotrecommendedthatessentialoilsbetakenorally, theycanbyexternalapplicationeffectcertainchangesinthedigestiveprocesses.However,whereasherbalmedicinehasmanyremediesatitsdisposalforawidevarietyofstomach, gall bladder and liver complaints, such as dandelion, marshmallow,chamomile and meadowsweet, much of their effectiveness is based on acombination of aromatic components, together with bitters, tannins andmucilage,whichareabsentinthevolatileoilalone.Theexternalapplicationofessential oils in problems of the digestive system though effective, is

consequentlysomewhatlimitedcomparedtotheinternaluseofherbalremedies.

Antispasmodicsforspasm,pain,indigestion,etc;forexample,chamomile,caraway,fennel,orange,peppermint,Melissa,aniseed,cinnamon.Carminativesandstomachicsforflatulentdyspepsia,aerophagia,nausea,etc;forexample,angelica,basil,fennel,chamomile,peppermint,mandarin.Cholagoguesforincreasingtheflowofbileandstimulatingthegallbladder;forexample,caraway,lavender,peppermintandborneol.Hepaticsforlivercongestion,jaundice,ere;forexample,lemon,lime,rosemary,peppermint.Aperitifsforlossofappetite,anorexia,etc;forexample,aniseed,angelica,orange,ginger,garlic.

TheGenito-urinaryandEndocrineSystemsLikethedigestivesystem,thereproductiveorganscanbeaffectedbyabsorptionvia the skin into thebloodstream,aswell as throughhormonalchanges.Someessential oils such as rose and jasmine have an affinity for the reproductivesystem having a general strengthening effect as well as helping to combatspecific complaints like menstrual problems, genital infections and sexualdifficulties.Other oils contain plant hormoneswhichmimic the correspondinghumanhormones;oilssuchashops,sageandfennelhavebeenfoundtocontainaformofoestrogenthatinfluencesthemenstrualcycle,lactationandsecondarysexualcharacteristics.Oestrogenalsohelpsmaintainahealthycirculation,goodmuscleandskintoneandstrongbonesinbothmenandwomen.Otheressentialoilsareknowntoinfluencethelevelsofhormonesecretionof

otherglands,includingthethyroidgland(whichgovernsgrowthandmetabolism),theadrenalmedulla(whichdealswithstressreactions)andtheadrenalcortex(whichgovernsseveralprocessesincludingtheproductionofoestrogenandandrogen,themalesexhormone).

Antispasmodicsformenstrualcramp(dysmenorrhoea),labourpains,etc;forexample,sweetmarjoram,chamomile,clarysage,jasmine,lavender.Emmenagoguesforscantyperiods,lackofperiods(amenorrhoea),etc;forexample,chamomile,fennel,hyssop,juniper,sweetmarjoram,peppermint.Uterinetonicsandregulatorsforpregnancy,excessmenstruation(menorrhagia),PMT,etc;forexample,clarysage,jasmine,rose,myrrh,frankincense,Melissa.

Antisepticandbactericidalagentsforleucorrhoea,vaginalpruritis,thrush,etc;forexample,bergamot,chamomile,myrrh,rose,teatree.Galactagoguesforincreasingmilkflow;forexample,fennel,jasmine,anise,lemongrass(sage,mintandparsleyreduceit).Aphrodisiacsforimpotenceandfrigidity,etc;forexample,blackpepper,cardamon,clarysage,neroli,jasmine,rose,sandalwood,patchouli,ylangylang.Anaphrodisiacsforreducingsexualdesire;forexample,sweetmarjoram,camphor.Adrenalstimulantsforanxiety,stress-relatedconditions,etc;forexample,basil,geranium,rosemary,borneol,sage,pine,savory.

Withregardtothekidneys,bladderandurinarysystemingeneral,itisdifficultto bring about results simply by using essential oils. According to recentresearch, ‘the diuretic effects of essential oils are virtually nonexistent’.11 Inaddition,thetraditionaldiureticagentssuchasjuniper,lovageandparsleyseedareconsideredunsuitableasessentialoilsforinternaluseduetotoxicitylevelsand possible kidney damage; herb teas of fennel, dandelion or chamomileprovide a milder alternative. Bathing and using a douche can help controlurinary infections, especiallywhen they are associatedwith nervous or stress-relatedsymptoms.

Urinaryantisepticsforcystitis,urethritis,etc;forexample,bergamot,chamomile,teatree,sandalwood.

‘Lernethehyghandmervelousvertueofherbes…usetheeffecteswithreverence,andgivethankestothemakercelestyall’;fromBraunsweig’sTheVertuoseBakeofDistyllacyonoftheWatersofallManerof

Herbes,1527

TheImmuneSystemVirtually all essential oils have bactericidal properties and by promoting theproduction of white blood cells, they can help prevent and treat infectiousillness.It isthesepropertiesthatgavearomaticherbsandoilssuchhighreputewith regard to infections such as malaria and typhoid in the tropics andepidemicsofplague in theMiddleAges. ‘Peoplewhouseessentialoilsall thetime…mostlyhaveahigh levelof resistance to illness,catchingfewercolds,etc,thanaverageandrecoveringquicklyiftheydo.’12

Bactericidalandantiviralagents(prophylactics)forprotectionagainstcolds,’flu,etc;forexample,teatree,cajeput,niaouli,basil,lavender,eucalyptus,bergamot,camphor,clove,rosemary.Febrifugeagentsforreducingfeverandtemperature,etc;forexample,angelica,basil,peppermint,thyme,sage,lemon,eucalyptus,teatree.Sudorificsanddiaphoreticsforpromotingsweating,eliminatingtoxins,etc;forexample,rosemary,thyme,hyssop,chamomile.

TheNervousSystemRecent research shows that the properties of many oils correspond to thetraditionallyheldviews:chamomile,bergamot,sandalwood,lavenderandsweetmarjoramwere found to have a sedative effect on the central nervous system;jasmine, peppermint, basil, clove and ylang ylang were found to have astimulatingeffect.Neroliwasfoundtobestimulatingandlemontobesedating,contrarytopopularbelief.Someoilsareknowntobe‘adaptogens’,thatis,theyhaveabalancingornormalizingeffectonthesystemsofthebody:geraniumandrosewood were either sedative or stimulating according to each situation andindividual.Wordslike‘relaxing’and‘uplifting’oftenhavemoretodowithodour

descriptionandemotionalresponseratherthanphysiologicaleffect–althoughthetwoarerelated.Consequently,oilssuchasbergamot,Melissaorlemoncanbesedatingtothenervoussystem,butrevivingtothe‘spirit’.Conversely,oilssuchasjasmine,ylangylangandnerolicanbenervestimulantsyetsoothingandrelaxingonamoresubtleemotionallevel.

Sedativesfornervoustension,stress,insomnia,etc;forexample,chamomile,bergamot,sandalwood,lavender,sweetmarjoram,Melissa,hops,valerian,lemon.Stimulantsforconvalescence,lackofstrength,nervousfatigue,etc;forexample,basil,jasmine,peppermint,ylangylang,neroli,angelica,rosemary.Nervetonics(nervines)forstrengtheningthenervoussystemasawhole;forexample,chamomile,clarysage,juniper,lavender,marjoram,rosemary.

TheMindThis area is perhaps the most discussed and least understood area of activityregardingessentialoils.Thereisnodoubtthatthroughouthistoryaromaticoilshavebeenusedfortheirpowertoinfluencetheemotionsandstatesofmind:thisisthebasisfortheiremploymentasincenseforreligiousandritualisticpurposes.It is already known that two olfactory nerve tracts run right into the limbicsystem (the part of the brain concerned with memory and emotion), whichmeansthatscentscanevokeanimmediateandpowerfulresponsewhichdefiesrationalanalysis.RecentresearchatWarwickUniversity,England,andTohoUniversity,Japan,

hasaimedtoputthesetraditionallyheldbeliefsandapplicationsintoascientific

hasaimedtoputthesetraditionallyheldbeliefsandapplicationsintoascientificcontext.Theycameupwithtwotypesofreactiontoodourswhichtheycalleda‘hard-wired’responseora‘soft-wired’response:thefirsttypeisingrainedfrombeforebirthandispurelyinstinctual;thesecondislearnedoracquiredlateron.Thefirsttypemaybe,forexample,thescentofthemother’sskinorasexualsignal;thesecondmightbethefragranceofhoneysuckle,reminiscentofachildhoodgarden.

AdiscourseontheVirtuesoftheRose;fromChampier’sRosaGallica,1514

Buttowhatextentistheeffectofaparticularoildependentuponitschemicalorphysiologicalmake-up,andtowhatextentdoesitrelyuponabelieforanassociation?Indealingwiththepsychologicaloremotionalresponsestothescentofaparticularoil,thiskindofclassificationbecomesmuchmoredifficult:surelyhereitismoreappropriatetoconsiderthetemperamentofeachindividualwithinagivencontext,ratherthanpredictasetreaction.AtthePsychologyofPerfumeryConference1991,itwasgenerallyagreed

that‘whilepharmacologicaleffectsmaybeverysimilarfromonepersontoanother,psychologicaleffectsareboundtobedifferent’.13Theeffectofanodouronahumanbeingwasdependentonavarietyoffactorswhichinclude:1.howtheodourwasapplied,2.howmuchwasapplied,

3.thecircumstancesinwhichitwasapplied,4.thepersontowhomitwasapplied(age,sex,personalitytype),5.whatmoodtheywereintostartwith,6.whatpreviousassociationstheymayhavewiththeodour,7.anosmia,orinabilitytosmell(certainscents).

Wemust,therefore,seekodoriferoussubstanceswhichpresentaffinitieswiththehumanbeingweintendtotreat,thosewhichwillcompensateforhisdeficienciesandthosewhichwillmakehisfacultiesblossom.Itwasbysearchingforthisremedythatweencounteredtheindividualprescription(IP),whichonallpointsrepresentstheidentityoftheindividual.14

Whenwebegintoconsiderindividualneeds,essentialoilsstart todemonstratetheversatilityof theirnature.The rose isagoodexample;a flowerwhichhasbeenassociatedwithbeauty, love, and spiritualdepth in folkloreand religioustexts(especiallySufi)butwhichalsohasalongtraditionofusageforphysicalconditions such as skin problems, regulating the female cycle, promoting thecirculation, purifying the blood and as a heart tonic. When we smell thefragranceof the rose, itcarriesall these richassociationswith it, affectingourmind and body simultaneously, where the effect is moulded by personalexperience.‘Thegeneraltrendofmodernthoughtisstrictlydualistic;psychicandsomatic

happeningsaretreatedasmutuallyexclusiveratherthaninclusive.’15Tryingtodisentanglespiritfrommatterleadsnowhere;asDavidHoffmansays,‘MindandMatteraremutuallyenfoldedprojectionsofahigherrealitywhichisneithermatternorconsciousness.’16

4.HOWTOUSEESSENTIALOILSATHOME

Essentialoilscanbeusedsimplyandeffectivelyathomeinavarietyofways,bothfortheirscentandfortheircosmeticandmedicinalqualities.Theycanbeusedasperfumesand to revivepotpourris; theycanbeadded to thebathandusedtomakeindividualbeautypreparations.Theycanalsobeemployedinthetreatmentofminorfirst-aidcasesandtohelppreventandrelievemanycommoncomplaints such as headaches, colds, period pains and aching muscles (seeTherapeutic Index). They should always be stored in a cool place in darkbottles to protect them from photo-oxidation with as little contact with air aspossible,andkeptoutofreachofchildren.Somehomeusesformanyessentialoilscanbefoundinthemainbodyofthe

book,butthefollowinglistsuggestsafewpossibleusesforindividualessencesandshowssomeofthewaysinwhichtheycanbeapplied.

MassageThisisthemethodfavouredbyprofessionalaromatherapists,whousuallycarryoutafullbodymassage.Specificessentialoilsarechosentosuit theconditionand temperament of the patient, and blended with a base oil, such as sweetalmondoilorgrapeseedoil.Theessentialoilcontentinablendshouldusuallybebetween1percentand3

percentdependingonthetypeofdisorder.Asageneralrule,physicalailmentslikerheumatismorindigestiondemandastrongerconcentrationthanthemoreemotionalornervousconditions.Aroughguidelineistosaythat20dropsofessentialoilisequivalenttoonemillilitre,sotomakeablenditispossibletousethefollowingproportions:

Essentialoil Baseoil20to60drops 100ml7to25drops 25ml3to5drops 1tsp

Massage is a relaxing andnourishingexperience in itself, not least becauseoftheunspokencommunicationbasedontouch,butitalsoensuresthattheoilsareeffectivelyabsorbedthroughtheskinandintothebloodstream.Forgeneralwell-being it is beneficial to practise self-massage on specific areas of the body,especially concentrating on the feet and hands. It is also useful to rub thoseparticularpartsofthebodythatarecausingdiscomfort;forexamplepeppermint(in dilution) can be rubbed on the stomach in a clockwise direction to easeindigestion;marjoramcanhelptorelaxtheneckandshouldersiftheyarestiff.

SkinOilsandLotionsTheessentialoilsarepreparedinmuchthesamemannerastheywouldbeforamassage,exceptthatthebaseoilshouldincludethemorenourishingoilssuchasjojoba,avocadoorapricotkerneloil.Theemphasishereisontreatingtheskinitself anddealingwithparticularproblems.Agentle circularmovementof thefingersisoftenenoughfortheoilstobeabsorbed;itisimportantnottodragontheskin,especially in thedelicateareasof theneckandaroundtheeyes.Roseand neroli are good for dry or mature complexions; geranium, bergamot andlemoncanhelpcombatacneandgreasyskin.Afewdropsofessentialoilcanalsobemixedintoablandcreamorlotion,or

addedtoabasicfacemask,whichmightincludeoatmeal,honeyorclaytogetherwiththepulpofvariousfruits.Insomeconditions,suchascoldsores(herpes)andathlete’sfoot,itisbettertouseanalcohol-basedlotionratherthananoilorcream.Thiscanbemadebyadding6dropsofessentialoilto5mlofisopropylalcoholorvodka.Thismixturecanbefurtherdilutedinalitreofboiledandcooledwaterfortreatingopencutsorsores,suchasthosecausedbychickenpoxorgenitalherpes.

HotandColdCompressesThis is a very effectiveway of using essential oils to relieve pain and reduceinflammation. A hot compress can be made by filling a bowl with very hotwater, then adding 4 or 5 drops of essential oil. Dip a folded piece of cottoncloth,cottonwooloraflannel intothebowl,squeezeout theexcesswaterandplacetheclothontheaffectedareauntilithascooledtobloodheat,thenrepeat.Hot compresses are particularly useful for backache, rheumatism and arthritis,abscesses,earacheandtoothache.Coldcompressesaremadeinasimilarway,usingicecoldratherthanhot

water.Thistypeofcompressisusefulforheadaches(applytoforeheadorback

water.Thistypeofcompressisusefulforheadaches(applytoforeheadorbackofneck),sprains,strainsandotherhot,swollenconditions.

HairCareThehaircanalsobeenhancedbytheuseofafewdropsofessentialoilsinthefinalhairrinseoraddedstraighttoamildshampoo.Analcohol-basedscalprubcan also bemade by adding 5ml of an essential oil to 100ml of vodka – thismethodcanbeusedtoconditionthehairortogetridofunwantedparasitessuchasliceandfleas.Anexcellentconditioningtreatmentfordifferenttypesofhaircanbemadeby adding about 3 per cent (or 60drops) of an essential oil to anourishingbaseoilsuchasoliveoilwithjojobaorsweetalmondoil,massagingitintothescalp,thenwrappingthehairinwarmtowelsforanhourortwo.Oilssuch as rosemary,West Indian bay and chamomile all help to condition andencourage healthy hair growth; lavender can be used to repel lice and fleas;bergamotandteatreecanhelpcontroldandruff.

Anapothecary’sshopwheremedicamentsarebeingconcoctedfromherbsanddistilledoils;fromasixteenth-centurymanuscript

FlowerWatersIt ispossible tomake toiletor flowerwaterathomebyaddingabout20 to30

dropsofessentialoiltoa100mlbottleofspringorde-ionizedwater,leavingitfor a few days in the dark and then filtering it using a coffee filter paper.Althoughessentialoilsdonotdissolveinwatertheydoimparttheirscenttoitaswellastheirproperties.Thismethodcanbeveryhelpfulinthepreventionandtreatmentofskin

conditionssuchasacne,dermatitisandeczema,andtogenerallytoneandcleansethecomplexion.Almostanyoilcanbeused,butthemoretraditionalonesincluderose,neroli,lavenderandpetitgrain;alternatively,blendedflowerwaterscanbemadetosuitspecificcomplexions.

BathsOneoftheeasiestandmostpleasurablewaysofusingessentialoilsistoadd5to10 drops of oil to the bath water when the tub is full. Aromatic bathing hastraditionallybeenusedasanenjoyableandsensualexperience,especiallybytheRomans; but also to treat awide rangeof complaints, including irritating skinconditions,muscularachesandpains,rheumatismandarthritis.Anessencesuchas ylang ylang can be enjoyed as a euphoric aromatic experience in itself;chamomile or lavender can help to relieve stress-related complaints such asanxietyorinsomnia;rosemaryorpinecanhelpsootheachinglimbs.Takecaretoavoidthoseoilswhichmaybeirritatingtotheskin.

VaporizationAdelightfulwaytoscentaroom,freeofthedustorsmokethatcanbecausedbyincense,istouseanoilburner,oraromaticdiffuser.Alternatively,afewdropsofoilcanbeplacedonalightbulbringoraddedtoasmallbowlofwaterplacedon a radiator. Specific oils can be chosen to create different atmospheres:frankincenseandcedarwoodhavebeenusedtraditionally inaritualcontext, tocreate a peaceful and relaxed mood. Vaporized oils such as citronella orlemongrassalsoprovideanexcellentwayofkeepinginsectsatbayorclearingtheairofunwantedsmellslikecigarettesmoke.Atonetime,theleavesofjuniperandrosemarywereburnttohelpcontrol

epidemicsandpurifytheair.Suchoilscanhelpkeeptheenvironmentfreeofgermsandinhibitthedevelopmentofinfectionslikethecommoncoldor’flu.Anoilsuchasmyrtleoreucalyptuscanbeusedinthebedroomatnighttohelpclearbreathingdifficultiesorchildren’scoughs.Afewdropsmayalsobeputonthepilloworontoahandkerchiefforusethroughouttheday.Alwaysensurethattheoilburnerisinasafeplaceandoutofreachofchildrenorpets.

theoilburnerisinasafeplaceandoutofreachofchildrenorpets.

SteamInhalationThismethodisespeciallysuitedtosinus,throatandchestinfections.Addabout5dropsofanoilsuchaspeppermintorthymetoabowlofhotwater,coverthehead and bowl with a towel and breathe deeply for a minute – then repeat.Sitting in a steaming hot bath is anotherway of inhaling a certain amount ofessentialoil,butobviouslyitisnotsoconcentrated.Thistypeofapplicationcanalsoactasakindoffacialsauna:oilslikelemonorteatreecanhelptounclogtheporesandclearthecomplexion.

DoucheThis can be useful to help combat common genito-urinary infections such asthrush,cystitisorpruritis.Inthecaseofcandidaorthrush,addbetween5and10dropsofteatreetoalitreofwarmwaterandshakewell.Thismixturecaneitherbe used in a sitz bath, bidet or put into an enema/douche pot, which can beboughtfromsomechemists.Certainoilssuchaslavenderandcypresscanalsoaidthehealingprocessafterchildbirth.

Oliveoil,cosmeticandunguentjars;fromDioscondes’sDeMateriaMedica,1543

NeatApplicationGenerally speaking, essential oils are not applied to the skin in an undilutedform.However,therearesomeexceptionstotherule:lavender,forexample,canbeappliedundilutedtoburns,cutsandinsectbites,teatreetospots,andlemonto warts. Certain essential oils such as sandalwood, jasmine or rose makeexcellent perfumes, dabbed neat on the skin. Beware of those oils which areknown to be phototoxic (discolour the skin when exposed to direct sunlight)such as bergamot; irritants such as red thyme; or skin sensitizers such ascinnamon bark. It can also be interesting to make an individual fragrance byblending a selection of oils – seeChapter 5.Certain oilsmay also be used to

perfumelinenandclothesorrejuvenatepotpourris:patchoulihasbeenusedforcenturiesinIndiatoscentcloth.

InternalUseDuetothehighconcentrationofessentialoils(andthehightoxicityofahandfulofessences) it isnot recommended that theybe takenathome in thismanner.TheInternationalFederationofAromatherapistsalsoadvisesagainstthismethodof application. However, since essential oils are readily absorbed through theskin,theycanaffecttheinternalorgansandsystemsofthebodybyexternaluse.Inaconditionsuchasarthritis,forexample,whichindicatesabuildupoftoxinsin the joints, the use of dietary measures and herbal remedies can be greatlyenhanced by the external application of oils such as juniper and white birchwhichhelptopurifythesystemaswellasreducepainandinflammationatthesiteoftheswelling.

ESSENTIAL OILS SHOULD NOT BE USED AT HOME TO TREATSERIOUSMEDICALORPSYCHOLOGICALPROBLEMS.

5.CREATIVEBLENDING

TherapeuticandAestheticPropertiesEssentialoilsareblendedprincipallyfortworeasons:fortheirmedicaleffectsorto create a perfume.Whenwe are using pure essential oils, these are not twodifferentcategoriesbutrathertwoendsofascale.Atoneendofthescalewearedealing with the therapeutic; action on a purely physical condition such asbackache – at the other end, with an emotional or aesthetic response to aparticularodour.But,of course, the individualwho is suffering from lumbagoalso has a psychic or emotional disposition ofwhich theymay ormay not beaware,whichwillnaturallyrespondinamoresubtlewaytoaparticularblendofoils.Similarly,whenwecreateapersonalperfumewhichexpressestheuniquepersonalityofanindividualthroughfragrance,ithasagenerallyremedialeffectonthepersonasawhole.

Anengravingshowingsixteenth-centuryperfumersatwork,withtheirchemicalapparatus;fromBrunschwig’sLiberdeArteDistillandideCompositis,1512

Therefore,whenweareblendingoils,evenifitisprincipallyfortheirmedicinalproperties,itisalwaysworthkeepingthefragranceinmind.Itismorepleasingtousearemedythatsmellsattractivetotheindividualconcerned.Somescentscanbequiteincompatible–apredominantlyfloralblend,forexample,wouldbeunacceptabletothemajorityofmen.Howtochoosetheoilsandcombinethemisverymuchamatterofpersonalchoice,buttherearesomeusefulguidelinestokeepinmind.

CorrectProportionsFortherapeuticpurposes,essentialoilsareusuallydilutedbeforebeingappliedtotheskin.Tomakeamassageorbodyoiltheessentialoiloroilsshouldfirstbemixedwith a light base oil such as grapeseed or sweet almond oil. (See alsoChapter4,HowtoUseEssentialOilsatHome.)Otheroilsthatcouldbeusedfor the base include sunflower, hazelnut, safflower, peanut, soya or corn oil –

mineral oils, however, are best avoided. The more nourishing and generallythicker oils which include jojoba, avocado, peach or apricot kernel, borage,olive,sesame,eveningprimroseandalsosomeinfusedoilssuchascalendulaorStJohn’swortcanalsobeincluded(uptoabout10percent)inthetreatmentofspecificconditions.Asmallquantityofwheatgermoil(about5percent)addedtotheblendwillhelptopreserveit.Theessentialoilcontentinablendshouldusuallybebetween1percentand3

percentdependingonthetypeofdisorder;asageneralrule,physicalailmentsdemandastrongerconcentrationthanthemoreemotionalornervousconditions.Someoils,suchasthehigh-qualityfloralsincludingroseandjasmine,havemorediffusivepowerthanmostotheressences–thismeansthataverysmallpercentageisallthatisneededtohaveapowerfuleffect,ortoinfluencethecharacterofanentireblend.

SynergiesThe proportions of each essential oil in a blend can also be vital to theeffectivenessoftheremedyasawhole(manyaromatherapybookscontainexactrecipes for specific disorders). Some oils blended together have a mutuallyenhancingeffectupononeanother,sothatthewholeisgreaterthanthesumoftheparts: forexample, theanti-inflammatoryactionofchamomile issupportedbybeingmixedwithlavender.Whentheblendedoilsareworkingharmoniouslytogether, then thecombination iscalleda ‘synergy’. ‘Inorder tocreateagoodsynergy,youmusttakeintoaccountnotonlythesymptomtobetreatedbutalsotheunderlyingcauseofthedisorder,thebiologicalterrain,andthepsychologicaloremotionalfactorsinvolved.’17ThisisverymuchtheconclusionthatMadameMauryreachedwhenshe

prescribedanIP(orIndividualPrescription)forherpatients,inwhichtheblendedessenceswerematchednotonlytotheirphysicalrequirements,butalsototheircircumstancesandtemperament.Ingeneral,oilsofthesamebotanicalfamilyblendwelltogether.Alsothose

whichsharecommonconstituentsusuallymixwell,suchasthecamphoraceousoilscontainingagoodpercentageofcineol,whichincludesallthemembersoftheMyrtaceaegroup(eucalyptus,teatree,cajeput,myrtle,etc.)butalsomanyherbsincludingspikelavender,rosemaryandSpanishsage.Mostfloralfragrancesblendwelltogether,asdothewoods,balsams,citrusoilsandspices,etc.Rosewoodandlinaloecombinewelltogether,althoughtheybelongto

differentbotanicalfamilies,sincetheybothcontainahighproportionoflinalolandlinalylacetate.Someoilssuchasrose,jasmine,oakmossandlavenderseemtoenhancejust

aboutanyblend,andcanbefound(mainlyinanadulteratedform)amongsttheingredientsofmostcommercialperfumes–‘noperfumewithoutrose’.Somecombinations,ontheotherhand,haveaninhibitingpoweroverone

another.Essenceswithapredominanceofaldehydes(suchascitronellaoilcontainingcitronella!),thosewithmainlyketones(suchassagecontainingthujone)andthosewithhighamountsofphenols(suchascloveoilcontainingeugenol),whencombinedwitheachothertendto‘pull’indifferentdirections.However,knowingtheprecisechemicalmake-upofeachoilisnotnecessaryforcreatingagoodsynergy;itisalsoamatterofgettingtoknowthe‘character’ofeachessentialoilandtrustingtheintuition.

FragrantHarmonyInthenineteenthcentury,aFrenchmancalledPiesseinstigatedanewapproachto perfumery work by classifying odours according to the notes in a musicalscale.He transposed the ideaofmusicalharmony into the realmof fragranceswherethecorrespondingnotestoeachscentformedperfectlybalancedchordsorharmonicswhentheywerecombinedtogether.ThepuristvisionofPiessehaslongsincebeendiscardedbutcontinuesto

provideinspirationinperfumeryworktodaysincetheoilsarestilldividedinto‘top’,‘middle’and‘base’notes.

Thetopnotehasafresh,lightqualitywhichisimmediatelyapparent,duetothefastevaporationrate.Themiddlenoteistheheartofthefragrance,whichusuallyformsthebulkoftheblend,whosescentemergessometimeafterthefirstimpression.Thebasenoteisarich,heavyscentthatemergesslowlyandlingers.Italsoactsasafixativetostopthelighteroilsfromdispersingtooquickly.

Ylangylangissaidtobeawell-balancedperfumeoilinitsownright.Itcouldbedescribedashavingaverypowerfulsweetfloraltopnote,acreamy-richmiddlenote,andasoftfloral,slightlyspicybasenote.Forthesakeofsimplicity,eachessentialoilisalsoclassifiedinthisway

accordingtoitsdominantcharacter–althoughtherearemanydifferentopinionsonthematter!Thefollowinglistprovidesnothingmorethanageneralidea:

Topnotesteatree,eucalyptus,mandarin,lemon,basilMiddlenotesgeranium,lavender,marjoram,rosewood,rosemaryBasenotespatchouli,rose,jasmine,benzoin,frankincense,myrrh

Awell-balancedperfumeissaidtocontainelementsfromeachofthesedifferentcategories,thequantitiesofeachdeterminingwhetheritisaheavyoriental-typescentoralightfloralaroma.Althoughthistheoryisusedprimarilyinfragrancework,thesameprinciplescanalsobeappliedtoaromatherapyandpersonalizedremedies.

PersonalPerfumesCreating a perfume or an individual fragrance is like painting a picture ormakingameal: it needs the correctbalanceof coloursor flavours,neither toosparsenortoocrowded;italsogenerallyhasatheme.Aperfumeshouldhaveafocusaroundwhichotherfragrancesunite.Forexample,ifwewanttocreateanoriental fragrance or a heart-warming, elevating type of blend, thenwoody ormuskyoilsandbalsamswillplayacentralrole.Theexoticperfume‘Shalimar’by Guerlain contains a predominance of such oils, containing among itsingredients Peru balsam, benzoin, opopanax, vanilla, patchouli, rose, jasmine,orrisandvetiveraswellasrosewood,lemon,bergamotandmandarin.Homeperfumesneednotbesocomplex:roseandbenzoin(basenotes),

rosewood(middlenote)andbergamot(topnote)wouldtogethermakeapleasingcombinationwithanuplifting,warmingquality.Rosewoodisanoilwhichcanbeusedtoroundoffsharpedges,aswellasprovidingagoodbridgebetweencitrusandfloralorwoody-balsamicnotes.Theoverallcharacterofaperfumealsobenefitsfromunusualordiversecombinationswhichcanhelptogivepersonalitytoanotherwise‘flat’fragrance.Afloralfragrancewithahintofspicesuchascloveorcinnamoncanadddepthandinterest,butthepercentageofsuchadditionsiscriticalbecausetheycaneasilyupsetthebalance.Askilledperfumiercanidentifysome30,000differentodours,buttobegin

withitisbesttobecomefamiliarwithafewcommonoilsanddevelopfromthere.Byinitiallykeepingtoamaximumofthreeorfouroilsperblenditispossibletokeepintouchwiththeirindividualscentsandqualities,thenslowlybuildupapersonalvocabularyofodours.Mostcommercialperfumesaredilutedinalcohol;atypicaleaudecologne

containsnomorethan3–5percentaromaticmaterial,usuallysynthetic.Home-madeperfumesarebestmadeupsimplyofpureessences,whichlastlongerand

maybeusedneatontheskinorinthebath,etc.Personalexperimentationistheonlywaytoreallyfindoutwhatworks,forthe

uniquequalityofessentialoilsisthattheypossessanarrayoftherapeuticpossibilitiescomplementedbyavastspectrumoffragranceswhichcanbemixedinendlesscombinations!InthewordsofJohnSteele:

Creativeblendingisanaestheticalchemicalprocess…learningto‘listenthroughthenose’.Tolistenistobereceptive,tobeempty.Everydropshiftstheorchestrationofolfactoryvibrations,the‘songoftheblend’.Ablendisnotmadeatonce,ratheritevolves,itorganicallygrowsandinteractsnotonlywiththeessentialoils,butalsowiththeblender.18

Variousstagesofthealchemicalprocess,includingtheappearanceofthegoldenflower;fromMutusliber,1702

6.AGUIDETOAROMATICMATERIALS

HabitatOverthirtyfamiliesofplants,withsomeninetyspecies,representthemainoil-producing group. The majority of spices (allspice, cardamon, clove, nutmeg,ginger, etc.) originate in tropical countries; conversely, the majority of herbsgrow in temperate climates (bay, cumin, dill, marjoram, fennel, lavender,rosemary, thyme, etc.). The same plant grown in a different region and underdifferentconditionscanproduceessentialoilsofwidelydiversecharacteristics,which are known as ‘chemotypes’. Common thyme (Thymus vulgaris), forexample, produces several chemotypes depending on the conditions of itsgrowthanddominantconstituent,notablythecitralorlinaloltypes,thethuyanoltype,andthethymolorcarvacroltype.Itisthereforeimportantnotonlytoknowthebotanicalnameoftheplantfromwhichanoilhasbeenproduced,butalsoitsplace of origin and main constituents. One of the main ways of defining thequalities of a particular oil and checking its purity is to ascertain the specificblendof/componentsandlookatitschemicalcharacter.

ChemistryIngeneral,essentialoilsconsistofchemicalcompoundswhichhavehydrogen,carbonandoxygenas theirbuildingblocks.Thesecanbe subdivided into twogroups: the hydrocarbons which are made up almost exclusively of terpenes(monoterpenes,sesquiterpenesandditerpenes);andtheoxygenatedcompounds,mainlyesters,aldehydes,ketones,alcohols,phenolsandoxides;acids,lactones,sulphurandnitrogencompoundsaresometimesalsopresent.

TerpenesCommonterpenehydrocarbonsincludelimonene(antiviral,foundin90percentof citrus oils) and pinene (antiseptic, found in high proportions in pine andturpentine oils); also camphene, cadinene, caryophyllene, cedrene, dipentene,phellandrene, terpinene, sabinene, and myrcene among others. Somesesquiterpenes,suchaschamazuleneandfarnesol(bothfoundinchamomileoil),

have been the object of great interest recently due to their outstanding anti-inflammatoryandbactericidalproperties.

EstersProbably the most widespread group found in essential oils, which includeslinalylacetate(foundinbergamot,clarysageandlavender),andgeranylacetate(found insweetmarjoram).Theyarecharacteristically fungicidalandsedative,oftenhavingafruityaroma.Otherestersincludebornylacetate,eugenylacetateandlavendulylacetate.

AldehydesCitral, citronellal and neral are important aldehydes found notably in lemon-scented oils such as melissa, lemongrass, lemon verbena, lemon-scentedeucalyptus,citronellaetc.Aldehydesingeneralhaveasedativeeffect;citralhasbeen found to have specifically antiseptic properties. Other aldehydes includebenzaldehyde,cinnamicaldehyde,cuminicaldehydeandperillaldehyde.

KetonesSomeofthemostcommontoxicconstituentsareketones,suchasthujonefoundinmugwort,tansy,sageandwormwood;andpulegonefoundinpennyroyalandbuchu–butthisdoesnotmeanthatallketonesaredangerous.Non-toxicketonesinclude jasmone found in jasmine, and fenchone in fennel oil. Generallyconsideredtoeasecongestionandaidtheflowofmucus,ketonesareoftenfoundin plantswhich are used for upper respiratory complaints, such as hyssop andsage.Otherketones includecamphor,carvone,menthane,methylnonylketoneandpinocamphone.

AlcoholsOneof themost useful groupsof compounds, tending tohavegood antisepticand antiviral propertieswith an uplifting quality; they are also generally non-toxic. Some of the most common terpene alcohols include linalol (found inrosewood, linaloe and lavender), citronellol (found in rose, lemon eucalyptusandgeranium)andgeraniol(foundinpalmarosa);alsoborneol,menthol,nerol,terpineol,farnesol,vetiverol,benzylalcoholandcedrolamongothers.

Phenols

Thesetendtohaveabactericidalandstronglystimulatingeffect,butcanbeskinirritants. Common phenols include eugenol (found in clove and West Indianbay), thymol (found in thyme), carvacrol (found in oregano and savory); alsomethyleugenol,methylchavicol,anethole,safrole,myristicinandapiolamongothers.

OxidesByfarthemostimportantoxideiscineol(oreucalyptol)whichstandsvirtuallyinaclassof itsown. Ithasanexpectorant effect,wellknownas theprincipalconstituent of eucalyptus oil. It is also found in a wide range of other oils,especiallythoseofacamphoraceousnaturesuchasrosemary,laurel,teatreeandcajeput.Otheroxidesincludelinaloloxidefoundinhyssop(decumbentvariety),ascaridol,bisabololoxideandbisaboloneoxide.

MethodsofExtractionIn general, the term ‘essential oil’ is rather loosely applied to all aromaticproductsorextractsderivedfromnaturalsources,includingconcretes,resinoidsandabsoluteswhichcontainamixtureofvolatileandnon-volatilecomponents,suchaswaxor resin.This isnot strictlyaccurate, since theyareonlypartiallycomposedofessentialoilsandareobtainedbydifferentmethodsofproduction,which include the useof solvents ormore recently, carbondioxide extraction.However, it isalwaystheessentialoilcontent inagivenproduct thataccountsforitsaromaticquality.

Someplantmaterials,especiallyflowers,aresubjecttodeteriorationandshouldbeprocessedassoonaspossibleafterharvesting;others,includingseedsandroots,areeitherstoredortransportedforextraction,oftentoEuropeorAmerica.Themethodofextractionwhichisemployeddependsonthequalityofthematerialwhichisbeingused,andthetypeofaromaticproductthatisrequired.

EssentialOilsAnessential oil is extracted from theplantmaterial by twomainmethods: bysimple expression or pressure, as is the case with most of the citrus oilsincluding lemon and bergamot, or by steam, water or dry distillation. Themajority of oils such as lavender, myrrh, sandalwood and cinnamon areproducedbysteamdistillation.Thisprocessonlyisolatesthevolatileandwater-insoluble parts of a plant – any other (often valuable) constituents, such astannins,mucilageandbitters,areconsequentlyexcludedfromtheessentialoil.Sometimestheresultingoilisredistilledorrectifiedtogetridofanyremainingnon-volatilematter;someessentialoilsareredistilledatdifferenttemperaturestoobtaincertainconstituentsandexcludeothers–aswithcamphorwhichissplitintothreefractions,white,yellowandbrown.

Theprocessofsteamdistillationasitispractisedtoday

Essentialoilsareusuallyliquid,butcanalsobesolid(orris)orsemi-solidaccordingtotemperature(rose).Theydissolveinpurealcohol,fatsandoilsbutnotinwaterand,unliketheso-called‘fixed’plantoils(suchasoliveoil),they

notinwaterand,unliketheso-called‘fixed’plantoils(suchasoliveoil),theyevaporatewhenexposedtoairleavingnooilyresiduebehind.

ConcretesConcretes are prepared almost exclusively from raw materials of vegetableorigin,suchasthebark,flower,leaf,herborroot.Thearomaticplantmaterialissubjected toextractionbyhydrocarbon-typesolvents, rather thandistillationorexpression.Thisisnecessarywhentheessentialoilisadverselyaffectedbyhotwater and steam, as is the casewith jasmine; it also produces amore trueto-naturefragrance.Someplants,suchaslavenderandclarysage,areeithersteamdistilled to produce an essential oil or used to produce a concrete by solventextraction.Theremainingresidueisusuallysolidandofawaxynon-crystallineconsistency.Mostconcretescontainabout50percentwax,50percentvolatileoil,suchas

jasmine;inrarecases,aswithylangylang,theconcreteisliquidandcontainsabout80percentessentialoil,20percentwax.Theadvantageofconcretesisthattheyaremorestableandconcentratedthanpureessentialoils.

ResinoidsResinoids are prepared from natural resinous material by extraction with ahydrocarbonsolvent,suchaspetroleumetherorhexane.Incontradistinctiontoconcretes, the resinoids are prepared from dead organic material, whereasconcretesarederivedfrompreviouslylivetissue.Typicalresinousmaterialsarebalsams (Peru balsam or benzoin), resins (mastic and amber), oleoresins(copaibabalsamandturpentine)andoleogumresins(frankincenseandmyrrh).Resinoids can be viscous liquids, semi-solid or solid, but are usuallyhomogeneous masses of non-crystalline character. Occasionally the alcohol-solublefractionofaresinoidiscalledanabsolute.Someresinousmaterialslikefrankincenseandmyrrhareusedeithertomake

anessentialoilbysteamdistillationoraresinabsolutebyalcoholextractiondirectlyfromthecrudeoleogumresin.Benzoin,ontheotherhand,isinsufficientlyvolatiletoproduceanessentialoilbydistillation:liquidbenzoinisoftensimplyabenzoinresinoiddissolvedinasuitablesolventorplasticizingdiluent.Likeconcretes,resinoidsareemployedinperfumeryasfixativestoprolong

theeffectofthefragrance.

AbsolutesAn absolute is obtained from the concrete by a second process of solventextraction, using pure alcohol (ethanol) in which the unwanted wax is onlyslightly soluble. An absolute is usually subjected to repeated treatment withalcohol;evenso,asisthecasewithorangeflowerabsolute,asmallproportionofthewaxremains.Absolutescanbefurtherprocessedbymoleculardistillationwhichremoveseverylasttraceofnon-volatilematter.Thealcoholisrecoveredbyevaporationwhichrequiresagentlevacuumtowardstheendoftheprocess.Someabsolutes,however,willstillretaintracesofethylalcohol,atabout2percent or less, and are not recommended for therapeutic work because of theseimpurities.Absolutesareusuallyhighlyconcentratedviscousliquids,buttheycanin

somecasesbesolidorsemi-solid(clarysageabsolute).Inrecentyears,muchresearchhasbeendevotedtotheextractionofessentialoilsandaromaticmaterialsusingliquidcarbondioxide;oilsproducedinthismannerareofexcellentodourqualityandareentirelyfreeofunwantedsolventresiduesornon-volatilematter.

PomadesTrue pomades are the products of a process known as enfleurage, which isvirtually obsolete today. This was once the principal method for obtainingaromaticmaterials from flowers that continued to produce perfume long aftertheywerecut.Aglassplatewascoveredinathincoatingofspeciallypreparedandodourless fat,calledachassis.Thefreshlycut flowers,suchas jasmineortuberose, were individually laid in the fat which became saturated with theirvolatile oils. The chassis would be frequently renewed with fresh materialthroughout the harvest. Eventually the fragrance-saturated fat, known aspomade, would be treated by extraction with alcohol to produce the pureabsoluteorperfume.

PeriodsoftheyearforthetreatmentofvariousflowersoncegrowninProvence,France

Naturalversus‘NatureIdentical’Manyperfumesoroils,onceobtainedfromflowerssuchascarnation,gardeniaand lilac, are nowadays produced almost entirely synthetically. In thepharmaceuticalindustrythesechemicallyconstructedproductsarecalled‘natureidentical’. The perfumery and flavouring industries require continuity in theirproductsandnaturallyoccurringsubstancesarealwayssubjecttochange,duetoseasonalconditions.However, the so-called ‘nature identical’productsand thenaturallyoccurringessentialoilsareofanentirelydifferentcharacter,whichisreflected in their relative costs – the synthetic types being much cheaper toproduce than the genuine ones. Many aromatic oils, such as lavender orgeranium,containarelativelysmallnumberofmajorconstituents,severalminor

constituentsandalsoaverylargenumberoftraceelements.Toreconstructsuchacomplexcombinationofcomponentsincludingallthetraceelements,wouldbevirtuallyimpossible.Most‘natureidentical’oilsaresaidtobeonlyabout96percentpureoraccurate,yetitistheremaining4percent,thetraceelements,thatoften really define a particular fragrance. Such is the case with galbanum oilwherethepyrazines,presentatratherlessthan0.1percent,areresponsibleforthepowerfulgreenodouroftheoil.Itisalsothespecificcombinationofconstituentsinarealessentialoil,

includingthetraceelements,whichgiveitvaluetherapeutically.Thereasonforthismightbethattheseminuteamountsoftraceelementshaveasynergisticorcontrollingeffectonthemainones.Forexample,thereareover300differentconstituentsinrose,someofwhichhavenotyetbeenidentified,whichiswhysyntheticroseoilisunconvincing.‘Natureidentical’oilscannotbeusedtherapeuticallyassubstitutesforthenaturallyoccurringaromaticmaterials,notonlybecausethesubtlebalanceofconstituentsislostbutalsobecausetheylackthevital‘lifeforce’ofoilsofnaturalorigin.

PartII

THEOILS

A

AJOWANTrachyspermumcopticum

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMST.ammi,Ammicopticum,Carumajowan,C.copticum,Ptychotisajowan,ajuan,omum.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnannualherbwithagreyish-brownseed,whichresemblesparsleyinappearance.

DISTRIBUTIONChiefly India, alsoAfghanistan, Egypt, theWest Indies andtheSeychelleIslands.

OTHERSPECIESseeBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheseedsareusedextensivelyincurrypowdersand as a general household remedy for intestinal problems. The tincture,essentialoiland‘thymol’areusedinIndianmedicine,particularlyforcholera.

ACTIONSPowerfulantisepticandgermicide,carminative.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheseed.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellow-orange or reddish liquid with a herbaceous-spicymedicinalodour,muchlikethyme.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThymol, pinene, cymene, dipentene, terpineneandcarvacrol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAPossiblemucousmembrane and dermal irritant.Due to high

thymollevel,shouldbeavoidedinpregnancy.Toxicitylevelsareunknown.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENotrecommended.

OTHERUSESIthasbeenusedextensivelyfortheisolationofthymol,butthishaslargelybeenreplacedbysyntheticthymol.

ALLSPICEPimentadioica

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSP.officinalis,pimento,pimenta,Jamaicapepper.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreentreewhichreachesabout10metreshighandbeginstoproducefruitinitsthirdyear.Eachfruitcontainstwokidney-shapedgreenseedswhichturnglossyblackuponripening.

DISTRIBUTION Indigenous to the West Indies and South America, it iscultivated extensively in Jamaica, Cuba and, to a lesser degree, in CentralAmerica.ImportedberriesaredistilledinEuropeandAmerica.

OTHER SPECIES Four other varieties of pimento are found in Venezuela,GuyanaandtheWestIndieswhichareusedlocallyasspices.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION Used for flatulent indigestion and externallyforneuralgicorrheumaticpain.Pimentowaterisusedasavehicleformedicineswhicheasedyspepsiaandconstipationsinceithelpspreventgripingpains.Itisusedextensivelyasadomesticspice–allspiceissocalledbecauseittasteslikeacombinationofcloves,juniperberries,cinnamonandpepper.

ACTIONSAnaesthetic,analgesic,anti-oxidant,antiseptic,carminative,musclerelaxant,rubefacient,stimulant,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfrom1.theleaves,and2.thefruit. The green unripe berries contain more oil than the ripe berries, but the

largestpercentageofoiliscontainedintheshellofthefruit.Anoleoresinfromtheberriesisalsoproducedinsmallquantities.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Pimentaleafoilisayellowish-redorbrownishliquidwith a powerful sweet-spicy scent, similar to cloves. 2. Pimenta berry oil is apale yellow liquid with a sweet warm balsamic-spicy bodynote (middle note)and fresh, clean top note. It blends well with ginger, geranium, lavender,opopanax,labdanum,ylangylang,patchouli,neroli,orientalandspicybases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainly eugenol, less in the fruit (60–80 percent) than in the leaves (up to 96 per cent), also methyl eugenol, cineol,phellandreneandcryophylleneamongothers.

SAFETYDATAEugenolirritatesthemucousmembranes,andhasbeenfoundto cause dermal irritation. Pimenta leaf andberry oil should therefore be usedwithcareinlowdilutionsonly.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculation,muscles and joints: Arthritis, fatigue,muscle cramp, rheumatism,stiffnessetc.‘Usedintinyamounts…inamassageoilforchestinfections,forsevere muscle spasm to restore mobility quickly, or where extreme cold isexperienced.’1RespiratorySystem:Chills,congestedcoughs,bronchitis.DigestiveSystem:Cramp,flatulence,indigestion,nausea.NervousSystem:Depression,nervousexhaustion,neuralgia,tensionandstress.

OTHER USES Used in aromatic carminative medicines; as a fragrancecomponent incosmeticsandperfumes,especiallysoaps,aftershaves,spicyandoriental fragrances.Both leaf andberryoil areusedextensively for flavouringfoods,especiallysavouryandfrozenfoods,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

ALMOND,BITTERPrunusdulcisvar.amara

FAMILYRosaceae

SYNONYMSP. amygdalus var.amara,Amygdalus communis var.amara,A.dulcis,P.communis.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The almond tree grows to a height of about 7metres and is popular as a garden tree due to its pinky-white blossom. It isbotanicallyclassifiedasadrupe.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Western Asia and North Africa, it is nowextensively cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region, Israel andCalifornia.

AlmondTree

OTHERSPECIESTherearetwomaintypesofalmondtree–bitterandsweet.Thesweetalmonddoesnotproduceanyessentialoil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A ‘fixed’ oil commonly known as ‘sweetalmond oil’ is made by pressing the kernels from both the sweet and bitteralmond trees. Unlike the essential oil, this fixed oil does not contain anybenzaldehyde or prussic acid, and has manymedical and cosmetic uses. It isused as a laxative, for bronchitis, coughs, heartburn and for disorders of thekidneys, bladder and biliary ducts. It helps relieve muscular aches and pains,softenstheskinandpremotesaclearcomplexion.

ACTIONSAnaesthetic,antispasmodic,narcotic,vermifuge(FFPA).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the kernels. The nutsarefirstpressedandmaceratedinwarmwaterfor12to24hoursbeforetheoilisextracted.Itisduringthisprocessthattheprussicacidisformed;itisnotpresentin the raw seed.Most commercial bitter almond oil is rectified to remove allprussicacid,i.e.freefromprussicacid(FFPA).

CHARACTERISTICSLightcolourlessliquidwithacharacteristic‘marzipan’scent(FFPA).

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS Benzaldehyde (95 per cent), prussic acid (3percent).

SAFETYDATAPrussicacid,alsoknownashydrocyanicacidorcyanide,isawell-knownpoison.Benzaldehydeisalsomoderatelytoxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedintherapyeitherinternallyorexternally.’2

OTHER USES Bitter almond oil is no longer used for internal medication.Rectified bitter almond oil is used for flavouring foods,mainly confectionery;themost commonuses are ‘almondessence’ andmarzipan.Theoil (FFPA) isincreasinglybeingreplacedbysyntheticbenzaldehydeinfoodflavourings.

AMBRETTESEEDAbelmoschusmoschatus

FAMILYMalvaceae

SYNONYMSHibiscusabelmoschus,musk seed,Egyptianalcee, target-leavedhibiscus,muskmallow.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen shrub about 1.5 metres high,bearing large single yellow flowerswith a purple centre. The capsules, in the

formoffive-corneredpyramids,containthegreyish-brownkidney-shapedseedswhichhaveamuskyodour.

DISTRIBUTION Indigenous to India; widely cultivated in tropical countriesincluding Indonesia, Africa, Egypt, China, Madagascar, and the West Indies.DistillationoftheoilisgenerallycarriedoutinEuropeandAmerica.

OTHERSPECIESAvariety,H.esculentus, isgrown largely in Istanbulasademulcent.AnothervarietyisalsofoundinMartinique,theseedsofwhichhaveamoredelicatescent.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Generally used as a stimulant and to easeindigestion,crampandnervousdyspepsia.InChinesemedicineitisusedtotreatheadache;inEgypttheseedsareusedtosweetenthebreathandaremadeintoanemulsionwithmilk to be used for itch. TheArabs use the seeds tomixwithcoffee.WidelyusedasadomesticspiceintheEast.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, nervine, stimulant,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationoftheseeds.Liquidambretteseedoilshouldbeallowedtoageforseveralmonthsbeforeitisused.Aconcreteandabsolutearealsoproducedbysolventextraction.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-red liquid with a rich, sweet floral-muskyodour,verytenacious.Itblendswellwithrose,neroli,sandalwood,clarysage,cypress,patchouli,orientaland‘sophisticated’bases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAmbrettolide,ambrettolicacid,palmiticacidandfarnesol.

SAFETYDATAAvailable information indicates theoil tobenon-toxic,non-irritantandnon-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationmusclesandjoints:Cramp,fatigue,muscularachesandpains,poorcirculation.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESEmployedbythecosmeticandperfumeryindustriesinoriental-type scents and for the adulteration of musk; also used as a musk substitute.Used for flavouring alcoholic and soft drinks as well as some foodstuffs,especiallyconfectionery.

AMYRISAmyrisbalsamifera

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMS Schimmelia oleifera, West Indian sandalwood, West Indianrosewood.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small bushy tree with compound leaves andwhiteflowerswhichgrowswildinthicketsallovertheislandofHaiti.

DISTRIBUTIONMainlyHaiti,ithasnowbeenintroducedtotropicalzonesallovertheworld,e.g.Jamaica,SouthandCentralAmerica.

OTHERSPECIESNottobeconfusedwithEastIndianorMysoresandalwood(Santalumalbum),towhichitbearsnorelation.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThelocalscallit‘candlewood’becauseofitshighoil content; it burns like a candle. It is used as a torchby fishermen andtraders.Italsomakesexcellentfurniturewood.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,balsamic,sedative.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthebroken-upwoodandbranches.Bestifthewoodisseasonedfirst.Itprovidesaveryplentifulyield.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, slightly viscous liquid with a musty,faintly woody scent, quickly fading away. It blends well with lavandin,

citronella,oakmoss,sassafras,cedarwoodandotherwoodoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCaryophyllene,cadineneandcadinol.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-irritant; no other information available atpresent.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEPerfume.

OTHERUSESAsacheapsubstitute forEast Indiansandalwood inperfumesand cosmetics, although it does not have the same rich tenacity; chieflyemployed as a fixative in soaps. Limited application in flavouring work,especiallyliqueurs.

ANGELICAAngelicaarchangelica

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSA.officinalis,Europeanangelica,gardenangelica.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargehairyplantwithfernyleavesandumbelsofwhiteflowers.Ithasastrongaromaticscentandalargerhizome.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEuropeandSiberia,cultivatedmainlyinBelgium,HungaryandGermany.

OTHERSPECIESThereareoverthirtydifferenttypesofangelicabutthisisthemostcommonlyusedmedicinally.seeBotanicalClassificationsection.HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisherbhasbeenpraisedforitsvirtuessinceantiquity.

Angelica

Itstrengthenstheheart,stimulatesthecirculationandtheimmunesystemingeneral.IthasbeenusedforcenturiesinEuropeforbronchialailments,colds,coughs,indigestion,windandtostimulatetheappetite.Asaurinaryantisepticitishelpfulincystitisandisalsousedforrheumaticinflammation.TheChineseemployatleasttenkindsofangelica,wellknownforpromotingfertility,fortifyingthespiritandfortreatingfemaledisordersgenerally;ithasareputationsecondonlytoginseng.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforbronchitisassociatedwithvasculardeficiency.CandiedAngelicastalksarepopularinFranceandSpain.

ACTIONSAntispasmodic,carminative,depurative,diaphoretic,digestive,diuretic,emmenagogue,expectorant,febrifuge,nervine,stimulant,stomachic,tonic.Reportedtohavebactericidalandfungicidalproperties.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilproducedbysteamdistillationfromthe1.rootsandrhizomes,and,2.fruitorseed.Anabsoluteisalsoproducedonasmallscale,fromtheroots.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Acolourlessorpaleyellowoilwhichturnsyellowy-brownwithage,witharichherbaceous-earthybodynote.2.Theseedoilisacolourlessliquidwithafresher,spicytopnote.Itblendswellwithpatchouli,opopanax,costus,clarysage,oakmoss,vetiverandwithcitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSRootandseedoilcontainphellandrene,pinene,limonene,linalolandborneol;richincoumarinsincludingosthol,angelicin,bergaptenandimperatorin;alsocontainsplantacids.

SAFETYDATABothrootandseedoilarenontoxicandnon-irritant.Therootoil(nottheseedoil)isphototoxic,probablyduetohigherlevelsofbergapten.Nottobeusedduringpregnancyorbydiabetics.AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Dullandcongestedskin,irritatedconditions,psoriasis.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, gout,rheumatism,waterretention.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,coughs.DigestiveSystem:Anaemia,anorexia,flatulence,indigestion.NervousSystem:Fatigue,migraine,nervoustensionandstress-relateddisorders.

Immunesystem:Colds.

OTHERUSESHighlyvaluedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,lotionsandperfumesespeciallycolognes,orientalandheavychypresfragrances.Itisemployedinsomecosmeticsforitssoothingeffectonskincomplaints.Usedextensivelyasaflavouringagentinmostfoodcategories,andinalcoholicandsoftdrinks,especiallyliqueurs.

ANISE,STARIlliciumverum

FAMILYIlliciaceae

SYNONYMSChineseanise,illicium,Chinesestaranise.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONEvergreentreeupto12metreshighwithatall,slenderwhitetrunk.Itbearsfruitwhichconsistoffivetothirteenseed-bearingfolliclesattachedtoacentralaxisintheshapeofastar.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosoutheastChina,alsoVietnam,IndiaandJapan.MainlyproducedinChina.

OTHERSPECIESSeveralotherrelatedspecies,e.g.Japanesestaranisewhich

ishighlypoisonous!

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONUsedinChinesemedicineforover1300yearsforitsstimulatingeffectonthedigestivesystemandforrespiratorydisorderssuchasbronchitisandunproductivecoughs.IntheEastgenerally,itisusedasaremedyforcolicandrheumatism,andoftenchewedaftermealstosweetenthebreathandpromotedigestion.Acommonorientaldomesticspice.

StarAnise

ACTIONSAntiseptic,carminative,expectorant,insectrepellent,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefruits,freshorpartiallydried.Anoilisalsoproducedfromtheleavesinsmallquantities.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowliquidwithawarm,spicy,extremelysweet,liquoricelikescent.Itblendswellwithrose,lavender,orange,pineandotherspiceoils,andhasexcellentmaskingproperties.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTrans-anethole(80–90percent).

SAFETYDATADespitetheanetholecontent,itdoesnotappeartobeadermalirritant,unlikeaniseed.Inlargedosesitisnarcoticandslowsdownthe

circulation;itcanleadtocerebraldisorders.Useinmoderationonly.AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationMusclesAndJoints:Muscularachesandpains,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,coughs.DigestiveSystem:Colic,cramp,flatulence,indigestion.

Immunesystem:Colds.

OTHERUSESBythepharmaceuticalindustryincoughmixtures,lozenges,etc.andtomaskundesirableodoursandflavoursindrugs.Asafragrancecomponentinsoaps,toothpasteanddetergentsaswellascosmeticsandperfumes.Widelyusedforflavouringfood,especiallyconfectionery,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

ANISEEDPimpinellaanisum

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSAnisumofficinalis,A.vulgare,anise,sweetcumin.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnannualherb,lessthanametrehigh,withdelicateleavesandwhiteflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoGreeceandEgypt,nowwidelycultivatedmainlyinIndiaandChinaandtoalesserextentinMexicoandSpain.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveraldifferentchemotypesofaniseedaccordingtothecountryoforigin.Nottobeconfusedwithstaranise,whichbelongstoadifferentfamilyaltogether.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONWidelyusedasadomesticspice.Thevolatileoilcontentprovidesthebasisforitsmedicinalapplications:dryirritablecoughs,bronchitisandwhoopingcough.Theseedcanbeusedinsmokingmixtures.Aniseedteaisusedforinfantcatarrh,alsoflatulence,colicandgripingpains,alsoforpainfulperiodsandtopromotebreastmilk.InTurkeyapopularalcoholicdrink,raki,ismadefromtheseed.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,carminative,diuretic,expectorant,

galactagogue,stimulant,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheseeds.

CHARACTERISTICSColourlesstopaleyellowliquidwithawarm,spicy-sweetcharacteristicscent.Likestaranise,itisagoodmaskingagent.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTrans-anethole(75–90percent).

SAFETYDATAItsmajorcomponent,anethole,isknowntocausedermatitisinsomeindividuals–avoidinallergicandinflammatoryskinconditions.Inlargedosesitisnarcoticandslowsdownthecirculation;canleadtocerebraldisorders.Useinmoderationonly.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeestaranise.

OTHERUSESBythepharmaceuticalindustryincoughmixturesandlozengesandtomaskundesirableflavoursindrugs.Alsousedindentifricesandasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,toothpaste,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes,mostlyoftheindustrialtype.Employedinallmajorfoodcategories.

ARNICAArnicamontana

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSA.fulgens,A.sororia,leopard’sbane,wolf’sbane.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialalpineherbwithacreepingundergroundstem,givingrisetoarosetteofpaleovalleaves.Thefloweringerectstemisupto60cmshigh,bearingasingle,brightyellow,daisy-likeflower.Thewholeplantisverydifficulttocultivate.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetonorthernandcentralEurope;alsofoundgrowingwildintheUSSR,ScandinaviaandnorthernIndia.TheoilisproducedmainlyinFrance,BelgiumandGermany.

OTHERSPECIESArelatedplant,A.cordifolia,andotherspeciesofarnicaareusedinAmerica,whereitisknownas‘mountaintobacco’.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisherbstimulatestheperipheralbloodsupplywhenappliedexternally,andisconsideredoneofthebestremediesforbruisesandsprains.Ithelpsrelieverheumaticpainandotherpainfulorinflammatoryskinconditions,solongastheskinisnotbroken!Itisneverusedinternallyduetotoxicitylevels.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,stimulant,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationof1.flowers,and2.root.Theyieldofessentialoilisverysmall.Anabsolute,tinctureandresinoidarealsoproduced.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Ayellowy-orangeliquidwithagreenish-bluehintandastrongbitter-spicyscentreminiscentofradish.2.Darkyelloworbutter-brownoilmoreviscousthanthefloweroil,withastrongbitterscent.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThymohydroquinonedimethylether(80percentapprox.),isobutyricesterofphlorol(20percentapprox.)andotherminortraces.

SAFETYDATATheessentialoilishighlytoxicandshouldneverbeusedinternallyoronbrokenskin.However,thetinctureorarnicaointmentarevaluableadditionstothehomemedicinecabinet.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESThetinctureismainlyemployedinpharmaceuticalskinproducts.Theoilfromtheflowersfindsoccasionaluseinherbaceous-typeperfumes.Itisalsousedtoflavourcertainliqueurs.

ASAFETIDAFerulaasa-foetida

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSAsafoetida,gumasafetida,devil’sdung,foodofthegods,giantfennel.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargebranchingperennialherbupto3metres

high,withathickfleshyrootsystemandpaleyellow-greenflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAfghanistan,IranandotherregionsofsouthwestAsia.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralotherspeciesofFerulawhichyieldtheoleoresinknownas‘asafetida’,e.g.Tibetanasafetida,whichisalsousedtoalesserextentincommerce.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInChinesemedicineithasbeenusedsincetheseventhcenturyasanervestimulantintreatingneurasthenia.ItisalsowidelyusedintraditionalIndianmedicine,whereitisbelievedtostimulatethebrain.Ingeneral,ithasthereputationfortreatingvariousailmentsincludingasthma,bronchitis,convulsions,coughs,constipation,flatulenceandhysteria.Thefoliageoftheplantisusedasalocalvegetable.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforintestinalflatulentcolic.

ACTIONSAntispasmodic,carminative,expectorant,hypotensive,stimulant.Animalsarerepelledbyitsodour.

EXTRACTIONTheoleoresinisobtainedbymakingincisionsintotherootandabovegroundpartsoftheplant.Themilkyjuiceislefttoleakoutandhardenintodarkreddishlumps,beforebeingscrapedoffandcollected.Theessentialoilisthenobtainedfromtheresinbysteamdistillation.Anabsolute,resinoidandtincturearealsoproduced.

CHARACTERISTICSAyellowy-orangeoilwithabitteracridtasteandastrong,tenaciousodourresemblinggarlic.However,beneaththisodourthereisasweet,balsamicnote.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSDisulphides,notably2-butylpropenyldisulphidewithmonoterpenes,freeferulicacid,valeric,tracesofvanillin,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAAvailableinformationindicatestheoiltoberelativelynon-toxicandnon-irritant.However,ithasthereputationforbeingthemostadulterated‘drug’onthemarket.Beforebeingsold,theoleoresinisoftenmixedwithredclayorsimilarsubstitutes.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSERespiratorySystem: ‘There isevidence that thevolatileoil isexpelled throughthelungs,thereforeitisexcellentforasthma,bronchitis,whoopingcoughetc.’3

Nervoussystem:Fatigue,nervousexhaustionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESNowrarelyusedinpharmaceuticalpreparations;formerlyusedasalocalstimulantforthemucousmembranes.Occasionallyusedasafixativeandfragrancecomponentinperfumes,especiallyrosebasesandheavyorientaltypes.Employedinawidevarietyoffoodcategories,mainlycondimentsandsauces.

B

BALSAM,CANADIANAbiesbalsamea

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMSA.balsamifera,Pinusbalsamea,balsamfir,balsamtree,Americansilverfir,balmofGileadfir,Canadaturpentine(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtall,gracefulevergreentreeupto20metreshigh,withataperingtrunkandnumerousbranchesgivingthetreeanoverallshapeofaperfectcone.Itformsblistersofoleoresin(theso-called‘balsam’)onthetrunkandbranches,producedfromspecialvesiclesbeneaththebark.Thetreedoesnotproducea‘true’balsam,sinceitdoesnotcontainbenzoicorcinnamicacidinitsesters;itisreallyanoleoresin,beingamixtureofresinandessentialoil.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoNorthAmerica,particularlyQuebec,NovaScotiaandMaine.

OTHERSPECIESThehemlockspruce(Tsugacanadensis)alsoyieldsanexudationsoldunderthenameof‘Canadabalsam’.Therearealsomanyotherspeciesoffirwhichproduceoilsfromtheirneedles–seeentryonsilverfirandBotanicalClassificationsection.NB:NottobeconfusedwiththegenuinebalsamofGilead(Commiphoraopabalsamum),ofancientrepute.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheoleoresinisusedextensivelybytheAmericanIndiansforritualpurposesandasanexternaltreatmentforburns,sores,cutsandtorelieveheartandchestpains.Itisalsousedinternallyforcoughs.

ACTIONSAntiseptic(genito-urinary,pulmonary),antitussive,astringent,cicatrisant,diuretic,expectorant,purgative,regulatory,sedative(nerve),tonic,

vulnerary.

EXTRACTION1.Theoleoresiniscollectedbypunturingvesiclesinthebark.2.Anessentialoilisproducedbysteamdistillationfromtheoleoresin,knownasCanadabalsamorCanadaturpentine.(Anessentialoilisalsoproducedbysteamdistillationfromtheleaforneedles,knownasfirneedleoil.)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theoleoresinisathickpaleyelloworgreenhoneylikemasswhichdriestocrystalclearvarnish,withafreshsweetbalsamic,almostfruityodour.2.Acolourlessmobileliquidwithasweet,soft-balsamic,pinelikescent.Itblendswellwithpine,cedarwood,cypress,sandalwood,juniper,benzoinandotherbalsams.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSConsistsalmostentirelyofmonoterpenes,pinene,phellandrene,estersandalcohols.

SAFETYDATAGenerallynon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.‘Inlargedosesitispurgativeandmaycausenausea.’4

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Burns,cuts,haemorrhoids,wounds.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,chroniccoughs,sorethroat.Genito-UrinarySystem:Cystitis,genito-urinaryinfections.Nervous System: Depression, nervous tension, stress-related conditions –describedas‘appeasing,sedative,elevating,grounding,opening’.5

OTHERUSESTheoilfromtheoleoresinisusedincertainointmentsandcreamsasanantisepticandtreatmentforhaemorrhoids.Usedindentistryasaningredientinrootcanalsealers.Alsousedasafixativeorfragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfurmes.Thereissomelow-leveluseinfoodproducts,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.Theoleoresinisusedasamediuminmicroscopyandasacementinglassware.

BALSAM,COPAIBACopaiferaofficinalis

FAMILYFabaceae(Leguminosae)

SYNONYMSCopahubalsam,copaiba,copaiva,Jesuit’sbalsam,Maracaibobalsam,parabalsam.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONWild-growingtropicaltreeupto18metreshigh,withthickfoliageandmanybranches.ThenaturaloleoresinoccursasaphysiologicalproductfromvariousCopaiferaspecies.Nota‘true’balsam.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetonortheastandcentralSouthAmerica.MainlyproducedinBrazil;alsoVenezuela,Guyana,SurinamandColombia.

OTHERSPECIESSeveralCopaiferaspeicesyieldanoleoresin:theVenezuelantype‘Maracaibobalsam’hasalowoilcontent,theBraziliantype‘parabalsam’hasahighoilcontent.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONUsedforcenturiesinEuropeinthetreatmentofchroniccystitisandbronchitis;alsofortreatingpiles,chronicdiarrhoeaandintestinalproblems.

ACTIONSBatericidal,balsamic,disinfectant,diuretic,expectorant,stimulant.

EXTRACTION1.Thecrudebalsamiscollectedbydrillingholesintothetreetrunks;itisoneofthemostplentifulnaturallyoccurringperfumematerials.2.Anessentialoilisobtainedbydrydistillationfromthecrudebalsam.Itismainlythe‘parabalsams’withahighoilcontent(60–80percent),whichareusedfordistillation.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Thecrudebalsamisaviscous,yellowy-brownorgreenish-greyliquidwhichhardensuponexposuretoairwithamild,woody,slightlyspicyodour.Itblendswellwithstyrax,amyris,lavandin,cedarwood,lavender,oakmoss,woodsandspices.2.Theoilisapaleyelloworgreenishmobileliquidwithamild,sweet,balsamic-pepperyodour.Itblendswellwithcananga,ylangylang,vanilla,jasmine,violetandotherflorals.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycaryophyllene.

SAFETYDATARelativelynon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitization.Largedosescausevomitinganddiarrhoea.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE

DIGESTIVESYSTEM:Intestinalinfections,piles.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,chills,colds,coughs,etc.Genito-RinarySystem:Cystitis.NervousSystem:Stress-relatedconditons.

OTHERUSESTheoleoresinisusedinpharmaceuticalproductsespeciallycoughmedicinesandiuretics.Theoilandcrudebalsamareextensivelyusedasafixativeandfragrancecomponentinalltypesofperfumes,soaps,cosmeticsanddetergents.Thecrudeisalsousedinporcelainpainting.

BALSAM,PERUMyroxylonbalsamumvar.pereirae

FAMILYFabaceae(Leguminosae)

SYNONYMSToluiferapereira,Myrosperumpereira,Myroxylonpereirae,Peruvianbalsam,Indianbalsam,blackbalsam.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargetropicaltreeupto25metreshigh,withastraightsmoothtrunk,beautifulfoliageandveryfragrantflowers.Everypartofthetreecontainsareinousjuice,includingthefibrousfruit.Thebalsamisapathologicalproduct,obtainedfromtheexposedlaceratedwood,afterstripsofthebarkhavebeenremoved.Itisa‘true’balsam,whichiscollectedintheformofadarkbrownorambersemi-solidmass.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoCentralAmerica;productionmainlytakesplaceinSanSalvador.

OTHERSPECIESMyroxylonfrutescensandguina-guinaarecloserelations,aswellasTolubalsam.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItstimulatestheheart,increasesbloodpressure,andlessensmucoussecretions;usefulforrespiratorydisorderssuchasasthma,chroniccoughsandbronchitis.Traditionallyemployedforrheumaticpainandskinproblemsincludingscabies,nappyrash,bedsores,prurigo,eczema,sorenipplesandwounds;italsodestroystheitchacarusanditseggs.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antiseptic,balsamic,expectorant,parasiticide,

stimulant;promotesthegrowthofepithelialcells.

EXTRACTIONAresin-freeessentialoilisproducedfromthecrudebalsambyhighvacuumdrydistillation.(Awoodoilisalsoproducedbysteamdistillationfromthewoodchippings,whichisconsideredofinferiorquality.Awhitebalsamcalled‘myroxocarpin’ismadefromthefruit,andanextractcalled‘balsamito’fromtheyoungfruit.)

CHARACTERISTICSTheoilisapaleamberorbrownviscousliquidwitharich,sweet,balsamic,‘vanilla-like’scent.Itblendswellwithylangylang,patchouli,petitgrain,sandalwood,rose,spices,floralandorientalbases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSBenzoicandcinnamicacidesterssuchasbenzylbenzoate,benzylcinnamateandcinnamylcinnamateaswellasothertraces.Thecrudebalsamcontainsapproximately50–64percentoil,referredtoas‘cinnamein’,and20–28percentresin.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant;howeverthebalsam(nottheoil)isacommoncontactallergen,whichmaycausedermatitis.Thosewhohavethissensitivitymayalsoreacttobenzoinresinoid;thisiscalled‘cross-sensitization’.Thecommercialoilisoftenawater-whiteliquid,beingdilutedwithasolventsuchasbenzylalcohol.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Dryandchappedskin,eczema,rashes,soresandwounds.Circulation,MusclesAndJoints:Lowbloodpressure,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,coughs.ImmuneSystem:Colds.Nervous System:Nervous tension, stress; like other balsams it has awarming,opening,comfortingquality.

OTHERUSESThebalsamisextensivelyusedintropicalmedicinalpreparations,andtosomeextentinpharmaceuticalproducts,forexample,coughsyrup.Usedasafixativeandfragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,creams,lotionsandperfumes;theoilisoftenusedinperfumerysincethisavoidsanyresindepositsordiscolouration;usedinmostfoodcategories,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

BALSAM,TOLUMyroxylonbalsamumvar.balsamum

FAMILYFabaceae(Leguminosae)

SYNONYMSToluiferabalsamum,Balsamumtolutanum,B.americanum,Myrospermumtoluiferum,Thomasbalsam,resinTolu,opobalsam.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtall,gracefultropicaltree,similarinappearancetothePerubalsamtree.Thebalsamisapathologicalproduct,obtainedbymakingV-shapedincisionsintothebarkandsapwood,oftenafterthetrunkhasbeenbeatenandscorched.Itisa‘true’balsam.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSouthAmerica,mainlyVenezuela,ColombiaandCuba;alsocultivatedintheWestIndies.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanytypesofSouthAmericanbalsam-yieldingtrees,suchasthePerubalsam–seeentry.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThebalsamworksprimarilyontherespiratorymucousmembranes,andisgoodforchroniccatarrhandnon-inflammatorychestcomplaints,laryngitisandcroup.Itisstillusedasaflavourandmildexpectorantincoughsyrupsandlozenges.Asaningredientincompoundbenzointinctureandsimilarformulations,itishelpfulinthetreatmentofcrackednipples,lips,cuts,bedsores,etc.

ACTIONSAntitussive,antiseptic,balsamic,expectorant,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONThecrudebalsamiscollectedfromthetrees.Itappearsfirstinliquidform,thenhardensandsolidifiesintoanorange-brownbrittlemass.An‘essentialoil’isobtainedfromthecrudeby1.steamdistillation,or2.drydistillation.(Aresinoidandabsolutearealsoproducedforuseprimarilyasfixatives.)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Apaleyellow-brownliquidwithasweet-floralscentandpepperyundertone.2.Anamber-colouredliquidwitharichbalsamic-floralscent,whichslowlysolidfiesoncoolingintoacrystallinemass.Tolubalsamblendswellwithmimosa,ylangylang,sandalwood,labdanum,neroli,patchouli,

cedarwoodandoriental,spicyandfloralbases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThebalsamcontainsapprox.80percentresin,20percentoil,withcinnamicandbenzoicacids,smallamountsofterpenes,andtracesofeugenolandvanillin.

SAFETYDATAAvailableinformationindicatesittobenon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitization,seePeruBalsam.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESKINCARE:Dry,chappedandcrackedskin,eczema,rashes,scabies,sores,wounds.RESPIRATORYSYSTEM:Bronchitis,catarrh,coughs,croup,laryngitis.‘Itmaybeusedasaninhalantbyputtingaboutateaspoonintoasteambath.’6

OTHERUSESAsafixativeandfragrancecomponentincolognes,cosmeticsandperfumes(especiallythedrydistilledtype).Someuseinpharmaceuticalpreparations,e.g.coughsyrups.Lowlevelsusedinmanymajorfoodproducts,especiallybakedgoods.

BASIL,EXOTICOcimumbasilicum

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSSweetbasil,Comoranbasil(oil),Reunionbasil(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONBotanicallyclassifiedasidenticalfromtheFrenchbasil,thoughitisalargerplantwithaharsherodouranddifferentconstituents.

DISTRIBUTIONMainlyproducedintheComoroIslands,butitisalsoprocessedinMadagascar.

OTHERSPECIESTheexoticbasilisadramaticallydifferentchemotypetotheFrenchbasilandprobablyaseperatesub-species(possiblyaformofO.canum),althoughthishasnotbeenspecified.EssentialoilsarealsoproducedinMorocco,Egypt,SouthAfrica,BrazilandIndonesiafromvariouschemotypesoftheEastIndianorshrubbybasil(O.gratissimum),whichcontainahighpercentageofeitherthymoloreugenol.Thehairyorhoarybasil(O.canum),

originatinginEastAfricaandfoundinIndiaandSouthAmerica,isalsousedtoextractoilsrichineithermethylcinnamateorcamphor,whichareproducedinWestandEastAfrica,India,theWestIndiesandIndonesia.SeealsoentryonFrenchbasil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONSeeFrenchBasil.

ACTIONSSeeBasilFrench.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandfloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSTheExotictypeoilisyelloworpalegreen,withaslightlycoarsesweet-herbaceousodourwithacamphoraceoustinge.It’sscentdoesnotcomparewiththe‘true’sweetbasiloil.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlymethylchavicol(70–88percent),withsmallamountsoflinalol,cineol,camphor,eugenol,limoneneandcitronellol.

SAFETYDATAMethylchavicolismoderatelytoxicandirritatingtotheskin:‘themethylchavicolcontentofComoranbasilissufficientreasontodiscarditfortherapeuticusageinfavouroftheFrenchtype.’6Therehasalsobeensomerecentconcernoverthepossiblecarcinogeniceffectsofmethylchavicol.Basilshouldbeavoidedduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSETheoilisemployedinhighclassfragrances,soapsanddentalproducts;usedextensivelyinmajorfoodcategoriesespeciallymeatproductsandsavories.

BASIL,FRENCHOcimumbasilicum

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNOYNMSCommonbasil,joy-of-the-mountain,‘true’sweetbasil,Europeanbasil.

FrenchBasil

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtenderannualherb,withverydarkgreen,ovateleaves,greyish-greenbeneath,anerectsquarestemupto60cmshigh,bearingwhorlsoftwo-lippedgreenishorpinky-whiteflowers.Thewholeplanthasapowerfularomaticscent.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotropicalAsiaandAfrica,itisnowwidelycultivatedthroughoutEurope,theMediterraneanregion,thePacificIslands,NorthandSouthAmerica.TheEuropean,Frenchor‘true’sweetbasiloilisproducedinFrance,Italy,Egypt,Bulgaria,HungaryandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyvarietiesofbasiloccurringallovertheworld,usedbothfortheirculinaryandmedicinalapplications,suchasbushbasil(O.minimum),holybasil(O.sanctum),bothfromIndia,camphorbasil(O.kilimanjaricum)fromEastAfrica(alsogrowninIndia),andthefeverplant(O.viride)fromWestAfrica.However,therearetwoprincipalchemotypesmostcommonlyusedfortheextractionofessentialoil:theso-called‘Frenchbasil’andthe‘exoticbasil’–seeseparateentry.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONWidelyusedinFarEasternmedicineespeciallyintheAyurvedictradition,whereitiscalledtulsi.Itisusedforrespiratoryproblemssuchasbronchitis,coughs,colds,asthma,’fluandemphysemabutisalsousedasanantidotetopoisonousinsectorsnakebites.Ithasalsobeenusedagainstepidemicsandfever,suchasmalaria.Itimproves

bloodcirculationandthedigestivesystemandinChinaitisusedforstomachandkidneyailments.IntheWestitisconsidereda‘cooling’herb,andisusedforrheumaticpain,

irritableskinconditionsandforthoseofanervousdisposition.Itisapopularculinaryherb,especiallyinItalyandFrance.

ACTIONSAntidepressant,antiseptic,antispasmodic,carminative,cephalic,digestive,emmenagogue,expectorant,febrifuge,galactagogue,nervine,prophylactic,restorative,stimulantofadrenalcortex,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefloweringherb.

CHARACTERISTICS‘True’sweetbasiloilisacolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithalight,freshsweet-spicyscentandbalsamicundertone.Itblendswellwithbergamot,clarysage,lime,opopanax,oakmoss,citronella,geranium,hyssopandother‘green’notes.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLinalol(40–45percent),methylchavicol(23.8percent)andsmallamountsofeugenol,limoneneandcitronellol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATARelativelynon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Insectbites(mosquito,wasp),insectrepellent.Circulation,MusclesandJoints:Gout,muscularachesandpains,rheumatism.RespiratorySyste:Bronchitis,coughs,earache,sinusitis.DigestiveSystem:Dyspepsia,flatulence,nausea.Genito-UrinarySystem:Cramps,scantyperiods.ImmuneSystem:Colds,fever,’flu,infectiousdisease.Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fatigue, insomnia, migraine, nervoustension: ‘Oil of Basil is an excellent, indeed perhaps the best, aromatic nervetonic.Itclearsthehead,relievesintellectualfatigue,andgivesthemindstrengthandclarity.’8

OTHERUSESTheoilisusedinsoaps,cosmeticsandperfumery;itisalsoused

extensivelyinmajorfoodcategories,especiallysavouries.

BAY,WESTINDIANPimentaracemosa

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSMyrciaacris,Pimentaacris,myrcia,bay,bayrumtree,wildcinnamon,bayberry,bayleaf(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAwild-growingtropicalevergreentreeupto8metreshigh,withlargeleatheryleavesandaromaticfruits.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheWestIndies,particularlyDominicawheretheessentialoilisproduced.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralothervarieties,forexampletheanise-scentedandlemon-scentedbay,theoilsofwhichhaveatotallydifferentchemicalcomposition.Nottobeconfusedwithbaylaurel,thecommonhouseholdspice,norwiththeNorthAmericanbayberryorwaxmyrtle(Myrciacerifera)wellknownforitswaxyieldingberries.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheWestIndianbaytreeisoftengrowningrovestogetherwiththeallspiceorpimentobush,thenthefruitsofbotharedriedandpowderedforthepreparationofthehouseholdallspice.Theso-calledbayrumtreealsoprovidesthebasicingredientforthefamousoldhairtonic,whichismadefromtheleavesbybeingdistilledinrum.‘Ahairapplicationwithbothfragrantandtonicvirtues…usefulforthosewhosufferfromgreasyhairandneedaspirit-based,scalp-stimulatinglotiontohelpthemtocontroltheirlocks!’9

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anticonvulsant,antineuralgic,antirheumatic,antiseptic,astringent,expectorant,stimulant,tonic(forhair).

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywaterorsteamdistillationfromtheleaves.Anoleoresinisalsoproducedinsmallquantities.

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkyellowmobileliquidwithafresh-spicytopnote

andasweet-balsamicundertone.Itblendswellwithlavander,lavandin,rosemary,geranium,ylangylang,citrusandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSEugenol(upto56percent),myrcene,chavicoland,inlesseramounts,methyleugenol,linalol,limonene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAModeratelytoxicduetohigheugenolcontent;alsoamucousmembraneirritant–useinmoderationonly.Unlikebaylaurel,however,itdoesnotappeartocausedermalirritationorsensitization.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Scalp stimulant, hair rinse for dandruff, greasy, lifeless hair, andpremotinggrowth.Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Muscular and articular aches and pains,neuralgia,poorcirculation,rheumatism,sprains,strains.

IMMUNESYSTEM:Colds,’flu,infectiousdiseases.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedinfragrancework,insoaps,detergents,perfumes,aftershavesandhairlotions,includingbayrum.Employedasaflavouringredientinmanymajorfoodcategories,especiallycondiments,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

BENZOINStyraxbenzoin

FAMILYStyracaceae

SYNONYMSGumbenzoin,gumbenjamin,styraxbenzoin.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargetropicaltreeupto20metreshighwithpalegreencitrus-likeleaves,whitishunderneath,bearinghard-shelledflattishfruitaboutthesizeofanutmeg.Thebenzoinisapathologicalproduct,formedwhenthetrunkiscut;thetreeexudesabalsamicresinwhichhardensuponexposure,toairandsunlight.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotropicalAsia;thetwomainregionsofproductionareSumatra,JavaandMalaysiafor‘Sumatra’benzoin,andLaos,Vietnam,

Cambodia,ChinaandThailandfor‘Siam’benzoin.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanydifferentvarietieswithintheStyraxfamilywhichproducebenzoin,butthesearegenerallyclassifiedundereitherSumatrabenzoin(S.paralleloneurus)orSiambenzoin(S.tonkinensis)–seealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONIthasbeenusedforthousandsofyearsintheeastasamedicineandincense;thefumigationswerebelievedtodriveawayevilspirits.ItwasusedbytheChineseherbalistsforitsheatinganddryingqualities,asagoodurinaryantisepticandasanaidtodigestion.Inthewest,itisbestknownintheformofcompoundtinctureofbenzoinor

FriarsBalsam,usedforrespiratorycomplaints.Externallyitisusedforcutsandirritableskinconditions;internallyitisusedasacarminativeforindigestion,etc.Italsoactsasapreservativeoffats.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,anti-oxidant,antiseptic,astringent,carminative,cordial,deodorant,diuretic,expectorant,sedative,styptic,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONThecrudebenzoiniscollectedfromthetreesdirectly.Benzoinresinoid,or‘resinabsolute’,ispreparedfromthecrudeusingsolvents,forexamplebenzeneandalcohol,whicharethenremoved.Commercialbenzoinisusuallysolddissolvedinethylglycolorasimilarsolvent.A‘true’absoluteisalsoproducedinsmallquantities.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Sumatracrudebenzoinoccursasgreyish-brownbrittlelumpswithreddishstreaks,withastyrax-likeodour.Thereareseveraldifferentqualitiesavailable;theso-called‘almond’gradeisconsideredsuperior.2.Siambenzoincomesinpebbleortear-shapedorange-brownpieces,withasweet-balsamicvanilla-likescent,thistypehavingamorerefinedodourthantheSumatratype.BenzoinresinoidisproducedfromboththeSiamandSumatratypes,oramix

ofthetwo.Itisanorange-brownviscousmasswithanintenselyrichsweet-balsamicodour.Itblendswellwithsandalwood,rose,jasmine,copaibabalsam,frankincense,myrrh,cypress,juniper,lemon,corianderandotherspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.SumatraBenzoin:mainlyconiferylcinnamateandsumaresinolicacid,withbenzoicacid,cinnamicacid,andtracesofstyrene,vanillinandbenzaldehyde.2.Siambenzoin:mainlyconiferylbenzoate(65–75percent),withbenzoicacid,vanillin,siaresinolicacidandcinnamylbenzoate.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitization.Compoundbenzointinctureis‘regardedasmoderatelytoxic,dueprobablytooccasionalcontactdermatitisdevelopedinsomeindividuals…whichcontains,inadditiontobenzoin,aloe,storax,Tolubalsamandothers.’10

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Cuts,chappedskin,inflamedandirritatedconditions.Circulation,MusclesAndJoints:Arthritis,gout,poorcirculation,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,chills,colic,coughs,laryngitis.ImmuneSystem:’Flu.Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints. It warms andtones the heart and circulation, both physically and metaphorically: ‘Thisessencecreatesakindofeuphoria;it interposesapaddedzonebetweenusandevents.’11

OTHERUSESCompoundbenzointinctureisusedinpharmaceuticalsandindentistrytotreatguminflammation.Theresinoidandabsoluteareusedextensivelyasfixativesandfragrancecomponentsinsoaps,cosmetics,toiletriesandperfumes,especiallySiambenzoin.Bothtypesareusedinmostfoodcategories,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

BERGAMOTCitrusbergamia

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMCitrusaurantiumsubsp.bergamia.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmalltree,about4.5metreshighwithsmoothovalleaves,bearingsmallroundfruitwhichripenfromgreentoyellow,muchlikeaminiatureorangeinappearance.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotropicalAsia.ExtensivelycultivatedinCalabriainsouthernItalyandalsogrowncommerciallyontheIvoryCoast.

OTHERSPECIESNottobeconfusedwiththeherbbergamotorbeebalm(Monardadidyma).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONNamedaftertheItaliancityofBergamoinLombardy,wheretheoilwasfirstsold.TheoilhasbeenusedinItalianfolkmedicineformanyyears,primarilyforfever(includingmalaria)andworms;itdoesnotfeatureinthefolktraditionofanyothercountries.However,duetorecentresearchinItaly,bergamotoilisnowknowntohaveawidespectrumofapplications,beingparticularlyusefulformouth,skin,respiratoryandurinarytractinfections.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anthelmintic,antidepressant,antiseptic(pulmonary,genito-urinary),antispasmodic,antitoxic,carminative,digestive,diuretic,deodorant,febrifuge,laxative,parasiticide,rubefacient,stimulant,stomachic,tonic,vermifuge,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbycoldexpressionofthepeelofthenearlyripefruit.(Arectifiedorterpenelessoilisproducedbyvacuumdistillationorsolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICSAlightgreenish-yellowliquidwithafreshsweet-fruity,slightlyspicy-balsamicundertone.Onageingitturnsabrownish-olivecolour.Itblendswellwithlavender,neroli,jasmine,cypress,geranium,lemon,chamomile,juniper,corianderandviolet.

PRINCIPALCONSTTTUENTSKnowntohaveabout300compoundspresentintheexpressedoil:mainlylinalylacetate(30–60percent),linalol(11–22percent)andotheralcohols,sesquiterpenes,terpenes,alkanesandfurocoumarins(includingbergapten,0.30–0.39percent).

SAFETYDATACertainfurocoumarins,notablybergapten,havebeenfoundtobephototoxiconhumanskin;thatis,theycausesensitizationandskinpigmentationwhenexposedtodirectsunlight(inconcentrationandindilutionevenaftersometime!).Extremecaremustbetakenwhenusingtheoilindermalapplications–otherwisearectifiedor‘bergapten-free’oilshouldbesubstituted.

Availableinformationindicatesittobeotherwisenon-toxicandrelativelynon-irritant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Acne,boils,coldsores,eczema,insectrepellentandinsectbites,oilycomplexion,psoriasis,scabies,spots,varicoseulcers,wounds.RespiratorySystem:Halitosis,mouthinfections,sorethroat,tonsillitis.DigestiveSystem:Flatulence,lossofappetite.Genito-URINARYSYSTEM:Cystitis,leucorrhoea,pruritis,thrush.ImmuneSystem:Colds,fever,’flu,infectiousdiseases.Nervous System: Anxiety, depression and stress-related conditions, having arefreshingandupliftingquality.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedasafragranceand,toadegree,afixativeincosmetics,toiletries,suntanlotionsandperfumes–itisaclassicingredientofeau-de-cologne.Widelyusedinmostmajorfoodcategoriesandbeverages,notablyEarlGreytea.

BIRCH,SWEETBetulalenta

FAMILYBetulaceae

SYNONYMSB.capinefolia,cherrybirch,southernbirch,mahoganybirch,mountainmahogany.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAgracefultreeabout25metreshighwhichhasapyramidalshapewhileyoung.Ithasbrightgreenleavesandadarkreddish-brownaromaticbark,whichisbrokenintoplatesorpatches.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernCanadaandsoutheasternUSA;producedmainlyinPennsylvania.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerousspeciesofbirch,spanningseveralcontinents,suchasblackbirch(B.nigra)foundinNorthAmerica.NottobeconfusedwiththeEuropeanwhitebirch(B.alba),whichproducesbirchtaroilusedinchronicskindiseases.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThecambium(thelayerdirectlyunderthebark)iseateninthespring,cutintostripslikevermicelli.Thebark,intheformofaninfusion,isusedasageneralstimulantandtopromotesweating.Asadecoctionorsyrup,itisusedasatonicfordysenteryandissaidtobeusefulingenito-urinaryirritation.Theflavourofwintergreenandbirchbark,intheformofatea,waspopularwiththeAmericanIndiansandEuropeansettlers.Morerecently,thishasbeentranslatedintoapreferencefor‘rootbeer’flavourings.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anti-inflammatory,antipyretic,antirheumatic,antiseptic,astringent,depurative,diuretic,rubefacient,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationofthebarkmaceratedinwarmwater.

CHARACTERISTICSColourless,paleyelloworreddishtintedliquidwithanintense,sweet-woody,wintergreen-likescent.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAlmostentirelymethylsalicylate(98percent),producedduringthemacerationprocess.Itisalmostidenticalincompositiontowintergreenoil.

SAFETYDATAMethylsalicylate,themajorconstituent,isnotexactlytoxicbutveryharmfulinconcentration.’Itcanbeabsorbedthroughtheskin,andfatalpoisoningviathisroutehasbeenreported.’12’Itisalsoclassedasanenviromentalhazardormarinepollutant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESLimiteduseasacounter-irritantinanti-arthriticandantineuralgicointmentsandanalgesicbalms.Limiteduseasafragrancecomponentincosmeticsandperfumes;extensivelyusedasaflavouringagent,especially‘rootbeer’,chewinggum,toothpaste,etc.(usuallyverylow-leveluse).

BIRCH,WHITEBetulaalba

FAMILYBetulaceae

SYNONYMSB.albavar.pubescens,B.odorata,B.pendula,Europeanwhitebirch,silverbirch.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONDecorativetree,upto15–20metreshigh,withslenderbranches,silvery-whitebarkbrokenintoscales,andlightgreenovalleaves.Themalecatkinsare2–5cmslong,thefemaleupto15cmslong.

WhiteBirch

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothenorthernhemisphere;foundthroughoutEasternEurope,Russia,Germany,Sweden,Finland,theBalticcoast,northernChinaandJapan.

OTHERSPECIESManycultivarsexistofthisspeciesofbirch.Thepaperbirch(B.papyrifera)andB.verrucosaarealsousedfortheproductionofbirchbudoiland/orbirchtar.NBShouldnotbeconfusedwiththeoilfromthesweetbirch(B.lenta)whichispotentiallytoxic.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONBirchbudswereformerlyusedasatonicinhairpreparations.BirchtarisusedinEuropeforalltypesofchronicskincomplaints:psoriasis,eczema,etc.InScandinaviatheyoungbirchleafletsandtwigsareboundintobundlesandusedinthesaunatotonetheskinandpromotethecirculation.Thesapisalsotappedinthespringanddrunkasatonic.Buds,leavesandbarkareusedfor‘rheumaticandarthriticconditions,especiallywhere

kidneyfunctionsappeartoneedsupport…oedematousstates;urinaryinfectionsandcalculi.’13

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antiseptic,cholagogue,diaphoretic,diuretic,febrifuge,tonic.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleaf-buds.2.Crudebirchtarisextractedbyslowdestructivedistillationfromthebark;thisissubsequentlysteamdistilledtoyieldarectifiedbirchtaroil.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Paleyellow,viscousoilwithawoody-greenbalsamicscent.Itcrystallizesatlowtemperatures.2.Thecrudetarisanalmostblack,thickoilymass.Therectifiedoilisabrownish-yellow,clearoilyliquidwithasmoky,tar-like,‘Russianleather’odour.Itblendswellwithotherwoodyandbalsamicoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.Mainlybetulenolandothersesquiterpenes.2.Inthetaroil:phenol,cresol,xylenol,guaiacol,creosol,pyrocatechol,pyrobetulin(whichgivesthe‘leather’scent).

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Dermatitis,dullorcongestedskin,eczema,haircare,psoriasisetc.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, cellulitis,muscularpain,obesity,oedema,poorcirculation,rheumatism.

OTHERUSESBirchbudoilisusedprimarilyinhairtonicsandshampoos,andinsomecosmeticsforitspotentialskin-healingeffects.Thecrudetarisusedinpharmaceuticalpreparations,ointments,lotions,etc.fordermatologicaldiseases.Itisalsousedinsoapandleathermanufacture–rectifiedbirchtaroilprovidestheheartformany‘leather’typeperfumesandaftershaves.

BOLDOLEAFPeumusboldus

FAMILYMonimiaceae

SYNONYMSBolduboldus,Boldoafragrans,boldus,boldu.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreenshruborsmalltreeupto6metreshigh,withslenderbranches,sessilecoarseleavesandbearingyellowish-greenfruit;whendriedtheleavesturnadeepreddish-browncolour.Thewholeplantisaromatic.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoChile;naturalizedintheMediterraneanregion.SomeessentialoilisproducedinNepalandVietnam.

OTHERSPECIESTheAustraliantreeMonimiarotundifoliacontainsasimilaroil,whichhasbeenusedasasubstitute.Theoilofchenopodiumorwormseedisalsochemicallyrelated.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThebarkisusedfortanning,thewoodutilizedincharcoalmakingandthefruiteatenbylocals.InSouthAmericaithaslongbeenrecognizedasavaluablecureforgonorrhoea.InWesternherbalism,thedriedleavesareusedforgenito-urinaryinflammation,gallstones,liverorgallbladderpain,cystitisandrheumatism.ThedriedleavesarecurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforcholelithiasiswithpain.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,cholagogue,diaphoretic,diuretic,hepatic,sedative,tonic,urinarydemulcent.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationoftheleaves.

CHARACTERISTICSAyellowliquidwithapowerfulspicy-camphoraceous,disagreeableodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCymene,ascaridole,cineol,linalol.

SAFETYDATAExtremelytoxic.‘Theoilhaspowerfultherapeuticeffects,anditcanbeconsideredharmfultothehumanorganismevenwhenusedinverysmalldoses…shouldnotbeusedintherapy,eitherinternallyorexternally.’14

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESUsedinpharmaceuticalsinminuteamountsforitstherapeuticproperties.

BORNEOLDryobalanopsaromatica

FAMILYDipterocarpaceae

SYNONYMSD.camphora,Borneocamphor,EastIndiancamphor,Baroscamphor,Sumatracamphor,Malayancamphor.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONThecamphoratreegrowstoagreatheight,amajestictreeoftenover25metreshigh,withathicktrunkupto2metresindiameter.Borneolisanaturalexudationfoundbeneaththebarkincrevicesandfissuresofsomematuretrees(about1percent);youngtreesproduceonlyaclearyellowliquidknownas‘liquidcamphor’.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoBorneoandSumatra.

OTHERSPECIESTobedistinguishedfromtheJapaneseorFormosatypeofcamphor,morecommonlyusedinEurope,whichisrelativelytoxic.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONBorneolhaslongbeenregardedasapanaceabymanyEasterncivilizations,especiallyinancientPersia,IndiaandChina.Itwasusedasapowerfulremedyagainstplagueandotherinfectiousdiseases,stomachandbowelcomplaints.InChinaitwasalsousedforembalmingpurposes.‘ItismentionedbyMarcoPolointhethirteenthcenturyandCamoensin1571whocalleditthe“balsamofdisease”.’15Itisvaluedforceremonialpurposesintheeastgenerally,andinChinaparticularlyforfuneralrites.Itsodourrepelsinsectsandants,anditisthereforehighlyregardedastimberfortheconstructionofbuildings.

ACTIONSMildlyanalgesic,antidepressant,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antiviral,carminative,rubefacient,stimulantoftheadrenalcortex,tonic(cardiacandgeneral).

EXTRACTIONTheborneoliscollectedfromthetreetrunkinitscrudecrystallineform(thenativestesteachtreefirstbymakingincisionsinthetrunktodetectitspresence).Theso-called‘oilofborneol’isextractedbysteamdistillationofthewood.

CHARACTERISTICSWaterywhitetoviscousblackoildependingupontheamountofcamphorwhichitcontains,withadistinctive,sassafras-like,camphoraceousodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThecrudeismadeupofmainlycl-borneolwhichisanalcohol,notaketone(likeJapanesecamphor).Theoilcontainsapprox.35percentterpenes:pinene,camphene,dipentene;10percentalcohols:d-borneol,terpineol;20percentsesquiterpenes,and35percentresin.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-sensitizing,dermalirritantinconcentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Cuts,bruises,insectrepellent,CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Debility,poorcirculation,rheumatism,sprains.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,coughs.ImmuneSystem:Colds,fever,‘fluandotherinfectiousdiseases.NervousSystem:Nervousexhaustion,stress-relatedconditions,neuralgia.

OTHERUSESItisusedtoscentsoapintheEastbutisstillrelativelyunknownintheWestinpharmaceuticalandperfumerywork.InChinaandJapanitisusedformakingvarnishandink;alsoasadilutantforartists’colours.MainlyusedforritualpurposesintheEast.

BORONIABoroniamegastigma

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMBrownboronia.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAbushyevergreenshrub,upto2metreshigh,whichbearsanabundanceoffragrant,noddingflowerswithanunusualcolouring–thepetalsarebrownontheoutside,yellowontheinside.Oftengrownasanornamentalshrubingardens.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoWesternAustralia;growswildalloverwestandsouthwestAustralia.

OTHERSPECIESThereareoverfifteenspeciesofboroniafoundinWestern

Australia;B.megastigmaisoneofthemostcommonandtheonlyoneusedforitsperfume;othertypessmellofsarsaparilla,lemonsorroses!Boroniaisbotanicallyrelatedtothecitrustree.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION‘AbotanistintheVictorianerasuggestedthisspecieswouldbesuitableforgraveyardplantingbecauseofitsdarkflowers!’16

ACTIONSAromatic.

EXTRACTIONAconcreteandabsolutebytheenfleuragemethodorpetroleum-etherextraction,fromtheflowers.Anessentialoilisalsoproducedinsmallquantitiesbysteamdistillation.

CHARACTERISTICSTheconcreteisadarkgreenbutterlikemasswithabeautifulwarm,woody-sweetfragrance;theabsoluteisagreenviscousliquidwithafresh,fruity-spicyscentandarich,tenacious,floralundertone.Itblendswellwithclarysage,sandalwood,bergamot,violet,immortelle,costus,mimosaandotherflorals.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSNotablyionone;alsoeugenol,triacontane,phenols,ethylalcoholandethylformate,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAProhibitivelyexpensiveandthereforeoftenadulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEPerfume

OTHERUSESTheabsoluteisusedinhigh-classperfumerywork,especiallyflorals.Usedinspecializedflavourwork,especiallyrichfruitproducts.

BROOM,SPANISHSpartiumjunceum

FAMILYFabaceae(Leguminosae).

SYNONYMSGenistajuncea,genista,weaversbroom,broom(absolute),genet(absolute).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAdecorativeplant,oftencultivatedasanornamentalshrub,upto3metreshighwithuprightwoodybranchesandtough

flexiblestems.Ithasbrightgreenleavesandlarge,yellow,pea-likefragrantflowers,alsobearingitsseedsinpodsorlegumes.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernEurope,especiallysouthernSpainandsouthernFrance;mainlycultivatedinSpain,France,ItalyandUSA(asagardenshrub).TheabsoluteisproducedinSouthernFrance.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtodyer’sgreenweed(Genistatinctoria)andthecommonorgreenbroom(SarothamnusscopariusorCytisusscoparius).Therearealsoseveralotherrelatedspeciesofbroom,whicharerichintheirfolktradition.

Broom

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThetwigsandbarkhavebeenusedsinceancienttimestoproduceastrongfibrewhichcanbemadeintocordoracoarsecloth.Thebrancheswerealsousedforthatching,basketwork,fencingand,ofcourse,formakingbrooms.Spanishbroomhassimilartherapeuticpropertiestothecommonbroom,whichisstillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaforcardiacdropsy,myocardialweakness,tachycardiaandprofusemenstruation.However,theSpanishbroomissaidtobefivetosixtimesmoreactivethanthecommonbroom,andeventhatmustbeusedwithcautionbyprofessionalherbalistsduetothestrengthoftheactiveingredients:‘AnumberofcasesofpoisoninghaveoccurredfromthesubstitutionofthedriedflowersofSpartium

forthoseoftrueBroom.’17

ACTIONSAntihaemorrhagic,cardioactive,diuretic,cathartic,emmenagogue,narcotic,vasoconstrictor.

EXTRACTIONAnabsoluteisobtainedbysolventextractionfromthedriedflowers.

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkbrown,viscousliquidwithanintenselysweet,floral,hay-likescentwithaherbaceousundertone.Itblendswellwithrose,tuberose,cassie,mimosa,violet,vetiverandherbaceous-typefragrances.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTheabsolutecontainscapryllicacid,phenols,aliphatics,terpenes,esters,scoparinandsparteine,aswellaswax,etc.

SAFETYDATASparteine,whichiscontainedintheflowersasthemainactiveconstituent,istoxic.Inlargedoses,itcausesvomiting,renalirritation,weakenstheheart,depressesthenervecellsandlowersthebloodpressure,andinextremecasescausesdeath.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESUsedinsoaps,cosmeticsandhigh-classperfumery;alsoasaflavouringredientinsweetrich‘preserves’,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

BUCHUAgothosmabetulina

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSBarosmabetulina,shortbuchu,mountainbuchu,bookoo,buku,bucca.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmallshrubwithsimplewrinkledleavesabout1–2cmslong;othermuchsmallerleavesarealsopresentwhicharebrightgreenwithfinelyserratedmargins.Ithasdelicatestemsbearingfivepetalledwhiteflowers.Thewholeplanthasastrong,aromatic,blackcurrant-likeodour.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheCapeofGoodHopeinSouthAfrica,itnow

growswildalloverSouthAfrica.DriedleavesareexportedtoHolland,EnglandandAmerica.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemorethantwelveso-calledBarosmaspeciesinSouthAfrica–the‘true’buchusareB.crenulata(containshighamountsofpulegone,atoxicconstituent),B.serratifoliaandB.betulina.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheleavesareusedlocallyforantisepticpurposesandtowardoffinsects.Inwesternherbalism,theleavesareusedforinfectionsofthegenito-urinarysystem,suchascystitis,urethritisandprostatitis.CurrentinBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia1983.

ACTIONSAntiseptic(especiallyurinary),diuretic,insecticide.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedleaves.

CHARACTERISTICSDarkyellowy-brownoilwithapenetratingminty-camphoraceousodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSDiosphenol(25–40percent),limoneneandmenthane,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAShouldnotbeusedduringpregnancy.ThetoxicityofbuchuisunknownbutsinceB.betulinayieldsoilshighindiophenolsandB.crenulatayieldsoilshighinpulegone,theyshouldbothberegardedasquestionableatpresent.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESAtincture,extractandoleoresinareproducedforpharmaceuticaluse.Limiteduseinblackcurrantflavourandfragrancework,forexamplecolognesandchyprebases.

C

CABREUVAMyrocarpusFastigiatus

FAMILYFabaceae(Leguminosae)

SYNONYMSCabureicica,‘BaumedePeroubrun’.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAgraceful, tall tropical tree,12–15metreshigh,with a very hard wood, extremely resistant tomoisture andmould growth. Ityields a balsamwhen the trunk is damaged, likemany other SouthAmericantrees.

DISTRIBUTIONFoundinBrazil,Paraguay,ChileandnorthArgentina.

OTHERSPECIESManyvarietiesofMyrocarpus yield cabreuvaoil, such asM.frondosus.Itisalsobotanicallyrelatedtothetreeswhichyieldcopaiba,PeruandTolubalsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The wood is highly appreciated for carvingandfurnituremaking.Itisusedbythenativestohealwounds,ulcersandobviatescars. It was once listed in old European pharmocopoeias for its antisepticqualities.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,balsamic,cicatrisant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromwoodchippings(wastefromthetimbermills).

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, viscous liquid with a sweet, woody-floral scent, very delicate but having great tenacity. It blends well with rose,cassie,mimosa,cedarwood,richwoodyandorientalbases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly nerolidol (80 per cent approx.),farnesol,bisabolol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANontoxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Cuts,scars,wounds.RespiratorySystem:Chills,coughs.ImmuneSystem:Colds.

OTHER USES Fragrance component and fixative in soaps and high-classperfumes, especially floral, woody or oriental types. Previously used for theisolationofnerolidol,nowproducedsynthetically.

CADEJuniperusoxycedrus

FAMILYCupressaceae

SYNONYMSJunipertar,pricklycedar,medlartree,pricklyjuniper.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargeevergreenshrubupto4metreshigh,withlongdarkneedlesandbrownish-blackberriesaboutthesizeofhazelnuts.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernFrance;nowcommonthroughoutEuropeandNorthAfrica.ThetarisproducedmainlyinSpainandYugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of juniper which are usedcommerciallyapartfromthepricklyjuniper:J.communisproducesjuniperoil,J.virginiana produces Virginian cedarwood oil, and in Yugoslavia an oil isproducedfromthefruitsandtwigsofJ.smreka.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION Used in the treatment of cutaneous diseases,such as chronic eczema, parasites, scalp disease, hair loss, etc. especially inFrance and other continental countries. It is also used as an antiseptic wound

dressingandfortoothache.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antimicrobial, antipruritic, antiseptic, disinfectant,parasiticide,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONThecrudeoilortarisobtainedbydestructivedistillationfromthe branches and heartwood (usually in the form of shavings or chips). Arectified oil is produced from the crude by steam or vacuum distillation. Inaddition,anoilisoccasionallyproducedfromtheberriesbysteamdistillation.

CHARACTERISTICSTherectifiedoilisanorange-brown,oilyliquidwithawoody, smoky, leatherlike odour. It blendswellwith thyme, origanum, clove,cassia,teatree,pineandmedicinal-typebases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCadinene,cadinol,p-cresol,guaiacol,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization problems. Usewith care, especially when treating inflammatory or allergic skin conditions.Turpentine(terebinth)oilmakesausefulalternative,withlesspossibilityofanallergicreaction.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Cuts,dandruff,dermatitis,eczema,spots,etc.

OTHER USES Extensively used in pharmaceutical work as a solvent forchemicaldrugs,indermatologicalcreamsandointments,aswellasinveterinarymedicine.Rectifiedcadeisusedinfragrancework,insoaps,lotions,creamsandperfumes(especiallyleatherandspice).

CAJEPUTMelaleucacajeputi

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSM.minor, cajuput,white tea tree,whitewood, swamp tea tree,

punktree,paperbarktree.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONA tallevergreen treeup to30metreshigh,withthickpointedleavesandwhiteflowers.Theflexibletrunkhasawhitishspongybarkwhichflakesoffeasily.InMalaysiaitiscalled‘caju-puti’,meaning‘whitewood’,duetothecolourofthetimber.

DISTRIBUTION It grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines,Vietnam,Java,AustraliaandsoutheasternAsia.

OTHER SPECIES Several other varieties ofMelaleuca are used to producecajeput oil, such asM. quinquenervia – see Botanical Classification section.Closely related to othermembers of theMelaleuca group, notably eucalyptus,clove,niaouliandteatree.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Held in high regard in the East, it is usedlocally for colds, headaches, throat infections, toothache, sore and achingmuscles, fever (cholera), rheumatismandvariousskindiseases.Only theoil isusedintheWesternherbaltradition,knownforproducingasensationofwarmthandquickeningthepulse.Itisusedforchroniclaryngitisandbronchitis,cystitis,rheumatismandtoexpelroundworm.

ACTIONS Mildly analgesic, antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antispasmodic,antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, intestinal), anthelmintic, diaphoretic,carminative,expectorant,febrifuge,insecticide,sudorific,tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh leaves andtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-green, mobile liquid (the green tingederives from traces of copper found in the tree), with a penetrating,camphoraceous-medicinalodour.Comparedwitheucalyptusoil,ithasaslightlymilderfruitybodynote.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCineol(14–65percentdependingonsource),terpineol,terpinylacetate,pinene,nerolidolandothertraces.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-sensitizing, may irritate the skin in highconcentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Insectbites,oilyskin,spots.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,coughs,sinusitis,sorethroat.Genito-UrinarySystem:Cystitis,urethritis,urinaryinfection.ImmuneSystem:Colds,’flu,viralinfections.

OTHERUSESUsedindentistryandpharmaceuticalworkasanantiseptic; inexpectorant and tonic formulations, throat lozenges, gargles, etc. Used as afragrance and freshening agent in soaps, cosmetics, detergents and perfumes.Occasionallyemployedasaflavourcomponentinfoodproductsandsoftdrinks.

CALAMINTHACalaminthaofficinalis

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSC.clinopodium,Melissacalaminta,calamint,commoncalamint,millmountain,mountainbalm,mountainmint,basilthyme,nepeta(oil),Frenchmarjoram(oil),wildbasil(oil),catnip(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTION An erect, bushy, perennial plant not more thanone metre high, with square stems, soft oval serrated leaves, greyish-greenbeneath, and rather inconspicuous pale purple flowers. Thewhole plant has astrongaromaticscentwhichisattractivetocats.

Calamintha

DISTRIBUTIONNative toEuropeandpartsofAsia(Himalayas),naturalizedthroughout North America and South Africa. Cultivated for its oil in theMediterraneanregion,Yugoslavia,PolandandintheUSA.

OTHERSPECIES There are numerous similar species found throughout theworld,suchasthelessercalamintha(C.nepeta)whichhasastrongerodourandisoftenusedinterchangeablywithcommoncalamint.Itisalsocloselyrelatedtocatmintorcatnip(Nepetacataria)alsoknownascalamint,withwhichitsharessimilarproperties.Nottobeconfusedwithwinterandsummersavory(SaturejamontanaandS.hortensis).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONIthasalonghistoryofuseasaherbalremedymainly fornervousanddigestivecomplaints, alsomenstrualpain, colds, chillsandcramp.CatmintiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforflatulentcolicinchildrenandforthecommoncold.

ACTIONS Anaesthetic (local), antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent,carminative,diaphoretic,emmenagogue,febrifuge,nervine,sedative,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowliquidwithaherbaceous-woody,pungentodour,somewhatresemblingpennyroyal.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citral, nerol, citronellol, limonene andgeraniol, among others. The active ingredient that attracts cats ismetatabilacetone(3–5percent).Constituentsvaryaccordingtosource.

SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, non-sensitizing; possible toxic effects inconcentration. (The Chinese shrub Actinidia polygama also containsmetatabilacetone, which is responsible for its hallucinogenic and narcoticeffects.)Useinmoderation.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationMusclesAnd Joints:Chills, cold in the joints,muscular aches andpains,rheumatism.DigestiveSystem:Colic,flatulence,nervousdyspepsia.NervousSystem:Insomnia,nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHER USES Used as a wild cat lure in the USA. Occasionally used inperfumerywork.

CALAMUSAcoruscalamusvar.angustatus

FAMILYAraceae

SYNONYMSCalamusaromaticus, sweet flag, sweetsedge, sweet root, sweetrush,sweetcane,sweetmyrtle,myrtlegrass,myrtlesedge,cinnamonsedge.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAreed-likeaquaticplantabout1metrehigh,withsword-shapedleavesandsmallgreenish-yellowflowers.Itgrowsonthemarginsoflakesandstreamswiththelong-branchedrhizomeimmersedinthemud.Thewholeplantisaromatic.

DISTRIBUTION Native to India; the oil is mainly produced in India andRussia and to a lesser extent in Europe (except Spain), Siberia, China,Yugoslavia and Poland (Polish and Yugoslavian oils have a uniform lasting

scent).

OTHER SPECIES Not to be confused with the yellow flag iris which itresemblesinappearance;theyarebotanicallyunrelated.Thereareseveralothervarietiesof aromatic sedge,mostly in the east, for exampleCalamusodoratususedinIndiaasamedicineandperfume.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The name derives from the Greek calamosmeaning ‘reed’.Thepropertiesof theherb aremainlydue to the aromaticoil,contained largely in the root. It used to be highly esteemed as an aromaticstimulantandtonicforfever(typhoid),nervouscomplaints,vertigo,headaches,dysentery,etc.ItisstillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,for‘acuteand chronic dyspepsia, gastritis, intestinal colic, anorexia, gastric ulcer.’18 InTurkeyandespeciallyinIndia(whereitisvaluedasatraditionalmedicine),itissoldasacandiedrhizomefordyspepsia,bronchitisandcoughs.

ACTIONS Anticonvulsant, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic,expectorant, hypotensive, insecticide, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes (andsometimestheleaves).

CHARACTERISTICSAthick,paleyellowliquidwithastrong,warm,woody-spicyfragrance;poorqualityoilshaveacamphoraceousnote.Itblendswellwithcananga, cinnamon, labdanum, olibanum, patchouli, cedarwood, amyris, spiceandorientalbases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Beta-asarone (amounts vary depending onsource:theIndianoilcontainsupto80percent,theRussianoilamaximumof6percent),alsocalamene,calamol,calamenene,eugenolandshyobunones.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin.Theoilofcalamusisreportedtohavecarcinogenicproperties.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy,whetherinternallyorexternally.’19

OTHER USES Extensively used in cosmetic and perfumery work, inwoody/oriental/leatherperfumesandtoscenthairpowdersandtoothpowdersinthesamewayasorris.Calamusanditsderivatives(oil,extracts,etc.)arebannedfromuseinfoods.

CAMPHORCinnamomumcamphora

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMSLaurus camphora, true camphor, hon-sho, laurel camphor, gumcamphor,Japanesecamphor,Formosacamphor.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtall,handsome,evergreentree,upto30metreshigh,notunlikethelinden.Ithasmanybranchesbearingclustersofsmallwhiteflowers followed by red berries. It produces awhite crystalline substance, thecrudecamphor,fromthewoodofmaturetreesoverfiftyyearsold.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Japan and Taiwan principally, also China;cultivatedinIndia,Ceylon,Egypt,Madagascar,southernEuropeandAmerica.

OTHER SPECIES There are many species of camphor: the ho-sho varietyproducesholeafandhowoodoil;theChinesevarietyproducesapopinoil;theJapan and Taiwan type, known as hon-sho or true camphor, produces twochemotypes:camphor-safrol(Japan)andcamphor-linalol(Taiwan).Alltheseareto be distinguished from theBorneo camphor or borneolwhich is of differentbotanicalorigin.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A long-standing traditional preventative ofinfectious disease; a lump of camphor would be worn around the neck as aprotection. In addition it was used for nervous and respiratory diseases ingeneral,andforheartfailure!However,initscrudeformitisverypoisonousinlargedoses,andhasbeenremovedfromtheBritishPharmacopoeia.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antiseptic,antiviral,bactericidal,counter-irritant,

diuretic,expectorant,stimulant,rubefacient,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONCrudecamphoriscollectedfromthetreesincrystallineform.Theessentialoil isproducedby steamdistillation from thewood, root stumpsandbranchesandthenrectifiedundervacuumandfilterpressedtoproducethreefractions,knownaswhite,brownandyellowcamphor.

Camphor

CHARACTERISTICSWhitecamphoristhelightest(lowestboiling)fraction,acolourless topaleyellowliquidwithasharp,pungentcamphoraceousodour.Brown camphor is the middle fraction. Yellow camphor, a blue-green oryellowishliquid,istheheaviest.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1Whitecamphorcontainsmainlycineol,withpinene,terpineol,menthol,thymolandnosafrol.2.Browncamphorcontainsupto 80 per cent safrol and some terpineol. 3. Yellow camphor containsmainlysafrol,sesquiterpenesandsesquiterpenealcohols.

SAFETYDATABrownandyellowcamphor (containingsafrol)are toxicandcarcinogenic and ‘should not be used in therapy, either internally orexternally.’20Whitecamphordoesnotcontainsafrolandisrelativelynontoxic,non-sensitizing and non-irritant. It is, however, an enviromental hazard or

marinepollutant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEWhitecamphormaybeusedwithcarefor:Skincare:Acne,inflammation,oilyconditions,spots;alsoforinsectprevention(flies,moths,etc).Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains,rheumatism,sprains,etc.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,chills,coughs.ImmuneSystem:Colds,fever,’flu,infectiousdisease.

OTHERUSESWhiteandbrowncamphorareusedasthestartingmaterialfortheisolationofmanyperfumerychemicals,forexamplesafrolandcineol.Whitecamphor is used as a solvent in the paint and lacquer industry, and for theproductionofcelluloid.Fractionsofwhiteoilareusedasfragranceandmaskingagentsindetergents,soaps,disinfectantsandhouseholdproducts.

CANANGACanangaodorata

FAMILYAnnonaceae

SYNONYMC.odoratumvar.macrophylla.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONA tall tropical tree,up to30metreshigh,whichflowersallyearround.Itbearslarge,fragrant,tenderyellowflowerswhicharevirtuallyidenticaltothoseoftheylangylang.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to tropicalAsia: Java,Malaysia, thePhilippines, theMoluccas.

OTHERSPECIESVerycloselyrelatedtothetreewhichproducesylangylangoil, C. odorata var. genuina. Cananga is considered an inferior product inperfumerywork;beinggrownindifferentregionstheoilhasadifferentquality,heavier and less delicate than ylang ylang. However, cananga is truly a‘complete’oilwhereasylangylangismadeintoseveraldistillates.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used locally for infectious illnesses, forexamplemalaria.Thebeautifulflowersarealsousedfordecorativepurposesatfestivals.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antidepressant, aphrodisiac, hypotensive, nervine,sedative,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywaterdistillationfromtheflowers.

CHARACTERISTICSGreenish-yellowororangeviscousliquidwithasweet,floralbalsamic tenacious scent. Itblendswellwithcalamus,birch tar, copaibabalsam, labdanum, neroli, oakmoss, jasmine, guaiacwood and oriental-typebases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Caryophyllene, benzyl acetate, benzylalcohol, farnesol, terpineol, borneol, geranyl acetate, safrol, linalol, limonrne,methylsalicylateandover100minorcomponents.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization especially inthosewithsensitiveskin.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Insectbites,fragrance,generalskincare.Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-relatedcomplaints.

OTHER USES Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics andperfumes, especially men’s fragrances. Limited use as a flavour ingredient insomefoodproducts,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

CARAWAYCarumcarvi

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSApiumcarvi,carum,carawayfruits.

GENERALDESCRIPTION A biennial herb up to 0.75 metres high with amuch-branchedstem,finelycutleavesandumbelsofwhiteflowers,withathickandtaperingroot.Thesmallseedsarecurvedwithfivedistinctpaleridges.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and western Asia, naturalized in NorthAmerica.Nowwidely cultivated especially inGermany,Holland, ScandinaviaandRussia.

OTHER SPECIES There are several varieties depending on origin – theEnglish,DutchandGerman typesderivefromPrussia,whicharedistinct fromthe Scandinavian variety. Those plants grown in northerly latitudes producemoreoil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used extensively as a domestic spice,especially in bread, cakes and cheeses. Traditional remedy for dyspepsia,intestinal colic, menstrual cramps, poor appetite, laryngitis and bronchitis. Itpromotesmilksecretionandisconsideredspecificforflatulentcolicinchildren,accordingtotheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia.

ACTIONS Antihistaminic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, aperitif, astringent,carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue, larvicidal,stimulant,spasmolytic,stomachic,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssential oil by steamdistillation from thedried ripe seedorfruit(approx.2–8percentyield).

CHARACTERISTICSCrudecarawayoilisapaleyellowish-brownliquidwitha harsh, spicy odour. The redistilled oil is colourless to pale yellow, with astrong, warm, sweet-spicy odour, like rye bread. It blends well with jasmine,cinnamon,cassiaandotherspices;however,itisveryoverpowering.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly carvone (50–60 per cent) andlimonene (40 per cent), with carveol, dihydrocarveol, dihydrocarvone, pinene,phellandrene,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-sensitizing, may cause dermal irritation in

concentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSERespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,coughs,laryngitis.Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, gastric spasm, nervousindigestion,poorappetite.Seealsosweetfennelanddill.Immunesystem:Colds.

OTHERUSESUsedincarminative,stomachicandlaxativepreparationsandasa flavour ingredient in pharmaceuticals; also to mask unpleasant tastes andodours.Fragrancecomponentintoothpaste,mouthwashproducts,cosmeticsandperfumes. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in most major foodcategories,especiallycondiments.TheGermanbrandy‘Kummel’ismadefromtheseeds.

CARDAMONElettariaCardamomum

FAMILYZingiberaceae

SYNONYMS Elettaria cardomomum var. cardomomum, cardamom,cardamomi,cardamum,mysorecardamom.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennial, reed-likeherbup to4metreshigh,with long, silky blade-shaped leaves. Its long sheathing stems bear smallyellowishflowerswithpurpletips,followedbyoblongred-brownseeds.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to tropicalAsia,especiallysouthern India;cultivatedextensively in India, Sri Lanka, Laos, Guatemala and El Salvador. The oil isproducedprincipallyinIndia,Europe,SriLankaandGuatemala.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerousrelatedspeciesfoundintheeast,usedas local spices and for medicinal purposes, such as round or Siam cardamon(Amomumcardamomum)foundinIndiaandChina.Anoilisalsoproducedfromwildcardamon(E.cardamomumvar.major).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used extensively as a domestic spice,especiallyinIndia,Europe,LatinAmericaandMiddleEasterncountries.Ithasbeen used in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine for over 3000 years,especially for pulmonary disease, fever, digestive and urinary complaints.Hippocrates recommended it for sciatica, coughs, abdominal pains, spasms,nervousdisorders, retentionofurine andalso forbitesofvenomous creatures.CurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforflatulentdyspepsia.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cephalic,digestive,diuretic,sialogogue,stimulant,stomachic,tonic(nerve).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam, distillation from the dried ripe fruit(seeds).Anoleoresinisalsoproducedinsmallquantities.

Cardamon

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourless topaleyellow liquidwith a sweet-spicy,warming fragrance and awoody-balsamic undertone. It blendswellwith rose,olibanum,orange,bergamot,cinnamon,cloves,caraway,ylangylang,labdanum,cedarwood,neroliandorientalbasesingeneral.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Terpinyl acetate and cineol (each may bepresentatupto50percent),limonene,sabinene,linalol,linalylacetate,pinene,

zingiberene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANontoxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEDigestive System:Anorexia, colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, griping pains,halitosisheartburn,indigestion,vomiting.NervousSystem:Mentalfatigue,nervousstrain.

OTHER USES Employed in some carminative, stomachic and laxativepreparations; also in the form of compound cardamon spirit to flavourpharmaceuticals.Extensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,cosmeticsand perfumes, especially oriental types. Important flavour ingredient,particularlyincurryandspiceproducts.

CARROTSEEDDaucuscarota

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSWildcarrot,QueenAnne’slace,bird’snest.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnnual or biennial herb,with a small, inedible,toughwhitishroot.Ithasamuch-branchedstemupto1.5metreshighwithhairyleavesandumbelsofwhitelacyflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEurope,AsiaandNorthAfrica;naturalizedinNorthAmerica.TheessentialoilismainlyproducedinFrance.

OTHERSPECIESAnoil isalsoproducedbysolventextractionfromtheredfleshy rootof the commonedible carrot (D. carota subspecies sativus)mainlyforuseasafoodcolouring.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A highly nutritious plant, containingsubstantialamountsofVitaminsA,C,B1andB2.Therootshaveastrongtonicactionontheliverandgallbladder,goodforthetreatmentofjaundiceandother

complaints. The seeds are used for the retention of urine, colic, kidney anddigestivedisorders, and topromotemenstruation. In theChinese tradition it isusedtotreatdysenteryandtoexpelworms.

CarrotSeed

ThedriedleavesarecurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaforcalculus,gout,cystitisandlithuria.

ACTIONS Anthelmintic, antiseptic, carminative, depurative, diuretic,emmenagogue, hepatic, stimulant, tonic, vasodilatory and smooth musclerelaxant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedfruit(seeds).

CHARACTERISTICSA yellow or amber-coloured liquidwith awarm, dry,woody-earthy odour. It blends well with costus, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood,geranium,citrusandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSPinene,carotol,daucol,limonene,bisabolene,elemene,geraniol,geranylacetate,caryophyllene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANontoxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE

SkinCare:Dermatitis,eczema,psoriasis,rashes,revitalizingandtoning,maturecomplexions,wrinkles.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Accumulationoftoxins,arthritis,gout,oedema,rheumatism.DigestiveSystem:Anaemia,anorexia,colic,indigestion,livercongestion.Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea,glandularproblems,PMT.

OTHER USES Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics andperfumes. Flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especiallyseasonings.

CASCARILLABARKCrotoneluteria

FAMILYEuphorbiaceae

SYNONYMS Cascarilla, sweetwood bark, sweet bark, Bahama cascarilla,aromaticquinquina,falsequinquina.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargeshruborsmalltreeupto12metreshigh,with ovate silver-bronze leaves, pale yellowish-brown bark and small whitefragrantflowers.Itbearsfruitsandflowersallyearround.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the West Indies, probably the Bahama Islands;found growing wild in Mexico, Colombia and Ecuador. The oil is mainlyproduced in theBahamas andCuba; some distillation takes place inAmerica,FranceandEnglandfromtheimportedbark.

OTHERSPECIESAnessentialoil isalsodistilled locally fromotherCrotonspecies.White,redandblackcascarillasarealsofoundincommerce.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The bark is used as an aromatic bitter andtonic for dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, fever, debility, nausea, flatulence,vomitingandchronicbronchitis.Theleavesareusedasadigestivetea,andforflavouringtobacco.Thebarkalsoyieldsagoodblackdye.

ACTIONS Astringent, antimicrobial, antiseptic, carminative, digestive,expectorant,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilby steamdistillation from thedriedbark. (1.5–3percentyield).

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, greenish or dark amber liquid with aspicy, aromatic, warm-woody odour. It blends well with nutmeg, pepper,pimento,sage,oakmoss,orientalandspicybases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCymene,diterpene,limonene,caryophyllene,terpineolandeugenol,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, non-sensitizing, relatively nontoxic (possiblynarcoticinlargedoses).

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSERespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,coughsDigestiveSystem:Dyspepsia,flatulence,nausea.ImmuneSystem:’Flu.

OTHER USES Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics andperfumes, especiallymen’s fragrances. Flavour ingredient inmostmajor foodcategories,softdrinksandalcoholicbeverages,especiallyvermouthsandbitters.

CASSIACinnamomumcassia

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMS C. aromaticum, Laurus cassia, Chinese cinnamon, falsecinnamon,cassiacinnamon,cassialignea.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONA slender, evergreen tree up to 20metres high,with leathery leaves and small white flowers. It is usually cut back to form

bushesforcommercialproduction.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to thesoutheasternpartsofChina; found toa lesserextentinVietnamandIndia(Cochin).

OTHER SPECIES Not to be confused with the Ceylon Cinnamon bark (C.verum) which is from a related species. There are also several other varietiesfrom different regions used for essential oil production – see BotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONExtensivelyusedaslocaldomesticspice.Itisused medicinally in much the same way as Ceylon cinnamon, mainly fordigestivecomplaintssuchasflatulentdyspepsia,colic,diarrhoeaandnausea,aswellasthecommoncold,rheumatism,kidneyandreproductivecomplaints.ThepowderedbarkiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasa

specificforflatulentdyspepsiaorcolicwithnausea.

ACTIONS Antidiarrhoeal, antiemetic, antimicrobial, astringent, carminative,spasmolytic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoil1.bysteamdistillationfromtheleaves,and2.bywaterdistillationfromthebark,leaves,twigsandstalks.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Leafoil isbrownishyellow(therectifiedoil ispaleyellow),withasweetwoody-spicytenaciousodour.2.Barkoilisadarkbrownliquidwithastrong,spicywarm,resinousodour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Leaf and Bark oil contain mainly cinnamicaldehyde (75–90 per cent) with some methyl eugenol, salicylaldehyde andmethylsalicylaldehyde.

SAFETY DATA Dermal toxin, dermal irritant, dermal sensitizer, mucousmembraneirritant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE None. ‘Should never be used on the skin(oneofthemosthazardousoils).’21

OTHERUSESSomepharmaceuticalapplicationsduetobactericidalproperties,such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, gargles; also tonic and carminativepreparations.Extensivelyused in food flavouring, including alcoholic and softdrinks.Littleusedinperfumesandcosmetics,duetoitsdarkcolour.

CASSIEAcaciafarnesiana

FAMILYMimosaceae

SYNONYMSCassiaancienne,sweetacacia,huisache,popinac,opopanax.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAbushy thornyshrub,muchbranched,up to10metreshigh.Ithasaverydelicateappearance,similartomimosa,withfragrantfluffyyellowflowers.

DISTRIBUTION Believed to be a native of the West Indies, now widelycultivated in tropical and semi-tropical regions throughout the world: mainlysouthernFranceandEgypt,alsoLebanon,Morocco,AlgeriaandIndia.

OTHERSPECIESThereareover400knownspeciesofacacia:othersimilarspecies are found in Central Africa, Zaire and Australia. Closely related tomimosa(A.dealbata)andRomancassie(A.cavenia)whicharealsousedfortheproductionofessentialoils.Nottobeconfusedwithopopanaxorbisabolmyrrh(Commiphoraerythrea)althoughtheyshareacommonname.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION In Indiaa local ‘attarof cassie’ ismadeasaperfume.Thefreshflowersareusedinbathsfordryskin,andintheformofaninfusion.InVenezuelatherootisusedfortreatingstomachcancer.InChinaitisusedtotreatrheumatoidarthritisandpulmonarytuberculosis.

There are many types of acacia employed in herbal medicine, notably theSenegalacaciawhichyieldsagummyexudationfromthetrunkknownasgumarabicorgumacacia,mainlyusedasademulcent.

ACTIONS Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, balsamic,

insecticide.

EXTRACTIONAnabsolutebysolventextractionfromtheflowers.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark yellow to brown viscous liquid with a warm,floral-spicy scent and rich balsamic undertone. It blends well with bergamot,costus,mimosa,frankincense,ylangylang,orrisandviolet.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The absolute contains about 25 per centvolatileconstituents,mainlybenzylalcohol,methylsalicylate,farnesol,geraniolandlinalolamongothers.

SAFETYDATANoavailabledataontoxicity.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEUsewithcarefor:Skincare:Dry,sensitiveskin,perfume.Nervous System: Depression, frigidity, nervous exhaustion and stress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESUsedinhigh-classperfumes,especiallyorientaltypes.Usedasaflavour ingredient inmost food categories, especially fruit products, alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

CEDARWOOD,ATLASCedrusatlantica

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMSAtlanticcedar,Atlascedar,Africancedar,Moroccancedarwood(oil),libanol(oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Pyramid-shaped evergreen tree with a majesticstature,upto40metreshigh.Thewooditselfishardandstronglyaromatic,duetothehighpercentageofessentialoilwhichitcontains.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to theAtlasmountains ofAlgeria; the oil ismainly

producedinMorocco.

OTHER SPECIES Believed to have originated from the famous Lebanoncedars(C.libani),whichgrowwildinLebanonandontheislandofCyprus.ItisalsoaclosebotanicalrelationtotheHimalayandeodarcedarwood(C.deodora),whichproducesaverysimilaressentialoil. (NB theoil isquitedifferent fromtheTexasorVirginiacedarwood.)

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheoilfromtheLebanoncedarwaspossiblythe first to be extracted, it was used by the ancient Egyptians for embalmingpurposes, cosmetics and perfumery. The oil was one of the ingredients of‘mithridat’, a renowned poison antidote that was used for centuries. TheLebanoncedarwasprizedasabuildingwood;itsodourrepelledants,mothsandotherharmfulinsects,asdoestheoilfromtheAtlascedar.

Cedarwood

Traditionally,theoilwasusedintheEastforbronchialandurinarytractinfections,asapreservativeandasanincense.ItisstillusedasatempleincensebytheTibetans,andisemployedintheirtraditionalmedicine.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antiputrescent, antiseborrheic, aphrodisiac, astringent,diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, mucolytic, sedative (nervous), stimulant(circulatory),tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillation fromthewood,stumpsandsawdust.Aresinoidandabsolutearealsoproducedinsmallquantities.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellow, orange or deep amber viscous oil with awarm,camphoraceoustopnoteandsweettenacious,woody-balsamicundertone.It blends well with rosewood, bergamot, boronia, cypress, calamus, cassie,costus, jasmine, juniper, neroli, mimosa, labdanum, olibanum, clary sage,vetiver,rosemary,ylangylang,orientalandfloralbases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Atlantone, caryophyllene, cedrol, cadinene,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Best avoided duringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, fungal infections, greasy skin,hairloss,skineruptions,ulcers.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Arthritis,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,catarrh,congestion,coughs.Genito-UrinarySystem:Cystitis,leucorrhoea,pruritis.NervousSystem:Nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESFragrancecomponentandfixative incosmeticsandhouseholdproducts, soaps, detergents, etc, as well as in perfumes, especially men’sfragrances.

CEDARWOOD,TEXASJuniperusashei

FAMILYCupressaceae

SYNONYMS J. mexicana, mountain cedar, Mexican cedar, rock cedar,Mexicanjuniper.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmall,alpineevergreentreeupto7metreshigh

withstiffgreenneedlesandanirregularshapedtrunkandbranches,whichtendtobecrookedortwisted,Thewoodalsotendstocrackeasily,soit isnotusedfortimber.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthwesternUSA,MexicoandCentralAmerica;theoilisproducedmainlyinTexas.

OTHER SPECIES The name J. mexicana has erroneously been applied tomany species; botanically related to the so-called Virginian cedarwood (J.virginiana)andtheEastAfricancedarwood(J.procera).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In New Mexico the native Indians usecedarwoodoilforskinrashes.Itisalsousedforarthritisandrheumatism.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,astringent,diuretic,expectorant,sedative(nervous),stimulant(circulatory).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the heartwood andwoodshavings,etc.(UnliketheVirginiancedar,thetreeisfelledespeciallyforitsessentialoil.)

CHARACTERISTICSCrude–adarkorangetobrownishviscousliquidwithasmoky-woody, sweet tar-like odour. Rectified – a colourless or pale yellowliquid with a sweet, balsamic, ‘pencil wood’ scent, similar to Virginiancedarwoodbutharsher. Itblendswellwithpatchouli, spruce,vetiver,pineandleather-typescents.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cedrene, cedrol (higher than the Virginianoil), thujopsene and sabinene, among others. Otherwise similar to Virginiancedarwood.

SAFETYDATASeeVirginiancedarwood.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeeVirginiancedarwood.

OTHERUSESSeeVirginiancedarwood.

CEDARWOOD,VIRGINIANJuniperusvirginiana

FAMILYCupressaceae

SYNONYMS Red cedar, eastern red cedar, southern red cedar, Bedfordcedarwood(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAconiferous,slow-growing,evergreentreeupto33metreshighwithanarrow,denseandpyramidalcrown,areddishheartwoodandbrowncones.Thetreecanattainamajesticstaturewithatrunkdiameterofover1.5metres.

DISTRIBUTION Native to North America, especially mountainous regionseastoftheRockyMountains.

OTHER SPECIES There are many cultivars of the red cedar; its Europeanrelativeistheshrubbyredcedar(J.sabina)alsoknownassavin–seeentry.ItisalsocloselyrelatedtotheEastAfricancedarwood(J.procera).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The North American Indians used it forrespiratory infections, especially those involving an excess of catarrh.Decoctions of leaves, bark, twigs and fruit were used to treat a variety ofailments: menstrual delay, rheumatism, arthritis, skin rashes, venereal warts,gonorrhoea,pyelitisandkidneyinfections.Itisanexcellentinsectandverminrepellent(mosquitoes,moths,woodworm,

rats,etc.)andwasonceusedwithcitronellaasacommercialinsecticide.

ACTIONS Abortifacient, antiseborrhoeic, antiseptic (pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, astringent, balsamic, diuretic, emmenagogue,expectorant,insecticide,sedative(nervous),stimulant(circulatory).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the timber waste,sawdust, shavings, etc. (At one time a superior oil was distilled from the redheartwood,fromtreesovertwentyfiveyearsold.)

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowororangeoilyliquidwithamild,sweet-

balsamic, ‘pencil wood’ scent. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, juniper,cypress,vetiver,patchouliandbenzoin.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycedrene(upto80percent),cedrol(3–14percent),andcedrenol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAExternallytheoilisrelativelynontoxic;cancauseacutelocalirritation and possible sensitization in some individuals. Use in dilution onlywithcare, inmoderation. ‘Theoil is apowerful abortifacient…useof theoilhas been fatal.’22 Avoid during pregnancy. Generally safer to use Atlascedarwood.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Acne, dandruff, eczema, greasy hair, insect repellent, oily skin,psoriasis.Circulation,MusclesAndJoints:Arthritis,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,catarrh,congestion,coughs,sinusitis.Genito-UrinarySystem:Cystitis,leucorrhoea.NervousSystem:Nervoustensionandstress-relateddisorders.

OTHER USES Extensively used in room sprays and household insectrepellents. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics andperfumes.Usedasthestartingmaterialfortheisolationofcedrene.

CELERYSEEDApiumgraveolens

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMCeleryfruit.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAfamiliarbiennialplant,30–60cmshigh,withagrooved,fleshy,erectstalk,shinypinnateleavesandumbelsofwhiteflowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Europe; extensively cultivated as adomesticvegetable.Theoil isprincipallyproduced in India,andalsoHolland,

China,HungaryandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanycultivatedvarieties,suchasceleriacroot(A.graveolensvar.rapaceum)andthesaladvegetable(A.graveolensvar.dulce).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONCeleryseediswidelyusedasadomesticspice.The seed is used in bladder and kidney complaints, digestive upsets andmenstrualproblems;theleavesareusedinskinailments.Itisknowntoincreasethe elimination of uric acid and is useful for gout, neuralgia and rheumatoidarthritis. A remedy for hepatobiliary disorders, it has been found to have aregeneratingeffectontheliver.CurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforrheumatoid

arthritiswithmentaldepression.

ACTIONS Anti-oxidative, antirheumatic, antiseptic (urinary), antispasmodic,aperitif,depurative,digestive,diuretic,carminative,cholagogue,emmenagogue,galactagogue, hepatic, nervine, sedative (nervous), stimulant (uterine),stomachic,tonic(digestive).

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from thewhole or crushedseeds.(Anoilfromthewholeherb,anoleoresinandextractarealsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowororangeoilwithaspicy-warm,sweet,long-lastingodour.Itblendswellwithlavender,pine,opopanax,lavage,teatree,oakmoss,corianderandotherspices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Limonene (60 per cent), apiol, selinene,santalol,sedanolideandsedanolicacidanhydride,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Avoid duringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationMusclesAndJoints:Arthritis,build-upoftoxinsintheblood,gout,rheumatism.DigestiveSystem:Dyspepsia,flatulence,indigestion,livercongestion,jaundice.

Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Amenorrhoea, glandular problems,increasesmilkflow,cystitis.NervousSystem:Neuralgia,sciatica.

OTHERUSESUsed in tonic, sedativeandcarminativepreparations,andasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Extensivelyused as a flavouring agent in foods, especially by the spice industry, and inalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

CHAMOMILE,GERMANMatricariarecutica

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMS M. chamomilla, camomile, blue chamomile, matricaria,Hungarian chamomile, sweet false chamomile, single chamomile, chamomileblue(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnannual,stronglyaromaticherb,upto60cmstall with a hairless, erect, branching stem. It has delicate feathery leaves andsimpledaisy-likewhiteflowersonsinglestems.Inappearanceitisverysimilarto the corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis) but can be distinguished from itbecausethelatterisscentless.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and north and west Asia; naturalized inNorthAmericaandAustralia.Itiscultivatedextensively,especiallyinHungaryandeasternEurope,wheretheoilisproduced.ItisnolongergrowninGermany,despitetheherbalname.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of chamomile, such as thepineapple weed (Chamaemelium suaveolens) and the Roman chamomile (C.nobile),bothofwhichareusedtoproduceanessentialoil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb has a long-standing medicinaltradition, especially in Europe for ‘all states of tension and the visceralsymptoms that can arise therefrom, such as nervous dyspepsia and nervous

bowel,tensionheadaches,andsleeplessness;especiallyusefulforallchildren’sconditions,calmingwithoutdepressing…’23

GermanChamomile

Anexcellentskincareremedy,ithasmanyofthesamequalitiesasRomanchamomile,exceptthatitsanti-inflammatorypropertiesaregreaterduetothehigherpercentageofazulene.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-allergenic, anti inflammatory, antiphlogistic,antispasmodic, bactericidal, carlminative, cicatrisant, cholagogue, digestive,emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, hepatic, nerve sedative, stimulant ofleucocyteproduction,stomachic,sudorific,vermifuge,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheflowerheads(upto1.9percentyield).Anabsoluteisalsoproducedinsmallquantities,whichisadeeperbluecolourandhasgreatertenacityandfixativeproperties.

CHARACTERISTICS An inky-blue viscous liquid with a strong, sweetishwarm-herbaceousodour.Itblendswellwithgeranium,lavender,patchouli,rose,benzoin, neroli, bergamot, marjoram, lemon, ylang ylang, jasmine, clary sageandlabdanum.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSChamazulene,farnesene,bisabololoxide,en-

yndicycloether,amongothers.(NBThechamazuleneisnotpresentinthefreshflowerbutisonlyproducedduringtheprocessofdistillation.)

SAFETYDATANontoxic,non-irritant;causesdermatitisinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Acne, allergies, boils, burns, cuts, chilblains, dermatitis, earache,eczema, hair care, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, sensitive skin, teethingpain,toothache,wounds.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, inflamed joints, muscular pain,neuralgia,rheumatism,sprains.DigestiveSystem:Dyspepsia,colic,indigestion,nausea.Genito-UrinarySystem:Dysmenorrhoea,menopausalproblems,menorrhagia.Nervous System: Headache, insomnia, nervous tension, migraine and stress-relatedcomplaints.

OTHERUSESUsedinpharmaceuticalantisepticointmentsandincarminative,antispasmodic and tonic preparations. Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps,detergents, high-class perfumes and hair and bath products.Used as a flavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategories,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

CHAMOMILE,MAROCOrmenismulticaulis

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSO.mixta,Anthemismixta,Moroccanchamomile.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhandsomeplant,90to125cmshighwithveryhairyleavesandtubularyellowflowers,surroundedbywhiteligulets.

DISTRIBUTION Native to north west Africa and southern Spain, havingprobably evolved from the very common Ormenis species which grows allaroundtheMediterranean.AlsofoundgrowingontheplainsinIsrael.TheoilisdistilledinMorocco.

OTHERSPECIESItisdistantlyrelatedtotheGermanandRomanchamomilebotanically,althoughitdoesnotresemblethemphysically.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisisoneofthemorerecentoilstoappearonthemarket,andassuchitdoesnothavealonghistoryofusage.Theoilisoftenmistaken for a ‘true’ chamomile, though it should more correctly be called‘Ormenis oil’ since: ‘Chemically and olfactorily, the oil is distinctly differentfromtheGermanortheRomanchamomileoils,andcannotbeconsideredasareplacementforthem.’24

ACTIONSAntispasmodic,cholagogue,emmenagogue,hepatic,sedative.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICS Pale yellow to brownish yellowmobile liquid with afresh-herbaceous top note and a sweet rich-balsamic undertone. It blendswellwith cypress, lavender, lavandin, vetiver, cedarwood, oakmoss, labdanum,olibanumandartemisiaoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSUnknown.

SAFETYDATAGenerallynontoxicandnon-irritant–morespecificsafetydataisunavailableatpresent.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE ‘Sensitive skin, colic, colitis, headache,insomnia, irritability,migraine,amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea,menopause, liverand spleen congestion.’25 Little is known about its therapeutic history andusage.

OTHER USES Employed extensively in perfumery work, especially incolognes,chypresandfougèrefragrance.

CHAMOMILE,ROMANChamaemelumnobile

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMS Anthemis nobilis, camomile, English chamomile, gardenchamomile,sweetchamomile,truechamomile.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small, stocky, perennial herb, up to 25 cmshigh, with a much branched hairy stem, half spreading or creeping. It hasfeatherypinnateleaves,daisy-likewhiteflowerswhicharelargerthanthoseoftheGermanchamomile.Thewholeplanthasanapplelikescent.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernandwesternEurope;naturalizedinNorthAmerica. Cultivated in England, Belgium, Hungary, United States, Italy andFrance.

OTHER SPECIES There are a great many varieties of chamomile foundthroughouttheworld,fourofwhicharenativetotheBritishIsles,buttheonlyoneoftheseusedtherapeuticallyistheRomanchamomile(C.nobile).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb has had a medical reputation inEuropeandespeciallyintheMediterraneanregionforover2000years,anditisstillinwidespreaduse.ItwasemployedbytheancientEgyptiansandtheMoors,anditwasoneoftheSaxons’ninesacredherbs,whichtheycalled‘maythen’.Itwasalsoheldtobethe‘plant’sphysician’,sinceitpromotedthehealthofplantsnearby.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaforthetreatmentof

dyspepsia,nausea,anorexia,vomitinginpregnancy,dysmenorrhoeaandspecificallyflatulentdyspepsiaassociatedwithmentalstress.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-anaemic, antineuralgic, antiphlogistic, antiseptic,antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, cholagogue, cicatrisant, digestive,emmenagogue,febrifuge,hepatic,hypnotic,nervesedative,stomachic,sudorific,tonic,vermifuge,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationoftheflowerheads.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleblue liquid (turningyellowonkeeping)with awarm,sweet,fruity-herbaceousscent.Itblendswellwithbergamot,clarysage,oakmoss,jasmine,labdanum,neroli,rose,geraniumandlavender.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly esters of angelic and tiglic acids(approx. 85 per cent), with pinene, farnesol, nerolidol, chamazulene,pinocarvone,cineol,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant; can cause dermatitis in someindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeeGermanchamomile.

OTHERUSESSeeGermanchamomile.

CHAMPACAMicheliachampaca

FAMILYMagnoliaceae

SYNONYMSM.aurantiaca,Magnoliachampaca,joyperfumetree,champak,champac,champa,goldenchampaca.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Champaca is a large, sub-tropical tree up to 6metres highwith a smooth grey bark and long, oval-shaped, glossy evergreenleaves.Theflowershave10–20yellow,orangeorcream-colourednarrowpetalsandanextremelyheadyfragrance.Theybloombothinspringandautumn–onawarm, humid night, the scent can be enjoyed several hundred feet away!Champacafruitarebrown,containingbrightredseeds.

DISTRIBUTIONMichelia champaca is native to India, where it occurs inhumid, tropical evergreen forests. It is also found throughout Indo-China,Malaysia,Sumatra,Javaandsouth-westernChina,aswellasoccurringnaturallyin the eastern Himalayan region. It is often grown as a boulevard tree in thetropics and in India is frequently planted in Hindu temple grounds andornamental gardens. Champaca, especially its white-flowered hybrid, is nowcommonlycultivatedinwarmclimatesworldwide,forexample,inCalifornia.

OTHER SPECIES The genus Michelia contains about 40 species with a

distribution including India,Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Japan, Taiwan andChina.The leavesandflowersof theMichelia species resembleMagnolia,buttheblossomsofMicheliagenerallyformclustersamongtheleaves,ratherthansinglyatthebranchendslikeMagnolia.ThereareseveralrelatedspeciesofM.champaca, such as the red champaca and the white champaca, grownspecifically for their scented flowers,which are alsoused toproduce essentialoils.M. x alba, awhite-flowered hybrid ofM. champaca andM.montana, isprizedthroughoutAsiaforitsfragrant,pure-whiteflowers,whicharecommonlyfloated in water bowls as Buddhist temple offerings and used a householddecoration.

NB:Occasionallychampacaisconfusedwithchampacawoodoilorguaiacwoodoil (Bulnesia sarmienti), also known as palo santo (meaning ‘holy wood’),whichisderivedfromanentirelydifferentspeciesnativetoSouthAmerica.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Champaca is regarded as one of the mostsacred trees of India and tropicalAsia and has been revered by the people ofIndia for thousands of years.M. champaca is sacred toHindus andBuddhistsalike and the flower is especially sacred to theHindi godVishnu, the god oflove,andhisconsortLakshmi.InIndia,theflowersarealsousedforadornmentand theiralluringscent isemployedasanaturalaphrodisiac,andasa fragrantdecorationforbridalbedsandforgarlands.

All parts of the tree are considered medicinal and are utilized in varioustraditional remedies. In India, the scented oil infused from the champacablossom is used for relief of vertigo and headaches. As a herbal remedy, theflowers have been used to treat urinary tract infections and as an emollient,febrifuge and to soothe anxiety. It is also considered a valuable aid for thetreatment of all skin types, particularly mature, dry or sensitive skin. Thederivation of the word ‘shampoo’ is the Hindi word champo, meaning ‘tomassage’,whichcomesfromchampa, theSanskritnameforchampaca.Thisisbecause the oil from the treewas traditionally used tomake fragrant hair andmassageoils!

ACTIONS Antidepressant, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, antiseptic, antiviral,astringent,emollient,euphoric,emollient,febrifuge,stimulantandtonic.

EXTRACTIONTheabsolute isproducedbysolventextractionfromthefreshflowers. (An oil is also produced by steam distillation of the petals). Theabsolute requires thousandsof fresh flowers toproducea tinyamount: thus itshighcost.

CHARACTERISTICSAnintense,fresh,green-floralscentwithanunderlyingwarmth and subtle leafy notes. It blendswellwith jasmine, lemon, coriander,tuberose,grapefruit,bergamot, rose,ylangylang,neroli, sandalwoodandotherfloralscents

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSChampacaabsolutecontainsmainly linalool,benzyl acetate, beeta lonone, phenyl ethyl alcohol, gamma-selinene, benzylbenzoate,phenylethylbenzoateandeugenol.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Avoid duringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE

SkinCare:Dry,matureskinandsensitiveskin,wrinklesandgeneralskincare.Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fear, grief, insomnia, nervous debility,tensionheadaches,moodswings,stress.

OTHERUSESChampacaflowersareused(inpart)tomaketheworld’smostexpensive perfume, Jean Patou’s famous scent, ‘Joy’, the second best sellingperfumeintheworldafterChanelNo.5.Thetreeisalsoasourceoftimberandfuelandfortheproductionofayellowdye.Thetree’swoodisusedformakingboats, drums, and religious engravings. In India, however, where the tree isrevered,itisrarelycutdown.

CHERVILAnthriscuscerefolium

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSA.longirostris,gardenchervil,saladchervil.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAdelicateannualherbupto30cmshigh,withaslender, much branched stem, bright green, finely-divided, fernlike leaves,umbels of flat white flowerheads and long smooth seeds or fruits. Thewholeplanthasapleasingaromaticscentwhenbruised.

DISTRIBUTIONNative toEuropeandwesternAsia;naturalized inAmerica,Australia and New Zealand.Widely cultivated, especially in southern EuropeandAmerica.

OTHERSPECIESA cultivated form of itswild relative, thewild chervil orgarden-beakedparsley(A.sylvestris),withwhichitsharessimilarpropertiesanduses. Not to be confused with another common garden herb sweet cicely(Myrrhisodorata),alsoknownassweetorsmoothchervil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION The name chervil comes from theGreek ‘torejoice’,due to itsdelightful scent.The leavesareusedasadomestic spice insalads,soups,omelettes,saucesandtoflavourbreaddough.Infolkmedicineitis used as a tea to ‘toneup thebloodandnerves.Good forpoormemory andmentaldepression.Sweetenstheentiredigestivesystem.’26Thejuicefromthefreshherbisusedtotreatskinailmentssuchaseczema,

abscessesandslow-healingwounds;alsousedfordropsy,arthritisandgout,amongothers.

ACTIONSAperitif,antiseptic,carminative,cicatrisant,depurative,diaphoretic,digestive,diuretic,nervine,restorative,stimulant(metabolism),stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromseedsorfruit.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a sweet-herbaceous, anisicodour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly methyl chavicol, also 1-allyl-2, 4-dimethoxybenzeneandanethole,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAMethyl chavicol and anethole are known to have toxic andirritanteffects;methylchavicolisreportedtohavepossiblecarcinogeniceffects.

Sincetheseconstitutethemajorproportionoftheessentialoil,itisbestavoidedfortherapeuticuse.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHER USES Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient by the foodindustry,especiallyinmeatproducts,aswellasinalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

CINNAMONCinnamomumzeylanicum

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMS C. verum, Laurus cinnamomum, Ceylon cinnamon, Seychellescinnamon,Madagascarcinnamon,truecinnamon,cinnamonleaf(oil),cinnamonbark(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONA tropical evergreen tree up to 15metres high,with strong branches and thick scabrous bark with young shoots speckledgreeny-orange.Ithasshinygreen,leatheryleaves,smallwhiteflowersandovalbluish-whiteberries.Theleaveshaveaspicysmellwhenbruised.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSriLanka,Madagascar,theComoroIslands,SouthIndia,BurmaandIndochina.ItisalsocultivatedinIndia,JamaicaandAfrica–eachregiontendingtohaveitsownparticularspecies.

OTHERSPECIESMadagascarcinnamonisconsideredsuperiortothevariousother types of cinnamon such as the Saigon cinnamon (C. loureirii) and theBataviaCinnamon(C.burmanii).SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The inner bark of the new shoots from thecinnamontreearegatheredeverytwoyearsandsoldintheformofsticksforuseasadomesticspice.Ithasbeenusedforthousandsofyearsintheeastforawiderange of complaints including colds, ’flu, digestive and menstrual problems,rheumatism, kidney troubles and as a general stimulant.Current in theBritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic and dyspepsia with

nausea.

ACTIONS Anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal, antidote (to poison), antimicrobial,antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiputrescent, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative,digestive, emmenagogue, haemostatic, orexigenic, parasiticide, refrigerant,spasmolytic,stimulant(circulatory,cardiac,respiratory),stomachic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywateror steamdistillation from the1. leavesandtwigs,and2.driedinnerbark.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A yellow to brownish liquid with a warm-spicy,somewhat harsh odour. 2. A pale to dark yellow liquid with a sweet, warm-spicy,dry, tenaciousodour. Itblendswellwitholibanum,ylangylang,orange,mandarin,benzoin,Perubalsamandinorientaltypemixtures.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.Leaf–eugenol (80‒96percent),eugenolacetate, cinnamaldehyde (3 per cent), benzyl benzoate, linalol, safrol amongothers. 2.Bark‒ cinnamaldehyde (40‒50 per cent), eugenol (4‒10 per cent),benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, pinene, cineol, phellandrene, furfurol, cymene,linalol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATA1.The leafoil is relativelynontoxic, thoughpossibly irritantdue to cinnamaldehyde. Itsmajor component, eugenol, causes irritation to themucousmembranes:useinmoderation.2.Thebarkoilisadermaltoxin,irritantandsensitizer;alsoirritanttothemucousmembranes.‘Shouldneverbeusedontheskin(oneofthemosthazardousoils).’27

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECinnamonbarkoil – none.Cinnamon leafoil:Skincare:Lice,scabies,toothandgumcare,warts,waspstings.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Poorcirculation,rheumatism.Digestive System: Anorexia, colitis, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, intestinal infection,sluggishdigestion,spasm.Genito-Urinary System: Childbirth (stimulates contractions), frigidity,leucorrhoea,metrorrhagia,scantyperiods.ImmuneSystem:Chills,colds,’flu,infectiousdiseases.NervousSystem:Debility,nervousexhaustionandstress-relatedconditions.

CinnamonandClove

OTHER USES Both bark and leaf oils are used for their fragrance andtherapeuticactionsintoothpastes,nasalsprays,mouthwashes,coughsyrupsanddental preparations. The leaf oil is used in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries andperfumes.Bothareusedextensively in foodflavouring,especially inalcoholicandsoftdrinks,includingCoca-Cola.

CITRONELLACymbopogonnardus

FAMILYPoaceae(Gramineae)

SYNONYMSAndropogonnardus,SriLankacitronella,Lenabatucitronella.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, aromatic, perennial grass, which hasderivedfromthewild-growing‘managrass’foundinSriLanka.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Sri Lanka, now extensively cultivated on the

southernmosttipofthecountry.

OTHERSPECIESAnimportantessentialoilisalsoproducedonalargescalefrom the Java or Maha Pengiri citronella (C. winterianus). This variety iscultivated in the tropics worldwide, especially in Java, Vietnam, Africa,ArgentinaandCentralAmerica.Therearemanyotherrelatedspeciesofscentedgrasses.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The leaves of citronella are used for theiraromatic andmedicinal value in many cultures, for fever, intestinal parasites,digestive andmenstrual problems, as a stimulant and an insect repellent. It isusedinChinesetraditionalmedicineforrheumaticpain.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, deodorant, diaphoretic,diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, insecticide, stomachic, tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh, part-dried ordriedgrass.(TheJavacitronellayieldstwiceasmuchoilastheSriLankatype.)

CHARACTERISTICSAyellowy-brown,mobileliquidwithafresh,powerful,lemony scent. The Java oil is colourless to pale yellowwith a fresh, woody-sweetfragrance;itisconsideredofsuperiorqualityinperfumerywork.Itblendswellwithgeranium,lemon,bergamot,orange,cedarwoodandpine.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlygeraniol(upto45percentintheJavaoil),citronella(upto50percentintheJavaoil)withgeranylacetate,limoneneandcamphene,amongothers.TheSriLankavarietycontainsmoremonoterpenehydrocarbons.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant; may cause dermatitis in someindividuals.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Excessive perspiration, oily skin, insect repellant. ‘Mixed withcedarwoodoilVirginia, ithasbeenapopular remedyagainstmosquitoattacksfor many years prior to the appearance of DDT and other modern

insecticides.’28ImmuneSystem:Colds,’flu,minorinfections.NervousSystem:Fatigue,headaches,migraine,neuralgia.

OTHER USES Extensively used in soaps, detergents, household goods andindustrial perfumes. Employed in insect repellent formulations against moths,ants,fleas,etc,foruseinthehomeandinthegardenTheSriLankaoilisusedinmostmajorfoodcategories,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.TheJavaoilisusedasthestartingmaterialfortheisolationofnaturalgeraniolandcitronellal.

CLOVESyzygiumaromaticum

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSEugeniaaromatica,E.caryophyllata,E.caryophyllus.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A slender evergreen tree with a smooth greytrunk,upto12metreshigh.Ithaslargebrightgreenleavesstandinginpairsonshortstalks.At thestartof therainyseason longbudsappearwitharosypinkcorollaatthetip;asthecorollafadesthecalyxslowlyturnsdeepred.Thesearebeatenfromthetreeand,whendriedprovidetheclovesofcommerce.

DISTRIBUTIONBelievedtobenativetoIndonesia;nowcultivatedworldwide,especially in the Philippines, theMolucca Islands andMadagascar. Themainoil-producingcountriesareMadagascar,andIndonesia.

OTHERSPECIES The clove tree has been cultivated in plantations for over2000years.TheoriginalwildtreesfoundintheMoluccas,produceanessentialoilthatcontainsnoeugenolatall.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Extensively used as a domestic spiceworldwide. Tincture of cloves has been used for skin infections (scabies,athlete’s foot); for digestive upsets; to dress the umbilical cord; for intestinalparasites; to ease the pain of childbirth (steeped in wine); and notably fortoothache.Theteaisusedtorelievenausea.InChinesemedicinetheoilisusedfordiarrhoea,hernia,badbreathand

InChinesemedicinetheoilisusedfordiarrhoea,hernia,badbreathandbronchitisaswellasforthoseconditionsmentionedabove.InIndonesia,the‘Kretak’cigaretteispopular,madefromtwopartstobaccoandonepartcloves.

ACTIONS Anthelmintic, antibiotic, antiemetic, antihistaminic, antirheumatic,antineuralgic, antioxidant, antiseptic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, carminative,counter-irritant, expectorant, larvicidal, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by water distillation from the 1. buds and 2.leaves,andbysteamdistillationfromthe3.stalksorstems.Aconcrete,absoluteandoleoresinarealsoproducedfromthebudsinsmallquantities.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Clovebudisapaleyellowliquidwithasweet-spicyodourandafruity-freshtopnote.Thebudoilisfavouredinperfumerywork.Itblends well with rose, lavender, vanillin, clary sage, bergamot, bay leaf,lavandin, allspice, ylang ylang and cananga. 2.Clove leaf is a dark brownoilwithacrude,burnt-woodyodour.3.Clovestemoilisapaleyellowliquidwithastrongspicy-woodyodour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 1. Bud: 60‒90 per cent eugenol, eugenylacetate, caryophyllene and other minor constituents. 2. Leaf: 82–88 per centeugenolwithlittleornoeugenylacetate,andotherminorconstituents.3.Stem:90–95percenteugenol,withotherminorconstituents.

SAFETYDATAAllcloveoilscancauseskinandmucousmembraneirritation;clovebudandstemoilmaycausedermatitis insomeindividuals.Clovebudisthe least toxic of the three oils due to the lower eugenol percentage. Use inmoderationonlyinlowdilution(lessthan1percent).

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEOnlyuseclovebudoil,nottheleaforstemoil.SkinCare:Acne,athlete’sfoot,bruises,burns,cuts,insectrepellent(mosquito),toothache,ulcers,wounds.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Arthritis,rheumatism,sprains.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis.DigestiveSystem:Colic,dyspepsia,nausea.ImmuneSystem:Colds,’flu,minorinfections.

OTHERUSESUsed in dental preparations, and as a fragrance component intoothpastes,soaps,toiletries,cosmeticsandperfumes.Extensivelyemployedasaflavouringredientinmajorfoodcategories,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.Usedinthe production of printing ink, glue and varnish; clove leaf oil is used as thestartingmaterialfortheisolationofeugenol.

CORIANDERCoriandrumsativum

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSCorianderseed,Chineseparsley.

GENERALDESCRIPTION A strongly aromatic annual herb about 1metrehigh with bright green delicate leaves, umbels of lacelike white flowers,followedbyamassofgreen(turningbrown)roundseeds.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and western Asia; naturalized in NorthAmerica. Cultivated throughout the world, the oil is mainly produced in theUSSR,YugoslaviaandRomania.

OTHER SPECIES Various chemotypes of the same species are foundaccordingtogeographicallocation.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION A herb with a long history of use the seedswerefoundintheancientEgyptiantombofRameses11.Theseedsandleavesarewidelyusedasagarnishanddomesticspice,especiallyincurries.Ithasbeenusedtherapeutically,mainlyintheformofaninfusionforchildren’sdiarrhoea,digestiveupsets,gripingpains,anorexiaandflatulence.InChinesemedicinethewholeherbisusedfordysentery,piles,measles,

nausea,toothacheandforpainfulhernia.

ACTIONS Analgesic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, antioxidant, antirheumatic,antispasmodic, bactericidal, depurative, digestive, carminative, cytotoxic,fungicidal, larvicidal, lipolytic, revitalizing, stimulant (cardiac, circulatory,

nervoussystem),stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthecrushedripeseeds.(Anessentialoilisalsoproducedbysteamdistillationfromthefreshanddriedleaves,whichcontainsahighproportionofdecylaldehyde.)

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlesstopaleyellowliquidwithasweet,woody-spicy, slightly musky fragrance. It blends well with clary sage, bergamot,jasmine, olibanum, neroli, petitgrain, citronella, sandalwood, cypress, pine,ginger,cinnamonandotherspiceoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly linalol (55–75 per cent),decylaldehyde,borneol,geraniol,carvone,anethole,amongothers;constituents;varyaccordingtosource.

SAFETYDATAGenerallynontoxic,nonirritant,non-sensitizing.Stupefyinginlargedoses–useinmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculation,MusclesAndJoints:Accumulationoffluidsortoxins,arthritis,gout,muscularachesandpains,poorcirculation,rheumatism,stiffness.Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea,piles,spasm.ImmuneSystem:Colds,’flu,infections(general),measles.NervousSystem:Debility,migraine,neuralgia,nervousexhaustion.

OTHER USES Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceutical preparations,especiallydigestiveremedies.Usedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,toiletriesandperfumes.Employedbythefoodindustryespeciallyinmeatproductsandtoflavour liqueurs such as Chartreuse and Benedictine; also used for flavouringtobacco.

COSTUSSaussureacostus

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSS.lappa,Aucklandiacostus,Aplotaxislappa,A.auriculata.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlarge,erect,perennialplantupto2metreshighwithathicktaperingrootandnumerousalmostblackflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to northern India; cultivated in India and southwestChina.TheoilismainlyproducedinIndia.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtoelecampane(lnulahelenium),whoserootsarealsousedtoproduceanessentialoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheroothasbeenusedformillenniainIndiaandChinafordigestivecomplaints,respiratoryconditions,asastimulantandforinfectionincludingtyphoidandcholera.Itisalsousedasanincense.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative,digestive,expectorant,febrifuge,hypotensive,stimulant,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONThedriedrootsaremaceratedinwarmwater,thensubjectedtosteam distillation followed by solvent extraction of the distilled water. (Aconcreteandabsolutearealsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or brownish viscous liquid of soft,woody-musty, extremely tenacious odour. It blends well with patchouli,opopanax,ylangylang,orientalandfloralfragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, includingdihydrocostus lactone and costunolide (together up to 50 per cent), othersesquiterpenessuchascostols,caryophylleneandselinene,aswellascosticandoleicacids,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Nontoxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in someindividuals.Subjecttofrequentadulteration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE

SkinCare:Perfume.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,spasmodiccough.DigestiveSystem:Flatulence,indigestion,spasm.Nervoussystem:Debility,nervousexhaustionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESFixative and fragrance component in cosmetics andperfumes.Used as a flavour ingredient by the food industry, especially in confectionery,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

CUBEBSPiperCubeba

FAMILYPiperaceae

SYNONYMS Cubeba officinalis, cubeba, tailed pepper, cubeb berry, falsepepper.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreenclimbingvineup to6metreshighwith heart-shaped leaves. Altogether similar to the black pepper plant, exceptthatthefruitorseedsofthecubebretaintheirpeduncleorstem–thusthename,tailedpepper.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoIndonesia,cultivatedthroughoutsoutheastAfrica,usually together with coffee crops. The oil is mainly produced at source inIndonesia.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtotheblackpepperplant(P.nigrum)andtotheSouthAmericanmatico(P.augustifolium).TherearealsomanyotherrelatedspeciesgrowninIndonesiawhichare,oftenusedforadulteration,suchasfalsecubebs(P.crassipes).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheseedsareusedlocallyasadomesticspice.It has been traditionally used for treating genito-urinary infections, such asgonorrhoea,cystitis,urethritis,abscessoftheprostateglandandleucorrhoea.Itis also used for digestive upsets and respiratory problems such as chronicbronchitis.Theseedshavealocalstimulatingeffectonthemucousmembraneof

the urinary and respiratory tracts, and the powder was found ‘90 per centclinicallyeffectiveintreatingamoebicdysentery’.29

ACTIONS Antiseptic (pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antiviral,bactericidal,carminative,diuretic,expectorant,stimulant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the unripe but fullygrownfruitsorberries.(Anoleoresinisalsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICSApalegreenishorbluishyellowviscous liquidwithawarmwoody-spicy,slightlycamphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithcananga,galbanum,lavender,rosemary,blackpepper,allspiceandotherspices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly sesquiterpenes and monoterpeneswhichincludecaryophyllene,cadinene,cubebene,sabinene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANontoxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Frequently subject toadulteration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSERespiratory System: Bronchitis, catarrh, congestion, chronic coughs, sinusitis,throatinfections.DigestiveSystem:Flatulence,indigestion,piles,sluggishdigestion.Genito-UrinarySystems:Cystitis,leucorrhoea,urethritis.

OTHERUSESEmployedindiureticandurinaryantisepticpreparationsandasafragrancecomponent insoaps,detergents, toiletries,cosmeticsandperfumes.Used as a flavouring agent in most major food categories; also used forflavouringtobacco.

CUMINCuminumcyminum

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSC.odorum,cummin,romancaraway.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmall,delicate,annualherbabout50cmshighwithaslenderstem,darkgreenfeatheryleavesandsmallpinkorwhiteflowersfollowedbysmalloblongseeds.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoupperEgypt,butfromtheearliesttimescultivatedintheMediterraneanregion,especiallySpain,FranceandMorocco;alsoinIndiaandtheUSSR.TheoilismainlyproducedinIndia,SpainandFrance.

OTHER SPECIES Closely related to coriander (Coriandrum sativum), withwhichitsharesmanyproperties.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAtraditionalMiddleEasternspice,andoneofthe main ingredients of curry. Although it has gone out of use in WesternherbalismitisstilllargelyusedintraditionalAyurvedicmedicine,principallyasageneralstimulantbutespeciallyfordigestivecomplaintssuchascolic,sluggishdigestionanddyspepsia.

ACTIONS Antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac,bactericidal, carminative, depurative, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue,larvicidal,nervine,stimulant,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheripeseeds.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow or greenish liquid with a warm, soft,spicy-muskyscent.Itblendswellwithlavender,lavandin,rosemary,galbanum,rosewood,cardamonandoriental-typefragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly aldehydes (up to 60 per cent),including cuminaldehyde; monoterpene hydrocarbons (up to 52 per cent),including pinenes, terpinenes, cymene, phellandrene, myrcene and limonene;alsofarneseneandcaryophyllene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAGenerallynontoxic,nonirritantandnon-sensitizing;howevertheoilisphototoxic–donotexposetreatedskintodirectsunlight.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of fluids or toxins, poorcirculation.DigestiveSystem:Colic,dyspepsia,flatulence,indigestion,spasm.NervousSystem:Debility,headaches,migraine,nervousexhaustion.

OTHER USES Used in veterinary medicine in digestive preparations. As afragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, and a flavour ingredient inmanyfoodsanddrinks,especiallymeatproductsandcondiments.

CYPRESSCupressussempervirens

FAMILYCupressaceae

SYNONYMSItaliancypress,Mediterraneancypress.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtallevergreentreewithslenderbranchesandastatuesqueconicalshape.Itbearssmallflowersandround,brownish-greyconesornuts.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the eastern Mediterranean; now grows wild inFrance, Italy,Corsica,Sardinia,Sicily,Spain,Portugal,NorthAfrica,Englandand,toalesserdegree,theBalkancountries.CultivationanddistillationusuallytakeplaceinFrance,alsoSpainandMorocco.

Cypress

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyotherspeciesofcypressfoundthroughouttheworldwhichareusedtoproduceanessentialoil,suchasC.lusitanicafoundin Kenya.With regard to oil quality, however, C. sempervirens is consideredsuperior.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION ItwashighlyvaluedasamedicineandasanincensebyancientcivilizationsanditisstillusedasapurificationincensebytheTibetans. Itbenefits theurinarysystemand isconsideredusefulwhere there isexcessive loss of fluid, such as heavy perspiration or menstrual loss anddiarrhoea:‘Theconesare…verydryingandbinding,goodtostopfluxesofallkinds.’30TheChineseconsiderthenutsverynutritious,beneficialfortheliverand

respiratorysystemandtocheckprofuseperspiration.

ACTIONS Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, deodorant,diuretic,hepatic,styptic,sudorific,tonic,vasoconstrictive.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheneedlesandtwigs.An oil from the cones is available occasionally. (A concrete and absolute arealsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow to greenish-olive mobile liquid with a

smoky, sweet-balsamic tenacious odour. It blends well with cedarwood, pine,lavender, mandarin, clary sage, lemon, cardamon, Moroccan chamomile,ambrette seed, labdanum, juniper, benzoin, bergamot, orange, marjoram andsandalwood.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Pinene, camphene, sylvestrene, cymene,sabinol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANontoxic,non-irritantandnon-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Haemorrhoids, oily and overhydrated skin, excessive perspiration,insectrepellent,pyorrhoea(bleedingofthegums),varicoseveins,wounds.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, muscular cramp, oedema, poorcirculation,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,spasmodiccoughing.Genito-urinarysystem:Dysmenorrhoea,menopausalproblems,menorrhagia.NervousSystem:Nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESEmployedinsomepharmaceuticalproducts;usedasafragrancecomponentincolognes,after-shavesandperfumes.

D

DEERTONGUECarphephorusodoratissimus

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMS Trilisa odoratissima, Liatris odoratissima, Frasera speciosa,hound’stongue,deer’stongue,Carolinavanilla,vanillaleaf,wildvanilla,vanillatrilisa,whart’stongue,liatrix(oleoresinorabsolute).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAherbaceousperennialplantdistinguishedbyanaked receptacle and feathery pappus, with large, fleshy, dark green leaves,claspedatthebase.Whenfresh,theleaveshavelittleodourbutwhendriedtheyacquire a vanilla-like odour, largely due to the coumarin that can be seen incrystalsontheuppersidesoftheleaves.

DISTRIBUTION Native to eastern USA; gathered on the savannah landbetweenNorthCarolinaandFlorida.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralspeciesofdeertonguenativetoAmerica,forexampleblazingstarorprairiepine (Liatris squarrosa), andgayfeather (L.spicata). Not to be confused with the common vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) orwith theEuropeanhound’s tongue(Cynoglossumofficinale),allofwhichhavebeenusedinherbalmedicine.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The roots have been used for their diureticeffects,andappliedlocallyforsorethroatsandgonorrhoea.Ithasalsobeenusedas a tonic in treating malaria. In folklore the plant is associated withcontraceptionandsterilityinwomen.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, stimulant,tonic.

EXTRACTIONOleoresinbysolventextractionfromthedriedleaves.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark green, heavy, viscous liquid with a rich,herbaceous, new-mown hay scent. It blends well with oakmoss, labdanum,lavandin,frankincense,clove,patchouliandoriental-typefragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly coumarin (1.6 per cent), withdihydrotoumarinandterpenes,aldehydesandketones.

SAFETY DATA ‘Coumarin has toxic properties including liver injury andhaemorrhages.’31 (There is also the possibility of dermal irritation andphototoxicityduetothelactonespresent.)

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESTheoleoresinisusedasafixativeandfragrancecomponentinsoaps, detergents and perfumery work. Used for flavouring tobacco and; alsoemployedfortheisolationofcoumarin.

DILLAnethumgraveolens

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSPeucedanumgraveolens,Fructusanethi,Europeandill,Americandill.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnnualorbiennialherbupto1metrehighwithasmoothstem,featheryleavesandumbelsofyellowishflowersfollowedbyflatsmallseeds.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions; nowcultivatedworldwide,especiallyinEurope,USA,ChinaandIndia.DillseedoilismainlyproducedinEurope(France,Hungary,Germany,England,Spain);dillweedoilintheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESIndiandillorEastIndiandil(A.sowa)iswidelycultivatedintheeast,especiallyinIndiaandJapan.Acommercialoilisproducedfromtheseedwhichhasadifferentchemicalcompositionandcontains‘dillapiol’.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION Used since the earliest times as a medicinalandculinaryherb. InGermanyandScandinaviaespecially, it isusedwith fishandcucumber,andtheseedsbakedinbread.Inthewestandeastitisusedasasoothingdigestiveaidforindigestion,wind,colicetc.especiallyinchildren,forwhichitisstillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia.

ACTIONSAntispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue,galactagogue,hypotensive,stimulant,stomachic.

Dill

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam (sometimeswater) distillation from 1.fruitorseed,2.herborweed(freshorpartiallydried).

CHARACTERISTICS1.Acolourlesstopaleyellowmobileliquidwithalightfresh warm spicy scent. 2. A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with apowerfulsweet-spicyaroma.Itblendswellwithelemi,mint,caraway,nutmeg,spiceandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS 1. Carvone (30–60 per cent), limonene,phellandrene,eugenol,pineneamongothers.2.Carvone(muchless),limonene,pinene,etc.aswellasterpinene.Thereareseveraldifferentchemotypesofdill,forexample,phellandrene ispresent in theEnglishandSpanishoilsbutnot intheGerman.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEDigestiveSystem:Colic,dyspepsia,flatulence,indigestion.Genito-UrinaryAndEndocrineSystems:Lackofperiods;promotesmilkflowinnursingmothers.

OTHER USES Used in some pharmaceutical digestive preparations such as‘dill water’. The weed oil is used as a fragrance component in detergents,cosmetics, perfumes and especially soaps. Both oils are used extensively inalcoholic,softdrinksandfoodstuffs,especiallypicklesandcondiments.

DORADOAZULHyptissuaveolens

FAMILYLamiaceae

SYNONYMS Mesosphaerum suaveolens, mint weed, bush mint, bush tea,pignut,chan,wildspikenard.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An erect, annual herb up to 3 metres high,belongingtothemintfamily,withahollowstem,andbearingpurple-bluelippedflowers and dark brown, shield-shaped fruits. The oval leaves, which arewrinkled along the edge and pointed, have a strong mint-like aroma whencrushed; the taproot iswhite or brown. It is a verywell known pseudo-cerealplantintheLatinAmericaregion.

DISTRIBUTION A native of tropical America, growing in warm and semi-warmregions,commonlyfoundintherainforestsofEcuador,aswellasinthe

CaribbeanandHawaii; ithasalsobeennaturalized inAustralia since themid-nineteenth century. This herb is commonly found alongside roadsides andwatercoursesandisconsideredaweedinmanytropicalareasaroundtheworld,especiallybecausetheplantcanbeinvasive.

OTHERSPECIES Themint family is generally known to produce themostvariation inessentialoilcompositionand therefore therearemanychemotypesofH.suaveolens.OcoteaessentialoilfromtheflowersoftheOcoteaquixostree,whichisnativetothedeepAmazon,isanotherspeciesfoundinSouthAmerica,which yields a little-known essential oil sharing many of phytochemicalpropertiesandfunctionsofH.suaveolens.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Dorado Azul has been used by manyindigenousculturesinIndia,Nigeriaandelsewhereforhundredsofyearstotreatbacterialinfections,diarrhoea,tumours,skindiseases,gastro-intestinaldisordersandasanaturalmosquitorepellentandpesticide.Theherbhasalsotraditionallybeen used for the treatment of asthma, hormonal balance (oestrogen),inflammation,muscularachesandpainsandforwoundhealing.TodaytheessentialoilofDoradoAzulisrecognizedlargelyforitsrolein

treatingrespiratoryconditionsandinsupportingthesinusesandlungs,muchlikemintandeucalyptus.Inadditiontoitsrespiratorybenefits,DoradoAzuloilisalsoprovingtobeaveryeffectiveingredientinessentialoilblendsthatrepelinsectsandpests.Indeed,recentstudieshaveconfirmeditiseffectiveasanaturalcropandgraininsecticide.Astudyin1999revealedthattheoilwaseffectiveagainstbothgrampositive(BacilluscereusandStaphylococcusaureus)andnegative(E.coli,Pseudomonasspp.)bacterialstrains;aswellasCandidaalbicans.Afurtherstudyexhibitedbroad-spectrumantibacterialandantifungalactivityagainstAspergillusnigerandMicrococcusluteusrespectively.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anti-inflammatory,antifungal,antimicrobial,antioxidant,anticancer,insecticidal,anti-infectious,expectorant,immunestimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoildistilledfromthestems,leavesandflowers.

CHARACTERISTICS The essential oil is a reddish liquid with a fresh-herbaceous odour. It blends well with peppermint, eucalyptus, ravintsara, tea

tree,myrtle,balsamandspiceoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Main constituents are sabinene (16.5 percent), trans-α-bergamotene and β-caryophyllene (19.8 per cent), terpinen-4-ol(9.6 per cent) and β-pinene (8.6 per cent). Another study (using a differentchemotype) reported sabinene (30 per cent), terpinen-4-ol (11.4 per cent),terpinolene(5.6percent),1,8-cineole(5.2percent),β-pinene(4.4percent)andα-terpinene(4.2percent).

SAFETYDATANoreportedcontra-indications:howeversincetherearemanyvariable chemotypes of this oil, the safety data will depend on the specificchemicalmake-upoftheindividualoil.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Infectedskinconditions.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Arthriticandrheumatoid-typepain,circulatorystimulant,muscularachesandpains.DigestiveSystem:Indigestion,candidaandotherintestinaltractproblems.Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, colds, coughs, ’flu, sinus congestion,allergicreactionsthatcauseconstrictionandcompromisedbreathing.ImmuneSystem:Tonic.NervousSystem:Nervousdebility.

OTHERUSES‘Chan’iscommonlyusedlocallyasarefreshing,healthydrink,whichismadebyleavingtheseedstosoakinwaterandrefrigeratingthemix.

E

ELECAMPANEInulahelenium

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMS Helenium grandiflorum, Aster officinalis, A. helenium, inula,scabwort, alant, horseheal, yellow starwort, elf dock, wild sunflower, velvetdock,‘essenced’aunée’.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhandsomeperennialherbupto1.5metreshigh,with a stout stem covered in soft hairs. It has oval pointed leaves which arevelvetyunderneath, large,yellow,daisy-like flowers and large, fleshy rhizomeroots.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and Asia, naturalized in North America.CultivatedinEurope(Belgium,France,Germany)andAsia(China,India).TheoilismainlyproducedfromimportedrootsinsouthernFrance.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralvarietiesofInula;theEuropeanandAsianspecies are slightly different having a harsher scent. Other varieties includegolden samphire (I. crithmoides) and sweet inula (I. graveolens or I. odora),whichsharesimilarproperties.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAherbofancientmedicalrepute,whichusedtobecandiedandsoldasasweetmeat.Itisusedasanimportantspice,incenseandmedicineintheeast.Itisusedinbothwesternandeasternherbalism,mainlyin the form of a tea for respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis andwhoopingcough,disordersof thedigestion, intestinesandgallbladderandforskindisorders.CurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforirritatingcough

orbronchitis.Elecampanerootistherichestsourceofinulin.

ACTIONS Alterative, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic,antispasmodic, antitussive, astringent, bactericidal, diaphoretic, diuretic,expectorant,fungicidal,hyperglycaemic,hypotensive,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried roots andrhizomes.(Anabsoluteandconcretearealsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICSAsemi-solidorviscousdarkyelloworbrownishliquidwith a dry, soft,woody, honey-like odour, often containing crystals. It blendswellwithcananga,cinnamon,labdanum,lavender,mimosa,frankincense,orris,tuberose, violet, cedarwood, patchouli, sandalwood, cypress, bergamot andorientalfragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, includingalantolactone (or helenin), isolactone, dihydroisalantolactone,dihydralantolactone,alanticacidandazulene.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant; however it is a severe dermalsensitizer. In clinical tests it caused ‘extremely severe allergic reactions’ intwenty-three out of twenty-five volunteers. On the basis of these results it isrecommendedthattheoil‘shouldnotbeusedontheskinatall’.32

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.NBInPhytoguideI,sweetinula(I.odoraorI.graveolens),adeepgreenoil,isdescribedas‘queenofmucolyticessentialoils’,havingpropertiesasdiverseas:‘anti-inflammatory, hyperthermic, sedative, cardia-regulative, diuretic anddepurative’.33It isdescribedasbeinganexcellentoilforthecardiopulmonaryzoneincludingasthma,chronicbronchitisandunproductivecoughs.ThisvarietyofInulaseemstoavoidthesensitizationproblemsofelecampane,atleastwhenitisusedasaninhalationorbyaerosoltreatment.

OTHERUSESAlantolactoneisusedasananthelminticinEurope(itisalsoanexcellentbactericide).Theoil andabsoluteareusedas fixativesand fragrancecomponents in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavouringredientinalcoholicbeverages,softdrinksandfoodstuffs,especiallydesserts.

ELEMICanariumluzonicum

FAMILYBurseraceae

SYNONYMS C. commune, Manila elemi, elemi gum, elemi resin, elemi(oleoresin).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtropicaltreeupto30metreshighwhichyieldsa resinous pathological exudation with a green pungent odour. Although it iscalledagum,itisalmostentirelymadeupofresinandessentialoil.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothePhilippineIslandsandtheMoluccas,whereitisalsocultivated.Distillationoftheoiltakesplaceatsource.

OTHERSPECIES There are several other species ofCanarium which growwild or are cultivated in the Philippines, which also yield a ‘gum’. It is alsocloselyrelatedtothetreesyieldingmyrrh,frankincenseandopopanax.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThegumoroleoresin isused locally forskincare, respiratory complaints and as a general stimulant. Elemiwas one of thearomaticsusedbytheancientEgyptiansfortheembalmingprocess.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,balsamic,cicatrisant,expectorant, fortifying, regulatory,stimulant,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the gum. (A resinoidandresinabsolutearealsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS A colourless to pale yellow liquidwith a light, fresh,balsamic-spicy, lemonlike odour. It blends well with myrrh, frankincense,labdanum,rosemary,lavender,lavandin,sage,cinnamonandotherspices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The gum contains about 10–25 per centessential oil of mainly phellandrene, dipentene, elemol, elemicin, terpineol,carvoneandterpinoleneamongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin care: Aged skin, infected cuts and wounds, inflammations, rejuvenation,wrinkles–signifiesdryingand‘preservation’.34Respiratorysystem:Bronchitis,catarrhalconditions,unproductivecoughs.Nervoussystem:Nervousexhaustionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHER USES Resinoid and oil are used primarily as fixatives but also asfragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes.Occasionallyusedasaflavouringingredientinfoodproducts,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

EUCALYPTUS,BLUEGUMEucalyptusglobulusvar.globulus

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSGum tree, southern blue gum,Tasmanian blue gum, fever tree,stringybark.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAbeautiful, tall,evergreentree,upto90metreshigh. The young trees have bluish-green oval leaves while the mature treesdevelop long, narrow, yellowish leaves, creamy-white flowers and a smooth,palegreybarkoftencoveredinawhitepowder.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoTasmaniaandAustralia.MainlycultivatedinSpainand Portugal, also Brazil, California, Russia and China. Very little of this oilnowcomesfromitsnativecountries.

OTHERSPECIESThereareover700differentspeciesofeucalyptus,ofwhichatleast500produceatypeofessentialoil.Manyhavebeenextractedsimplyforexperimentalpurposes,andresearchisstillbeingcarriedoutwithregardtothedifferent constituents of each oil. In general, they can be divided into threecategories. 1. The medicinal oils containing large amounts of cineol (oreucalyptol), such as the blue gum, but increasingly the blue malee (E.

polybractea),thenarrow-leavedpeppermint(E.radiatavar.australiana)andthegully gum (E. smithii). 2.The industrial oils containingmainly piperitone andphellandrene,suchas thepepperminteucalyptus(E.piperita),greypeppermint(E. radiata var. phellandra) and increasingly the broad-leaved peppermint (E.divesvar.Type).3.Theperfumeryoilscontainingmainlycitronellal,suchasthelemon-scented eucalyptus (E. citriodora). See also Botanical Classificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONA traditional household remedy inAustralia,theleavesandoilareespeciallyusedforrespiratoryailmentssuchasbronchitisand croup, and thedried leaves are smoked like tobacco for asthma. It is alsousedforfeverishconditions(malaria, typhoid,cholera,etc.)andskinproblemslike burns, ulcers and wounds. Aqueous extracts are used for aching joints,bacterial dysentery, ringworms, tuberculosis, etc. and employed for similarreasons in western and eastern medicine. The wood is also used for timberproductioninSpain.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic,antiviral, balsamic, cicatrisant, decongestant, deodorant, depurative, diuretic,expectorant, febrifuge, hypoglycaemic, parasiticide, prophylactic, rubefacient,stimulant,vermifuge,vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh or partiallydriedleavesandyoungtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessmobileliquid(yellowsonageing),withasomewhat harsh camphoraceous odour and woody-sweet undertone. It blendswell with thyme, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, pine, cedarwood and lemon.(The narrow-leaved eucalyptus (E. radiata var. australiana) is often used inpreferencetotheblueguminaromatherapywork,beingrichincineolbutwithasweeterandlessharshodour.)

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cineol (70–85 per cent), pinene, limonene,cymene,phellandrene,terpinene,aromadendrene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAExternallynon-toxic,non-irritant(indilution),non-sensitizing.‘When taken internally eucalyptus oil is toxic and as little as 3.5ml has been

reportedasfatal’.35

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Burns, blisters, cuts, herpes, insect bites, insect repellent, lice, skininfections,wounds.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation,rheumatoidarthritis,sprains,etc.Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, throatinfections.Genito-UrinarySystem:Cystitis,leucorrhoea.ImmuneSystem:Chickenpox,colds,epidemics,’flu,measles.NervousSystem:Debility,headaches,neuralgia.

OTHERUSES The oil and cineol are largely employed in the preparation ofliniments, inhalants,coughsyrups,ointments, toothpasteandaspharmaceuticalflavourings also used in veterinary practise and dentistry.Used as a fragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergentsandtoiletries–littleusedinperfumes.Usedfortheisolationofcineolandemployedasaflavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategories.

EUCALYPTUS,BROAD-LEAVEDPEPPERMINTEucalyptusdivesvar.Type

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSBroad-leafpeppermint,bluepeppermint,menthol-scentedgum.

GENERALDESCRIPTION A robust,medium-sized eucalyptus tree, with ashorttrunk,spreadingbranchesandfibrousgreybark.Theyoungleavesareblueandheart-shaped,thematureleavesareveryaromatic,thickandtaperingatbothends.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Tasmania and Australia, especially New SouthWalesandVictoria.OilisalsoproducedinSouthAfrica.

OTHERSPECIES There are two types of broad-leaved peppermint although

they look identical–one is rich in cineol (E.dives var.C.) andone is rich in‘piperitone’(E.divesvar.Type).It isalsosimilartothepepperminteucalyptus(E. piperita) and the grey or narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var.phellandra).SeealsoentryonEucalyptus,bluegumandBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheaboriginesusedtheburningleavesintheformofafumigationforthereliefoffever;‘heatwentoutofsickmanandintofire’.

ACTIONSSeeEucalyptus,bluegum.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithafresh,camphoraceous,spicy-mintyodour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Piperitone (40–50 per cent), phellandrene(20–30percent),camphene,cymene,terpineneandthujene,amongothers.ItissoldasGradesA,BorCaccordingtotheexactbalanceofconstituents.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing.Eucalyptusoilistoxiciftakeninternally(seeentryoneucalyptusbluegum).

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Cuts,sores,ulcersetc.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,muscularachesandpains,rheumatism,sportsinjuries,sprains,etc.Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, throat and mouthinfections,etc.ImmuneSystem:Colds,fevers,’flu,infectiousillness,e.g.measles.NervousSystem:Headaches,nervousexhaustion,neuralgia,sciatica.

OTHER USES Little used medicinally these days except in deodorants,disinfectants,mouthwashes,garglesandinveterinarypractice.‘Piperitone’richoilsareusedinsolvents.Employedforthemanufactureofthymolandmenthol(frompiperitone).

EUCALYPTUS,LEMON-SCENTEDEucalyptuscitriodora

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMS Lemon-scented gum, citron-scented gum, scented gum tree,spottedgum,‘boabo’.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnattractive, tall, evergreen treewitha smoothdimpledbark,blotchedingrey,creamandpink,cultivatedasanornamental.Thetrunkgrowsfast,straightandtoconsiderableheight,andisusedfortimber.Theyoungleavesareoval,thematureleavesnarrowandtapering.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAustralia;cultivatedmainlyinBrazilandChina.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerousotherspeciesofeucalyptus–seeentryoneucalyptusbluegum.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used traditionally for perfuming the linencupboardbyenclosing thedried leaves inasmallclothsachet.During the lastcentury it was regarded as a good insect repellent, especially for cockroachesandsilverfish.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antiviral,bactericidal,deodorant,expectorant,fungicidal,insecticide.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithastrong,fresh,citronella-likeodourandsweetbalsamicundertone.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citronellal (80–95 per cent), citronellol,geraniol and pinene, amongothers. (The gumor ‘kino’ contains the antibioticsubstance‘citriodorol’.)

Eucalyptus,lemon-scented

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in someindividuals.Eucalyptus oil is toxicwhen taken internally, seeEucalyptus bluegumentry.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Athlete’s foot and other fungal infections (e.g. candida), cuts,dandruff,herpes,insectrepellent,scabs,sores,wounds.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,laryngitis,sorethroat.Immune System: Colds, fevers, infectious skin conditions such as chickenpox,infectious disease. ‘The essential oil contained in the leaves appears to havebacteriostatic activity towardsStaphylococcus aureus; this is due to synergismbetweenthecitronellolandcitronellalpresentintheoil’.36

OTHER USES Used as a fragrance component (in place of E. globulus) insoaps,detergentsandperfumes;alsoused in roomspraysand insect repellentsEmployedfortheisolationofnaturalcitronellal.

F

FENNELFoeniculumvulgare

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSF.officinale,F.capillaceum,Anethumfoeniculum,fenkel.

GENERALDESCRIPTION Biennial or perennial herb up to 2metres high,withfeatheryleavesandgoldenyellowflowers.Therearetwomainvarietiesoffennel: bitter or common Fennel, slightly taller with less divided leavesoccurringinacultivatedorwildformandsweetfennel(alsoknownasRoman,gardenorFrenchfennel)whichisalwayscultivated.

DISTRIBUTION Bitter fennel is native to the Mediterranean region, foundgrowing wild in France, Spain, Portugal and North Africa (they produce the‘weed’oil).It iscultivatedextensivelyworldwide,themainoilproducersbeingHungary,Bulgaria,Germany,France,ItalyandIndia.SweetfennelisthoughttohaveoriginatedontheislandofMalta,havingbeen

introducedbymonksorcrusadersthousandsofyearsago.ItisnowgrownprincipallyinFrance,ItalyandGreece.

OTHERSPECIESBitter fennel (F.vulgarevar.amara)andsweet fennel (F.vulgarevar.dulce)arebothcloselyrelatedtotheFlorencefennel(F.azoricum),a smaller plant with a large cylindrical fleshy root which can be eaten as avegetable.TherearealsomanyothercultivatedvarietiessuchastheGermanorSaxon fennel, the Russian, Indian and Japanese fennel, all of which produceslightlydifferentoils.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAherbofancientmedical repute,believedtoconveylongevity,courageandstrength.Itwasalsousedtowardoffevilspirits,strengthen the eyesight and to neutralize poisons. In eastern and western

herbalism it is considered good for obstructions of the liver, spleen and gallbladder and for digestive complaints such as colic, indigestion, nausea andflatulence(aningredientofchildren’s‘gripewater’).Ithastraditionallybeenusedforobesity,whichmaybeduetoatypeof

oestrogenicaction,whichalsoincreasesthemilkofnursingmothers.StillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,usedlocallyforconjunctivitis,blepharitisandpharyngitis.

ACTIONSAperitif,anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,antiseptic,antispasmodic,carminative, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue,laxative, orexigenic, stimulant (circulatory), splenic, stomachic, tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation. 1. Sweet fennel oil isobtainedfromcrushedseeds,and2.bitterfenneloil fromcrushedseedsor thewholeherb(thewild‘weed’).

Fennel

CHARACTERISTICS1.Acolourlesstopaleyellowliquidwithaverysweet,anise-like,slightlyearthy-pepperyscent.Itblendswellwithgeranium,lavender,roseandsandalwood.2.Theseedoilisapaleyellowliquidwithasharp,warmcamphoraceous odour; the ‘weed’ oil is pale orange-brown with a sharp,

peppery-camphoraceousodour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Anethole (50–60 per cent), limonene,phellandrene,pinene,anisicacid,anisicaldehyde,camphene, limonene,amongothers. Inaddition,bitter fenneloilcontains18–22percent fenchone,whereasthesweetfenneloilcontainslittleornone.

SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, relatively non-toxic, narcotic in large doses;bitter fennel may cause sensitization in some individuals. Sweet fennel oil ispreferred in aromatherapy and perfumery work, since it does not contain theharsh‘fenchone’note,andbecauseitisnon-sensitizing.Bitterfenneloilshouldnot be used on the skin at all, although it is considered superiormedicinally.Neitheroilshouldbeusedbyepilepticsorduringpregnancy.Useinmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEBitterfennel–none.Sweetfennel:SkinCare:Bruises,dull,oily,maturecomplexions,pyorrhoea.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Cellulitis,obesity,oedema,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis.DigestiveSystem:Anorexia,colic,constipation,dyspepsia,flatulence,hiccough,nausea.Genito-Urinary System: Amenorrhoea, insufficient milk (in nursing mothers),menopausalproblems.

OTHERUSES In pharmaceutical products it is known as ‘codex’ fennel oil,used in cough drops, lozenges, etc; also used in carminative and laxativepreparations. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in all major foodcategories, insoftdrinksandespecially inalcoholicdrinkssuchasbrandyandliqueurs.Fenneloil (mainlysweet) isused insoaps, toiletriesandperfumes. Italso provides a good masking agent for industrial products, room sprays,insecticides,etc.

FENUGREEKTrigonellafoenum-graecum

FAMILYFabaceae

SYNONYMS Greek hay, methi, alholva, bird’s foot, chandrika, fenigreek,Greekclover.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An annual plant reaching a height of slightlymorethanhalfametrewithtrifoliate,brightgreenleaves.Itblossomsduringthesummer season and produces beautiful small white flowers. The leaves’fragrance slightly resembles lovage and the brownish-yellow seeds are adistinctivecuboidshape.

DISTRIBUTIONAnaromaticherbnativetosouthernEuropeandAsiaandoneof the oldest cultivated medicinal plants. It is widely grown today in theMediterraneancountries,Argentina, India,NorthAfricaand theUnitedStates.Major commercial fenugreek-producing countries are Afghanistan, Pakistan,Iran,Nepal,Bangladesh,Argentina,Egypt,France,Spain,TurkeyandMorocco,although the largest producer is India. When harvested as microgreens,fenugreekisknownas‘samudramethi’inMumbai.

OTHERSPECIESThecultivatedfenugreekisthoughttohavederivedfromawildspecies,nativetoIndia.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Fenugreek is an ancient spice, althoughcurrentlynotmuchusedintheWest.Whiletheseedsandleaveshaveprimarilybeen used as a culinary spice, it was also employed in classical times aslivestockfeed,henceitscommonname,‘Greekhay’.ItwasusedbytheancientEgyptianstocombatfeverandintheembalmingprocess.Ithasalonghistoryofuse as a medicinal plant in India and throughout Europe: it is still used inAyurvedicmedicine,where it isknownas‘methi’.Fenugreekseedshavebeenfoundtocontaindiosgenin,which isacompoundthathaspropertiessimilar tooestrogen. For this reason, fenugreek has a long history of use as a breastenlargerandtopromotethegrowthofnewbreastcells.Duetoitsoestrogen-likeproperties, fenugreekhas been found to help increase sexual libido and lessentheeffectof thehotflushesandmoodfluctuationsthatarecommonsymptomsof the menopause and PMS. The plant can also be employed to promotelactation,inducelabourandasanaphrodisiac.

InIndianandChinesemedicine,itistraditionallyusedtotreatarthritis,asthma,bronchitis,improvedigestion,maintainahealthymetabolism,increasemale

bronchitis,improvedigestion,maintainahealthymetabolism,increasemalepotency,cureskinproblems(wounds,rashesandboils),sorethroatandheartburn.Recentstudieshaveshownthatfenugreekhelpslowerbloodglucoseandcholesterollevels,andmaybeaneffectivetreatmentforbothtype1and2diabetes;itisalsobeingstudiedforitscardiovascularbenefits.Topically,thegelatinoustextureoffenugreekseedisusedforsoothingeczemaorotherskincomplaints;itisalsoappliedasawarmpoulticetorelievemuscleachesandgout.Fenugreekisalsonutritiousasitisavaluablesourceofvitaminsandminerals,particularlyvitaminsA,CandDaswellasironandcalcium.Fenugreekseedsarerichinproteinandcarbohydratesandthepressedoilisstrangelysimilarinchemicalcompositiontocodliveroil.Italsocontainscholineandlecithin,bothsubstancesneededbytheliverforcholesterolmetabolism.Fenugreekcleanses,stimulatesandhelpsremovewasteproductsfromthebody:itstimulatesthelymphaticsystemandaidsthekidneysandliverindetoxifyingtheentiresystem.Theoilcontainspowerfulantioxidantsthathelpslowtheageingprocess.

ACTIONS Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, aphrodisiac, bactericidal,carminative,demulcent,expectorant,laxative,nervine,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheseeds.Afixedoilisalsopressedfromtheseeds.

CHARACTERISTICS Pale yellow to light brown liquid with a bitter, spicyscent. It blends well with sandalwood, clove, cinnamon, cardamon and otherspiceoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The essential oil is rich in phytic acid,saponinsandtrigonelline.

SAFETYDATATheoilmaycauseskinirritation:dilutewellbeforeuse.Avoiduseduringpregnancy,sinceithasthepotentialtoinducelabour.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Boils,burns,boils,eczema,haircare(dandruffandhairloss),scars,wrinkles.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Achinglimbs,arthritis,cramp,gout,highbloodpressure,musclespasm.

DigestiveSystem:Indigestion,heartburn.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,colds,congestion,fever,sinusitis.Genito-Urinary System: Menstrual cramps, PMS, hot flushes and moodfluctuations.ImmuneSystem:Helpsfightinfections.NervousSystem:Anxiety,insomnia,hypertension,stress,soothestheheart.

OTHER USES Fenugreek has three culinary uses: as a herb (dried or freshleaves), as a spice (seeds), and as a vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, andmicrogreens). It is a popular ingredient in the preparation of Indian pickles,vegetabledishes,daalsandspicemixes.FreshfenugreekleavesareusedinsomeIndiancurries,whilethesproutedseedsandmicrogreensareusedinsalads.Theleavesarealsoused inPersianandEthiopiancuisine, toproduceayellowdyeand as a forage plant. The oil is commonly used in the perfumery andpharmaceuticalindustry.

FIRNEEDLE,SILVERAbiesalba

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMS A. pectinata, whitespruce, European silver fir, edeltanne,weisstanne, templin(coneoil),StrassburgorVosgesturpentine(oil),firneedle(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONArelativelysmallconiferoustree,witharegularpyramidal shape and a silvery white bark, grown chiefly for timber and asChristmastrees.

DISTRIBUTION Native to north European mountainous regions; cultivatedmainly in Switzerland, Poland, Germany, France, Austria and especiallyYugoslavia.

OTHERSPECIESOilsthataredistilledfromthetwigsandneedlesofvariousmembersof theconiferousfamilies,Abies,Larix,Picea,Pinus,andTsuga,areallcommonlycalledfirneedleoil–itisthereforeimportanttoknowthespecific

botanical name. There are many other members of the fir or Abies family,notablytheCanadianbalsam(A.balsamifera)andtheSiberianfir(A.siberica),themostpopularfirneedleoilinEuropeandtheUSAduetoitsfinefragrance.Others include theJapanese firneedleoil fromA.mayrianaorA.sachalinensis.Seealsoentriesonspruce,pinesandtheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION It ishighlyesteemedon theContinent for itsmedicinal virtues and its fragrant scent. It is used mainly for respiratorycomplaints,fever,muscularandrheumaticpain.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antiseptic (pulmonary), antitussive, deodorant,expectorant,rubefacient,stimulant,tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the 1. needles andyoungtwigs,and2.fircones,brokenuppieces(templinoil)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Acolourlessorpaleyellowliquidofpleasing, rich,sweet-balsamicodour.2.Similartotheneedleoil,butwithamoreorange-likefragrance.Itblendswellwithgalbanum,labdanum,lavender,rosemary,lemon,pineandmarjoram.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.Santene,pinene, limonene,bornylacetate,lauraldehydeamongothers.2.Pinene,limonene,borneol,bornylacetate,amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Bronchitis,coughs,sinusitis,etc.ImmuneSystem:Colds,fever,’flu.

OTHERUSES Employed as an ingredient in some cough and cold remediesand rheumatic treatments.Usedasa fragrancecomponent indeodorants, roomsprays,disinfectants,bathpreparations,soapsandperfumes.

FRAGONIAAgonisfragrans

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSTaxandriafragrans,coarsetea-tree.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAgonisisagenuscomprisingfourspecies,allofwhich are native to Western Australia. The species generally have fibrous,brownbark,dullgreenleavesandinflorescencesofsmall,whiteflowers.Theyare best known and most readily identified by the powerful peppermint oreucalyptus-likeodouremittedwhentheleavesarecrushedortorn.A.fragransisa small shrub which grows up to 2.5 metres high, with narrow leaves andclustersofsmallwhiteflowers,characteristicofthegenus.

DISTRIBUTIONAs awildnative species, fragonia (A. fragrans) has limiteddistribution in Western Australia, growing near the coast in the south-westregionandbeingreliantonitswinterrainsanddriersummers.Forcommercialpurposes,A.fragransisgrowninlargeplantationsinsouth-westernAustralia.

OTHERSPECIESTheMyrtaceae isa largefamilyofplantswithover3,000species. It is one of the most important families from an aromatherapyperspective, as it includes not only members of the Agonis genus (whichincludestreessuchasA.flexuosa, theWesternAustralianpeppermint)butalsohundreds of aromatic plants from the Eucalyptus, Leptospermum, Melaleuca,Myrtus and Pimenta genera. There are several varying chemotypes of A.fragrans,butfragoniaessentialoilhasauniquebalanceofprimaryconstituents,whichimpartsitsparticulartherapeuticqualities.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The name Agonis derives from the Greekagon,meaning ‘gathering’ or ‘collection’, in reference to the tightly clusteredflowers. Traditional knowledge on A. fragrans has never been recorded, andthereisnoknownuseoftheplantbyearlysettlers.Thespeciesonlycametotheforefrontataroundtheturnofthecenturywhenahusband-and-wifeteamheardaboutthelocalplantandbegantoexploreitspotential.Havingselectedsuperiorgenetic varieties, they established a small plantation of these shrubs on their

propertyinsouth-westWesternAustraliain2001.Theessentialoildistilledfromthis specific plant and chemotype is thus relatively new to the aromatherapyindustry.Indeedithasonlyrecentlybeengivenitscommonname‘fragonia’byitsdiscovererChrisRobinson,andhassincebeentrademarkedasFragoniaTM.In a series of tests, the University of Western Australia demonstrated thatfragonia oil has anti-inflammatory properties and significant antimicrobialactivity,similartoteatreeoil.

ACTIONS Analgesic (mild), antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antifungal,antimicrobial, anti-infectious, antiseptic, expectorant, immuno-tonic, nervine,regulating.

EXTRACTIONAnessentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthestems,twigsandleaves.

CHARACTERISTICS A pale, watery liquid with a pleasant slightly citrus,fresh-cleanandfaintlymedicinaltopnote,mixedwithaslightspicy,earthyandbalsamic undertone: more pleasing than tea tree. It blends well with niaouli,eucalyptus,myrtle,lemonmyrtle,rosemaryandteatree.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Primary constituents are 1,8-cineole, alpha-pinene and linalool. From a chemical perspective, it is an extremely well-balanced oil, with the oxides (1,8-cineole), monoterpenes (alpha-pinene) andmonoterpenols (linalool, geraniol, terpineol and others) in a near perfect 1:1:1ratio.

SAFETY DATA Fragonia essential oil is non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing:anextremelymildoilwhenappliedtotheskinandsafeforchildren.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE

SkinCare:Cuts,bites,stingsandgeneralskincare.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Aching muscles and joints, arthritis,rheumatism.Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs, colds, influenza, sinusitis,tonsillitis.Genito-UrinarySystem:Candida(thrush),menstrualpainandbreasttenderness,

vaginitis.ImmuneSystem:Powerfulimmune-systemtonicandrestorative.Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, emotional blockages, grief, insomnia,nervousdebilityandtension,moodswings,stress.

OTHERUSESManyAgonisspeciesareusedasdecorativegardenplantswhilesprigsofthewhiteflowersofA.fragransarecutandusedinthefloristindustry.Fragoniaoilisnowbeingusedinthephyto-cosmeticindustry,e.g.forsoapsandskin care products. The oil can also be used as a natural, fresh-smellingdisinfectant around thehome,e.g. as a room fragrance, in the laundry and forcleaningbathroomandkitchensurfaces.

FRANGIPANIPlumeriarubra

FAMILYApocynaceae

SYNONYMS P. acuminate, P. acutifolia, common frangipani, temple tree,pagoda tree, graveyard tree, temple flower,may flower, frangipane, plumeria,melia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Plumeria is a genus of 7–8 species native totropical and subtropical Americas consisting mainly of deciduous shrubs andtrees.P.rubra(andvariationP.acutifolia)isthecommonestfrangipanispeciesandhas themost fragrant flowers.P. rubra is a small tree up to 5metres tallwitha ‘candelabrum’ shape,havinga single trunkandbranches that spread toform an open canopy.The deciduous pointed leaves, dark green on top and alightershadeunderneath,clusteratthetipsofbranches.Thegreyish-green,scalybark produces amilky, sticky sap that is poisonous,much like oleander. Thefrangipaniflowerswhichappearinclusters,eachwithfivewaxypetals,aremostfragrantatnight inorder to luremoths topollinate them.ThespeciesP.rubracomesinmanycolours:white,cream,yellow,orange,pinkandred,usuallywithacontrastingcentre.

DISTRIBUTION P. rubra is native to tropical Central America, Venezuela,BrazilandMexico,althoughitisnowwidelycultivatedthroughouttheworldintropical and subtropical regions. In Hawaii it grows so abundantly that manypeople thinkthat it is indigenous to the island.Thefrangipani tree isalsovery

popularontheislandofBali,whereitisplantedinalmosteveryvillagetempleand,as inHawaii,playsan importantpart in the localculture.Manycountrieshave given a traditional name to this decorative aromatic species, such as‘pagoda tree’ in India, ‘temple flower’ inSriLanka and ‘melia’ inHawaii. InIndonesia,where the flower isassociatedwithBalineseculture, it isknownas‘kamboja’.NowithasbecomenaturalizedthroughoutsouthernandsoutheasternAsiaandcanalsocommonlybefoundgrowing in thesouthernMediterranean,forexampleintheCanaryIslands.OTHERSPECIESP.rubraisthesourceofmanyPlumeriahybridcultivars.Inthepast, thedifferent flowercoloursof thisplantwereassociatedwithdistinctspeciesbutarenowregardedasdifferentformsof thesamespecies.However,thewhite-flowered form ofP. rubra is sometimesmisidentified asP. alba, ararelycultivatedspeciesendemictotheLesserAntillesandPuertoRico.OtherpopularspeciesinthegenusincludeP.obtusaortheevergreenfrangipani(withleavesmoreroundedthanthoseofP.rubra)andthewhite-orcream-floweredP.stenophyllawhichbloomsheavilyoveralongperiod.HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The genusPlumeria is attributed to CharlesPlumier, a seventeenth-century French botanistwho described several tropicalspecies. The common name, ‘frangipani’, comes from the Italian nobleman,MarquisFrangipani,whocreatedaperfumeusedtoscentglovesinthesixteenthcentury. Frangipani is known as the ‘tree of life’, according to ancient Indianbelief, and is associatedwith temples in bothHindu andBuddhist cultures. InIndia,thefrangipaniisconsideredtobeasymbolofimmortalitybecauseofitsabilitytoproduceleavesandflowersevenafterithasbeenliftedoutofthesoil.ItisregardedasasacredtreeinLaosandeveryBuddhisttempleinthecountryhasfrangipaniplantedintheircourtyards.InCambodia,theflowersareusedinritualofferingstothedeitiesandBalineseHindususetheflowersintheirtempleofferings daily. In several Pacific islands, such as Tahiti, Fiji, Samoa andHawaii, Plumeria species are used for making leis, their traditional flowergarlands.InmodernPolynesianculture,theflowersarealsowornbywomentoindicatetheirrelationshipstatus.Frangipanihasalsobeencelebratedforcenturiesforitshealingcapacityinmanydiversecultures. InSriLanka,Plumeria flowersareeatenas fritters,while theheart of the wood is taken as a vermifuge or as a laxative. In Ayurveda, thePlumeria speciesarewidelyusedasapurgative,asa remedyfordiarrhoea, totreatitch,asthma,coughs,bronchitis,blooddisordersandfever.IntheGuianas,P.rubraisusedforthetreatmentofskineruptions,abscesses,dysentery,herpes,

coughsandasapurgative.InCaribbeancultures,theleavesareusedasahealingwrapforbruisesandulcerswhilethelatexisusedasalinimentforrheumatism.InVietnam, thebarkmashed in alcohol, is used to combat skin inflammation,indigestion and high blood pressure. Frangipani flower tea is also generallybelievedtohaveabeneficialeffect,beinggoodfordigestion.ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-tumoral,antiviral,aphrodisiac,astringent,nervine.EXTRACTION Frangipani absolute is obtained by alcoholic or solventextraction from the concrete prepared fromP. rubra (acutifolia).The absolutehasathick,treacleconsistencyatroomtemperature.CHARACTERISTICS The absolute has a heavy, sweet, floral-green aroma,with a soft-spicy background and hints of apricot. It blendswith sandalwood,rose, patchouli, tuberose, clove bud, jasmine, neroli, bergamot, ginger, ylangylangandmostcitrusoils.PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The oil of .P obtusa is rich in benzylsalicylate(45.4percent)andbenzylbenzoate(17.2percent)OilobtainedfromP.acuminataisrichinpalmiticacid(36.2percent),linoleicacid(16.8percent),lauricacid(10.4percent)andmyristicacid(10.3percent).‘ThepinkfloweredP.rubraoilwassimilartoP.acuminataoilinthatitwasalsodevoidofbenzylsalicylateandbenzylbenzoateand rich inalkanoicacidsbut linoleicacidwasabsent in the oil of the former. However, the orange-flowered P. rubra oilcontainedboththenon-terpeneesters(benzylsalicylate,benzylbenzoateand2-phenylethylbenzoate)andalkanoicacidsinsignificantamounts.’37SAFETY DATA Generally considered to be a safe oil, but best avoided inpregnancyandforchildren.Maycauseskinirritationinconcentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare: Inflamedandsensitiveskin,matureskin,wrinklesandgeneralskincare.Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fear, insomnia, nervous debility andtension,moodswings,stress.OTHERUSESFrangipaniabsoluteismainlyusedinthehigh-classperfumeryduetoitsuniquearomaandlong-lastingqualities.It isalsousedincandleandsoapmaking alongwith some phyto-cosmetic applications and various beautyandskincareproductsfordefyingtheageingprocess.

FRANKINCENSEBoswelliacarteri

Boswelliacarteri

FAMILYBurseraceae

SYNONYMSOlibanum,gumthus.

GENERALDESCRIPTION A handsome small tree or shrubwith abundantpinnateleavesandwhiteorpalepinkflowers.Ityieldsanaturaloleogumresinwhich is collected by making incisions into the bark: at first, a milky-whiteliquid appears which then solidifies into tear-shaped amber to orange-brownlumpsbetweenthesizeofapeaandwalnut.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to theRedSea region; growswild throughout northeastAfrica.ThegumismainlyproducedinSomalia,Ethiopia,ChinaandsouthArabia,thendistilledinEuropeand,toalesserextent,India.

OTHERSPECIESOtherBoswellia speciesalsoyieldolibanumgum,suchasthe IndianvarietyB. serrata.Constituentsvaryaccording to typeand locality.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used since antiquity as an incense in India,Chinaand in thewestby theCatholicChurch. InancientEgypt itwasused inrejuvenatingfacemasks,cosmeticsandperfumes.Ithasbeenusedmedicinallyin the east and west for a wide range of conditions including syphilis,rheumatism, respiratory and urinary tract infections, skin diseases, as well asdigestiveandnervouscomplaints.

Frankincense

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant,cytophylactic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, sedative, tonic,uterine,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromselectedoleogumresin(approx.3–10percentoilto60–70percentresin).Anabsoluteisalsoproduced,forusemainlyasafixative.

CHARACTERISTICSA pale yellow or greenishmobile liquidwith a fresh,terpeney top note and a warm, rich, sweet-balsamic undertone. It blendswellwith sandalwood, pine, vetiver, geranium, lavender, mimosa, neroli, orange,bergamot, camphor, basil, pepper, cinnamon and other spices. It modifies thesweetnessofcitrusblendsinanintriguingway.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons, notablypinene,dipentene,limonene,thujene,phellandrene,cymene,myrcene,terpinene;alsooctylacetate,octanol,incensole,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Blemishes,dryandmaturecomplexions,scars,wounds,wrinkles.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,coughs,laryngitis.

Genito-UrinarySystem:Cystitis,dysmenorrhoea,leucorrhoea,metrorrhagia.ImmuneSystem:Colds,’flu.Nervous System: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions –‘Frankincensehas,among itsphysicalproperties, theability toslowdownanddeepenthebreath…whichisveryconducivetoprayerandmeditation.’38

OTHERUSESThegumandoilareusedasfixativesandfragrancecomponentsin soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental, spice and men’sfragrances. Employed in some pharmaceuticals such as liniments and throatpastilles. Extensively used in the manufacture of incense. The oil is used inminute amounts in some foods (such as meat products), alcoholic and softdrinks.

G

GALANGALAlpiniaofficinarum

FAMILYZingiberaceae

SYNONYMS Radix galanga minoris, Languas officinarum, galanga, smallgalangal,Chineseginger,gingerroot,colicroot,EastIndianroot.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A reedlike plant reaching a height of about 1metre, with irregularly branched rhizomes red or brown on the outside, lightorangewithin.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to south eastChina, especially the islandofHainan.CultivatedinChina,Indonesia,ThailandandJapan.

OTHER SPECIES Similar species grow in Malaysia, Java, India, etc. It iscloselyrelatedtoginger(Zingiberofficinale)andtothelargegalanga(Galangaofficinalis).Nottobeconfusedwiththedriedrhizomesofkaempferiagalanga,knownas‘kentjoer’,whichareusedinMalaysiaformedicinalpurposesandforflavouringcurry.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItisusedasalocalspice,especiallyincurries;in India it is employed inperfumery.The root is current in theBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,indicatedfordyspepsia,flatulence,colic,nauseaandvomiting.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, stimulant,stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes. (Anoleoresinisalsoproducedbysolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICS A greenish-yellow liquid with a fresh, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blendswellwith chamomilemaroc, sage, cinnamon,allspice,lavandin,pineneedle,rosemary,patchouli,myrtle,opopanaxandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSPinene,cineol,eugenolandsesquiterpenes.

SAFETYDATASafetydataunavailableatpresent.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE(Possiblydigestiveupsets.)

OTHERUSESEmployedasaflavouringredient,especiallyinspiceandmeatproducts.Occasionallyusedinperfumerywork.

GALBANUMFerulagalbaniflua

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSF.gummosa,galbanumgum,galbanumresin,‘bubonion’.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargeperennialherbwithasmoothstem,shinyleafletsandsmall flowers. Itcontainsresinductswhichexudeamilky juice,anaturaloleoresin.Thedriedresinousexudationiscollectedbymakingincisionsatthebaseofthestem.

DISTRIBUTION Native to the Middle East and western Asia; cultivated inIran, Turkey, Afghanistan and Lebanon. Distillation usually takes place inEuropeortheUSA.

OTHER SPECIES There are two distinct types: Levant galbanum which isliquidorsoft,andPersiangalbanumwhichissolidorhard.OtherFerulaspeciesalsoyieldgalbanumgum,suchasthemuskroot;seealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION Itwasusedby theancientcivilizationsasan

incense,andinEgyptforcosmeticsandintheembalmingprocess.Itisgenerallyusedintheeastinasimilarwaytoasafetida:fortreatingwounds,inflammationsand skin disorders and also for respiratory, digestive and nervous complaints.Zalouroot(F.hermonic)isusedinBeirutasanaphrodisiac.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic,antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, digestive,diuretic,emmenagogue,expectorant,hypotensive,restorative,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywateror steamdistillation from theoleoresinor gum – only the Levant or soft type is used for oil production. A partiallydeterpenizedoilisproduced,knownas‘galbanol’.(Aresinoidisalsoproduced,mainlyforuseasafixative.)

CHARACTERISTICSCrude–Adarkamberorbrownviscous liquidwithagreen-woody scent and a soft balsamic undertone.Oil –A colourless, or paleyellow or olive liquid with a fresh green topnote and woody-dry balsamicundertone. It blends well with hyacinth, violet, narcissus, lavender, geranium,oakmoss,opopanax,pine,fir,styraxandorientalbases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Pinene, cadinol, cadinene and myrcene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Abscesses, acne,boils, cuts,heals scar tissue, inflammations, tonestheskin,matureskin,wrinkles,wounds–‘signifiesdryingandpreservation’.39Circulation Muscles And Joints: Poor circulation, muscular aches and pains,rheumatism.RespiratorySystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,chroniccoughs.DigestiveSystem:Cramp,flatulence,indigestion.NervousSystem:Nervoustensionandstress-relatedcomplaints.

OTHER USES The Persian gum used to be employed in pharmaceuticalproducts.Bothoilandresinoidareusedasfixativesandfragrancecomponentsin soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes. Also used as a flavour

ingredientinmostmajorfoodcategories,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

GARDENIAGardeniajasminoides

FAMILYRubiaceae

SYNONYMS G. grandiflora, G. radicans, florida, gardinia, Cape jasmine,commongardenia.

GENERALDESCRIPTION.A decorative bush, often grown for ornamentalpurposes,bearingfragrantwhiteflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheFarEast,IndiaandChina.Effortstoproducetheoilcommerciallyhavebeenlargelyunsuccessful.

OTHER SPECIES There are several varieties of gardenia depending onlocation,suchasG.citriodoraorG.calyculatafoundinJapanandIndonesia.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The flowers are used locally to flavour tea,muchlikejasmine.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, aphrodisiac. Extraction an absolute (and concrete) bysolventextractionfromthefreshflowers.

CHARACTERISTICS A dark yellow, oily liquid with a sweet, rich, floral,jasmine-like scent. It blends well with ylang ylang, jasmine, tuberose, neroli,rose,spiceandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly benzyl acetate, with phenyl acetate,linalol, linalyl acetate, terpineol and methyl anthranilate, among others –compositionvariesaccordingtosource.

SAFETYDATASafetydataunavailableatpresent.Almostallgardeniaoil isnowsyntheticallyproduced.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEPerfume.

OTHER USES Employed in high-class perfumery, especially orientalfragrances.

GARLICAlliumsativum

FAMILYAmaryllidaceaeorLiliaceae

SYNONYMSCommongarlic,allium,poorman’streacle!

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A strongly scented perennial herb up to 1.2metreshighwithlong,flat,firmleavesandwhitishfloweringstems.Thebulbismadeupofseveralclovespressedtogetherwithinathinwhiteskin.

DISTRIBUTION It is said to have originated in southwest Siberia and thenspread to Europe and Central Asia. It is naturalized in North America andcultivated worldwide. Major oil-producing countries include Egypt, Bulgaria,France,China,GermanyandJapan.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothewildorwoodgarlic(A.ursinum)alsoknownas‘ramsons’.Therearealsomanyotherwildspecieswithsimilarbutlesspronouncedproperties.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONIthasbeenusedforthousandsofyearsforitsmedicinalvirtues:forrespiratoryandurinarytractinfections;digestivedisordersand infestations; skin eruptions; heart disease, high blood pressure andarteriosclerosis,aswellasepidemicsand fever. Itwasused in theFirstWorldWarforpreventinggangreneandsepsis.

Ginger

IthasahighreputationintheEast:inChinaitisusedfordiarrhoea,dysentery,tuberculosis,diphtheria,hepatitis,ringworm,typhoidandtrachoma,amongothers.ItisalsoheldinhighregardintheWest:specificintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaforchronicbronchitis.Itspropertieshavebeenattestedtobymodernexperimentalandclinicalresearch.

Garlic

Garlic

ACTIONS Amoebicidal, anthelmintic, antibiotic, antimicrobial, antiseptic,antitoxic, antitumour, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cholagogue,hypocholesterolemic, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge,fungicidal, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, insecticidal, larvicidal, promotesleucocytosis,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshcrushedbulbs.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlesstopaleyellowmobileliquidwithastrong,unpleasant,familiargarlic-likeodour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Allicin, allylpropyl disulphide, diallyldisulphide, diallyl trisulphide, citral, geraniol, linalol, phellandrene, amongothers.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic and non-irritant, although it has beenknowntoirritatethestomach;mayalsocausesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEDue to its unpleasant and pervasive smell,the oil is not often used externally. However, the capsules may be takeninternally according to the instructions on the label for respiratory and gastro-intestinalinfections,urinarytractinfectionssuchascystitis,heartandcirculatoryproblems,andtofightinfectiousdiseasesingeneral.

OTHERUSESTheoilismadeintocapsulesandalsoincludedinmanyhealthfood products mainly to help reduce high blood pressure and protect againstheartdisease.Extensivelyemployedasaflavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategories,especiallysavouries.

GERANIUMPelargoniumgraveolens

FAMILYGeraniaceae

SYNONYMSRosegeranium,pelargonium.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialhairyshrubupto1metrehighwithpointedleaves,serratedattheedgesandsmallpinkflowers.Thewholeplantisaromatic.

DISTRIBUTIONNative to SouthAfrica;widely cultivated inRussia, Egypt,Congo, Japan, Central America and Europe (Spain, Italy and France). Withregard to essential oil production, there are three main regions: Reunion(Bourbon),EgyptandRussia(alsoChina).

OTHER SPECIES There are over 700 varieties of cultivated geranium andpelargonium, many of which are grown for ornamental purposes. There areseveraloil-producing species suchasP.odorantissimum andP. radens, butP.graveolens is the main one commercially cultivated for its oil. GeraniumBourbon (P. Roseum) has a superior fragrance to other species, having a richrosy-fruity scent due to the higher levels of linalook and iso-methone content.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The British plant herb robert (Geraniumrobertianum)and theAmericancranesbill(G.maculatum)are themostwidelyused types in herbal medicine today, having been used since antiquity. Theyhave many properties in common with the rose geranium, being used forconditions such as dysentery, haemorrhoids, inflammations, metrorrhagia andmenorrhagia (excessive blood loss duringmenstruation).The root and herb ofcranesbill is specifically indicated in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia fordiarrhoeaandpepticulcer.

ACTIONS Antidepressant, antihaemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic,astringent, cicatrisant, deodorant, diuretic, fungicidal, haemostatic, stimulant(adrenalcortex),styptic,tonic,vermifuge,vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steamdistillation from the leaves, stalks andflowers.AnabsoluteandconcretearealsoproducedinMorocco.

CHARACTERISTICSTheBourbonoilisagreenish-oliveliquidwithagreen,rosy-sweet, minty scent. The Bourbon oil is generally preferred in perfumerywork;itblendswellwithlavender,patchouli,clove,rose,sandalwood,jasmine,juniper,neroli,bergamotandothercitrusoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citronellol, geraniol, linalol, isomenthone,menthane, phellandrene, sabinene, limonene, among others. Constituents varyaccordingtotypeandsource.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing; possiblecontact dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals, especially with the Bourbontype.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Acne, bruises, broken capillaries, burns, congested skin, cuts,dermatitis,eczema,haemorrhoids,lice,oilycomplexion,matureskin,mosquitorepellent,ringworm,ulcers,wounds.Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, engorgement of breasts, oedema,poorcirculation.RespiratorySystem:Sorethroat,tonsillitis.Genito-UrinaryAndEndocrineSystems:Adrenocorticalglandsandmenopausalproblems,PMT.NervousSystem:Nervoustension,neuralgiaandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHER USES Used as a fragrance component in all kinds of cosmeticproducts: soaps, creams, perfumes, etc. Extensively employed as a flavouringagentinmostmajorfoodcategories,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

GINGERZingiberofficinale

FAMILYZingiberaceae

SYNONYMSCommonginger,Jamaicaginger.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnerectperennialherbupto1metrehighwithathick, spreading, tuberous rhizome root, which is very pungent. Each year itsends up a green reedlike stalkwith narrow spear-shaped leaves andwhite oryellowflowersonaspikedirectfromtheroot.

DISTRIBUTION Native to southernAsia, extensively cultivated all over thetropicsinNigeria,theWestIndies,India,China,JamaicaandJapan.MostoilisdistilledintheUK,ChinaandIndia.

OTHERSPECIESSeveralvarietiesaccordingtolocationwhichareallusedtoproduceoilswithslightvariationsintheirconstitiuents;forexampletheAfricanoil is generallydarker.Anothermemberof the same family, galangal (Alpiniaofficinarum),isalsoknownasgingerrootorChineseginger.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONGingerhasbeenusedasadomesticspiceandasaremedyforthousandsofyears,especiallyintheEast.FreshgingerisusedinChina for many complaints including rheumatism, bacterial dysentery,toothache,malaria,andforcoldandmoistconditionssuchasexcessmucusanddiarrhoea.Itisbestknownasadigestiveaid,especiallyintheWest:intheBritishHerbal

Pharmacopoeiaitisspecificallyindicatedforflatulentintestinalcolic.Preservedandcrystallizedgingerisapopularsweet,intheEastandWest.

ACTIONS Analgesic, antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive,aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, diaphoretic,expectorant,febrifuge,laxative,rubefacient,stimulant,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the unpeeled, dried,groundroot.(Anabsoluteandoleoresinarealsoproducedforuseinperfumery.)

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellow,amberorgreenish liquidwithawarm,slightlygreen,fresh,woody-spicyscent.Itblendswellwithsandalwood,vetiver,patchouli, frankincense, rosewood, cedarwood, coriander, rose, lime, neroli,orangeandothercitrusoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Gingerin, gingenol, gingerone, zingiberine,linalol,camphene,phellandrene,citral,cineol,borneol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant(exceptinhighconcentration),slightlyphototoxic;maycausesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscular aches and pains,poorcirculation,rheumatism,sprains,strainsetc.RespiratorySystem:Catarrh,congestion,coughs,sinusitis,sorethroat.Digestive System: Diarrhoea, colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion, loss ofappitite,nausea,travelsickness.ImmuneSystem:Chills,colds,’flu,fever,infectiousdisease.NervousSystem:Debility,nervousexhaustion.

OTHER USES The oleoresin is used in digestive, carminative and laxativepreparations; used as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes,especiallyorientalandmen’sfragrances;extensivelyemployedinallmajorfoodcategories,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

GOLDENRODSolidagocanadensis

FAMILYAsteraceaeSYNONYMSS.canadensisvar.gilvocanescens,S.altissima,S.canadensisvar.salebrosa, Canadian goldenrod,meadow goldenrod, common goldenrod, giantgoldenrod,tallgoldenrod,roughgoldenrod.GENERAL DESCRIPTION Solidago canadensis is a herbaceous, perennialplant of the daisy family often found growing as a wildflower, commonlyforming colonies. The stem is stiff and erect, growing up to 7 feet highwithnumerous branches and lance-shaped leaves. The attractive small yellow orgolden flowers are held above the foliage in clusters,which bloom late in theseason. Goldenrod is often unfairly blamed for causing hay fever in humansalthough the pollen causing these allergy problems is mainly produced byragweed,anotherwildplantwhichbloomsatthesametime.Goldenrodshaveareputation of being difficult to control due to their aggressive rhizomatousgrowth,whichenablesthemtorapidlycolonizelargeareas.DISTRIBUTIONNative toNorthAmerica, theherboccurs inmostUSstatesandCanadianprovinces. It is found in avarietyofhabitats, and it typically isone of the first plants to colonize an area after disturbance (such as fire) butrarelypersistsonceshrubsandtreesbecomeestablishedandisfoundneitherinverydrylocationsnorinwaterloggedones.InmanypartsofEurope,JapanandChina,itisconsideredaninvasiveweed,oftenendangeringlocalfauna.

OTHERSPECIESThegenusSolidagocomprisesover140varieties,manyofwhichareverysimilar; itcanevencrossbreedwithotherplants!Nearlyallareknown simply as goldenrod, though some have specific folk names such aswoundwort,Aaron’srodandBlueMountaintea.Mostofthegoldenrodspeciesarenative toNorthAmerica although a fewarenative toEurope,Asia,NorthAfricaandSouthAmerica.TheEuropeangoldenrod(S.virgaurea),wasknownaswoundwort in England as it was used as an astringent remedy for treatingwoundsandbleeding.Thesweetgoldenrod (S.odora), anativeof theUSandCanada,isthespeciesmostfrequentlyseeninherbgardensandisalsousedtoproduceanessentialoilusedby theperfumery industry.SweetgoldenrodalsohasalonghistoryofmedicinalusebyNativeAmericansandwasexportedforteainthenineteenthcentury.HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The genus name Solidago derives from theLatinsoldare,whichmeans ‘tomakewhole’.Goldenrodhas a longhistoryofmedicinaluseespeciallybytheNativeAmericanswhousedtheplantforawiderangeofconditions:infusionsandcompoundsoftheflowersandrootswereusedasemetics,sedativesandtocounteract lovepotions, treatdiarrhoea,feversandthe ’flu.TheShuswapused the plant in baths forwomengivingbirth and theZunis chewed crushed flowers to treat sore throats and drank infusions of theflowersforbodypain.PeopleoftheGosiutetribeatetheseedsandtheNavajopeopleatetheroots.TheNavajoalsosmokedtherootwithotherplantsandusedtheplantasacharmforsuccessingambling.Thegroundflowerswereusedonbee stings and a tea made to treat snakebite. During the Boston Tea Party,colonists drank goldenrod tea instead of English tea, which gave it the nick-name ‘Liberty Tea’. The tea is aromatic with a pleasing anise-like flavour aswell as being a mildly astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifugeandstimulant.Traditionallytheherbhasalsobeenusedforrespiratoryconditionsand

urinarytractinfections.IntheSwissPharmacopoeia,Goldenrodessentialoilisindicatedforsupportingthecirculatorysystemincludingcardiovascularproblemsliketachycardiaaswellasurinarytractandliverfunction.GoldenrodhasalsobeenapprovedbytheGermanCommissionasanaturalanti-inflammatory,diureticandantispasmodicinthetreatmentofurinarytractconditions.Itisalsoreputedtobealymphaticsystemconditioner,aregulatoroftheautonomicnervoussystem,withrelaxingandcalmingeffectsvaluableforhypertension.AccordingtotheUniversityofMontrealinCanada,goldenrodshowsgreat

potentialindealingwithimpotence.Althoughalittle-knownaromatherapy

potentialindealingwithimpotence.Althoughalittle-knownaromatherapyessentialoil,itmayhavevalueduetoitsanti-allergyproperties,forconditionslikehayfever,allergicreactions,coughsandrespiratoryinfections.ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-allergenic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-infectious,anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antihypertensive, antispasmodic, antiviral,astringent, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, immuno-stimulant, liversupport/stimulant,mucolytic,sedative.EXTRACTIONTheessentialoilissteamdistilledfromthegoldenrodflower.CHARACTERISTICS A yellowish liquid with a strong fresh, balsamic-pepperyandslightlybitteraromawithawoodyundertone. Itblendswellwithravintsara,perubalsam,rosemary,pine,ginger,spruceandspiceoils.PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly pinene, bornyl acetate, benzoates,myrcene, methyl chavicol, borneol and limonene. NB: Essential oil from asample of S. odora contained up to 75 per cent methyl chavicol (estragole),whichisknowntobemoderatelytoxicSAFETY DATA Generally considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing: possible skin sensitivity.Avoid during pregnancy and for childrenduetohighlevelsofestragoleinsomechemotypes.AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Acne,cuts,inflammationsoftheskin,insectbites,sores,wounds.Respiratorysystem:Catarrh,chills,coughsandcolds,hayfever,allergies,laryngitis(asagargle)andrespiratorycongestion,sinusinfection,sorethroat,’flu.Digestivesystem:Livercongestion,hepatitisandfattyliver.Genito-urinarysystem:Urinarytractandbladderconditions.Immunesystem:Boostsvitality.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,depression,nervoustension,stress.OTHERUSES The essential oil is used in pharmaceutical and in perfumeryproducts,especiallyforscentingsoaps.Mustard,orangeandbrowndyescanbeobtainedfromthewholeplant.

GRAPEFRUITCitrusxparadisi

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.racemosa,C.maximavar.racemosa,shaddock(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAcultivatedtree,oftenover10metreshighwithglossy leaves and large yellow fruits, believed to have derived from theshaddock(C.grandis).

DISTRIBUTION Native to tropical Asia, and theWest Indies; cultivated inCalifornia,Florida,BrazilandIsrael.TheoilismainlyproducedinCalifornia.

OTHERSPECIESC.paradisiisarecenthybridofC.maximaandC.sinesis.Therearemanydifferentcultivars;forexample,‘Duncan’isstandardinFlorida.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItsharesthenutritionalqualitiesofothercitrusspecies, being high in Vitamin C and a valuable protection against infectiousillness.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antitoxic, astringent, bactericidal, diuretic, depurative,stimulant(lymphatic,digestive),tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbycoldexpressionfromthefreshpeel.(Someoilisdistilledfromthepeelandremainsofthefruitafterthejuicehasbeenutilized,butthisisofinferiorquality.)

CHARACTERISTICSAyelloworgreenishmobileliquidwithafresh,sweetcitrusaroma.Itblendswellwithlemon,palmarosa,bergamot,neroli,rosemary,cypress,lavender,geranium,cardomonandotherspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLimonene(90percent),cadinene,paradisiol,neral, geraniol, citronellal, sinensal, as well as esters, coumarins andfurocoumarins.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing,non-phototoxic.Ithasashortshelflife–itoxidizesquickly.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESKINCARE:Acne,congestedandoilyskin,promoteshairgrowth,tonestheskinandtissues.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Cellulitis,exercisepreparation,musclefatigue,obesity,stiffness,waterretention.

ImmuneSystem:Chills,colds,’flu.Nervous System: Depression, headaches, nervous exhaustion, performancestress.

OTHER USES Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Extensivelyusedindesserts,softdrinksandalcoholicbeverages.

GREENLANDMOSSRhododendrongroenlandicum

FAMILYEricaceae

SYNONYMS Ledum, Labrador tea,marsh tea, swamp tea, bogLabrador tea,rustyLabradortea,Hudson’sBaytea(formerlyLedumgroenlandicum).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONThisbeautiful,hardyplantisashrubbelongingtotheheatherfamily,whichcanreachonemetreinheight.Itisrecognizablebyitsthick, leathery evergreen leaveswhose edges coil under and are quite unique,beingdeepgreenontopwithadowny-fuzzbeneath.Newleaveshaveawoollymatofwhitehairsunderneath;matureleaveshavereddishhairs.Allleavesaredotted with resinous glands and are fragrant, with a pungent scent, whencrushed.The fluffywhite flowers,whichareborne inspring,arealsostronglyaromatic.

DISTRIBUTION The plant is native to North America, fromGreenland andLabradoracrosstoAlaska,asfarnorthasthetreeline.It isabsentfromthefarNorthandthedryprairies.TheLatinnamegroenlandicumreferstothefactthatit grows in Greenland where it is still widespread, often growing in densecolonies.

OTHER SPECIES Ledum is a genus name, which includes 8 species ofevergreenshrubsnativetocooltemperateandsubarcticregionsoftheNorthernHemisphere, commonly known asLabrador tea. The common nameLedum isalso applied to Rhododendron tomentsum subsp. subarcticum (formerly L.decumbens)which is known asNorthern Labrador tea. This species,which is

similarbutslightlysmaller,growsfarthernorthontundraatupto1,800metresand contains toxic alkaloids known to be poisonous to livestock. It lacks thecharacteristic fuzzon theundersideof themature leavesand the flowersofL.groenlandicum.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThis stronglyaromaticherbhasbeenused infolkmedicineforcenturies.BrewedasamedicinalbeverageknownasLabradortea,itwasusedbypracticallyallCanada’sFirstNationspeoplesasatonicandto treat certain respiratory, digestive and kidney ailments; as a remedy forheadaches and various types of rheumatism; and to facilitate childbirth. Theherbalteaalsoservedtocleanwoundsandwasappliedtoinsectbites.Itissaidthat the plant was used for over 5,000 years by the native people of NorthAmerica,toprotectthemselvesfromscurvy,andtheCreeuseditforfeversandcolds:indeeditwasregardedasa‘cure-all’bytheindigenouspeople.Inthefur-tradingera, theFrenchCanadiancoureurs-de-boisusedLabrador tea toextendtheirsuppliesofblacktea:itthusbecameasubstituteforunaffordableChinesetea during times of economic crisis.However, like other plants in the heatherfamily,Greenlandmosscontainsanandromedo-toxinthatcancausepoisoningifusedinexcess.Accordingtorecentclinicaltrials,Greenlandmossessentialoilhasanatural

affinityfortheimmunesystemandcanbeaneffectiveimmunesystemsupporter.Theoilalsohelpscounteractbloodtoxicityandaidsliverregeneration,valuableincasesofliverintoxicationoriginatingfromcirculationdisorders,viralhepatitis,enteritisandcirrhosis(fattyliver).Clinicalresearchsuggeststhattheessentialoilfunctionslikeanenzymeintheliver,digestingtoxicwasteandfatmolecules.Itisalsoindicatedforobesity,oedema,waterretentionandthyroidregulation.TheoilhasalsobeenstudiedattheUniversityofQuebec,andwasfoundtobeastrongantioxidantandnaturalanti-inflammatory:italsoshowedanticanceractivityagainstcoloncarcinomaandlungcarcinomacells.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antibacterial,anticancerous,antiviral,anti-inflammatory,anti-tumoral,antispasmodic,antioxidant,anti-infectious,antiseptic,carminative,cicatrizing, decongestant, digestive tonic, immune support, liver support,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONGreenlandmossoil isextractedbysteamdistillationfromthe

leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS A clear, pale-yellow liquid, with a fresh-herbaceous,medicinalandslightlysweetaromaandearthy-woodyundertones.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThemainchemicalconstituentsarelimonene(upto35percent),sabinene,selinene,bornylacetatewithothermonoterpenesandsesquiterpenes.

SAFETY DATA Possible skin sensitization: always dilute for topical use.Avoidduringpregnancyandbychildren.NB:Abusiveconsumptionof the teaderivedfromitsleavesmaycauseindigestion,andmayevenhaveatoxiceffectduetothehighleveloftanninsthatitcontains.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Allergies,skinproblems.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Achingmusclesandjoints.RespiratorySystem:Colds,coughs,bronchitis,hoarseness,influenza,laryngitis.Digestive System: Addictions, alcoholism, allergies, cellulite, fatty liver,hepatitis(viral),hypothyroid,liverproblems(toxicliver,supportanddetoxifier),lymphnodes(inflamed),obesity,thyroidregulationandwaterretention.ImmuneSystem:Tonicandimmunesupport.NervousSystem:Anxiety,nervousdebilitytension.

OTHER USES The plant is still used as a local ‘tea plant’ in parts of theNorthernHemisphere.

GRINDELIAGrindeliasquarrosa

FAMILYAsteraceae

SYNONYMS Gumweed, hardy grindelia, gum plant, scaly grindelia, rosinweed, curlytop gumweed, curlycup gumweed, tarweed, resin-weed, sticky-heads.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A biennial or short-lived perennial up to one

metrehighwithyellow,daisy-likeflowerheads,eachwithoverlappingrowsofbackward-curling, bracts: squarrosa is Latin for ‘scaly or rough’, referring tothese curling bracts. The leaves are dotted with resinous glands: thus manycommonnames forGrindelia squarrosa, suchasgumweed, refer to thegooeyresinthat theyexude,whichhasasweet incense-likescent.Thiswhiteviscousgummay cover the entire bud top and flowers, which bloom in late summerfrom July to September. However, the dried flowering heads may persist forseveralyearsduetothepreservativeactionofthegummyresin!

DISTRIBUTIONThisplantisnativetowesternNorthAmericaandMexico.Itis naturalized in eastern North America and the Pacific Coast states: severalspeciesarealsocultivatedasornamentalsinEurope.

OTHER SPECIES Grindelia comprises about 60 species: the name of thegenushonourstheRussianbotanist,DavidGrindel.AllarenativetoNorthandCentral America and chiefly distributed in warm-temperate regions. Severalspeciesareusedtoproduceessentialoils,includingG.oreganaandG.robustaaswell asG. squarrosa.All theseoilswere found to contain alpha-pinene,β-pinene,limonene,borneol,bornylacetatetrans-pinocarveolandgermacreneDasthe main constituents and only showed small differences in chemicalcomposition.However,menthol,menthoneandpulegoneweredetectedonlyintheessentialoilofG.oregano.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONGrindeliahasbeenusedasatraditionalherbalremedy by indigenous cultures all over the Americas for centuries. The plantwasharvestedwheninfullbloomandusedfreshasapoulticeorherbalextractordriedfor infusionsetc.TheherbwasusedbyGreatPlainsTribesmainly totreat respiratory problems, such as asthma, colic, coughs and bronchitis,especiallyamongtheaged;theleavesweresmokedtorelievespasmodicasthma.Externally,thecrushedflowerswereusedtomakepoultices,whichwasappliedtoburns, rashes, poison ivy, blisters, dermatitis, eczema, saddle sores and rawskin. The leaves and flowering tops was used to make an herbal tea used torelieve coughs and dizziness. The sticky sap was chewed as gum and herbalextracts were also used to treat rheumatic conditions. SpanishNewMexicanswouldalsodrinkateamadefromboilingtheflowerbudsinwater,fortreatingkidneyproblems.TheEclecticSchoolofMedicineusedGrindeliaexternallytopromoteskinregrowthandtohealreluctant,persistentulcers.

ThemedicinalvalueofthisplantwasnotrecognizedbytheorthodoxpractitionersofmedicineintheUStillthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,afterwhichitcameintoprominenceasamajormedicinalplant.OfficialrecognitionofGrindeliacamewiththeintroductionoftheherbinthePharmacopoeiaoftheUnitedStatesin1882.ItisstilllistedintheU.S.Dispensatory,andiscurrentlyusedbymodernAmericansinthetreatmentofcolds,hayfever,nasalcongestion,whoopingcough,bronchialcatarrh,asthmaetc.ItiscurrentintheGermanCommissionEforcatarrhoftheupperrespiratorytractandtheBritishPharmacopoeiaalsoliststheantispasmodic,expectorantandcardiacdepressantpropertiesofthisherb.Thepositiveeffectsofthisherbonthereliefofsymptomsofcommoncoldhavebeenrecognizedempirically.Indeedrecentstudieshaveshownittohavegoodexpectorantandantispasmodicaswellasmoderateanti-inflammatoryandantibioticeffects.Italsoappearstoaidallergenicattacks,notonlybyrelievingthesymptomsbutincreatinganti-bodiestoreduceepisodesandtheirseverity.Secondaryusesincludethetreatmentofcystitisandfever,usuallyincombinationswithotherherbs.Itisalsoindicatedexternallyinlotionformforthetreatmentofeczema,dermatitisandrashesduetopoisonivy,hivesetc.

ACTIONS Anti-asthmatic, antibacterial, antidepressant, antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, cooling,decongestant, emetic, expectorant, immune support, mucolytic, regenerative,sedative.

EXTRACTIONTheessentialoilissteamdistilledfromthefloweringplant.

CHARACTERISTICS A mobile liquid with a strong, earthy-herbaceous,medicinal and slightly camphoraceous odour. It blends well with eucalyptus,ravintsara,myrtle,pine,cypressandperubalsam.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAlpha-pinene(aprox.25percent)isthemajorconstituent,withβ-pinene,limonene,borneol,bornylacetateandgermacreneD.Data is lackingregarding the interactionof thechemistryof thearomatic resinandthevolatileoils.

SAFETY DATA No adverse effects have been reported in the literatureregarding the safety of Grindelia in the case of therapeutic application.

However,dataislackingregardingtheessentialoilspecifically.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkin Care: Acne, blisters, cuts, eczema, dermatitis, rashes (hives etc), stretchmarks,scars,ulcers,woundsandskincaregenerally.Respiratory System:Aids breathing, asthma, catarrh, chronic colds, bronchitis,congestion,hayfever,fever,’flu,sinusitis,sorethroat,whoopingcough.ImmuneSystem:Supportstheimmunesystem.NervousSystem:Nervoustension,stress.

OTHER USES A homeopathic remedy is prepared from the leaves andfloweringstems.Itisusedbypharmaceuticalcompaniesinwhoopingcoughandasthmadrugs;alsoavailableasatincture.

GUAIACWOODBulnesiasarmienti

FAMILYZygophyllaceae

SYNONYMSChampacawood(oil),‘palosanto’.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONA small,wild tropical tree up to 4metres high,withadecorativehardwood.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSouthAmerica,especiallyParaguayandArgentina.SomeoilisdistilledinEuropeandtheUSA.

OTHER SPECIES Distinct from guaiac gum and guaiac resin, known asguaiacum, obtained from related trees Guaiacum officinale and G. sanctum.However,theyaresomewhatsimilarproductsandsharecommonproperties.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The wood is much used for ornamentalcarving.Itwasformerlyusedfortreatingrheumatismandgout;guaiacumisstillcurrent in theBritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for rheumatism andrheumatoidarthritis.Valnetincludesguaiacuminhis‘elixirs’forgout,venerealdiseaseandinmouthwashes.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic,diaphoretic,diuretic,laxative.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steamdistillation from the brokenwood andsawdust.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellow, amber or greenish, soft or semi-solidmasswith a pleasant, tearose type fragrance and sometimes an unpleasant smokyundertone. It blends well with geranium, neroli, oakmoss, rose, costus,sandalwood,amyris,spiceandwoody-floralbases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSGuaiol(42–72percent),bulnesol,bulnesene,guaiene,patchoulene,guaioxide,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationlmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,gout,rheumatoidarthritis.

OTHERUSESThefluidextractandtinctureareusedinpharmacology,mainlyas a diagnostic reagent in blood tests. Used as a fixative and fragrancecomponentinsoaps,cosmeticsandperfumes.

H

HOWOODCinnamomumcamphoractlinalol

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNOYNMSHooil,ho-woodil,shiuoil,ho-leafoil.

GENERALDESCRIPTION A tall, tropical evergreen tree, quite densewithsmallwhite flowersandblackberries,whichgrowsup to30metres inheight.Thisisthesametreethatproducescamphorcomesfromthewoodofthetree.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoChina,Japan,Taiwanandsouth-eastAsia.Itisnowcultivatedinmanytropicalandsub-tropicalcountriesincludingIndia,Australia,MadagascarandpartsoftheUSAwhereithasnaturalized.

OTHER SPECIES Cinnamomum camphora is a large genus with manysubspecieswhichyieldavolatileoilondistillation,includinghooil(woodandleaf),camphor,apopin,sassafrasandravintsara.Alltheseessentialoils,althoughderivedfromthesameprincipalbotanicalspecies,differintheirchemicalprofileenormouslydependingontheircountryoforiginaswellasthepartoftheplantusedtoextracttheoil.Therearethusmanydifferentsubvarietiesofthecamphortree found throughoutAsia, forexample theYu-sho inChinaand theSho-guyvarietyfoundinTaiwan.Ho(woodandleaf)oilisderivedbothfromtheHon-shoandHo-shovarietiesgrowingmainlyinJapanandTaiwan.Thisvarietyhaslinaloolasitsmajorconstituent.Rosewood(Anibarosaedora),anativetreeoftheAmazon,alsoyieldsanoil

veryrichinlinalool.However,rosewoodbecameendangeredduetoover-harvestingandalthoughplantationshavesincebeenplanted,itwilltaketimeforthetreestomature.Rosewoodoilandhowoodoilareverysimilarinnature,andsincehowoodismorerenewable,itisincreasinglyusedasareplacementfortheformer.However,holeafoil,distilledfromtheleavesofC.camphora,is

graduallybeginningtoreplacehowoodoilinaromatherapyusage,becauseitsscentissmoother,containinghardlyanycamphor-likenotes.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Ho wood has traditionally been used formakingthehandlesofJapaneseswordsandknivesbecauseitissoftandwillnotscratch the blades. It is also used nowadays for ornamental parts of houses,carpentryandcabinetmaking,asitisofaverysimilarbeautytorosewood.Howood oil became very popular in Taiwan during the 1900s as a linalool-richproduct,locallyreferredtoasshiuoil.C.camphorawasalsoheavilyexploitedasasourceofcamphorinJapanandTaiwanuntilWorldWarII.Thehigh‘linalool’contentmakesHooilapotentimmunesystemstimulant

(goodforinfectionssuchascoldor’flu)aswellasapowerfulrelaxantorsedative…soothingyetupliftingineffect.Recentstudiesalsosuggestthattheoilmayplayaroleasacellularstimulantandtissueregenerator,beingbeneficialforcomplaintsassociatedwiththeskin.

ACTIONS Analgesic, anti-fungal, anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant,antiseptic,antispasmodic,bactericidal,immunesupport,sedative,tonic.Itisalsobelievedtobeamildaphrodisiac.

EXTRACTION Steam distilled from the leaves (ho leaf oil) and wood (howoodoil)

CHARACTERISTICSHowoodoilisapaleyellowliquidwithasoft,warm,floral, spicy-woody scentwith a slightly camphor-like undertone. The leaf oilhas a sweet-fresh, green-floral and woody scent. It blends well with basil,bergamot, cedarwood, chamomile, lavender, lime, geranium, juniper, neroli,petitgrain,myrtle,sandalwood,ylangylangandspiceoils.

Hops

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSHo(woodandleaf)oilcontainsupto99percent linalool, with traces of limonene, myrcene, gamma-terpinene and othercomponents.Howoodoilgenerallycontainshigherlevelsofcineol.Japanesehooil‘A’qualityhasalinaloolcontentof94percentormore;a‘B’gradehas85–90percentlinalool.

SAFETYDATAItisnon-toxicandnon-irritantbutwithpossiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Acne,cuts,dermatitis, stretchmarks, scars,wounds&generalskincare:dry,oily,matureandsensitiveskin.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Achesandpainscausedbyinflammation.RespiratorySystem:Chills,coughsandcolds,’flu.ImmuneSystem:Lowlibidoandfrigidity:boostsvitality.NervousSystem:Anxiety,depression,insomnia,nervoustension,stress.

OTHERUSESTheuseofC.camphoraasasourceofholeafandwoodoilhasexpanded in recent years and it is nowan important sourceof natural linalool(whichisstillpreferredoverthesyntheticform)forsomefragranceapplicationsintheperfumeryindustry.Indeed,holeafandwoodoilhaslargelydisplacedtheuse of rosewood as a source of natural linalool. It is also an effective insectrepellent.

HOPSHumuluslupulus

FAMILYMoraceae

SYNONYMSCommonhop,Europeanhop,lupulus.

GENERALDESCRIPTION Perennial creeping, twiningherbup to 8metreshigh,whichbearsmaleandfemaleflowersonseparateplants.Ithasdarkgreen,heart-shapedleavesandgreenyyellowflowers.Avolatileoil,calledlupulin,isformedintheglandularhairsoftheconesor‘strobiles’.

DISTRIBUTIONNative toEuropeandNorthAmerica;cultivatedworldwide,especially in theUSA (California andWashington),Yugoslavia andGermany.TheoilismainlyproducedinFrance,UKandGermany.

OTHERSPECIESRelated to thecommonstingingnettle (Urticadioica)andtothefig(Ficuscarica).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONBestknownasanerveremedy,for insomnia,nervoustension,neuralgia,andalsoforsexualneurosisinbothsexes.Itsupportsthe femaleoestrogens,and isuseful foramenorrhoea (heavyperiods). ‘Amildsedative,well known in the formof the hoppillowwhere the heavy aromaticodourhasbeenshowntorelaxbydirectactionattheolfactorycentres…itisthevolatile aromatic component that appears to be themost active.’40 It has alsobeen used for heart disease, stomach and liver complaints, including bacterialdysentery.InChinaitisusedforpulmonarytuberculosisandcystitis.Itisusedtomake

beer.CurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforrestlessnesswithnervousheadachesand/orindigestion.

ACTIONS Anodyne, an aphrodisiac, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic,astringent, bactericidal, carminative, diuretic, emollient, oestrogenic properties,hypnotic,nervine,sedative,soporific.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried cones orcatkins,knownas‘strobiles’.(Anabsoluteisalsoproducedbysolventextractionforperfumeryuse.)

CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow to reddish-amber liquid with a rich,spicy-sweetodour.Itblendswellwithpine,hyacinth,nutmeg,copaibabalsam,citrusandspiceoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly humulene, myrcene, caryophylleneandfarnesene,withover100othertracecomponents.

SAFETYDATAGenerallynon-toxic(narcoticinexcessiveamounts)andnon-irritant;maycausesensitizationinsomeindividuals.Shouldbeavoidedbythosesufferingfromdepression.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESKINCARE:Dermatitis,rashes,roughskin,ulcers.RESPIRATORYSYSTEM:Asthma,spasmodiccough.DIGESTIVESYSTEM:Indigestion,nervousdyspepsia.GENITO-URINARY AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS: Amenorrhoea, menstrual cramp, supportsfemale oestrogens, promotes feminine characteristics, reduces sexualoveractivity.NERVOUS SYSTEM: Headaches, insomnia, nervous tension, neuralgia, stress-relatedconditions.

OTHER USES Employed as a fragrance ingredient in perfumes, especiallyspicy or oriental types. Used in flavour work in tobacco, sauces and spiceproducts,butmainlyinalcoholicdrinks,especiallybeer.

HORSERADISHArmoraciarusticana

FAMILYBrassicaceae(Cruciferae)

SYNONYMSCochleariaarmoracia,A.lapathifolia,redcole,raifort.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialplantwithlargeleavesupto50cmslong,whiteflowersandathickwhitishtaperingroot,whichispropagatedeasily.

DISTRIBUTION Its origins are uncertain, but probably native to easternEurope.ItisnowcommonthroughoutRussia,EuropeandScandinavia.

OTHER SPECIES Possibly a cultivated form of Cochlearia macrocarpa, anativeofHungary.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAnextremelystimulatingherb,oncevaluedasa household remedy. Its action is similar tomustard seed and itwas used forfever,digestivecomplaints,urinaryinfectionsandasacirculatoryaid.Goodforarthritis and rheumatism. It is still used as a condiment, especially on theContinent.

ACTIONS Antibiotic, antiseptic, diuretic, carminative, expectorant, laxative(mild),rubefacient,stimulant.

EXTRACTION Essential oil bywater and steamdistillation from the brokenrootswhichhavebeensoakedinwater.(Aresinoidorconcreteisalsoproducedbysolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithasharp,potentodourandhavingatear-producingeffect.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Allyl isothiocyanate (75 per cent), withphenylethylisothiocyanate(whichisonlyproducedwhentheplantisbruisedorcrushed).

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin,dermalirritant,mucousmembraneirritant.‘Thisisoneofthemosthazardousofallessentialoils.Itshouldnotbeusedintherapyeitherexternallyorinternally.’41

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHER USES Mainly used in minute amounts in seasonings, ready-madesalads,condimentsandcannedproducts.

HYACINTHHyacinthusorientalis

FAMILYLiliaceae

SYNONYMSScillanutans,bluebell.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAmuchlovedcultivatedplantwithfragrant,bell-shapedflowersofmanycolours,brightlance-shapedleavesandaroundbulb.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAsiaMinor,saidtobeofSyrianorigin.CultivatedmainlyinHollandandsouthernFrance.

OTHERSPECIESClosely related togarlic (Alliumsativum),onion(A.cepa)and thewildbluebell (H.non scriptus).Atone timebluebell essential oilwasproducedatGrasseinthesouthofFrance,whichhadafresherandmorefloweryfragrance.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The wild bluebell bulbs are poisonous;however,thewhitejuiceusedtobeemployedasasubstituteforstarchorglue.‘The roots, dried and powdered, are balsamic, having some styptic propertiesthathavenotfullybeeninvestigated.’42

ACTIONSAntiseptic,balsamic,hypnotic,sedative,styptic.

EXTRACTIONConcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromtheflowers.(Anessentialoilisalsoobtainedbysteamdistillationfromtheabsolute.)

CHARACTERISTICSAreddishorgreenybrownviscousliquidwithasweet-green, floral fragrance and soft floral undertone. It blendswellwithnarcissus,violet, ylang ylang, styrax, galbanum, jasmine, neroli and with oriental-typebases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Phenylethyl alcohol, benzaldehyde,cinnamaldehyde,benzylalcohol,benzoicacid,benzylacetate,benzylbenzoate,

eugenol,methyleugenolandhydroquinone,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANosafetydataavailableatpresent.Mostcommercialhyacinthisnowadaysadulteratedorsynthetic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENERVOUSSYSTEM:TheGreeksdescribedthefragranceofhyacinthasbeingrefreshingandinvigoratingtoatiredmind.Itmayalso be used for stress-related conditions, ‘in self-hypnosis techniques… anddevelopingthecreativeright-handsideofthebrain’.43

OTHERUSESUsedinhighclassperfumery,especiallyorientalfloraltypes.

HYSSOPHyssopusofficinalis

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMAzob.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION An attractive perennial, almost evergreensubshrubupto60cmshighwithawoodystem,small,lance-shapedleavesandpurplish-blueflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregionandtemperateAsia;nowgrowswild throughoutAmerica,Russia andEurope. It ismainly cultivated inHungaryandFrance,andtoalesserdegreeinAlbaniaandYugoslavia.

OTHERSPECIESTherearefourmainsubspeciesofhyssop,butH.officinalisis themainoil producingvariety.The speciesH.officinalis var.decumbens isless toxic thanmany other types, andwell suited to aromatherapy use. To bedistinguished from hedge hyssop (Gratiola officinalis) which is still used inherbalmedicinebutbelongstoanentirelydifferentfamily.

Hyssop

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAlthoughhyssopismentionedintheBible,itprobablydoesnotrefertothisherbbuttoaformofwildmarjoramororegano,possiblyOreganumsyriacum.NeverthelessH.officinalishasanancientmedicalreputationandwasusedforpurifyingsacredplaces,andemployedasastewingherb.‘Thehealingvirtuesoftheplantareduetoaparticularvolatileoil.’44

Itisusedprincipallyforrespiratoryanddigestivecomplaints,andexternallyforrheumatism,bruises,sores,earacheandtoothache.Itisalsousedtoregulatethebloodpressure,asageneralnervetonic,andforstatesofanxietyorhysteria.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforbronchitisandthecommoncold.

ACTIONS Astringent, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal,carminative, cephalic, cicatrisant, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue,expectorant, febrifuge, hypertensive, nervine, sedative, sudorific, tonic (heartandcirculation),vermifuge,vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves andfloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlesstopaleyellowy-greenliquidwithasweet,

camphoraceous topnote andwarm spicyherbaceousundertone. It blendswellwithlavender,rosemary,myrtle,bayleaf,sage,clarysage,geraniumandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Pinocamphone, isopinocamphone, estragole,borneol,geraniol,limonene,thujone,myrcene,caryophyllene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-irritant,non-sensitizing;theoilismoderatelytoxicduetothepinocamphonecontent.Itshouldbeusedonlyinmoderationandavoidedinpregnancyandbyepileptics.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkinCare:Bruises,cuts,dermatitis,eczema,inflammation,wounds.CirculationMusclesAndJoints:Loworhighbloodpressure,rheumatism.Respiratory System:Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, cough, sore throat, tonsillitis,whoopingcough.DigestiveSystem:Colic,indigestion.Genito-UrinarySystem:Amenorrhoea,leucorrhoea.ImmuneSystem:Colds,’flu.NervousSystem:Anxiety,fatigue,nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSES Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics andperfumes, especially eau-de-cologne and oriental bases. Used as a flavouringredient in many food products, mainly sauces and seasonings; also inalcoholicdrinks,especiallyliqueurssuchaschartreuse.

I

IMMORTELLEHelichrysumangustifolium

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSHelichrysum,everlasting,StJohn’sherb.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAstronglyaromaticherb,upto0.6metreshighwithamuch-branchedstem,woodyatthebase.Thebrightlycoloured,daisy-likeflowersbecomedryastheplantmatures,yetretaintheircolour.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion,especiallytheeasternpartandNorthAfrica.ItiscultivatedmainlyinItaly,Yugoslavia,SpainandFrance.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralotherHelichrysumspeciessuchasH.arenariumfoundinfloristshopsandH.stoechaswhichisalsousedtoproduceanabsolute.H.orientaleisgrownforitsoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInEuropeitisusedforrespiratorycomplaintssuchasasthma,chronicbronchitisandwhoopingcough;alsoforheadaches,migraine,liverailmentsandskinconditionsincludingburns,allergiesandpsoriasis.Usuallytakenintheformofadecoctionorinfusion.

ACTIONSAnti-allergenic,anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,antitussive,antiseptic,astringent,cholagogue,cicatrisant,diuretic,expectorant,fungicidal,hepatic,nervine.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshflowersandfloweringtops.2.Anabsolute(andconcrete)arealsoproducedbysolventextraction.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Apaleyellowtoredoilyliquidwithapowerful,richhoneylikescentwithadelicatetealikeundertone.2.Ayellowy-brownviscousliquidwitharich,floral,tealikescent.Itblendswellwithchamomile,boronia,labdanum,lavender,mimosa,oakmoss,geranium,clarysage,rose,Perubalsam,cloveandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSNerolandnerylacetate(30–50percent),geraniol,pinene,linalol,isovalericaldehyde,sesquiterpenes,furfurolandeugenol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.Skincare:Abscess,acne,allergicconditions,boils,burns,cuts,dermatitis,eczema,inflammation,spots,woundsetc.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Muscularachesandpains,rheumatism,sprains,strainedmuscles.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,chroniccoughs,whoopingcough.Digestivesystem:Livercongestion,spleencongestion.Immunesystem:Bacterialinfections,colds,’flu,fever.Nervoussystem:Depression,debility,lethargy,nervousexhaustion,neuralgia,stress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESUsedasfixativesandfragrancecomponentsinsoaps,cosmeticsandperfumes.Theabsoluteisusedtoflavourcertaintobaccos;usedfortheisolationofnaturalanethole.

J

JABORANDIPilocarpusjaborandi

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSPernambucojaborandi,P.pennatifolius,iaborandi,jamborandi,arrudodomato,arrudabrava,jamguaraddi,juarandi.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAwoodyshrubupto2metreshighwithasmooth,greyishbark,largebrownish-greenleatheryleavescontainingbigoilglandsandreddish-purpleflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoBrazil;otherspeciesarefoundinParaguay,Cuba,theWestIndiesandCentralAmerica.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanymembersoftheRutaceaeandPiperaceaefamilyknownsimplyasjaborandi,suchasPiperjaborandi.Othersincludemaranhamjaborandi(P.microphyllus),cearajaborandi(P.trachylophus)andaractijaborandi(P.spicatus).Thereisconsequentlysomeconfusionabouttheexactbotanicalsourceoftheoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONJaborandiinducessalivationandmostglandsecretions;itwasalsousedatonetimetopromotehairgrowth.‘Usefulinpsoriasis,prurigo,deafness...chroniccatarrh,tonsillitisandparticularlydropsy.’45

ACTIONSAntiseptic,diaphoretic,emmenagogue,galactagogue,stimulant(nerve).

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedleaflets.

CHARACTERISTICSAnorangeoryellowliquidwithasweet-herbaceous

fruityodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSPilocarpineisthemainactiveconstituent;alsoisopilocarpine,pilocarpidine,methylnonylketone,dipenteneandotherhydrocarbons.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin,skinirritant,abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESVarioushypodermicsolutionsarepreparedfrompilocarpine:thecrudeoilisrarelyused.Littleusedinperfumeryorflavourworkduetotoxicity.

JASMINEJasminumofficinale

FAMILYOleaceae

SYNONYMSJasmin,jessamine,commonjasmine,poet’sjessamine.

Jasmine

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreenshruborvineupto10metreshigh

withdelicate,brightgreenleavesandstar-shapedveryfragrantwhiteflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoChina,northernIndiaandwestAsia;cultivatedintheMediterraneanregion,ChinaandIndia(dependingontheexactspecies).TheconcreteisproducedinItaly,France,Morocco,Egypt,China,Japan,AlgeriaandTurkey;theabsoluteismainlyproducedinFrance.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyspeciesofjasmineusedformedicineandperfumerywork.Apartfromthecommonjasmine,themostwidespeadvarietiesaretheroyalorItalianjasmine(J.grandiflorum)whichisgrownintheMediterraneanregion,anditsEasterncounterpartJ.officinalevar.grandiflorumorJ.auriculatum.SeetheBotanicalClassificationsectionforamorecomprehensivelist.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInChinatheflowersofJ.officinalevar.grandiflorumareusedtotreathepatitis,livercirrhosisanddysentery;theflowersofJ.sambacareusedforconjunctivitis,dysentery,skinulcersandtumours.Therootisusedtotreatheadaches,insomnia,painduetodislocatedjointsandrheumatism.IntheWest,thecommonjasminewassaidto‘warmthewomb...and

facilitatethebirth;itisusefulforcough,difficultyofbreathing,etc.Itdispersescrudehumours,andisgoodforcoldandcatarrhousconstitutions,butnotforthehot.’Itwasalsousedforhard,contractedlimbsandproblemswiththenervousandreproductivesystems.

ACTIONSAnalgesic(mild),antidepressant,anti-inflammatory,antiseptic,antispasmodic,aphrodisiac,carminative,cicatrisant,expectorant,galactagogue,parturient,sedative,tonic(uterine).

EXTRACTIONAconcreteisproducedbysolventextraction;theabsoluteisobtainedfromtheconcretebyseparationwithalcohol.Anessentialoilisproducedbysteamdistillationoftheabsolute.

CHARACTERISTICSTheabsoluteisadarkorange-brown,viscousliquidwithanintenselyrich,warm,floralscentandatealikeundertone.Itblendswellwithrose,sandalwood,clarysage,andallcitrusoils.Ithastheabilitytoroundoffanyroughnotesandblendwithvirtuallyeverything.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThereareover100constituentsintheoilincludingbenzylacetate,linalol,phenylaceticacid,benzylalcohol,farnesol,methylanthranilate,cisjasmone,methyljasmonate,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,generallynon-sensitizing.(Anallergicreactionhasbeenknowntooccurinsomeindividuals.)

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Dry,greasy,irritated,sensitiveskin.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Muscularspasm,sprains.Respiratorysystem:Catarrh,coughs,hoarseness,laryngitis.Genito-urinarysystem:Dysmenorrhoea,frigidity,labourpains,uterinedisorders.Nervoussystem:Depression,nervousexhaustionandstress-relatedconditions.‘It...producesafeelingofoptimism,confidenceandeuphoria.Itismostusefulincaseswherethereisapathy,indifferenceorlistlessness.’46

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedinsoaps,toiletries,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallyhigh-classfloralandorientalfragrances.Theoilandabsoluteareemployedinawiderangeoffoodproducts,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.ThedriedflowersofJ.sambacareusedinjasminetea.

JUNIPERJuniperuscommunis

FAMILYCupressaceae

SYNONYMCommonjuniper.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreenshrubortreeupto6metreshigh,withbluishgreennarrowstiffneedles.Ithassmallflowersandlittleroundberries,whicharegreeninthefirstyear,turningblackinthesecondandthird.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothenorthernhemisphere:Scandinavia,Siberia,Canada,northernEuropeandnorthernAsia.TheoilismainlyproducedinItaly,France,Yugoslavia,Austria,Czechoslovakia,Spain,GermanyandCanada.

OTHERSPECIESInYugoslaviaanoilisproducedfromthefruitandtwigsof

J.smerka,lessrichandsweetthanthatofcommonjuniper.TherearevariousotherspeciesofjunipersuchasJ.oxycedruswhichproducescadeoil,J.virginianawhichproducestheso-calledVirginiancedarwoodoil,andJ.sabinawhichproducessavinoil.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

Juniper

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheneedlesandberrieshavealongtraditionalhistoryofuse.Itisusedmedicinallyforurinaryinfectionssuchascystitisandurethritis;forrespiratoryproblemssuchasbronchitis,colicandcoughs;aswellasgastro-intestinalinfectionsandworms.Ithelpsexpelthebuild-upofuricacidinthejoints,andisemployedingout,rheumatismandarthritis.CurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaforrheumaticpainandcystitis.

ACTIONSAntirheumatic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antitoxic,aphrodisiac,astringent,carminative,cicatrisant,depurative,diuretic,emmenagogue,nervine,parasiticide,rubefacient,sedative,stomachic,sudorific,tonic,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfrom1.theberries(sometimesfermentedfirstasaby-productofjuniper–brandymanufacture–theoilisconsideredaninferiorproduct),and2.theneedlesandwood.Aresinoid,concreteandabsolutearealsoproducedonasmallscale.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Awater-whiteorpaleyellowmobileliquidwitha

sweet,fresh,woody-balsamicodour.Itblendswellwithvetiver,sandalwood,cedarwood,mastic,oakmoss,galbanum,elemi,cypress,clarysage,pine,lavender,lavandin,labdanum,firneedle,rosemary,benzoin,balsamtolu,geraniumandcitrusoils.2.Awater-whiteorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithasweet-balsamic,fresh,turpentine-likeodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlymonoterpenes:pinene,myrcene,sabinenewithlimonene,cymene,terpinene,thujeneandcamphene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-sensitizing,maybeslightlyirritating,generallynon-toxic.However,itstimulatestheuterinemuscle(anabortifacient)andmustnotbeusedduringpregnancy.Neithershoulditbeusedbythosewithkidneydiseaseduetoitsnephrotoxiceffect.Thewoodoilisusuallyadulteratedwithturpentineoil.Itisbesttouseonlyjuniperberryoil,inmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,dermatitis,eczema,hairloss,haemorrhoids,oilycomplexions,asaskintoner,wounds.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Accumulationoftoxins,arteriosclerosis,cellulitis,gout,obesity,rheumatism.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,infections.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,cystitis,dysmenorrhoea,leucorrhoea.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESBerriesandextractsareusedindiureticandlaxativepreparations;alsoveterinarypreventativesofticksandfleas.Employedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallyspicyfragrancesandaftershaves.Extensivelyusedinmanyfoodproductsbutespeciallyalcoholicandsoftdrinks:theberriesareusedtoflavourgin.

L

LABDANUMCistusladaniferus

FAMILYCistaceae

SYNONYMSCistus(oil),gumcistus,ciste,cyste(absolute),labdanumgum,ambreine,Europeanrockrose.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmallstickyshrubupto3metreshighwithlance-shapedleaveswhicharewhiteandfurryontheunderside,andfragrantwhiteflowers.Labdanumgum,adarkbrownsolidmass,isanaturaloleoresinwhichisobtainedbyboilingtheplantmaterialinwater.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanmountainousregionsandtheMiddleEast.NowfoundthroughouttheMediterraneanregion,especiallysouthernFrance,Spain,Portugal,Greece,Morocco,CyprusandYugoslavia.TheoilismainlyproducedinSpain.

OTHERSPECIESLabdanumgumisalsoobtainedfromotherCistusspecies,notablyC.incanus,andothersubspecies:seeBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONOneoftheearlyaromaticsubstancesoftheancientworld.Thegumwasusedformerlyforcatarrh,diarrhoea,dysenteryandtopromotemenstruation;externallyitwasusedinplasters.Theoilfromthecloselyrelatedplantfrostwort(Helianthemumcanadense),alsoknownascistus,alsohasmanymedicinalqualitiesandissaidtobeusefulforscrofulousskinconditions,ulcersandtumours,includingcancer.

ACTIONSAntimicrobial,antiseptic,antitussive,astringent,balsamic,emmenagogue,expectorant,tonic.

EXTRACTION1.Aresinoidorresinconcreteandabsolutebysolvent

extractionfromthecrudegum.2.Anessentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthecrudegum,theabsolute,orfromtheleavesandtwigsoftheplantdirectly.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Absolute–asemisolidgreenorambermasswitharich,sweet,herbaceous-balsamicodour.2.Oil–adarkyelloworamberviscousliquidwithawarm,sweet,dry-herbaceousmuskyscent.Itblendswellwithoakmoss,clarysage,pine,juniper,calamus,opopanax,lavender,lavandin,bergamot,cypress,vetiver,sandalwood,patchouli,olibanum,chamomilemarocandorientalbases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSItcontainsover170pinenes,includingcamphene,sabinene,myrcene,phellandrene,limonene,cymene,cineol,borneol,nerol,geraniol,fenchone,etc.Exactconstituentsvaryaccordingtosource.

SAFETYDATAGenerallynon-toxic,nonirritant,nonsensitizing.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Matureskin,wrinkles.Respiratorysystem:Coughs,bronchitis,rhinitis,etc.Immunesystem:Colds.

OTHERUSESUsedasafixativeandfragrancecomponentinlotions,powders,soaps,detergents,colognesandperfumes,especiallyorientalperfumesandaftershaves.Employedinmostmajorfoodcategories,particularlymeatproducts,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

LAURELLaurusnobilis

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMSSweetbay,baylaurel,Grecianlaurel,truebay,Mediterraneanbay,Romanlaurel,noblelaurel,laurelleaf(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreentreeupto20metreshighwithdarkgreen,glossyleavesandblackberries;oftencultivatedasanornamentalshrub.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion;extensivelycultivated

especiallyforitsberries,inFrance,Spain,Italy,Morocco,Yugoslavia,China,Israel,TurkeyandRussia.TheoilismainlyproducedinYugoslavia.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralrelatedspecies,allofwhicharecommonlycalledBay:Californianbay(Umbellulariacalifornia),WestIndianbay(Pimentaracemosa)andthecherrylaurel(Prunuslaurocerasus),whichispoisonous.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONApopularculinaryherbthroughoutEurope.TheleaveswereusedbytheancientGreeksandRomanstocrowntheirvictors.Bothleafandberrywereformerlyusedforavarietyofafflictionsincludinghysteria,colic,indigestion,lossofappetite,topromotemenstruationandforfever.Itislittleusedinternallythesedays,duetoitsnarcoticproperties.A‘fixed’oilofbay,expressedfromtheberries,isstillusedforsprains,bruises,earache,etc.

ACTIONSAntirheumatic,antiseptic,bactericidal,diaphoretic,digestive,diuretic,emmenagogue,fungicidal,hypotensive,sedative,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedleafandbranchlets.(Anoilfromtheberriesisproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICSAgreenish-yellowliquidwithapowerful,spicy-medicinalodour.Itblendswellwithpine,cypress,juniper,clarysage,rosemary,olibanum,labdanum,lavender,citrusandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCineol(30–50percent),pinene,linalol,terpineolacetate,andtracesofmethyleugenol.

Laurel

SAFETYDATARelativelynon-toxicandnonirritant;cancausedermatitisinsomeindividuals.Useinmoderationduetopossiblenarcoticpropertiesattributedtomethyleugenol.Shouldnotbeusedduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEDigestivesystem:Dyspepsia,flatulence,lossofappetite.Genito-urinarysystem:Scantyperiods.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,tonsillitisandviralinfections.

OTHERUSESUsedasafragrancecomponentindetergents,cosmetics,toiletriesandperfumes,especiallyaftershaves.Extensivelyusedinprocessedfoodofalltypes,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

LAVANDINLavandulaxintermedia

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSL.hybrida,L.hortensis,bastardlavender.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhybridplantdevelopedbycrossingtruelavender(L.angustifolia)withspikelavenderoraspic(L.latifolia).Duetoitshybridnature,lavandinhasavarietyofforms:ingeneral,itisalargerplantthan

truelavender,withwoodystems.Itsflowersmaybeblueliketruelavender,orgreyishlikeaspic.

DISTRIBUTIONAnaturallavandinoccursinthemountainousregionsofsouthernFrancewherebothparentplantsgrowwild,thoughatdifferentaltitudes.StillmainlycultivatedinFrance,butalsoSpain,Hungary,YugoslaviaandArgentina.

OTHERSPECIESTherearecultivarsoflavender,suchas‘DwarfBlue’,‘HidcotePink’and‘BowlesEarly’;therearealsomanycultivarsoflavandinsuchas‘GreyHedge’,‘SilverGrey’and‘Alba’.Forfurtherinformationseeentriesontruelavenderandspikelavender;alsotheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONSixtyyearsago,whenAModernHerbalwaswrittenbyMrsGrieve,lavandinwasstillunknown,soitdoesnothavealonghistoryoftherapeuticuse.Itspropertiesseemtocombinethoseofthetruelavenderandaspic.

ACTIONSSeetruelavender.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshfloweringtops;ithasahigheryieldofoilthaneithertruelavenderoraspic.(Aconcreteandabsolutearealsoproducedbysolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithafreshcamphoraceoustopnote(whichshouldnotbetoostronginagoodqualityoil),andawoodyherbaceousundertone.Itblendswellwithclove,bayleaf,cinnamon,citronella,cypress,pine,clarysage,geranium,thyme,patchouli,rosemaryandcitrusoils,especiallybergamotandlime.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLinalylacetate(30–32percent),linalol,cineol,camphene,pineneandothertraceconstituents.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonirritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESimilarusestotruelavender,butitismorepenetratingandrubefacientwithasharperscent–goodforrespiratory,circulatoryormuscularconditions.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyemployedinsoaps,detergents,roomsprays,hairpreparationsandindustrialperfumes.Usedasaflavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategories,andalsoasanaturalsourceoflinalolandlinalylacetate.

LAVENDER,SPIKELavandulalatifolia

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSL.spica,aspic,broad-leavedlavender,lesserlavender,spike.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnaromaticevergreensub-shrubupto1metrehighwithlance-shapedleaves,broaderandrougherthantruelavender.Theflowerismorecompressedandofadullgrey-bluecolour.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothemountainousregionsofFranceandSpain;alsofoundinNorthAfrica,Italy,YugoslaviaandtheeasternMediterraneancountries.Itiscultivatedinternationally;theoilismainlyproducedinFranceandSpain.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanydifferentchemotypesoflavenderingeneral,andthisalsoappliestospikelavender.TheFrenchspikeoilisreputedtobeamoredelicate,aromaticscentthantheSpanishvariety.Forothervarieties,seeentriesonlavandin,truelavenderandtheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONCulpeperrecommendsspikelavenderforavarietyofailmentsincluding‘painsoftheheadandbrainwhichproceedfromcold,apoplexy,fallingsickness,thedropsy,orsluggishmalady,cramps,convulsions,palsies,andoftenfaintings’.Healsowarnsthat‘theoilofspikeisofafierceandpiercingquality,andoughttobecarefullyused,averyfewdropsbeingsufficientforinwardoroutwardmaladies’.47Thepreparation‘oleumspicae’wasmadebymixing¼spikeoilwith¾turpentine,andusedforparalysedlimbs,oldsprainsandstiffjoints(itwasalsosaidtoencouragehairgrowth).SpikelavenderiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,indicatedfor

flatulentdyspepsia,colic,depressiveheadaches,andtheoil(topically)forrheumaticpain.

rheumaticpain.

ACTIONSSeetruelavender.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywaterorsteamdistillationfromthefloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSAwater-whiteorpaleyellowliquidwithapenetrating,freshherbaceous,camphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithrosemary,sage,lavandin,eucalyptus,rosewood,lavender,petitgrain,pine,cedarwood,oakmoss,patchouliandspiceoils,particularlyclove.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycineolandcamphor(40–60percent),withlinalolandlinalylacetate,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonirritant(exceptinconcentration),nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeetruelavender.

OTHERUSESItisusedinsomepharmaceuticalpreparationsandespeciallyinveterinarypracticeasaprophylactic,inincipientparalysis,forrheumatismandarthritisandtogetridoflice.Itisextensivelyemployedasafragrancecomponentespeciallyinsoapsandindustrialperfumessuchasdeodorants,disinfectantsandcleaningagents,aswellasinsecticidesandroomsprays,etc.Itisalsousedinthefoodindustryandintheproductionoffinevarnishesandlacquers.

SpikeLavender

LAVENDER,TRUELavandulaangustifolia

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSL.vera,L.officinalis,gardenlavender,commonlavender

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreenwoodyshrub,upto1metretall,withpalegreen,narrow,linearleavesandflowersonbluntspikesofabeautifulviolet-bluecolour.Thewholeplantishighlyaromatic.

DISTRIBUTIONIndigenoustotheMediterraneanregion,nowcultivatedallovertheworld.TheoilisproducedmainlyinFrance,alsoSpain,Italy,England,Australia,Tasmania,Yugoslavia,Turkey,Russia,Bulgaria,Greece,etc.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyvarietiesoflavender;L.angustifoliaisdividedintotwosubspecies–L.delphinensisandL.fragrans.Frenchlavender(L.stoechas)isasmallershrubwithdarkvioletflowers;seealsoentriesonspikelavender,lavandinandtheBotanicalClassificationsection.Theso-calledcottonlavender(Santolinachamaecyparissus)andthesealavender(Staticecaroliniana)belongtodifferentbotanicalfamilies.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONLavenderhasawell-establishedtraditionasafolkremedy,anditsscentisstillfamiliartoalmosteveryone.Itwasusedto‘comfortthestomach’butaboveallasacosmeticwater,aninsectrepellent,toscentlinen,andasarevivingyetsoothingoil‘Theessentialoil,oraspiritoflavendermadefromit,provesadmirablyrestorativeandtonicagainstfaintness,palpitationsofanervoussort,weakgiddiness,spasmsandcolic...Afewdropsoflavenderinahotfootbathhasamarkedinfluenceinrelievingfatigue.Outwardlyapplied,itrelievestoothache,neuralgia,sprainsandrheumatism.Inhysteria,palsyandsimilardisordersofdebilityandlackofnervepower,lavenderwillactasapowerfulstimulant.’48

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anticonvulsive,antidepressant,antimicrobial,antirheumatic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antitoxic,carminative,cholagogue,choleretic,cicatrisant,cordial,cytophylactic,deodorant,diuretic,emmenagogue,hypotensive,insecticide,nervine,parasiticide,rubefacient,sedative,stimulant,sudorific,tonic,vermifuge,vulnerary.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshfloweringtops.2.Anabsoluteandconcretearealsoproducedbysolventextractioninsmallerquantities.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theoilisacolourlesstopaleyellowliquidwithasweet,floralherbaceousscentandbalsamic-woodyundertone;ithasamorefragrantfloralscentcomparedtospikelavender.Itblendswellwithmostoils,especiallycitrusandflorals;alsocedarwood,clove,clarysage,pine,geranium,labdanum,oakmoss,vetiver,patchouli,etc.2.Theabsoluteisadarkgreenviscousliquidwithaverysweetherbaceous,somewhatfloralodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSOver100constituentsincludinglinalylacetate(upto40percent),linalol,lavandulol,lavandulylacetate,terpineol,cineol,limonene,ocimene,caryophyllene,amongothers.Constituentsvaryaccordingtosource:highaltitudesgenerallyproducemoreesters.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonirritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEGenerallyregardedasthemostversatileessencetherapeutically:Skincare:Abscesses,acne,allergies,athlete’sfoot,boils,bruises,burns,

dandruff,dermatitis,earache,eczema,inflammations,insectbitesandstings,insectrepellent,lice,psoriasis,ringworm,scabies,sores,spots,allskintypes,sunburn,wounds.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Lumbago,muscularachesandpains,rheumatism,sprains.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,halitosis,laryngitis,throatinfections,whoopingcough.Digestivesystem:Abdominalcramps,colic,dyspepsia,flatulence,nausea.Genito-urinarysystem:Cystitis,dysmenorrhoea,leucorrhoea.Immunesystem:’Flu.Nervoussystem:Depression,headache,hypertension,insomnia,migraine,nervoustensionandstressrelatedconditions,PMT,sciatica,shock,vertigo.

OTHERUSESUsedinpharmaceuticalantisepticointmentsandasafragrance.Extensivelyemployedinalltypesofsoaps,lotions,detergents,cosmetics,perfumes,etc,especiallytoiletwatersandcolognes.Employedasaflavouringagentinmostcategoriesoffoodaswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

LEMONCitruslimon

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.limonum,cedrooil.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmallevergreentreeupto6metreshighwithserratedovalleaves,stiffthornsandveryfragrantflowers.Thefruitturnsfromgreentoyellowonripening.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAsia,probablyeastIndia;itnowgrowswildintheMediterraneanregionespeciallyinSpainandPortugal.ItiscultivatedextensivelyworldwideinItaly,Sicily,Cyprus,Guinea,Israel,SouthandNorthAmerica(CaliforniaandFlorida).

OTHERSPECIESThereareaboutforty-sevenvarietieswhicharesaidtohavebeendevelopedincultivation,suchastheJavalemon(C.javanica).Thelemonisalsocloselyrelatedtothelime,cedrat(orcitron)andbergamot.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThejuiceandpeelarewidelyusedasadomesticseasoning.Itisverynutritious,beinghighinvitaminsA,BandC.InSpainandotherEuropeancountries,lemonissomethingofa‘cure-all’,especiallywithregardtoinfectiousillness.Itwasusedforfever,suchasmalariaandtyphoid,andemployedspecificallyforscurvyonEnglishshipsatsea.

Lemon

Takeninternally,thejuiceisconsideredinvaluableforacidicdisorders,suchasarthritisandrheumatism,andofgreatbenefitindysenteryandlivercongestion.

ACTIONSAnti-anaemic,antimicrobial,antirheumatic,antisclerotic,antiscorbutic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antitoxic,astringent,bactericidal,carminative,cicatrisant,depurative,diaphoretic,diuretic,febrifuge,haemostatic,hypotensive,insecticidal,rubefacient,stimulateswhitecorpuscles,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbycoldexpressionfromtheouterpartofthefreshpeel.Aterpenelessoilisalsoproducedonalargescale(cedrooil).

CHARACTERISTICSApalegreeny-yellowliquid(turningbrownwithage),withalight,fresh,citrusscent.Itblendswellwithlavender,neroli,ylangylang,rose,sandalwood,olibanum,chamomile,benzoin,fennel,geranium,eucalyptus,

juniper,oakmoss,lavandin,elemi,labdanumandothercitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLimonene(approx.70percent),terpinene,pinenes,sabinene,myrcene,citral,linalol,geraniol,octanol,nonanol,citronellal,bergamotene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic;maycausedermalirritationorsensitizationreactionsinsomeindividuals–applyinmoderation.Phototoxicdonotuseonskinexposedtodirectsunlight.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,anaemia,brittlenails,boils,chilblains,corns,cuts,greasyskin,herpes,insectbites,mouthulcers,spots,varicoseveins,warts.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,cellulitis,highbloodpressure,nosebleeds,obesity(congestion),poorcirculation,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,throatinfections,bronchitis,catarrh.Digestivesystem:Dyspepsia.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,feverandinfections.

OTHERUSESUsedasaflavouringagentinpharmaceuticals.Extensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmetics,toiletwatersandperfumes.Extensivelyemployedbythefoodindustryinmosttypesofproduct,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

LEMONGRASSCymbopogoncitratus

FAMILYPoaceae(Gramineae)

SYNONYMS1.Andropogoncitratus,A.schoenathus,WestIndianlemongrass,Madagascarlemongrass,Guatemalalemongrass.2.A.flexuosus,Cymbopogonflexuosus,EastIndianlemongrass,Cochinlemongrass,nativelemongrass,BritishIndialemongrass,‘vervaineIndienne’orFranceIndianverbena.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAfast-growing,tall,aromaticperennialgrassupto1.5metreshigh,producinganetworkofrootsandrootletsthatrapidlyexhaustthesoil.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAsia,therearetwomaintypes:1.TheWestIndianlemongrasswhichisprobablynativetoSriLanka,nowcultivatedmainlyintheWestIndies,AfricaandtropicalAsia.MainoilproducersincludeGuatemalaandIndia2.TheEastIndianlemongrass,whichisnativetoeastIndia(Travancore,etc.),nowmainlycultivatedinwesternIndia!

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralvarietiesoflemongrassofwhichtheEastIndianandtheWestIndiantypesarethemostcommon.Chemotypeswithineachvarietyarealsoquitepronounced.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONEmployedintraditionalIndianmedicineforinfectiousillnessandfever;modernresearchcarriedoutinIndiashowsthatitalsoactsasasedativeonthecentralnervoussystem.Itisalsousedasaninsecticideandforflavouringfood.Afterthedistillationprocess,theexhaustedgrassisusedlocallytofeedcattle.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antidepressant,antimicrobial,antioxidant,antipyretic,antiseptic,astringent,bactericidal,carminative,deodorant,febrifuge,fungicidal,galactagogue,insecticidal,nervine,sedative(nervous),tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshandpartiallydriedleaves(grass),finelychopped.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Ayellow,amberorreddish-brownliquidwithafresh,grassy-citrusscentandanearthyundertone.2.Ayelloworamberliquidwithafresh,grassy-lemonyscent,generallylighterthantheWestIndiantype.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.Citral(65–85percent),myrcene(12–25percent),dipentene,methylheptenone,linalol,geraniol,nerol,citronellolandfarnesol,amongothers.2.Citral(upto85percent),geraniol,methyleugenol,borneol,dipentene;constituentsvaryaccordingtotype.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,possibledermalirritationand/orsensitizationinsomeindividuals–usewithcare.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,athlete’sfoot,excessiveperspiration,insectrepellent(fleas,lice,ticks),openpores,pediculosis,scabies,tissuetoner.

Circulationmusclesandjoints:Muscularpain,poorcirculationandmuscletone,slacktissue.Digestivesystem:Colitis,indigestion,gastroenteritis.Immunesystem:Fevers,infectiousdisease.Nervoussystem:Headaches,nervousexhaustionandstressrelatedconditions.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Employedasaflavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategoriesincludingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.Alsousedfortheisolationofcitralandfortheadulterationofmorecostlyoilssuchasverbenaormelissa.

LIMECitrusaurantifolia

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.medicavar.acida,C.latifolia,Mexicanlime,WestIndianlime,sourlime.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmallevergreentreeupto4.5metreshigh,withstiffsharpspines,smoothovateleavesandsmallwhiteflowers.Thebitterfruitisapalegreencolour,abouthalfthesizeofalemon.

DISTRIBUTIONProbablynativetosouthAsia;naturalizedinmanytropicalandsubtropicalregionsoftheworld.ItiscultivatedmainlyinsouthFlorida,theWestIndies(Cuba),CentralAmerica(Mexico)andItaly.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralspeciesoflimesuchastheItalianlime(C.limetta)whichisusedtoproduceanoilcalled‘limette’;andtheleech-lime(C.hystrix)whichisoccasionallyusedtoproduceanessentialoilcalledcombava.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThefruitisoftenusedindiscriminatelyinplaceoflemonwithwhichitsharesmanyqualities.Itisusedforsimilarpurposesincludingfever,infections,sorethroat,colds,etc.Itusedtobeusedasaremedyfordyspepsiawithglycerinofpepsin.

ACTIONSAntirheumatic,antiscorbutic,antiseptic,antiviral,aperitif,bactericidal,febrifuge,restorative,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilby1.coldexpressionofthepeeloftheunripefruit;theexpressedoilispreferredinperfumerywork,and2.steamdistillationofthewholeripecrushedfruit(aby-productofthejuiceindustry).

CHARACTERISTICS1.Apaleyelloworolive-greenliquidwithafresh,sweet,citrus-peelodour.2.Awater-whiteorpaleyellowliquidwithafresh,sharp,fruity-citrusscent.Itblendswellwithneroli,citronella,lavender,lavandin,rosemary,clarysageandothercitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLimonene,pinenes,camphene,sabinene,citral,cymene,cineolsandlinalol,amongothers.Theexpressed‘peel’oil,butnotthe‘wholefruit’oil,alsocontainscoumarins.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonirritant,nonsensitizing.However,theexpressed‘peel’oilisphototoxic(butnotthesteam-distilled‘wholefruit’oil).

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeelemon.

OTHERUSESBothoils,butmainlytheexpressed,areusedasfragrancecomponentsinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Mainlythedistilledoil,butalsotheterpenelessoil,isusedbythefoodindustry,especiallyinsoftdrinks–‘lemonandlime’flavour.Thejuiceisusedfortheproductionofcitricacid.

LINALOEBurseraglabrifolia

FAMILYBurseraceae

SYNONYMSB.delpechiana,Mexicanlinaloe,‘copallimon’.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtall,bushytropicalshrubortree,withasmoothbarkandbearingfleshyfruit.Thewoodisonlyusedfordistillationpurposeswhenthetreeistwentyorthirtyyearsold.Theoilispartiallyapathologicalproductsinceitsproductionisstimulatedbylaceratingthetrunk–whichapparentlymustbewoundedonthenightofthefullmoonforthetreetoproduceanyoil!

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoCentralandSouthAmerica,especiallyMexico.Itis

cultivatedintheFarEastparticularlyinIndia(Mysore).ThewoodoilismainlyproducedinMexico,theseed(andhusk)oilinIndia.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralspecieswhichareallknownsimplyaslinaloe:seeBotanicalClassificationsection.WestIndianelemi(B.simaruba)isacloserelative,asaremyrrhandfrankincense.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheseedoilisknowninIndiaas‘Indianlavenderoil’andusedchieflyasalocalperfumeingredientandinsoapsbythecosmeticsindustryofMysorestate.ItisnotmuchfoundoutsideIndia.InMexicothewoodoilisusedinasimilarfashiontorosewood,whichcontainssimilarconstituents.

ACTIONSAnticonvulsant,anti-inflammatory,antiseptic,bactericidal,deodorant,gentletonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthe1.Wood,and2.Seedandhusk.(Anessentialoilisalsooccasionallyproducedfromtheleavesandtwigs.)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Apaleyellowliquidwithasweet-woody,floralscent,similartorosewood.Itblendswellwithrose,sandalwood,cedarwood,rosewood,frankincense,floralandwoodyfragrances.2.Acolourlessliquidwithaterpene-likeodour,harsherthanthewoodoil.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.Mainlylinalol,somelinalylacetate.2.Mainlylinalylacetate,somelinalol.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonirritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,cuts,dermatitis,wounds,etc.,allskintypes.Nervoussystem:Nervoustensionandstressrelatedconditions.

OTHERUSESThewoodoilisusedinsoaps,toiletriesandperfumes.Itisalsousedfortheproductionofnaturallinalol,althoughthisisincreasinglybeingreplacedbysyntheticlinalol.

LINDENTiliavulgaris

Tiliavulgaris

FAMILYTiliaceae

SYNONYMST.europaea,limetree,commonlime,lyne,tillet,tilea.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtallgracefultreeupto30metreshighwithasmoothbark,spreadingbranchesandbrightgreen,heart-shapedleaves.Ithasyellowy-whiteflowersborneinclusterswhichhaveaverypowerfulscent.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEuropeandthenorthernhemisphere.CommoninEngland,France,Holland,etc.

OTHERSPECIESSeveralrelatedtypessuchasthebroad-leavedlime(T.platyphylla)andthesmall-leavedlime(T.cordata).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONLindentea,knownas‘tilleul’,isdrunkagreatdealontheContinent,especiallyinFrance,asageneralrelaxant.Theflowersarealsousedforindigestion,palpitations,nausea,hysteriaandcatarrhalsymptomsfollowingacold.Thehoneyfromtheflowersishighlyregarded,andusedinmedicinesandliqueurs.AccordingtoCulpepertheflowersarea‘goodcephalicandnervine,excellentforapoplexy,epilepsy,vertigoandpalpitationoftheheart’.49LimeflowersarecurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,indicatedformigraine,hysteria,arteriosclerotichypertensionandfeverishcolds.

ACTIONSAstringent(mild),antispasmodic,bechic,carminative,cephalic,diaphoretic,diuretic,emollient,17-ervine,sedative,tonic.

EXTRACTIONAconcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromthedriedflowers.

CHARACTERISTICSTheconcreteisahard,brittle,darkgreenmasswithaherbaceous,dry,haylikeodour.Theabsoluteisayellowsemisolidmasswithagreen-herbaceous,dry,characteristicodour.

Linden

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlyfarnesol–theconcreteisveryrichinwaxes.

SAFETYDATAMostproductsareadulteratedorsynthetic.Nosafetydataavailableatpresent.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEDigestivesystem:Cramps,indigestion,liverpains.Nervoussystem:Headaches,insomnia,migraine,nervoustensionandstressrelatedconditions.

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinhigh-classperfumery.

LITSEACUBEBALitseacubeba

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMSL.citrata,‘maychang’,exoticverbena,tropicalverbena.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmalltropicaltreewithfragrant,lemongrass-scentedleavesandflowers.Thesmallfruitsareshapedlikepeppers,fromwhichthename‘cubeba’derives.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoeastAsia,especiallyChina;cultivatedinTaiwanandjapan.Chinaisthemainproduceroftheoil,muchofwhichisusedbytheChinesethemselves.

OTHERSPECIESDespiteitsfolknames,thisplantisnotrelatedtolemonverbena(Aloysiatriphylla).Itbelongstothesamefamilyasthelaureltree,rosewoodandcinnamon.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItisplantedasawindbreakerinChina.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,deodorant,digestive,disinfectant,insecticidal,stimulant,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefruits.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowmobileliquidwithanintense,lemony,fresh-fruityodour(sweeterthanlemongrassbutlesstenacious).

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycitral(upto85percent).

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonirritant,possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,dermatitis,excessiveperspiration,greasyskin,insectrepellent,spots.Digestivesystem:Flatulence,indigestion.Immunesystem:Epidemics,sanitation.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentinairfresheners,soaps,deodorants,colognes,toiletriesandperfumes.Employedinflavouringwork,especiallyfruitproducts.Itservesasasourceofnatural‘citral’allovertheworld.

LOTUSNelumbonucifera

Nelumbonucifera

FAMILYNelumbonaceae(Nymphaeaceae)

SYNONYMSN.komarovii,N.nuciferavar.macrorhizomata,Nelumbiumspeciosum,Nymphaeanelumbo,Indianlotus,sacredlotus,pinklotus,beanofIndia,kamalaandpadma(Sanskrit).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONThesacredlotusisaperennialaquaticplantwithrhizomesthatgrowinthemudatthebottomofshallowponds,lakesandmarshes.Itslargeleaves,whichriseabovethewatersurface,canbeupto60cmindiameter,witha3-metrehorizontalspread,whiletheshowyflowerscanbeupto20cmindiameter.Thebeautifulpink,fragrantflowersaresolitary,borneatorabovetheleaflevel,withabrilliantyellowcentreandwhitesepals.Thefruitsformaconicalpod,withseedscontainedinholesinthepod.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoGreaterIndia,thesacredlotusnowoccursinthewildinwarm-temperatetotropicalregionsthroughoutAsia,theMiddleEastandtropicalAustralia.ItiscommoninChina,Japan,Iran,Bhutan,India,Indonesia(Java),Korea,Malaysia,Nepal,NewGuinea,Pakistan,Philippines,Russia(FarEast),SriLanka,Thailand,Vietnamandnorth-westAustralia.IntroducedtoEuropein1787asa‘stovehousewaterlily’byJosephBanks,todayitiscultivatedasanornamentalplantworldwide.

OTHERSPECIESThefamilyNelumbonaceaehastwoimportantgenerahavingaquaticspecieswithattractiveflowersi.e.thelotus,Nelumboandwaterlily,Nymphea.ThegenusNelumbohasonlytwospecies,N.nucifera(Indianorsacredlotus)andN.lutea(Americanlotusoryellowlotus).TheEgyptianbluelotus(Nymphaeacaerulea)andthewhitesacredlotusof

Egypt(Nymphaealotus)arebothmembersofthewaterlilyfamily.ThesewaterliliesareindigenoustoEgyptandtheirflowersareoftendepictedinEgypt’sancientart.RemainsofbothblueandwhitewaterlilypetalswerefoundintheburialtombofRamessesIIandsprinkledonthemummifiedbodyofTutankhamun.ThebluelotusisalsomentionedinnumerousEgyptianhistoricaltexts,mainlyforitsaphrodisiac,narcoticandeuphoricproperties.BothspeciesarestillcultivatedinEgyptaswellasinIndiaandIndonesiatodayandarebothusedtoproduceabsolutes,althoughthesearerareandcostly.Egyptiansrefertoboththeseflowersas‘lotus’sothesetwospeciesareoftenconfusedwiththe

‘true’lotusspecies.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONNelumbonuciferahasbeenincultivationformorethan3,000years,andhasbeengrownnotonlyforitsculturalandornamentalvalue,butalsoformedicinalusesandforitsedibleseedsandrhizomes.InChina,JapanandIndia,forexample,therhizomesareroasted,pickled,candiedorslicedandfriedaschips.Apastemadefromthenutletsisusedasafillinginmooncakes(traditionalChinesepastries).Theyoungleaves,leafstalksandflowersareeatenasvegetablesinIndia.ThepetalsoftheflowerareusedasawrapforfoodsinAsiaandtherhizomeisacommoningredientinsoupsandstir-fries.Thesacredlotushasalsobeenusedasamedicinalherbforgenerationsin

Asiaanditsusesincontemporarymedicinearevirtuallyunchanged.Manypartsoftheplantareused:theleafjuicesareusedfordiarrhoeaandsunstrokewhenmixedwithlicorice;theflowerisusedforabdominalcramps,bloodydischarges,bleedinggastriculcers,excessivemenstruationandpost-partumhaemorrhage;theflowerstamensareusedinurinaryfrequency,prematureejaculationanduterinebleeding;thefruitisusedforagitationandfever;theseedhasbeenshowntolowercholesterollevelsandtorelaxthesmoothmuscleoftheuterusandisusedforpoordigestion,chronicdiarrhoea,insomnia,andpalpitations.Variouspartsoftheflower,includingthepetalsareusedfordiarrhoea,cholera,liverconditions,bronchitis,skineruptions,snakebites,andscorpionstings.Thedriedflowersarepreparedintoasyruptotreatcoughsandthestamensaredriedandmadeintoafragrantherbaltea.PractitionersofAyurvedicmedicineuselotusflowersfortheirsoothing,coolingpropertiesandtheyareoftenemployedinskincaretoimprovethecomplexion.Oilsfromthelotusfloweraresaidtohaveacalminginfluenceonthosesufferingfromfear,anxiety,insomniaortremors,accordingtotheprinciplesofAyurveda.Arecentstudyhasshownthatoilextractedfromthelotusflowermightbeeffectiveinpreventinggreyinghair.Severalbioactivecompoundshavebeenderivedfromthesevariousplantparts

belongingtodifferentchemicalgroups,includingalkaloids,flavonoidsandglycosideswhichallhavetheirowntherapeuticimpact.BothNelumbonuciferaandNymphaeacaeruleacontainthealkaloidsnuciferineandaporphine,whichhaveasedativeeffect;studiesusingisolatedneferine(foundonlyinN.nucifera),indicatesithaspotentantidepressantandsedativeproperties.Sacredlotusisalsonutritious,containingvitaminsBandC,protein,fat,carbohydrate,starch,moisture,sucrose,calcium,phosphorus,ironandascorbicacid.

ThelotusisofgreatsignificancetomanyAsiancultures,andinparticulartotheEasternreligions.Fromancestraltimes,theideaofenlightenmenthasbeensymbolizedbythelifecycleofthesacredlotusplant,whoselifestartshumblyinthemudyeteventuallyproducesexquisite,untaintedflowers,showingthepathofspiritualenfoldment.ThusthesacredlotushasadeepritualmeaningtoHindusandBuddhistsalike,towhomthelotusflowersymbolizesbeauty,purityanddivinity.MostdeitiesofAsianreligionsaredepictedasseatedonalotusflower.InBuddhisttemples,lotusisburnedinpowderedformasceremonialincenseandtheflowersaregivenasasacredofferinginmanyEasterntemples.Athreadmadefromtheleafstalksisusedformakingoil-wicksforlampsintemples.ClothwovenfromthisyarnisbelievedtocuremanyailmentsandisusedtomakeBuddhistrobes;lotusseedsarealsousedtomakemalas(stringsofprayerbeads).ThesacredlotusisthenationalflowerofIndiaandVietnam.

ACTIONSAntibacterial,antimicrobial,antidepressant,antioxidant,refrigerant,rejuvenating,sedative,tonic(heart,immunesystem,nervoussystem),vasodilator.

EXTRACTIONAnabsolutebysolventextractionfromfreshflowers.TheCO2extractionprocessachievesacleanerendproductthatistruetotheoilandisthickerthanotherextractionmethods.Thisproductisoftenadulteratedorblendedwithotheroils(seeotheruses).

CHARACTERISTICSAviscousliquidwithanintenserich,sweet-floralscentandaspicy-leatheryundertone.Itblendswellwithtuberose,jasmine,neroli,rose,gardeniaandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTheabsolute(andoil)wasfoundtobecomprisedmainlyofpalmiticacidmethylester(22.66percent),linoleicacidmethylester(11.16percent),palmitoleicacidmethylester(7.55percent)andlinolenicacidmethylester(5.16percent)withmyristicacidandoleicacid.

SAFETYDATAGenerallyconsideredasafeoil.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Damaged,sensitiveandmatureskin:toimprovetheconditionofunevenortiredlookingskinasithelpsregulate,soothe,illuminateandrejuvenatethetissue.

Immunesystem:Weakimmunity.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,depression,fear,insomnia,nervousdebilityandtension,moodswings,poorlibido,stress.

OTHERUSESLotusfloweroilandabsoluteareusedinperfumeryinhigh-classfloralcompositions,suchas‘WhiteLotus’byKenzoandincosmetics.However,the‘lotus’perfumecomponentcommonlyavailableinthetradeisactuallyablendofpatchouli,benzoinandstyraxwithphenylethylandcinnamicalcohols.

LOVAGELevisticumofficinale

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSAngelicalevisticum,Ligusticumlevisticum,smellage,maggiherb,gardenlavage,commonlavage,oldEnglishlavage,Italianlavage,Cornishlovage.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargeperennialherbupto2metreshighwithastouthollowstemanddenseornamentalfoliage.Ithasathickfleshyrootandgreenish-yellowflowers.Thewholeplanthasastrongaromaticscent.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernEuropeandwesternAsia;naturalizedinNorthAmerica.ItiscultivatedincentralandsouthernEurope,especiallyinFrance,Belgium,Czechoslovakia,Hungary,YugoslaviaandGermany.

OTHERSPECIESSeveralrelatedplantsarealsousedtoproduceessentialoils,suchassealavage(Ligusticumscoticum)andalpinelavage(L.mutellina).

Lovage

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAherbofancientmedicalrepute,usedmainlyfordigestivecomplaints,oedema,skinproblems,menstrualirregularitiesandfever.Itwasalsobelievedtobegoodforthesight.Theleafstalksusedtobeblanchedandusedasavegetableorinsalads.TherootiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforflatulentdyspepsiaandanorexia.

ACTIONSAntimicrobial,antiseptic,antispasmodic,diaphoretic,digestive,diuretic,carminative,depurative,emmenagogue,expectorant,febrifuge,stimulant(digestive),stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfrom1.thefreshroots,and2.theherb–freshleavesandstalks.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Anamberorolivebrownliquidwitharich,spicy-warm,root-likeodour.2.Averypaleyellowmobileliquidwithaspicy,warmodourandsweet-floralundertone.Itblendswellwithrose,galbanum,costus,opopanax,oakmoss,bay,lavandinandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlyphthalides(upto70percent)suchasbutylidene,dihydrobutylidene,butylphthalidesandligostilides,withlesseramountsofterpenoids,volatileacids,coumarinsandfurocoumarins.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonirritant,possiblesensitization/phototoxiceffects.Usewithcare.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationmusclesandjoints:Accumulationoftoxins,congestion,gout,oedema,poorcirculation,rheumatism,waterretention.Digestivesystem:Anaemia,flatulence,indigestion,spasm.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea,cystitis.

OTHERUSESTherootoilisusedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,cosmeticsandperfumes.Theoilsandextractsareusedassavouryflavouringagentsandinliqueursandtobacco.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,carminative,digestive,diuretic(mild),laxative(mild),sedative,stimulant(digestiveandlymphatic),tonic.

M

MANDARINCitrusreticulata

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.nobilis,C.madurensis,C.unshiu,C.deliciosa,Europeanmandarin,truemandarin,tangerine,satsuma.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmallevergreentreeupto6metreshighwithglossyleaves,fragrantflowersandbearingfleshyfruit.Thetangerineislargerthanthemandarinandrounder,withayellowerskin,moreliketheoriginalChinesetype.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernChinaandtheFarEast.BroughttoEuropein1805andtoAmericafortyyearslater,whereitwasrenamedthetangerine.ThemandarinisproducedmainlyinItaly,Spain,Algeria,Cyprus,Greece,theMiddleEastandBrazil;thetangerineinTexas,Florida,CaliforniaandGuinea.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanycultivarswithinthisspecies:thetermstangerine(C.reticulata)andmandarinareusedsomewhatinterchangeably,asisthewordsatsuma.Theycouldbesaidtorepresentdifferentchemotypessincetheoilsarequitedifferent;seetheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThenamecomesfromthefruitwhichwasatraditionalgifttotheMandarinsofChina.InFranceitisregardedasasafechildren’sremedyforindigestion,hiccoughs,etc,andalsofortheelderlysinceithelpsstrengthenthedigestivefunctionandliver.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbycoldexpressionfromtheouterpeel.Amandarinpetitgrainoilisalsoproducedinsmallquantitiesbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICSMandarinoilisayellowy-orangemobileliquidwithablue-violethint,havinganintenselysweet,almostfloralcitrusscent.Itblendswellwithothercitrusoils,especiallyneroli,andspiceoilssuchasnutmeg,cinnamonandclove.Tangerineoilisanorangemobileliquidwithafresh,sweet,orangelikearoma.Ithaslessbodythanmandarinandislittleusedinperfumerywork.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLimonene,methylmethylanthranilate,geraniol,citral,citronella!,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.Possiblyphototoxic,althoughithasnotbeendemonstrateddecisively.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,congestedandoilyskin,scars,spots,stretchmarks,toner.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Fluidretention,obesity.Digestivesystem:Digestiveproblems,dyspepsia,hiccoughs,intestinalproblems.Nervoussystem:Insomnia,nervoustension,restlessness.Itisoftenusedforchildrenandpregnantwomenandisrecommendedinsynergisticcombinationswithothercitrusoils.

OTHERUSESMandarinoilisusedinsoaps,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallycolognes.Itisemployedasaflavouringagentespeciallyinsweets,softdrinksandliqueurs.

MANUKALeptospermumscoparium

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSNewZealandteatree,kahikatoa,redmanuka,manex.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONTheManukaplantisanelegant,bushyevergreenshrubwithdeepgreensmallspikyleavesthatbearssmallflowersofwhitetopinkincolour.TheblossomisproducedfromSeptembertoFebruaryandmostprofuselyinthelatermonths.Itssizerangesfromacreepingplanttoasmalltree–treescanreachheightsofupto8metres,especiallywhenfoundwithindensewoodland.Theleavesandflowersarestronglyaromatic.

DISTRIBUTIONManukaistheonlyLeptospermumspeciesnativetoNewZealand,whereitiswidelydistributedinvariousclimaticandaltitudinalzones.Thephysicalcharacteristics,suchasflowerandleafcolour,leafsizeandshape,branchinghabit,andfoliagedensityvaryconsiderablyamongpopulations.TheplantcannowbefoundinAustraliawhereitseemstoacclimatizewelltovariedterrainfrommarshlandtodrymountainslopes.Theessentialoilisgenerallyharvestedfromwildplants,aslittlefarmingofManukaiscurrentlyundertaken.

OTHERSPECIESThefamilyMyrtaceaeyieldsmanyvaluableessentialoilsincludingeucalyptus,myrtleandteatree.AnothernativetreeofNewZealandcalledkanuka(Kunzeaericoides),sometimescalledwhiteortreemanuka,althoughsuperficiallysimilartoL.scopariuminthatbotharecollectivelyknownas‘teatrees’,isactuallygeneticallyaverydistinctspecies.Kanukainitstypicalformcangrowintoatreeupto30metrestall.Itisalsousedtoproduceanessentialoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONForcenturies,NewZealandMaorihaveusedmanukatotreatawiderangeofcomplaints.EarlyNewZealandrecordsindicatethattheplant’sbark,leaves,sapandseedcapsuleswereusedinbeveragesandmedicinalpreparations.Adecoctionoftheleaveswasdrunkforurinarycomplaintsandasafebrifuge.Thesteamfromleavesboiledinwaterwasinhaledforheadcolds.Adecoctionwaspreparedfromtheleavesandbarkandthewarmliquidwasrubbedonstiffmusclesandachingjoints.Theemollientwhitegum,called‘paimanuka’,wasgiventonursingbabiesandalsousedtotreatscaldsandburns.Chewingthebarkissaidtohavearelaxingeffectandenhancesleep.ItissaidthatCaptainJamesCookusedtheleavesoftheplantasateatocombatscurvyduringlongexplorationsofthesouthernhemisphere;later,earlyEuropeansettlersofNewZealandadoptedCaptainCook’suseoftheplantasatea.Recently,scientistshaveconfirmedthatmanukaoilisupto33timesstronger

thanteatreeessentialoilforprotectingagainstspecificstrainsofbacteria;itisalsoeffectiveagainsttheMRSA(Methicillin-ResistantStaph.Aureus)bacteria,whichisresistanttonormalantibiotics.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antibacterial,antibiotic,antifungal,antihistamine,anti-inflammatory,anti-infectious,antimicrobial,antiseptic,astringent,deodorant,digestive,expectorant,immunestimulant,insecticide,sedative,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONSteamdistilledfromtheleaves,twigsandbranches.

CHARACTERISTICSAmobileliquidwithadistinctivefresh,spicy,herbaceousaromawithahoney-likesweetness.Itblendswellwithbayleaf,bergamot,blackpepper,cajuput,cedarwoodatlas,cinnamon,clovebud,elemi,ginger,juniper,lavender,nutmeg,peppermint,rose,rosemary,sandalwood,thyme,vetiverandylangylang.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThemainactiveconstituentsofmanukaoilareisoleptospermone,α-pinene,β-pinene,myrcene,ρ-cymene,1,8-cineole,linalol,methylcinnamate,α-farnesine,isoleptospermone,leptospermone,sesquiterpenessuchascadina-3,5-dieneandδ-amorphene,andtriketones.However,withinthespeciesofmanukathereareatleastninedifferentchemotypes:oilwhichcontainshighlevelsoftriketones,foundintheEastCapeareaofNorthIslandinNewZealandappearstopossessthegreatestantimicrobialpotential.Otherchemotypeshoweverarethoughttorevealgreateranti-inflammatoryandanalgesictendencies.Itisimportanttobeawareofthesevariouschemotypeswhenselectinganoilfortherapeuticpurposes.

SAFETYDATAGenerallyitisthoughttobenonsensitizing,non-toxic,andnon-irritant.Itcaninsomeindividuals,producemildirritationbuthasalowirritancycomparedtoAustralianteatreeoil.Avoiduseduringpregnancybecauseofspasmolyticactivity.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,abscesses,athlete’sfootskin,bedsores,blisters,boils,burns,carbuncles,coldsores,crackedskin,dandruff,dermatitis,eczema,fungalinfections,insectbitesandstings,lice,nailinfections,oilyskin,pimples,ringworm,sores,sunburn,tineaandulcers.Circulation,musclesandjoints:Achesandpains,musculartension,sprainsandstiffnessinjoints,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Coughs,cold,’flucongestion,aswellasasthmaandhayfever.Immunesystem:TonicNervoussystem:Nervousdebility.

OTHERUSESTheessentialoilismuchusedinphyto-cosmeticandpharmaceuticalpreparationsmainlyforitspotentantimicrobialproperties.

Commercialdevelopmentoftheessentialoilhasledtoarangeofproductsforthetopicaltreatmentofvariousconditionsincludingjointpain,eczemaandpsoriasis.Theoilisalsousedinperfumesandsoaps.Thescentedflowersoftheshrubattractbees,whichareusedformakingthepopularmanukahoney.

MARIGOLDCalendulaofficinalis

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSCalendula,marygold,marybud,gold-bloom,potmarigold,hollygold,commonmarigold,poet’smarigold.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnannualherbupto60cmshighwithsoft,oval,palegreenleavesandbrightorangedaisylikeflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernEuropeandEgypt;naturalizedthroughouttemperateregionsoftheworld.Widelycultivated,especiallyinnorthernEuropefordomesticandmedicinaluse.TheabsoluteisonlyproducedinFrance.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralspeciesofmarigold,butthecommonmarigoldistheonegenerallyusedmedicinally.ItshouldnotbeconfusedwithtagetesortagetfromtheMexicanmarigold(Tagetesminuta)ortheAfricanmarigold(T.erecta),theoilofwhichisalsooftencalled‘calendula’.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAherbofancientmedicalrepute,saidto‘comforttheheartandspirits’.50Itwasalsousedforskincomplaints,menstrualirregularities,varicoseveins,haemorrhoids,conjunctivitisandpooreyesight.TheflowersarecurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,specificforenlargedorinflamedlymphnodes,sebaceouscysts,duodenalulcersandinflammatoryskinlesions.Theinfusedoilisusefulforawiderangeofskinproblemsincludingcrackedandroughskin,nappyrash,grazes,crackednipples,varicoseveinsandinflammations.

ACTIONSAntihaemorrhagic,anti-inflammatory,antiseptic,antispasmodic,astringent,diaphoretic,cholagogue,cicatrisant,emmenagogue,febrifuge,fungicidal,styptic,tonic,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONAnabsolutebysolventextractionfromtheflowers.

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkgreenish-brownviscousliquidwithanintenselysharp,herbaceousodour.Itblendswellwithoakmoss,hyacinth,floralandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTheabsolutecontainscalendulin(ayellowresin),waxesandvolatileoil.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.Therealcalendulaabsoluteisonlyproducedinsmallquantities,andisdifficulttogetholdof.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Burns,cuts,eczema,greasyskin,inflammations,insectbites,rashes,wounds.NB:‘TheinfusedoilisveryvaluableinAromatherapyforitspowerfulskin-healingproperties.’51

OTHERUSESUsedinhigh-classperfumery.

MARJORAM,SWEETOriganummajorana

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSMarjoranahortensis,knottedmarjoram.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtenderbushyperennialplant(cultivatedasanannualincolderclimates),upto60cmshighwithahairystem,darkgreenovalleavesandsmallgreyishwhiteflowersinclustersor‘knots’.Thewholeplantisstronglyaromatic.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion,EgyptandNorthAfrica.Majoroil-producingcountriesincludeFrance,Tunisia,Morocco,Egypt,Bulgaria,HungaryandGermany.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anaphrodisiac,antioxidant,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antiviral,bactericidal,carminative,cephalic,cordial,diaphoretic,digestive,diuretic,emmenagogue,expectorant,fungicidal,hypotensive,laxative,nervine,sedative,stomachic,tonic,vasodilator,vulnerary.

SweetMarjoram

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationofthedriedfloweringherb.Anoleoresinisalsoproducedinsmallerquantities.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworambercolouredmobileliquidwithawarm,woody,spicycamphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithlavender,rosemary,bergamot,chamomile,cypress,cedarwood,teatreeandeucalyptus.

OTHERSPECIESThereisagreatdealofconfusionregardingthevariousspeciesofmarjoramororegano.ThemostcommontypesarethepotorFrenchmarjoram(OriganumonitesorMarjoranaonites),whichisahardierplantthanthesweetmarjoramandofaspreadingnature;theSpanishmarjoramororegano(Thymusmastichina)andthewildorcommonmarjoramororegano(Origanumvulgare)whichisusedtoproducetheso-called‘oreganooil’.Seeentriesoncommonoregano,SpanishoreganoandalsotheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAtraditionalculinaryherbandfolkremedy.ItwasusedbytheancientGreeksintheirfragrances,cosmeticsandmedicines;thenameoreganoderivesfromaGreekwordmeaning‘joyofthemountains’.ltisaversatileherbwhichhasasoothing,fortifyingandwarmingeffect;itaidsdigestiveandmenstrualproblems,aswellasnervousandrespiratorycomplaints.Itis‘comfortingincolddiseasesofthehead,stomach,sinewsandotherparts,

takeninwardlyoroutwardlyapplied...helpsdiseasesofthechest,obstructionsoftheliverandspleen.’52Itisalsoveryhelpfulformuscularandrheumaticpain,sprains,strains,stiffjoints,bruises,etc.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTerpinenes,terpineol,sabinenes,linalol,carvacrol,linalylacetate,ocimene,cadinene,geranylacetate,citral,eugenol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.Nottobeusedduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Chilblains,bruises,ticks.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,lumbago,muscularachesandstiffness,rheumatism,sprains,strains.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,coughs.Digestivesystem:Colic,constipation,dyspepsia,flatulence.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea,leucorrhoea,PMT.Immunesystem:Colds.Nervoussystem:Headache,hypertension,insomnia,migraine,nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESTheoilandoleoresinareusedasfragrancecomponentsinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Employedinmostmajorfoodcategories,especiallymeats,seasoningsandsauces,aswellassoftdrinksandalcoholicbeveragessuchasvermouthsandbitters.

MASTICPistacialentiscus

FAMILYAnacardiaceae

SYNONYMSMasticktree,mastick,mastix,mastich,lentisk.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmallbushytreeorshrubupto3metreshigh,whichproducesanaturaloleoresinfromthetrunk.Incisionsaremadeinthebarkinordertocollecttheliquidoleoresin,whichthenhardensintobrittlepeasizedlumps.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion(France,Spain,Portugal,Greece,Turkey)andalsofoundinNorthAfrica.MostmasticisproducedontheGreekIslandofChios;someisalsoproducedinAlgeria,MoroccoandtheCanaryIslands.

OTHERSPECIESItbelongstothesamefamilyasPeruvianpepperorPeruvianmastic(Schinusmolle).Masticresemblestheresin‘sanderach’butunlikethelatteritcanbechewed,ratherthanturningtopowder.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONIntheEastitisusedforthemanufactureofsweetsandcordials;itisstillusedmedicinallyfordiarrhoeainchildrenandischewedtosweetenthebreath.TheoilwasusedintheWestinasimilarwaytoturpentine–‘Ithasmanyofthepropertiesofconiferousturpentinesandwasformerlygreatlyusedinmedicine.’53

ACTIONSAntimicrobial,antiseptic,antispasmodic,astringent,diuretic,expectorant,stimulant.

EXTRACTION1.Aresinoidisproducedbysolventextractionfromtheoleoresin,and2.anessentialoilisproducedbysteamdistillationfromtheoleoresinoroccasionallydirectlyfromtheleavesandbranches.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Apaleamberorgreenishviscousmasswithafaintbalsamicturpentine-likeodour.2.Apaleyellowmobileliquidwithafreshbalsamicturpentine-likeodour.Itblendswellwithlavender,mimosa,citrusandfloraloils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlymonoterpenehydrocarbons–mostlypinenes.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeeturpentine.

OTHERUSESUsedindentistryandintheproductionofvarnish.Theresinoidandoilareemployedinhigh-classcolognesandperfumes,andusedasaflavouringagent,especiallyinliqueurs.

MELILOTUSMelilotusofficinalis

FAMILYFabaceae(Leguminosae)

SYNONYMSCommonmelilot,yellowmelilot,whitemelilot,cornmelilot,melilottrefoil,sweetclover,plasterclover,sweetlucerne,wildlaburnum,king’sclover,melilotin(oleoresin).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAbushyperennialherbupto1metrehighwithsmootherectstems,trifoliateovalleavesandsmallsweet-scentedwhiteoryellowflowers.Thescentoftheflowersbecomesstrongerondrying.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEuropeandAsiaMinor.OthersimilarspeciesarefoundinAsia,theUSAandAfrica.TheflowersaremainlycultivatedinEngland,France,GermanyandtheUSSR.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralsimilarspeciessuchasM.arvensis,theoilofwhichisalsousedinperfumeryandflavouringwork.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheleavesandshootsareusedontheContinentforconditionswhichincludesleeplessness,thrombosis,nervoustension,varicoseveins,intestinaldisorders,headache,earacheandindigestion.Intheformofanointmentorplaster,itisusedexternallyforinflamedorswollenjoints,abdominalandrheumaticpain,alsobruises,cutsandskineruptions.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antirheumatic,antispasmodic,astringent,emollient,expectorant,digestive,insecticidal(againstmoth),sedative.

EXTRACTIONAconcrete(usuallycalledaresinoidoroleoresin)bysolventextractionfromthedryflowers.

CHARACTERISTICSAviscousdarkgreenliquidwitharich,sweet-herbaceous‘newmownhay’scent.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycoumarins–meliloticacidandorthocoumaricacid.Safetydatain1953insomecountriesincludingtheUSA,

coumarinwasbannedfromuseinflavouringsduetotoxicitylevels.Somecoumarinsarealsoknowntobephototoxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESTheoleoresinisusedinhigh-classperfumerywork.Extensivelyusedforflavouringtobaccoincountrieswithoutthecoumarinban.

MELISSAMelissaofficinalis

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSLemonbalm,commonbalm,beebalm,sweetbalm,heart’sdelight,honeyplant.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsweet-scentedherbabout60cmshigh,softandbushy,withbrightgreenserratedleaves,squarestemsandtinywhiteorpinkflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion,nowcommonthroughoutEurope,MiddleAsia,NorthAmerica,NorthAfricaandSiberia.MainlycultivatedinFrance,Spain,GermanyandRussia.

Melissa

Melissa

OTHERSPECIESSeveralvarieties,e.g.avariegatedleaftype,commoningardens.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONOneoftheearliestknownmedicinalherbs–Paracelsuscalleditthe‘ElixirofLife’.Itwasassociatedparticularlywithnervousdisorders,theheartandtheemotions.Itwasusedforanxiety,melancholy,etc,andtostrengthenandrevivethevitalspirit.Generallyemployedfordigestiveandrespiratorycomplaintsofnervousoriginsuchasasthma,indigestionandflatulence.Italsohelpstoregulatethemenstrualcycleandpromotefertility.Effectiveremedyforwaspandbeestings.InFrancetheleavesarestillusedagreatdealinpharmaceuticalandherbalproducts.CurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaforflatulentdyspepsia,neurastheniaanddepressiveillness.

ACTIONSAntidepressant,antihistaminic,antispasmodic,bactericidal,carminative,cordial,diaphoretic,emmenagogue,febrifuge,hypertensive,insect-repellent,nervine,sedative,stomachic,sudorific,tonic,uterine,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandfloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowliquidwithalight,freshlemonyfragrance.Itblendswellwithlavender,geranium,floralandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCitral,citronellol,eugenol,geraniol,linalylacetate,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAAvailableinformationindicatesnon-toxic.Possiblesensitizationanddermalirritation:useinlowdilutionsonly.Caremustalsobetakenbecausethisisoneofthemostfrequentlyadulteratedoils.Mostcommercialso-called‘melissa’containssomeorallofthefollowing:lemon;lemongrassorcitronella.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Allergies,insectbites,insectrepellent.‘Melissainverylowconcentrationisaveryvaluableoilindeedintreatingeczemaandotherskinproblems.’54

Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,chroniccoughs.Digestivesystem:Colic,indigestion,nausea.Genito-urinarysystem:Menstrualproblems.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,depression,hypertension,insomnia,migraine,nervoustension,shockandvertigo.

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinpharmaceuticalpreparations.Usedextensivelyasafragrancecomponentintoiletries,cosmeticsandperfumes.Employedinmostmajorfoodcategoriesincludingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

MIMOSAAcaciadealbata

FAMILYMimosaceae

SYNONYMSA.decurrensvar.dealbata,Sydneyblackwattle.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnattractivesmalltreeupto12metreshigh,havingagreyish-brownbarkwithirregularlongitudinalridges,delicatefoliageandclustersofball-shapedfragrantyellowflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAustralia;naturalizedinNorthandCentralAfrica.ItwasbroughttoEuropeasanornamentalplantintheearlynineteenthcentury,butitnowgrowswild.Theconcrete(andabsolute)ismainlyproducedinsouthernFrance,andalsoItaly.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyvarietiesofAcacia,suchastheEastAfricantype(A.arabica)whichisverysimilar;themimosaofthefloristshop(A.floribunda);andtheBrazilianmimosaorsensitiveplant(Mimosahumilis),thehomoeopathictinctureofwhichisusedforswellingoftheankles.Itisalsocloselyrelatedtocassie.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThebarkofmimosawhichisknownas‘wattlebark’,hasaleather-likeodourandastringenttaste.Itcontainsupto42percenttannins(alsogallicacid)andisusedextensivelybythetanningindustry.Itisemployedmedicinallyinsimilarwaystooakbark,asaspecificfordiarrhoea,andasanastringentgargleandointment.Theextractofblackcatechu(A.catechu)iscurrentintheBritishHerbal

Pharmacopoeiaasaspecificforchronicdiarrhoeawithcolitis.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,astringent.Extractionaconcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromtheflowersandtwigends.

Mimosa

CHARACTERISTICS1.Concrete–ahardwax-likeyellowmasswithasweet-woody,deepfloralfragrance.2.Absolute–anamber-colouredviscousliquidwithaslightlygreen,woody-floralscent.Itblendswellwithlavandin,lavender,ylangylang,violet,styrax,citronella,Perubalsam,cassie,floralandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlyhydrocarbons;palmicaldehyde,enanthicacid,anisicacid,aceticacidandphenols.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Oily,sensitive,generalskincare.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,nervoustension,over-sensitivity,stress.

OTHERUSESEmployedlargelyinsoaps,duetoitsgoodfixativeproperties.Alsoinhigh-classperfumes,especiallycolognes,floralandorientaltypes.

MINT,CORNMINTMenthaarvensis

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSFieldmint,Japanesemint.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAratherfragileherbwithleafystemsupto60cmshigh,lance-shapedleavesandlilac-colouredflowersborneinclusteredwhorlsintheaxilsoftheupperleaves.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEuropeandpartsofAsia(JapanandChina);naturalizedinNorthAmerica.MajorproducersoftheoilincludeChina,Brazil,Argentina,IndiaandVietnam.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyvarietiesandchemotypesofthisherb,whichisusedforlarge-scaleoilproduction,suchastheChinesetypeM.arvensisvar.glabrata,andtheJapanesespeciesM.arvensisvar.piperascens.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItisusedtherapeuticallyinmanyofthesamewaysaspeppermint;thebruisedleavesareappliedtotheforeheadtorelievenervousheadache.IntheEastitisusedtotreatrheumaticpain,neuralgia,toothache,laryngitis,indigestion,coldsandbronchitis.InChinesemedicine,itisalsoemployedforrelievingearache,treatingtumoursandsomeskinconditions.

ACTIONSAnaesthetic,antimicrobial,antiseptic,antispasmodic,carminative,cytotoxic,digestive,expectorant,stimulant,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefloweringherb.Theoilisusuallydementholizedsinceitcontainssomuchmentholthatitisotherwisesolidatroomtemperature.

CHARACTERISTICSDementholizedoil–acolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithastrong,fresh,bitter-sweetmintyodour,somewhatlikepeppermint.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMenthol(70–95percent),menthane(10–20percent),pinene,menthylacetate,isomenthone,thujone,phellandrene,piperitoneandmenthofuran,amongothers.Constituentsvaryaccordingto

source.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant(exceptinconcentration);maycausesensitizationinsomeindividuals.Mentholisadermalirritant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.Usepeppermintinpreference,sinceitisnotfractionatedlikethecommercialcornmintoilandhasamorerefinedfragrance.

OTHERUSESUsedinsomepharmaceuticalpreparations,suchascoughlozenges,herbteasandsyrups,mainlyintheformofmenthol.Extensivelyemployedinsoaps,toothpastes,detergents,cosmetics,perfumesandespeciallyindustrialfragrances.Usedbythefoodindustryespeciallyforflavouringconfectionery,liqueursandchewinggum.However,itismainlyusedfortheisolationofnaturalmenthol.

MINT,PEPPERMINTMenthapiperita

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSBrandymint,balmmint.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialherbupto1metrehighwithundergroundrunnersbywhichitiseasilypropagated.The‘white’pepperminthasgreenstemsandleaves;the‘black’pepperminthasdarkgreenserratedleaves,purplishstemsandreddish-violetflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONOriginallyacultivatedhybridbetweenM.viridisandM.aquatica,knowntohavebeenpropagatedfrombeforetheseventeenthcenturyinEngland.NaturalizedthroughoutEuropeandAmerica,itiscultivatedworldwide.TheoilisproducedmainlyinFrance,England,America,Russia,Bulgaria,Italy,Hungary,MoroccoandChina.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveraldifferentstrainsorchemotypesofpeppermint.Inadditiontherearenumerousotherspeciesofmint,suchasspearmint,applemint,pennyroyal,watermintandpineapplemint–someofwhichareusedtoproduceessentialoils(seeBotanicalClassificationsection).

Peppermintsgrowninnorthernregions,includingtheMitchampeppermint,areconsideredofsuperiorquality.

Peppermint

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONMintshavebeencultivatedsinceancienttimesinChinaandJapan.InEgyptevidenceofatypeofpepperminthasbeenfoundintombsdatingfrom1000BC.IthasbeenusedextensivelyinEasternandWesternmedicineforavarietyofcomplaints,includingindigestion,nausea,sorethroat,diarrhoea,headaches,toothachesandcramp.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaforintestinalcolic,

flatulence,commoncold,vomitinginpregnancyanddysmenorrhoea.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,antiphlogistic,antipruritic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antiviral,astringent,carminative,cephalic,cholagogue,cordial,emmenagogue,expectorant,febrifuge,hepatic,nervine,stomachic,sudorific,vasoconstrictor,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefloweringherb(approx.3–4percentyield).

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworgreenishliquidwithahighlypenetrating,grassy-mintycamphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithbenzoin,rosemary,lavender,marjoram,lemon,eucalyptusandothermints.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMenthol(29–48percent),menthane(20–31percent),menthylacetate,menthofuran,limonene,pulegone,cineol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant(exceptinconcentration),possiblesensitizationduetomenthol.Useinmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,dermatitis,ringworm,scabies,toothache.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Neuralgia,muscularpain,palpitations.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,halitosis,sinusitis,spasmodiccough–‘Wheninhaled(insteam)itcheckscatarrhtemporarily,andwillproviderelieffromheadcoldsandbronchitis:itsantispasmodicactioncombineswellwiththistomakeitamostusefulinhalationinasthma.’55Digestivesystem:Colic,cramp,dyspepsia,flatulence,nausea.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,fevers.Nervoussystem:Fainting,headache,mentalfatigue,migraine,nervousstress,vertigo.

OTHERUSESFlavouringagentinpharmaceuticals,andingredientincough,coldanddigestiveremedies.Flavouringagentinmanyfoods,especiallychewinggumandsweets,alcoholicandsoftdrinks;alsowidelyusedtoflavourtobacco.Fragrancecomponentinsoaps,toothpaste,detergents,cosmetics,colognesandperfumes.

MINT,SPEARMINTMenthaspicata

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSM.viridis,commonspearmint,gardenspearmint,spiremint,greenmint,lambmint,peamint,fishmint.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhardybranchedperennialherbwithbrightgreen,lance-shaped,sharplytoothedleaves,quicklyspreadingundergroundrunnersandpinkorlilac-colouredflowersinslendercylindricalspikes.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion,nowcommonthroughoutEurope,westernAsiaandtheMiddleEast.ItwasintroducedtotheUSAwhereithasbecomeaverypopularflavouring.TheoilisproducedinmidwestUSA,Hungary,Spain,Yugoslavia,theUSSRandChina.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveraldifferenttypesofspearmint,especiallyintheUSA,suchasthecurlymint(M.spicatavar.crispa).InRussiatheoilfromM.verticellataisalsosoldasspearmintoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONValuedallovertheworldasaculinaryherb,asshownbyitsfolknames.ItwasusedbytheancientGreeksasarestorativeandtoscenttheirbathwater.Thedistilledwaterisusedtorelievehiccough,colic,nausea,indigestionandflatulence.‘Appliedtotheforeheadandtemples,iteasesthepainsinthehead,andisgoodtowashtheheadsofyoungchildrenwith,againstallmannerofbreakingsout,soresorscabs...beingsmelledunto,itiscomfortingtothehead.’56

ACTIONSAnaesthetic(local),antiseptic,antispasmodic,astringent,carminative,cephalic,cholagogue,decongestant,digestive,diuretic,expectorant,febrifuge,hepatic,nervine,stimulant,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworolivemobileliquidwithawarm,spicy-herbaceous,mintyodour.Itblendswellwithlavender,lavandin,jasmine,eucalyptus,basilandrosemaryandisoftenusedincombinationwithpeppermint.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSL-carvone(50–70percent),dihydrocarvone,phellandrene,limonene,menthone,menthol,pulegone,cineol,linalol,pinenes,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE‘Thepropertiesofspearmintoilresemblethoseofpeppermintbutitseffectsarelesspowerful...itisbetteradaptedtochildren’smaladies.’57Skincare:Acne,dermatitis,congestedskin.

Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrhalconditions,sinusitis.Digestivesystem:Colic,dyspepsia,flatulence,hepatobiliarydisorders,nausea,vomiting.Immunesystem:Colds,fevers,’flu.Nervoussystem:Fatigue,headache,migraine,nervousstrain,neurasthenia,stress.

OTHERUSESUsedasafragrancecomponent,mainlyinsoapsandcolognes.Primarilyusedasaflavouringredientinawiderangeofproducts,includingtoothpaste,chewinggum,sweets,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

MUGWORTArtemisiavulgaris

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSArmoise,wildwormwood,felonherb,StJohn’splant.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnerect,much-branched,perennialherbupto1.5metreshigh,withpurplishstems,darkgreendividedleaveswhicharedownywhitebeneath,andnumeroussmallreddish-brownoryellowflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONBelievedtohaveoriginatedineasternEuropeandwesternAsia;nowfoundintemperatezonesallovertheworld.TheoilisproducedinsouthernFrance,Morocco,Germany,Hungary,India,ChinaandJapan.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanydifferentspeciesintheArtemisiagroup(seeBotanicalClassification),whichincludeswormwoodandtarragon.Therearealsoseveraldifferenttypesofmugwortsuchasthegreatmugwort(A.arborescens)andtheChinesemugwort(A.moxaandA.sinensis)whicharebothusedtomake‘moxa’inJapan,containingmainlyborneol.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInEurope,theherbhasbeenassociatedwithsuperstitionandwitchcraft,andwasseenasaprotectivecharmagainstevilanddanger.ItissaidthatStJohntheBaptistworeagirdleoftheleavesinthewilderness.Itwasalsoseenasawoman’splant,usedasawombtonic,forpainfulordelayedmenstruationandasatreatmentforhysteriaandepilepsy.Itwasalsousedtoexpelworms,controlfeverandasadigestiveremedy.IntheEastthewhitefluffyundersideoftheleavesisusedformoxibustion,a

IntheEastthewhitefluffyundersideoftheleavesisusedformoxibustion,aprocessoftencombinedwithacupuncture,inwhichthecompresseddriedherbisburnedoveracertainpointinthebodytostimulateitwithheat.MoxawasalsousedinEuropetorelievegoutandrheumatism.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforamenorrhoeaanddysmenorrhoea.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,antispasmodic,carminative,choleretic,diaphoretic,diuretic,emmenagogue,nervine,orexigenic,stimulant,stomachic,tonic(uterine,womb),vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandfloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithapowerfulcamphoraceous,bitter-sweet,herbaceousodour.Itblendswellwithoakmoss,patchouli,rosemary,lavandin,pine,sage,clarysageandcedarwood.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThujone,cineol,pinenesanddihydromatricariaester,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin,duetohighthujonecontent.Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Itshouldnotbeusedintherapyeitherinternallyorexternally.’58

OTHERUSESUsedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,colognesandperfumes.Limiteduseinflavouringduetotoxiclevelsofthujone.

MUSTARDBrassicanigra

FAMILYBrassicaceae(Cruciferae)

SYNONYMSSinapsisnigra,B.sinapioides,blackmustard.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnerectannualupto3metreshigh,withspear-shapedupperleaves,smoothflatpodscontainingabouttendarkbrownseeds,andbrightyellowcabbage-likeflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONCommonthroughoutsoutheasternEurope,southernSiberia,AsiaMinorandNorthAfrica;naturalizedinNorthandSouthAmerica.CultivatedforitsseedandoilinEngland,Holland,Denmark,GermanyandItaly.

OTHERSPECIESTheRussianvarietyisknownasbrownmustardor‘sarepta’(B.juncea);thewhitemustard(B.alba)doesnotcontainanyessentialoil.Alsocloselyrelatedisrape(B.napus)andotherlocalspecieswhichareusedinIndiaandChina.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheseedsarehighlyesteemedasacondimentandfortheirmedicinalqualities.TheyhavebeenusedintheEastandWesttoaidthedigestion,warmthestomachandpromotetheappetite,andforcold,stifforfeverishconditionssuchascolds,chills,coughs,chilblains,rheumatism,arthritis,lumbagoandgeneralachesandpains.

ACTIONSAperitif,antimicrobial,antiseptic,diuretic,emetic,febrifuge,rubefacient(producesblisteringoftheskin),stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteam(orwater)distillationfromtheblackmustardseeds,whichhavebeenmaceratedinwarmwater.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithasharp,penetrating,acridodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAllylisothiocyanate(99percent).NB:Blackmustardseedorpowderdoesnotcontainthisconstituent,whichisonlyformedbycontactwithwaterduringtheproductionoftheessentialoil.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin,dermaltoxin,mucousmembraneirritant.Itisconsideredoneofthemosttoxicofallessentialoils.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Itshouldnotbeusedintherapyeitherexternallyorinternally.’59

OTHERUSESUsedincertainrubefacientorcounter-irritantliniments.Usedextensivelybythefoodindustryespeciallyinpickles,seasoningsandsauces.Littleusedasafragrancecomponentexceptincatanddogrepellents.

MYRRHCommiphoramyrrha

FAMILYBurseraceae

SYNONYMSBalsamodendronmyrrha,gummyrrh,commonmyrrh,hirabolmyrrh,myrrha.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONTheCommiphoraspecieswhichyieldmyrrhareshrubsorsmalltreesupto10metreshigh.Theyhavesturdyknottedbranches,trifoliatearomaticleavesandsmallwhiteflowers.Thetrunkexudesanaturaloleoresin,apaleyellowliquidwhichhardensintoreddish-browntears,knownasmyrrh.Thenativecollectorsmakeincisionsinthebarkofthetreetoincreasetheyield.

DISTRIBUTIONTheCommiphoraspeciesarenativetonortheastAfricaandsouthwestAsia,especiallytheRedSearegion(Somalia,YemenandEthiopia).

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralC.specieswhichyieldmyrrholeoresin:AfricanorSomalimyrrh(C.molmol)andArabianorYemenmyrrh(C.abyssinica).Bisabolmyrrhoropopanax(C.erthraea)alsobelongstothesamefamily.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONMyrrhhasbeenemployedsincetheearliesttimesinEasternandWesternmedicine;itsuseismentionedsome3700yearsago.TheancientEgyptiansuseditforembalmingpurposesandintheirperfumesandcosmetics.InChinaitisusedforarthritis,menstrualproblems,soresandhaemorrhoids.IntheWestitisconsideredtohavean‘opening,heating,dryingnature’(JosephMiller),goodforasthma,coughs,commoncold,catarrh,sorethroat,weakgumsandteeth,ulcersandsores.Ithasalsobeenusedtotreatleprosy.CurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificformouthulcers,

gingivitisandpharyngitis.

ACTIONSAnticatarrhal,anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,antiphlogistic,antiseptic,astringent,balsamic,carminative,cicatrisant,emmenagogue,expectorant,fungicidal,revitalizing,sedative,stimulant(digestive,pulmonary),stomachic,tonic,uterine,vulnerary.

EXTRACTION1.Resinoid(andresinabsolute)bysolventextractionofthecrudemyrrh.2.Essentialoilbysteamdistillationofthecrudemyrrh.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theresinoidisadarkreddish-brownviscousmass,withawarm,rich,spicy-balsamicodour.Itisnotpourableatroomtemperaturesoasolvent,suchasdiethylphthalate,issometimesadded.2.Theessentialoilisapaleyellowtoamberoilyliquidwithawarm,sweet-balsamic,slightlyspicy-medicinalodour.Itblendswellwithfrankincense,sandalwood,benzoin,oakmoss,cypress,juniper,mandarin,geranium,patchouli,thyme,mints,lavender,pineandspices.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThecrudecontainsresins,gumandabout8percentessentialoilcomposedmainlyofheerabolene,limonene,dipentene,pinene,eugenol,cinnamaldehyde,cuminaldehyde,cadinene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-irritant,nonsensitizing,possiblytoxicinhighconcentration.Nottobeusedduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Athlete’sfoot,chappedandcrackedskin,eczema,maturecomplexions,ringworm,wounds,wrinkles.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,coughs,guminfections,gingivitis,mouthulcers,sorethroat,voiceloss.Digestivesystem:Diarrhoea,dyspepsia,flatulence,haemorrhoids,lossofappetite.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,leucorrhoea,pruritis,thrush.Immunesystem:Colds.

OTHERUSESTheoil,resinoidandtinctureareusedinpharmaceuticalproducts,includingmouthwashes,garglesandtoothpaste;alsousedindentistry.Theoilandresinoidareusedasfixativesandfragrancecomponentsinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallyorientaltypesandheavyflorals.Usedasflavouringredientsinmostmajorfoodcategories,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

MYRTLEMyrtuscommunis

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMCorsicanpepper.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargebushorsmalltreewithmanytoughbutslenderbranches,abrownish-redbarkandsmallsharp-pointedleaves.Ithaswhiteflowersfollowedbysmallblackberries;bothleavesandflowersareveryfragrant.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoNorthAfrica,itnowgrowsfreelyallovertheMediterraneanregion;itisalsocultivatedasagardenshrubthroughoutEurope.TheoilismainlyproducedinCorsica,Spain,Tunisia,Morocco,Italy,YugoslaviaandFrance.

OTHERSPECIESPartofthesamelargearomaticfamilywhichincludeseucalyptusandteatree;alsobayberryorwaxmyrtle(Myricacerifera)andtheDutchmyrtleorEnglishbogmyrtle(Myricagale)whichareusedinherbalmedicine(thoughtheiressentialoilsaresaidtobepoisonous).Nottobeconfusedwithiris,sometimescalled‘myrtleflower’orcalamus,whichisalsoknownas‘myrtlegrass’or‘sweetmyrtle’.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheleavesandberrieshavebeenusedfor‘dryingandbinding,goodfordiarrhoeaanddysentery,spittingofbloodandcatarrhousdefluctionsuponthebreast’.60Dioscoridesprescribeditforlungandbladderinfectionsintheformofanextractmadebymaceratingtheleavesinwine.Theleavesandflowerswereamajoringredientof‘angel’swater’,asixteenth-centuryskincarelotion.

ACTIONSAnticatarrhal,antiseptic(urinary,pulmonary),astringent,balsamic,bactericidal,expectorant,regulator,slightlysedative.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandtwigs(sometimestheflowers).

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowororangeliquidwithaclear,fresh,camphoraceous,sweet-herbaceousscentsomewhatsimilartoeucalyptus.Itblendswellwithbergamot,lavandin,lavender,rosemary,clarysage,hyssop,bayleaf,lime,laurel,ginger,cloveandotherspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCineol,myrtenol,pinene,geraniol,linalol,camphene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,haemorrhoids,oilyskin,openpores.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrhalconditions,chroniccoughs,Tuberculosis–‘Becauseofitsrelativemildness,thisisaverysuitableoiltouseforchildren’scoughsandchestcomplaints.’61Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,infectiousdisease.

OTHERUSESUsedmainlyineau-de-cologneandtoiletwaters.Employedasaflavouringingredientinmeatsaucesandseasonings,generallyincombinationwithotherherbs.

N

NARCISSUSNarcissuspoeticus

FAMILYAmaryllidaceae

SYNONYMSPinksterlily,pheasant’seye,poet’snarcissus.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAfamiliargardenflowerupto50cmshigh,withlongsword-shapedleaveswithveryfragrantwhiteflowershavingashortyellowtrumpetandcrispedrededge.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMiddleEastortheeasternMediterraneanregion;naturalizedinsouthernFrance.Itiscultivatedextensivelyforitsflowers.OnlyHollandandtheGrasseregionofFranceproducetheconcreteandabsolute.

OTHERSPECIESTherearetwomaintypesproducedinFrance:thecultivatedordesplainesvarietyandthewildordesmontagnestype.Narcissusisalsocloselyrelatedtothejonquil(N.jonquilla)andcampernella(N.odorus),whicharealsooccasionallyusedtoproduceanabsolute,aswellastothedaffodil(N.pseudo-narcissus).

Narcissus

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThenamederivesfromtheGreeknarkao–tobenumb–duetoitsnarcoticproperties.TheRomanperfumersused‘narcissum’,asolidunguentmadefromnarcissusflowers,inthepreparationoftheirelaboratefragrances.InFrancetheflowerswereusedatonetimefortheirantispasmodicproperties,saidtobeusefulinhysteriaandepilepsy.InIndiatheoilisappliedtothebodybeforeprayerintemples,alongwith

rose,sandalwoodandjasmine.TheArabiansrecommendtheoilasacureforbaldness,andasanaphrodisiac.

ACTIONSAntispasmodic,aphrodisiac,emetic,narcotic,sedative.

EXTRACTIONAconcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromtheflowers.

CHARACTERISTICSTheabsoluteisadarkorange,oliveorgreenviscousliquidwithasweet,green-herbaceousodourandheavyfloralundertone.Itblendswellwithclovebud,jasmine,neroli,ylangylang,rose,mimosa,sandalwood,orientalandfloralfragrances.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSQuercetin,possiblynarcissine(thealkaloidthatcausesnausea).

SAFETYDATAAllmembersoftheAmaryllidaceaefamily,especiallythebulbs,haveaprofoundeffectonthenervoussystem,causingparalysisandeven

insomecasesdeath.‘ThebulbsofN.poeticusaremoredangerousthanthoseofthedaffodil,beingpowerfullyemeticandirritant.Thescentoftheflowersisdeleterious,iftheyarepresentinanyquantityinaclosedroom,producinginsomepersonsheadacheandevenvomiting.’62

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEPerfume.

OTHERUSESTheabsoluteandconcreteareusedalmostexclusivelyinhigh-classperfumesofthenarcotic/floraltype.

NEROLICitrusaurantiumvar.amara

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.vulgaris,C.bigaradia,orangeblossom,orangeflower,nerolibigarade.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreentreeupto10metreshighwithglossydarkgreenleavesandfragrantwhiteflowers.Therearetwofloweringseasonswhentheblossomispicked,oneinMayandanotherinOctober(inmildweather).Seealsobitterorange.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheFarEast,butwelladaptedtotheMediterraneanclimate.MajorproducersincludeItaly,Tunisia,Morocco,Egypt,AmericaandespeciallyFrance.

OTHERSPECIESThesweetorange(C.aurantiumvar.dulcis)isalsousedtomakeanabsoluteoilcalledneroliPortugalornerolipetalae–however,itislessfragrantandconsideredofinferiorquality.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisoilwasnamedafteraprincessofNerolainItaly,wholovedtowearitasaperfume.Orangeflowershavemanyfolkassociations.Theywereusedinbridalbouquetsandwreaths,tocalmanynervousapprehensionbeforethecoupleretiredtothemarriagebed.OntheContinentaninfusionofdriedflowersisusedasamildstimulantof

thenervoussystem,andasabloodcleanser.Thedistillationwater,knownasorangeflowerwater,isapopularcosmeticandhouseholdarticle.

ACTIONSAntidepressant,antiseptic,antispasmodic,aphrodisiac,bactericidal,carminative,cicatrisant,cordial,deodorant,digestive,fungicidal,hypnotic(mild),stimulant(nervous),tonic(cardiac,circulatory).

EXTRACTION1.Aconcreteandabsoluteareproducedbysolventextractionfromthefreshlypickedflowers.2.Anessentialoilis,producedbysteamdistillationfromthefreshlypickedflowers.Anorangeflowerwaterandanabsoluteareproducedasabyproductofthedistillationprocess.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theabsoluteisadarkbrownororangeviscousliquidwithafresh,delicateyetrich,warmsweet-floralfragrance;verytruetonature.Itblendswellwithjasmine,benzoin,myrrhandallcitrusoils.2.Theoilisapaleyellowmobileliquid(darkeningwithage)withalight,sweet-floralfragranceandterpeneytopnote.Blendswellwithvirtuallyalloils:chamomile,coriander,geranium,benzoin,clarysage,jasmine,lavender,rose,ylangylang,lemonandothercitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLinalol(34percentapprox.),linalylacetate(6–17percent),limonene(15percentapprox.),pinene,nerolidol,geraniol,nerol,methylanthranilate,indole,citral,jasmone,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing,non-phototoxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Scars,stretchmarks,threadveins,matureandsensitiveskin,tonesthecomplexion,wrinkles.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Palpitations,poorcirculation.Digestivesystem:Diarrhoea(chronic),colic,flatulence,spasm,nervousdyspepsia.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,depression,nervoustension,PMT,shock,stress-relatedconditions–‘Ifindthatbyfarthemostimportantusesofneroliareinhelpingwithproblemsofemotionalorigin.’63

OTHERUSESNerolioilandorangeflowerwaterareusedtoflavourpharmaceuticals.Theabsoluteisusedextensivelyinhigh-classperfumerywork,especiallyoriental,floralandcitrusblends;alsoasafixative.Theoilisusedineau-de-cologneandtoiletwaters(traditionallywithlavender,lemon,rosemaryandbergamot).Limiteduseasaflavouringredientinfoods,alcoholicandsoft

drinks.

NIAOULIMelaleucaviridiflora

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSM.quinquenervia,‘gomenol’.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreentreewithaflexibletrunkandspongybark,pointedlinearleavesandbearingspikesofsessileyellowishflowers.Theleaveshaveastrongaromaticscentwhentheyarecrushed.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAustralia,NewCaledonia,andtheFrenchPacificIslands.ThemajorityoftheoilisproducedinAustraliaandTasmania.

OTHERSPECIESAtypicalmemberofthe‘teatree’groupofoils;theoilissimilartocajeput.ThereisanotherphysiologicalformofM.viridifloracalled‘VarietyA’,whichwasoriginallydevelopedtoprovideanaturalsourceofnerolidol,themainconstituentofitsessentialoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItisusedlocallyforawidevarietyofailments,suchasachesandpains,respiratoryconditions,cutsandinfections;itisalsousedtopurifythewater.Thename‘gomenol’derivesfromthefactthatitusedtobeshippedfromGomenintheFrenchEastIndies.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anthelmintic,anticatarrhal,antirheumatic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,bactericidal,balsamic,cicatrisant,diaphoretic,expectorant,regulator,stimulant,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandyoungtwigs.(Usuallyrectifiedtoremoveirritantaldehydes.)

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourless,paleyelloworgreenishliquidwithasweet,fresh,camphoraceousodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCineol(50–65percent),terpineol,pinene,limonene,citrene,terebenthene,valericester,aceticester,butyricester.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.Oftensubjecttoadulteration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,boils,burns,cuts,insectbites,oilyskin,spots,ulcers,wounds.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Muscularachesandpains,poorcirculation,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrhalconditions,coughs,sinusitis,sorethroat,whoopingcough.Genito-urinarysystem:Cystitis,urinaryinfection.Immunesystem:Colds,fever,’flu.

OTHERUSESUsedinpharmaceuticalpreparationssuchasgargles,coughdrops,toothpastes,mouthsprays,etc.

NUTMEGMyristicafragrans

FAMILYMyristicaceae

SYNONYMSM.officinalis,M.aromata,Nuxmoschata,myristica(oil),mace(husk),macis(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreentreeupto20metreshighwithagreyish-brownsmoothbark,densefoliageandsmalldull-yellowflowers.‘Mace’isthenamegiventothebrightrednetlikearilorhusksurroundingthenutmegshellandseed,whichiscontainedwithinthefleshyfruit.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMoluccasandnearbyislands;cultivatedinIndonesia,SriLankaandtheWestIndies,especiallyGrenada.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteam(orwater)distillationfrom1.thedriedwormeatennutmegseed(thewormseatawayallthestarchandfatcontent);2.thedriedorangebrownarilorhusk–mace;and3.anoleoresinisalsoproducedinsmallquantitiesbysolventextractionfrommace.TheoilisalsodistilledintheUSAandEuropefromtheimportednutmegs.

Nutmeg

OTHERSPECIESIndonesiaandSriLankaproducetheso-called‘EastIndian’nutmegwhichisconsideredsuperior,whileGrenadaproducesthe‘WestIndian’nutmeg–seealsoBotanicalClassification.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONNutmegandmacearewidelyusedasdomesticspicesintheEastandWest.Theyhavebeenusedforcenturiesasaremedymainlyfordigestiveandkidneyproblems.InMalaysiatheyareusedduringpregnancytostrengthenandtonetheuterinemuscles.Gratednutmegwithlardisusedforpiles.Afixedoilofnutmegisalsousedinsoapandcandlemaking.NutmegiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaindicatedforflatulent

dyspepsia,nausea,diarrhoea,dysentery,andtopicallyforrheumatism.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anti-emetic,antioxidant,antirheumatic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,aphrodisiac,carminative,digestive,emmenagogue,gastricsecretorystimulant,larvicidal,orexigenic,prostaglandininhibitor,stimulant,tonic.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Awater-whiteorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithasweet,warm-spicyodourandaterpeneytopnote.2.Awaterwhiteorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithasweet,warm-spicyscent.3.Anorangebrownviscousliquidwithafresh,spicy-warm,balsamicfragrance.Ithasgoodmasking

power.Theyblendwellwithoakmoss,lavandin,bayleaf,Perubalsam,orange,

geranium,clarysage,rosemary,lime,petitgrain,mandarin,corianderandotherspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlymonoterpenehydrocarbons(88percentapprox.):camphene,pinene,dipentene,sabinene,cymene,withlesseramountsofgeraniol,borneol,linalol,terpineol,myristicin(4–8percent),safrolandelemincin,amongothers.Maceoilcontainssimilarconstituentsbutcontainsmoremyristicin.

SAFETYDATABothnutmegandmacearegenerallynon-toxic,non-irritantandnonsensitizing.However,usedinlargedosestheyshowsignsoftoxicitysuchasnausea,stuporandtachycardia,believedtobeduetothemyristicincontent.‘Largequantitiesarehallucinogenicandexcitanttothemotorcortex.’64Onthisbasisnutmeg(especiallytheWestIndiantype)isprobablysafertousethanmace.Useinmoderation,andwithcareinpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,gout,muscularachesandpains,poorcirculation,rheumatism.Digestivesystem:Flatulence,indigestion,nausea,sluggishdigestion.Immunesystem:Bacterialinfection.Nervoussystem:Frigidity,impotence,neuralgia,nervousfatigue.

OTHERUSESUsedasaflavouringagentinpharmaceuticals,especiallyanalgesicandtonicpreparations.Nutmegandmaceoilareusedinsoaps,lotions,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Maceoleoresinisusedincolognesandperfumes,especiallymen’sfragrances.Bothoilsandoleoresinareusedinmostmajorfoodcategories,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

O

OAKMOSSEverniaprunastri

FAMILYUsneaceae

SYNONYMSMoussedechene,treemoss.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlightgreenlichenfoundgrowingprimarilyonoaktrees,butsometimesotherspecies.

DISTRIBUTIONTheoak(Quercusrobur)isindigenoustoEuropeandNorthAmerica;thelicheniscollectedallovercentralandsouthernEurope,especiallyFrance,Yugoslavia,Hungary,Greece,andalsoMoroccoandAlgeria.ThearomaticmaterialsarepreparedmainlyinFrance,butalsointheUSA,BulgariaandYugoslavia.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyvarietiesoflichenusedfortheiraromaticqualities,themostcommonbeingE.furfuraceaandUsneabarbatawhicharefrequentlygatheredfromspruceandpinetrees,andareknownasfirmossortreemossinEurope,butintheUSAarealsocalledoakmoss.Howevertheyarelessrefinedthanthe‘true’oakmoss.OtherspeciesincludeStictapulmonaceaeorLobariapulmonaria,Usneaceratina,andsomemembersoftheRamalina,AlectoriaandParmeliagroups.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONStictapulmonaceae,agreeny-brownlichenalsofoundgrowingonoaktreesandfrequentlyharvestedalongwithE.prunastri,isalsocalledoaklungs,lungmoss,lungwortor‘lungsofoak’bytheNorthAmericanIndianswhouseitforrespiratorycomplaintsandfortreatingwounds.ItiscalledlobariaintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaandisusedforasthma,bronchitisandcoughsinchildren.Manytypesoflichen,especiallytheParmeliagroup,areusedasvegetable

dyes.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,demulcent,expectorant,fixative.

EXTRACTIONArangeofproductsisproduced:aconcreteandanabsolutebysolventextractionfromthelichenwhichhasoftenbeensoakedinlukewarmwaterpriortoextraction;anabsoluteoilbyvacuumdistillationoftheconcrete;resinsandresinoidsbyalcoholextractionoftherawmaterial.Mostimportantoftheseproductsistheabsolute.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theabsoluteisadarkgreenorbrown,veryviscousliquidwithanextremelytenacious,earthy-mossyodourandaleatherlikeundertone.2.Theabsoluteoilisapaleyelloworoliveviscousliquidwithadryearthy,barklikeodour,quitetruetonature.3.Theconcrete,resinandresinoidsareaverydark-colouredsemi-solidorsolidmasswithaheavy,rich-earthy,extremelytenaciousodour.Theyhaveahighfixativevalueandblendwithvirtuallyallotheroils:theyareextensivelyusedinperfumerytolendbodyandrichnaturalundertonestoallperfumetypes.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCrystallinematterofso-called‘lichenacids’:mainlyevernicacid,d-usnicacid,someatranorineandchloratronorine.

SAFETYDATAExtensivelycompoundedor‘bouquetted’bycuttingoradulterationwithotherlichenorsyntheticperfumematerials.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEAsafixative.

OTHERUSESTheconcreteisusedprimarilyinsoaps;theabsoluteisthemostversatileandisusedinallperfumetypes(oriental,moss,fougère,new-mownhay,floral,colognes,aftershaves,etc.).Theabsoluteoilisusedinhigh-classperfumes.Theresinsandresinoids,whichhaveapoorsolubility,areusedinsoaps,hairpreparations,industrialperfumesandlowcostproducts.

ONIONAlliumcepa

FAMILYLiliaceae

SYNONYMSCommononion,Strasburgonion.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialorbiennialherbupto1.2metreshigh

withhollowleavesandfloweringstem,andaglobelikefleshybulb.

DISTRIBUTIONNativeofwesternAsiaandtheMiddleEast,ithasalonghistoryofcultivationallovertheworld,mainlyforculinaryuse.TheessentialoilismainlyproducedinFrance,GermanyandEgyptfromthe‘red’onion.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerousspeciesofonionwhichhavebeendeveloped,whichincludetheSpanishorsilver-skinnedonion,theTripoliandtheredonion.SeealsoBotanicalClassification.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONOnionhasanancientreputationasacurativeagent,highlyextolledbytheschoolsofGalenandHippocrates.ItishighinvitaminsA,BandCandsharesmanyofthepropertiesofgarlic,towhichitiscloselyrelated.Rawonionhelpstokeepcoldsandinfectionsatbay,promotesstrongbonesandagoodbloodsupplytoallthetissues.Itactsasaneffectivebloodcleanserwhich,alongwiththesulphuritcontains,helpstokeeptheskinclearandingoodcondition.Ithasasoundreputationforcorrectingglandularimbalanceandweightproblems;italsoimproveslymphaticdrainagewhichisoftenresponsibleforoedemaandpuffiness.Onionhaslongbeenusedasahome‘simple’forawiderangeofconditions:

‘Asapoulticetheyareinvaluablefortheremovalofhardtumours.Inthisformtheyaffordreliefincasesofsuppressedgoutorobstructedcirculation...Onionstendtosoothethenervesandinducesleep.Theystimulatetheactionoftheskinandremoveobstructionsoftheviscera...rawonions,bruisedaregoodforburnsandscaldsintheabsenceofotherremedies...appliedtothestingorbiteofanypoisonousinsectoftenprovesallthatisdesired.’65

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,antimicrobial,antirheumatic,antiseptic,antisclerotic,antispasmodic,antiviral,bactericidal,carminative,depurative,digestive,diuretic,expectorant,fungicidal,hypocholesterolaemic,hypoglycaemic,hypotensive,stomachic,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthebulb.(Anoleoresinisalsoproducedinsmallquantitiesforflavouringuse.)

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworbrownish-yellowmobileliquidwithstrong,unpleasant,sulphuraceousodourwithalachrymatory(tear-producing)effect.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlydipropyldisulphide,alsomethylpropyldisulphide,dipropyltrisulphide,methylpropyltrisulphideandallylpropyldisulphide,amongothers.

SAFETYDATASpecificsafetydataunavailableatpresent–probablysimilartogarlic,i.e.generallynon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitization.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone,duetoitsoffensivesmell.

OTHERUSESUsedinsomepharmaceuticalpreparationsforcolds,coughs,etc.Theoilisextensivelyusedinmostmajorfoodcategories,especiallymeats,savouries,saladdressings,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.Itisnotusedinperfumerywork.

OPOPANAXCommiphoraerythraea

FAMILYBurseraceae

SYNONYMSC.erythraeavar.glabrascens,bisabolmyrrh,sweetmyrrh.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtalltropicaltree,similartomyrrh(towhichitiscloselyrelated),whichcontainsanaturaloleogumresinintubularvesselsbetweenthebarkandwoodofthetrunk.Thenativesmakeincisionsinthetrunkofthetreetoincreasetheyield.Thecrudegumdriestoformdarkreddish-browntear-shapedlumpswithasweet-woody,rootlikeodour.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEastAfrica(Somalia)andeasternEthiopia(HarrarProvince)whereitgrowswild.TheessentialoilproductionisgenerallycarriedoutintheUSAandEuropefromthecrudeoleogumresin.

OTHERSPECIESTheoriginalor‘true’opopanaxusedinperfumerywasderivedfromalargeplantOpopanaxchironiumorPastinacaopopanax,aplantsimilartotheparsnipoftheUmbelliferaefamilyandnativetotheLevantregion,SudanandArabia.Theoleogumresinwasobtainedbycuttingintothestematthebase,whichthenproducesreddish-yellowtearsofastrongrootlike,parsniporcelery-typesmell.Thistypeofopopanaxisnowunavailable,andhasbeenreplacedbyasimilartypeofoilknownas‘bisabolmyrrh’.

Nottobeconfusedwithcassie(Acaciafarnesiana),whichisalsoknownas‘opopanax’.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONOpopanaxderivedfromO.chironiumisdescribedashavingantispasmodic,expectorant,emmenagogueandantisepticproperties,whichusedtobeemployedinasthma,hysteriaandvisceralafflictions.IntheFarEastthebisabolmyrrhisusedextensivelyasaningredientinincense.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,balsamic,expectorant.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilbysteam(orwater)distillationfromthecrudeoleogumresin.2.Aresinoidbysolventextractionfromthecrudeoleogumresin.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Anorange,yelloworoliveliquidwithasweet-balsamic,spicy,warm,animal-likeodour(itdoesnotcontainamedicinalnotelikemyrrh).Itresinifiesonexposuretoair.2.Asoliddarkmasswithawarm,powdery,sweet-balsamic,rootyodour.Itblendswellwithclarysage,coriander,labdanum,bergamot,myrrh,frankincense,vetiver,sandalwood,patchouli,mimosa,firneedleandneroli.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThecrudecontainsresins,gums(50–80percent)andessentialoils(10–20percent),notablythesesquiterpene‘bisabolene’andsesquiterpenealcohols.

SAFETYDATAFrequentlyadulterated–itismoreexpensivethanthe‘hirabolmyrrh’.Thecommercialresinoidisalsousuallymixedwithasolventsuchasmyristate,becauseitisotherwiseunpourableatroomtemperatures.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEPossiblysimilarusestomyrrh.

OTHERUSESUsedasafixativeandfragrancecomponentinhigh-classperfumery.Usedinliqueurstolendbodyandaddwinelikenotes.

ORANGE,BITTERCitrusaurantiumvar.amara

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.vulgaris,C.bigaradia,Sevilleorange,sourorangebigarade(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreentreeupto10metreshighwithdarkgreen,glossy,ovalleaves,palerbeneath,withlongbutnotverysharpspines.Ithasasmoothgreyishtrunkandbranches,andveryfragrantwhiteflowers.Thefruitsaresmalleranddarkerthanthesweetorange.Itiswellknownforitsresistancetodiseaseandisoftenusedasrootstockforothercitrustrees,includingthesweetorange.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheFarEast,especiallyIndiaandChina,buthasbecomewelladaptedtotheMediterraneanclimate.ItalsogrowsabundantlyintheUSA(California),IsraelandSouthAmerica.MainproducersoftheoilincludeSpain,Guinea,theWestIndies,Italy,BrazilandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerousdifferentspeciesaccordingtolocation–oilsfromSpainandGuineaaresaidtobeofsuperiorquality.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION‘Orangesandlemonsstrengthentheheart,aregoodfordiminishingthecoagubilityoftheblood,andarebeneficialforpalpitation,scurvy,jaundice,bleedings,heartburn,relaxedthroat,etc.Theyarepowerfullyanti-scorbutic,eitherinternallyorexternallyapplied.’66Thedriedbitterorangepeelisusedasatonicandcarminativeintreatingdyspepsia.InChinesemedicinethedriedbitterorangeandoccasionallyitspeelareused

intreatingprolapseoftheuterusandoftheanus,diarrhoea,andbloodinthefaeces.Ingestionoflargeamountsoforangepeelinchildren,however,hasbeenreportedtocausetoxiceffects.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antiseptic,astringent,bactericidal,carminative,choleretic,fungicidal,sedative(mild),stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONAnessentialoilbycoldexpression(handormachinepressing)fromtheouterpeelofthealmostripefruit.(Aterpenelessoilisalsoproduced.)Theleavesareusedfortheproductionofpetitgrainoil;theblossomfornerolioil.

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkyelloworbrownish-yellowmobileliquidwithafresh,dry,almostfloralodourwitharich,sweetundertone.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSOver90percentmonoterpenes:mainlylimonene,myrcene,camphene,pinene,ocimene,cymene,andsmallamountsofalcohols,aldehydesandketones.

SAFETYDATAPhototoxic;otherwisegenerallynon-toxic,non-irritantandnonsensitizing.Limonenehasbeenreportedtocausecontactdermatitisinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeesweetorange.

OTHERUSESUsedincertainstomachic,laxativeandcarminativepreparations.Employedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmetics,colognesandperfumes.Extensivelyusedasaflavouringmaterial,especiallyinliqueursandsoftdrinks.Alsoutilizedasastartingmaterialfortheisolationofnaturallimonene.

Orange

ORANGE,SWEETCitrussinensis

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.aurantiumvar.dulcis,C.aurantiumvar.sinensis,Chinaorange,Portugalorange.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreentree,smallerthanthebittervariety,lesshardywithfewerornospines.Thefruithasasweetpulpandnon-bittermembranes.Anotherdistinguishingfeatureistheshapeoftheleafstalk:thebitterorangeisbroaderandintheshapeofaheart.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoChina;extensivelycultivatedespeciallyinAmerica(CaliforniaandFlorida)androundtheMediterranean(France,Spain,Italy).TheexpressedoilismainlyproducedinIsrael,Cyprus,BrazilandNorthAmerica;thedistilledoilmainlycomesfromtheMediterraneanandNorthAmerica.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerouscultivatedvarietiesofsweetorange,forexampleJaffa,NavelandValencia.TherearealsomanyothersubspeciessuchastheJapaneseorange(C.aurantiumvar.natsudaidai).Seealsobitterorange.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAverynutritiousfruit,containingvitaminsA,BandC.InChinesemedicinethedriedsweetorangepeelisusedtotreatcoughs,colds,anorexiaandmalignantbreastsores.LiShih-chensays:‘ThefruitsofallthedifferentspeciesandvarietiesofcitrusareconsideredbytheChinesetobecooling.Ifeateninexcesstheyarethoughttoincreasethe“phlegm”,andthisisprobablynotadvantageoustothehealth.Thesweetvarietiesincreasebronchialsecretion,andthesourpromoteexpectoration.Theyallquenchthirst,andarestomachicandcarminative.’67

ACTIONSAntidepressant,anti-inflammatory,antiseptic,bactericidal,carminative,choleretic,digestive,fungicidal,hypotensive,sedative(nervous),stimulant(digestiveandlymphatic),stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilbycoldexpression(handormachine)ofthefreshripeoralmostripeouterpeel.2.Essentialoilbysteamdistillationofthefreshripeoralmostripeouterpeel.Anoilofinferiorqualityisalsoproducedbydistillationfromtheessencesrecoveredasabyproductoforangejuicemanufacture.Distilledsweetorangeoiloxidizesveryquickly,andanti-oxidantagentsareoftenaddedattheplaceofproduction.(AnoilfromtheflowersisalsoproducedoccasionallycalledneroliPortugalornerolipetalae;anoilfromtheleavesisalsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS

1.Ayellowy-orangeordarkorangemobileliquidwithasweet,freshfruityscent,richerthanthedistilledoil.Itblendswellwithlavender,neroli,lemon,clarysage,myrrhandspiceoilssuchasnutmeg,cinnamonandclove.

2.Apaleyelloworcolourlessmobileliquidwithasweet,light-fruityscent,butlittletenacity.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSOver90percentmonoterpenes,mainlylimonene.Thecoldexpressedoilalsocontainsbergapten,auraptenolandacids.

SAFETYDATAGenerallynon-toxic(althoughingestionoflargeamountsoforangepeelhasbeenknowntobefataltochildren);non-irritantandnon-sensitizing(althoughlimonenehasbeenfoundtocausedermatitisinafewindividuals).Distilledorangeoilisphototoxic:itsuseontheskinshouldbeavoidedifthereisdangerofexposuretodirectsunlight.However,thereisnoevidencetoshowthatexpressedsweetorangeoilisphototoxicalthoughittoocontainscoumarins.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Dullandoilycomplexions,mouthulcers.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Obesity,palpitations,waterretention.Respiratorysystem:Bronchitis,chills.Digestivesystem:Constipation,dyspepsia,spasm.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu.Nervoussystem:Nervoustensionandstressrelatedconditions.

OTHERUSESSweetorangepeeltinctureisusedtoflavourpharmaceuticals.Extensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallyeau-de-colognes.Extensivelyusedinallareasofthefoodanddrinksindustry(moresothanthebitterorangeoil).Usedasthestartingmaterialfortheisolationofnaturallimonene.

OREGANO,COMMONOriganumvulgare

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSEuropeanoregano,wildmaqoram,commonmaqoram,grovemarjoram,joyofthemountain,origanum(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhardy,bushy,perennialherbupto90cmshighwithanerecthairystem,darkgreenovateleavesandpinky-purpleflowers.Acommongardenplantwithastrongaromawhentheleavesarebruised.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEurope,nowcultivatedallovertheworld,includingtheUSA,IndiaandSouthAmerica;theoilismainlyproducedintheUSSR,BulgariaandItaly.

OTHERSPECIESThereismuchconfusionconcerningtheexactbotanicalclassificationofthemarjoramandoreganospecies.Thereareoverthirtyvarietiessomeofwhichareusedtoproduceessentialoils,suchasthewinterorGreekmarjoramO.heracleoticum,theAfricanspeciesO.glandulosum,theMoroccanspeciesO.virens,aswellastheMexicanoreganoLippiagraveolensorL.palmeriandtheSyrianoregano(O.maru).However,mostcommercial‘oreganooil’isderivedfromtheSpanishoregano(Thymuscapitatus)andtoalesserdegreefromthecommonoreganoorwildmarjoram–seeentriesonSpanishoreganoandsweetmarjoram.

CommonOregano

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisisthe‘true’oreganooftheherbgarden,whichalsohasaveryancientmedicalreputation.Ithasbeenusedasatraditionalremedyfordigestiveupsets,respiratoryproblems(asthma,bronchitis,

coughs,etc),coldsand’fluaswellasinflammationsofthemouthandthroat.InChinaitisalsousedtotreatfever,vomiting,diarrhoea,jaundiceanditchy

skinconditions.The(diluted)oilhasbeenusedexternallyinherbalmedicineforheadaches,rheumatism,generalachesandpains,andappliedtostingsandbites.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anthelmintic,antirheumatic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antitoxic,antiviral,bactericidal,carminative,choleretic,cytophylactic,diaphoretic,diuretic,emmenagogue,expectorant,febrifuge,fungicidal,parasiticide,rubefacient,stimulant,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedfloweringherb.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowliquid(browningwithage),withawarm,spicyherbaceous,camphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithlavandin,oakmoss,pine,spikelavender,citronella,rosemary,camphorandcedarwood.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCarvacrol,thymol,cymene,caryophyllene,pinene,bisabolene,linalol,borneol,geranylacetate,linalylacetate,terpinene.NB:Constituentsarehighlyvariableaccordingtosource,butoilsclassifiedas‘oregano’or‘oreganum’havethymoland/orcarvacrolastheirmajorcomponents.

SAFETYDATADermaltoxin,skinirritant,mucousmembraneirritant.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedontheskinatall.’68

OTHERUSESUsedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,colognesandperfumes,especiallymen’sfragrances.Employedtosomeextentasaflavouringagent,mainlyinmeatproductsandpizzas.

OREGANO,SPANISHThymuscapitatus

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMST.capitans,Coridothymuscapitatus,Saturejacapitata,Thymbracapitata,oreganum(oil),Israelioreganum(oil),Cretanthyme,coridothyme,coneheadthyme,headedsavory,thymeoftheancients.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialcreepingherbwithawoodystem,smalldarkgreenleavesandpinkorwhiteflowersborneinclusters.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMiddleEastandAsiaMinor;growswildinSpain.TheoilisproducedmainlyinSpain,Israel,Lebanon,SyriaandTurkey.

OTHERSPECIESAlthoughthisherbisstrictlyathyme,itservesasthesourceformostso-called‘oreganooil’.Forotherrelatedspeciesseeentriesoncommonthyme,commonoreganoandsweetmarjoram;seealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAccordingtoMrsGrievethepropertiesandoilofSpanishoregano(Thymuscapitatus)aresimilartothecommonthyme(T.vulgaris);italsosharesmanyqualitieswiththecommonoreganoorwildmarjoram(Origanumvulgare).

ACTIONSSeecommonoregano.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedfloweringtops.

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkbrownish-redorpurpleoilwithastrongtarlike,herbaceous,refreshingodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCarvacrol,thymol,cymene,caryophyllene,pinene,limonene,linalol,borneol,myrcene,thujone,terpinene.

SAFETYDATADermaltoxin,skinirritant,mucousmembraneirritant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedontheskinatall.’69

OTHERUSESSeecommonoregano.

ORRISIrispallida

Irispallida

FAMILYIridaceae

SYNONYMSOrrisroot,iris,flagiris,paleiris,orrisbutter(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAdecorativeperennialplantupto1.5metreshigh,withsword-shapedleaves,acreepingfleshyrootstockanddelicate,highlyscented,paleblueflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheeasternMediterraneanregion;alsofoundinnorthernIndiaandNorthAfrica.MostcommercialorrisisproducedinItalywhereitgrowswild.TheoilismainlyproducedinFranceandMoroccoandtolesserextentinItalyandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyspeciesofiris;cultivationhasalsoproducedfurthertypes.InItalythepaleiris(I.pallida)iscollectedindiscriminatelywiththeFlorentineorris(I.florentina)whichhaswhiteflowerstingedwithpaleblue,andthecommonorGermaniris(I.germanica)whichhasdeeppurpleflowerswithayellowbeard.OtherspecieswhichhavebeenusedmedicinallyincludetheAmericanblueflag(I.versicolor),andtheyellowflagiris(I.pseudacorus).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInancientGreeceandRomeorrisrootwasusedextensivelyinperfumery,anditsmedicinalqualitieswereheldinhighesteembyDioscorides.Thejuiceoftherootwasusedforcosmeticpurposes,andtherootbruisedinwinewasemployedfordropsy,bronchitis,coughs,hoarseness,chronicdiarrhoeaandcongestedheadaches.InRussiatherootwasusedtomakeatonicdrinkwithhoneyandginger.Irisislittleusedmedicinallythesedays,butitstillappearsintheBritish

HerbalPharmacopoeiaasbeingformerlyusedinupperrespiratorycatarrh,coughs,andfordiarrhoeaininfants.

ACTIONSDriedRoot–antidiarrhoeal,demulcent,expectorant.FreshRoot–diuretic,cathartic,emetic.

Orris

EXTRACTION1.Anessentialoil(oftencalleda‘concrete’)bysteamdistillationfromtherhizomeswhichhavebeenpeeled,washed,driedandpulverized.Therhizomesmustbestoredforaminimumofthreeyearspriortoextractionotherwisetheyhavevirtuallynoscent!2.Anabsoluteproducedbyalkaliwashinginethylethersolutiontoremovethemyristicacidfromthe‘concrete’oil.3.Aresinorresinoidbyalcoholextractionfromthepeeledrhizomes.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theoilsolidifiesatroomtemperaturetoacream-colouredmasswithawoody,violet-likescentandasoft,floral-fruityundertone.2.Theabsoluteisawater-whiteorpaleyellowoilyliquidwithadelicate,sweet,floral-woodyodour.3.Theresinisabrownordarkorangeviscousmasswithadeep,woodysweet,tobacco-likescent–verytenacious.Orrisblendswellwithcedarwood,sandalwood,vetiver,cypress,mimosa,

labdanum,bergamot,clarysage,rose,violetandotherflorals.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMyristicacid,anodourlesssubstancewhichmakesthe‘oil’solid(85–90percent),alpha-ironeandoleicacid.

SAFETYDATAThefreshrootcausesnauseaandvomitinginlargedoses.The

oilandabsolutearemuchadulteratedorsynthetic–‘true’orrisabsoluteisthreetimesthepriceofjasmine.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.However,thepowderedorris,whichisacommonarticle,maybeusedasadryshampoo,abodypowder,afixativeforpotpourris,andtoscentlinen.

OTHERUSESThepowderisusedtoscentdentifrices,toothpowders,etc.Theresinisusedinsoaps,colognesandperfumes;theabsoluteand‘concrete’oilarereservedforhigh-classperfumerywork.OccasionallyusedontheContinentforconfectioneryandfruitflavours.

OSMANTHUSOsmanthusfragrans

FAMILYOleaceae

SYNONYMSSweetosmanthus,sweetolive,teaolive,fragrantolive,silang,hollyosmanthus,hollyolive,kwaihwa.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreenshruborsmalltreegrowingupto12metrestall,withbroadleavesandbearingpurple-blackfruitscontainingasinglehard-shelledseed.Thesmallflowers,whichappearinclusterslateintheseason,canbewhite,paleyellow,gold,orangeorreddishincolour,withastrongsweetfragrancemuchlikefreshapricotsorpeaches.

DISTRIBUTIONThisplantisnativetoAsiafromtheHimalayasthroughsouthernChinatoTaiwanandsouthernJapan.Itisthe‘cityflower’ofthecitiesofHangzhou,SuzhouandGuilininChina.TodayitiscultivatedasanornamentalplantingardensinAsia,Europe,NorthAmerica,andelsewhereintheworld,mainlyforitsdeliciouslyfragrantflowers.

OTHERSPECIESOsmanthusisagenusofabout30speciesbelongingtotheolivefamily,whicharemainlyfoundgrowinginwarmclimates.WhiletheflowersofO.fragransrangeincolourfromsilver-white(O.fragransLour.var.latifolius)togold-orange(O.fragransLour.var.thunbergii)toreddish(O.fragransLour.var.aurantiacus),theabsoluteisusuallypreparedfromthegold-orangefloweredspecies.Anumberofcultivarsofthisspecieshavealsobeen

selectedforgardenuse,withspecificnames:forexample,inJapan,thewhiteandorange-blossomingsubspeciesaredistinguishedassilverosmanthusandgoldosmanthusrespectively.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheexoticflowersfromthisplanthavetraditionallybeencherishedintheEastforarangeofpurposes.Duetothetimeofitsblossoming,sweetosmanthusiscloselyassociatedwiththeChinesemid-autumnfestivalwhenosmanthus-flavouredwineandteaaretraditionallyserved.Theflowersarealsousedtoproduceaspecialosmanthus-scentedjam,calledguìhuàjiàng.ThetreeisknownasteaolivebecauseinancienttimestheChineseusedittomakeanatural‘de-tox’herbalteatoflushoutexcessivenitricoxidefromthesystem;thetisanewasalsorecommendedformenstrualirregularities.InsomeregionsofNorthIndia,especiallyinthestateofUttarakhand,theflowersofsweetosmanthusarestillusedtoprotectclothesfrominsects.TraditionalChinesemedicalliteraturedescribestheusefulnessoftheflowers

ofOsmanthusfragransinthetreatmentofphlegmreduction,dysenterywithbloodinthebowel,indigestionanddiarrhoea.TheChinesealsousedtheflowersasanaturalmedicinetoimprovethecomplexionoftheskinandtodaytheabsoluteisstillemployedincosmeticpreparations.However,modernevidenceregardingthetherapeuticefficacyoftheflowershasshownthemtobesomewhatlimited,althoughstudieshaveindicatedtheydohaveanti-oxidantproperties,valuableforskincare.FindingsalsoconfirmedtheabilityoftheO.fragransflowerstoreducephlegmandsuggestthattheymaybeusefulasananti-allergicagent.Althoughlittleusedinaromatherapy,sincethearomaisrelaxingandsoothing,helpingbringrelieffrommentalstressanddepression,itcanmakeavaluableadditiontofloral-basedblends.

ACTIONSAnti-oxidant,anti-allergic,expectorant,depurative,insecticide,nervine,regulating,sedative.

EXTRACTIONAconcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromthefreshflowers.Sincetheyieldofabsolutefromconcreteisonlyaboutonekiloper3,000kilosofflowers,theenfleuragemethodortheinfusionprocesshavealsobeenappliedtotheseflowers.

CHARACTERISTICSAgreentobrownviscousliquidwithaverystrongsweet-honey,floral,fruityperfumewithnotesofpeachandapricot.Itblendswellwithlime,orange,sandalwood,rose,benzoin,violet,jasmine,mimosaand

ylangylang.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS:Mainconstituentsincludebetaionone,gamma-decanolid,palmiticacid,linoleicacid,linalooloxide,dihydro-beta-Ionone,trans-beta-Iononeandcis-jasmone.

SAFETYDATANorecordedcontraindicationsforexternalapplication:bestavoidedduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Dryormatureskinandgeneralskincare.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,depression,nervousdebilityandtension,moodswings,stress.

OTHERUSESOsmanthusabsolute(althoughoftenadulterated)isusedinhigh-classperfumesforitsexquisitearoma,whichisverypleasingtothesenses.Itisalsousedasacosmeticingredient.

P

PALMAROSACymbopogonmartiniivar.martinii

FAMILYGraminaceae

SYNONYMSAndropogonmartinii,A.martiniivar.motia,EastIndiangeranium,Turkishgeranium,Indianrosha,motia.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAwild-growingherbaceousplantwithlongslenderstemsandterminalfloweringtops;thegrassyleavesareveryfragrant.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoIndiaandPakistan;nowgrowninAfrica,Indonesia,BrazilandtheComoroIslands.

OTHERSPECIESOfthesamefamilyaslemongrassandcitronella;alsocloselyrelatedtogingergrasswhichisadifferentchemotypeknownasC.martiniivar.sofia.GingergrassisconsideredaninferioroilbutinsomepartsofIndiathetwotypesofgrassaredistilledtogether.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION‘Theoilterm“Indian”or“Turkish”geraniumoil,whichformerlywasappliedtopalmarosaoil,datesbacktothetimewhentheoilwasshippedfromBombaytoportsoftheRedSeaandtransportedpartlybyland,toConstantinopleandBulgaria,wheretheoilwasoftenusedfortheadulterationofroseoil.’70

ACTIONSAntiseptic,bactericidal,cicatrisant,digestive,febrifuge,hydrating,stimulant(digestive,circulatory),tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamorwaterdistillationofthefreshordriedgrass.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworoliveliquidwithasweet,floral,rosy,

geranium-likescent.Itblendswellwithcananga,geranium,oakmoss,rosewood,amyris,sandalwood,guaiacwood,cedarwoodandfloraloils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlygeraniol;alsofarnesol,geranylacetate,methylheptenone,citronellol,citral,dipenteneandlimonene,amongothers.Severalchemotypesdependinguponsource–thecultivatedvarietiesareconsideredofsuperiorquality.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,dermatitisandminorskininfections,scars,sores,wrinkles;valuableforalltypesoftreatmentfortheface,hands,feet,neckandlips(moisturizestheskin,stimulatescellularregeneration,regulatessebumproduction).Digestivesystem:Anorexia,digestiveatonia,intestinalinfections–‘Thisisanessencewhichactsonthepathogenicintestinalflora,inparticularonthecolibacillus,theEberthbacillusandthebacillusofdysentery...thisessencefavoursthetransmutationofthepathogenicagentintonormalcellsofintestinalmucousmembranes.Thusitarreststhedegeneracyofthecellsforthelatter,swiftlyimpelsgroupsofnormalcellstowardsaninferiorformintheirhierarchy.Theessencedoesnotappeartocontainanyacid.’71Nervoussystem:Nervousexhaustion,stressrelatedconditions.

OTHERUSESUsedextensivelyasafragrancecomponentincosmetics,perfumesandespeciallysoapsduetoexcellenttenacity.Limiteduseasaflavouringagent,e.g.tobacco.Usedfortheisolationofnaturalgeraniol.

PARSLEYPetroselinumsativum

FAMILYApiaceae(Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMSP.hortense,Apiumpetroselinum,Carumpetroselinum,commonparsley,gardenparsley.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAbiennialorshortlivedperennialherbupto70cmshighwithcrinklybrightgreenfoliage,smallgreenish-yellowflowersand

producingsmallbrownseeds.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion,especiallyGreece.Itiscultivatedextensively,mainlyinCalifornia,Germany,France,Belgium,HungaryandpartsofAsia.Theprincipaloil-producingcountriesareFrance,Germany,HollandandHungary.

OTHERSPECIESThereareoverthirty-sevendifferentvarietiesofparsley,suchasthecurlyleavedtype(P.crispum),whichisusedinherbalmedicine.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItisusedextensivelyasaculinaryherb,bothfreshanddried.Itisaverynutritiousplant,highinvitaminsAandC;alsousedtofreshenthebreath.Theherbandseedareusedmedicinally,principallyforkidneyandbladderproblems,butithasalsobeenemployedformenstrualdifficulties,digestivecomplaintsandforarthritis,rheumatism,ricketsandsciatica.Itissaidtostimulatehairgrowth,andhelpeliminateheadlice.TherootiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificfor

flatulentdyspepsiawithintestinalcolic.

Parsley

ACTIONSAntimicrobial,antirheumatic,antiseptic,astringent,carminative,diuretic,depurative,emmenagogue,febrifuge,hypotensive,laxative,stimulant(mild),stomachic,tonic(uterine).

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfrom1.theseed,and2.theherb.(Anessentialoilisoccasionallyextractedfromtheroots;anoleoresinisalsoproducedbysolventextractionfromtheseeds.)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Ayellow,amberorbrownishliquidwithawarmwoody-spicyherbaceousodour.2.Apaleyelloworgreenishliquidwithaheavy,warm,spicy-sweetodour,reminiscentoftheherb.Itblendswellwithrose,neroli,cananga,teatree,oakmoss,clarysageandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.Mainlyapiol,withmyristicin,tetramethoxyallybenzene,pineneandvolatilefattyacids.2.Mainlymyristicin(upto85percent),withphellandrene,myrcene,apiol,terpinolene,menthatriene,pineneandcarotel,amongothers.

SAFETYDATABothoilsaremoderatelytoxicandirritant–myristicinhasbeenshowntohavetoxicproperties,andapiolhasbeenshowntohaveirritantproperties;otherwisenonsensitizing.Useinmoderation.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationmusclesandjoints:Accumulationoftoxins,arthritis,brokenbloodvessels,cellulitis,rheumatism,sciatica.Digestivesystem:Colic,flatulence,indigestion,haemorrhoids.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea,toaidlabour,cystitis,urinaryinfection.

OTHERUSESUsedinsomecarminativeanddigestiveremedies,suchas‘gripewaters’.Theseedoilisusedinsoaps,detergents,colognes,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallymen’sfragrances.Theherbandseedoilaswellastheoleoresinareusedextensivelyinmanytypesoffoodflavourings,especiallymeats,picklesandsauces,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

PATCHOULIPogostemoncablin

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSP.patchouly,patchouly,puchaput.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialbushyherbupto1metrehighwithasturdy,hairystem,large,fragrant,furryleavesandwhiteflowerstingedwithpurple.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotropicalAsia,especiallyIndonesiaandthePhilippines.ItisextensivelycultivatedforitsoilinitsnativeregionsaswellasIndia,China,MalaysiaandSouthAmerica.TheoilisalsodistilledinEuropeandAmericafromthedriedleaves.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtotheJavapatchouli(P.heyneanus),alsoknownasfalsepatchouli,whichisalsooccasionallyusedtoproduceanessentialoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheoilisusedintheEastgenerallytoscentlinenandclothes,andisbelievedtohelppreventthespreadofdisease(prophylactic).InChina,JapanandMalaysiatheherbisusedtotreatcolds,headaches,nausea,vomiting,diarrhoea,abdominalpainandhalitosis.InJapanandMalaysiaitisusedasanantidotetopoisonoussnakebites.

ACTIONSAntidepressant,anti-inflammatory,anti-emetic,antimicrobial,antiphlogistic,antiseptic,antitoxic,antiviral,aphrodisiac,astringent,bactericidal,carminative,cicatrisant,deodorant,digestive,diuretic,febrifuge,fungicidal,nervine,prophylactic,stimulant(nervous),stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationofthedriedleaves(usuallysubjectedtofermentationpreviously).Aresinoidisalsoproduced,mainlyasafixative.

CHARACTERISTICSAnamberordarkorangeviscousliquidwithasweet,rich,herbaceousearthyodour–itimproveswithage.Itblendswellwithlabdanum,vetiver,sandalwood,cedarwood,oakmoss,geranium,clove,lavender,rose,neroli,bergamot,cassia,myrrh,opopanax,clarysageandoriental-typebases.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSPatchoulialcohol(40percentapprox.),pogostol,bulnesol,norpatchoulenol,bulnese,patchoulene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,athlete’sfoot,crackedandchappedskin,dandruff,dermatitis,eczema(weeping),fungalinfections,haircare,impetigo,insectrepellent,sores,oilyhairandskin,openpores,wounds,wrinkles.Nervoussystem:Frigidity,nervousexhaustionandstressrelatedcomplaints.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedincosmeticpreparations,andasafixativeinsoapsandperfumes,especiallyorientaltypes.Extensivelyusedinthefoodindustry,inalcoholicandsoftdrinks.Itmakesagoodmaskingagentforunpleasanttastesandsmells.

PENNYROYALMenthapulegium

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSPulegium,Europeanpennyroyal,puddinggrass.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialherbupto50cmstallwithsmoothroundishstalks,small,palepurpleflowersandveryaromatic,grey-green,ovalleaves.Likeothermembersofthemintfamily,ithasafibrouscreepingroot.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEuropeandpartsofAsia;itiscultivatedmainlyinsouthernSpain,Morocco,Tunisia,Portugal,Italy,YugoslaviaandTurkey.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveraldifferentvarietiesofpennyroyalaccordingtolocation:inBritainthe‘erecta’and‘decumbens’typesaremostcommon.TheNorthAmericanpennyroyal(Hedeomapulegoides),whichisalsousedtoproduceanessentialoil,belongstoaslightlydifferentspecies,thoughitsharessimilarpropertieswiththeEuropeanvariety.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAherbalremedyofancientrepute,usedforawidevarietyofailments.Itwasbelievedtopurifythebloodandalsobeabletocommunicateitspurifyingqualitiestowater.‘Pennyroyalwaterwasdistilledfromtheleavesandgivenasanantidotetospasmodic,nervousandhystericalaffections.Itwasalsousedagainstcoldand“affectionsofthejoints”.’72ItisstillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,indicatedforflatulent

ItisstillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,indicatedforflatulentdyspepsia,intestinalcolic,thecommoncold,delayedmenstruation,cutaneouseruptionsandgout.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,diaphoretic,carminative,digestive,emmenagogue,insectrepellent,refrigerant,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshorslightlydriedherb.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithaveryfresh,mintyherbaceousodour.Itblendswellwithgeranium,rosemary,lavandin,sageandcitronella.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlypulegone,withmenthone,iso-menthone,octanol,piperitenoneandtrans-iso-pulegone.Constituentsvaryaccordingtosource–theMoroccanoilcontainsupto96percentpulegone.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin.Abortifacient(duetopulegonecontent).Ingestionoflargedoseshasresultedindeath.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedinaromatherapywhetherinternallyorexternally.’73

OTHERUSESUsedasafragrancematerialmainlyindetergentsorlow-costindustrialperfumes.Mainlyemployedasasourceofnaturalpulegone.

PEPPER,BLACKPipernigrum

FAMILYPiperaceae

SYNONYMSPiper,pepper.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialwoodyvineupto5metreshighwithheart-shapedleavesandsmallwhiteflowers.Theberriesturnfromredtoblackastheymature–blackpepperisthedriedfullygrownunripefruit.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthwestIndia;cultivatedextensivelyintropical

countries.MajorproducersareIndia,Indonesia,Malaysia,ChinaandMadagascar.ItisalsodistilledinEuropeandAmericafromtheimporteddriedfruits.

OTHERSPECIESTheso-calledwhitepepperisthedriedripefruitwiththeouterpericarpremoved.Nottobeconfusedwithcayennepepperorpaprikafromthecapsicumspecies,whichareusedtomakeanoleoresin.

BlackPepper

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONBothblackandwhitepepperhavebeenusedintheEastforover4000yearsformedicinalandculinarypurposes.InChinesemedicine,whitepepperisusedtotreatmalaria,cholera,dysentery,diarrhoea,stomachacheandotherdigestiveproblems.InGreeceitisusedforintermittentfeverandtofortifythestomach.‘ThemendicantmonksofIndiawhocoverdailyconsiderabledistancesonfoot,swallow7–9grainsofpepperaday.Thisgivesthemremarkableendurance.’74

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antimicrobial,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antitoxic,aperitif,aphrodisiac,bactericidal,carminative,diaphoretic,digestive,diuretic,febrifuge,laxative,rubefacient,stimulant(nervous,circulatory,digestive),stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheblackpeppercorns,driedandcrushed.(‘Light’and‘heavy’oilsareproducedbytheextractionofthe

loworhighboilingfractionsrespectively.)Anoleoresinisalsoproducedbysolventextraction,mainlyforflavouruse.

CHARACTERISTICSAwater-whitetopaleolivemobileliquidwithafresh,dry-woody,warm,spicyscent.Itblendswellwithfrankincense,sandalwood,lavender,rosemary,marjoram,spicesandflorals(inminutequantities).

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlymonoterpenes(70–80percent):thujene,pinene,camphene,sabinene,carene,myrcene,limonene,phellandrene,andsesquiterpenes(20–30percent)andoxygenatedcompounds.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,nonsensitizing,irritantinhighconcentrationduetorubefacientproperties.Useinmoderationonly.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Chilblains.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Anaemia,arthritis,muscularachesandpains,neuralgia,poorcirculation,poormuscletone(muscularatonia),rheumaticpain,sprains,stiffness.Respiratorysystem:Catarrh,chills.Digestivesystem:Colic,constipation,diarrhoea,flatulence,heartburn,lossofappetite,nausea.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,infectionsandviruses.

OTHERUSESUsedincertaintonicandrubefacientpreparations.Usedforunusualeffectsinperfumerywork;forexample,withroseorcarnationinorientalorfloralfragrances.Theoilandoleoresinareusedextensivelyinthefoodindustry,aswellasinalcoholicdrinks.

PETITGRAINCitrusaurantiumvar.amara

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSC.bigaradia,petitgrainbigarade(oil),petitgrainParaguay(oil).Seealsobitterorange.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONTheoilofpetitgrainisproducedfromtheleaves

andtwigsofthesametreethatproducesbitterorangeoilandnerolioil:seebitterorangeandneroli.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernChinaandnortheastIndia.ThebestqualitypetitgrainoilcomesfromFrancebutagood-qualityoilisalsoproducedinNorthAfrica,ParaguayandHaitifromsemi-wildtrees.

OTHERSPECIESAtypeofpetitgrainisalsoproducedinsmallquantitiesfromtheleaves,twigsandsmallunripefruitofthelemon,sweetorange,mandarinandbergamottrees.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAtonetimetheoilusedtobeextractedfromthegreenunripeorangeswhentheywerestillthesizeofacherry–hencethenamepetitgrainsor‘littlegrains’.Oneoftheclassicingredientsofeau-de-cologne.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,deodorant,digestive,nervine,stimulant(digestive,nervous),stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandtwigs.Anorange‘leafandflower’waterabsoluteisalsoproduced,knownaspetitgrainsurfleurs.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowtoamberliquidwithafresh-floralcitrusscentandawoody-herbaceousundertone.Itblendswellwithrosemary,lavender,geranium,bergamot,bitterorange,labdanum,neroli,oakmoss,clarysage,jasmine,benzoin,palmarosa,cloveandbalsams.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS40–80percentesters:mainlylinalylacetateandgeranylacetate,aswellaslinalol,nerol,terpineol,geraniol,nerolidol,farnesol,limonene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing,non-phototoxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,excessiveperspiration,greasyskinandhair,toning.Digestivesystem:Dyspepsia,flatulence.Nervoussystem:Convalescence,insomnia,nervousexhaustionandstressrelatedconditions.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallycolognes(sometimesusedtoreplaceneroli).Employedasaflavourcomponentinmanyfoods,especiallyconfectionery,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

PINE,DWARFPinusmugovar.pumilio

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMSP.mugo,P.montana,P.pumilio,mountainpine,Swissmountainpine,pineneedle(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONApyramidalshruborsmalltreeupto12metreshighwithablackbark,stiffandtwistedneedlesborneinclusters,andbrowncones,initiallyofabluishhue.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothemountainousregionsofcentralandsouthernEurope.TheoilismainlyproducedinAustria(Tirol),Yugoslavia,DenmarkandItaly.

OTHERSPECIESThereareverymanyspeciesofpineusedtoproduceessentialoilfromtheirneedlesandwoodoremployedintheproductionofturpentine.NB:Theso-calledhuonpine(Dacrydiumfranklinii),theessentialoilofwhichisalsoaskinirritant,belongstoadifferentfamily,thePodcarpaceae.ForfurtherdetailsseeScotchpineandtheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONApreparationmadefromtheneedleshasbeenusedinternallyforbladder,kidneyandrheumaticcomplaints,asalinimentforrheumatismandmuscularpain,andasaninhalantforbronchitis,catarrh,colds,etc.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antimicrobial,antiseptic,antitussive,antiviral,balsamic,diuretic,expectorant,rubefacient.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheneedlesandtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICSAwater-whiteliquidwithaverypleasant,balsamic-

sweet,spicy-woodyscentofgoodtenacity.Thisisthefavouredpinefragranceforperfumeryuseduetoitsuniquedelicateodour,whichblendswellwithcedarwood,lavandin,rosemary,sage,cananga,labdanum,juniperandotherconiferousoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlymonoterpenehydrocarbons;limonene,pinenes,phellandrene,dipentene,camphene,myrceneandbornylacetateamongothers.Theunusualscentisbelievedtobeduetoitsaldehydecontent.

SAFETYDATADermalirritant,commonsensitizingagent;otherwisenon-toxic.Itisbestavoidedtherapeuticallyduetoirritanthazards.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESUsedasafragranceandflavourcomponentinpharmaceuticalpreparationsforcoughsandcolds,nasalcongestionandexternallyinanalgesicointmentsandliniments.Extensivelyemployedinsoaps,bathpreparations,toiletries,cosmeticsandperfumes,especially‘leather’and‘woody’typefragrances.Itisalsousedinmostmajorfoodcategories,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

PINE,LONGLEAFPinuspalustris

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMSLongleafyellowpine,southernyellowpine,pitchpine,pine(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtallevergreentreewithlongneedlesandastraighttrunk,grownextensivelyforitstimber.Itexudesanaturaloleoresinfromthetrunk,whichprovidesthelargestsourcefortheproductionofturpentineinAmerica–seealsoentryonturpentine.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosoutheasternUSA,wheretheoilislargelyproduced.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerousotherspeciesofpineallovertheworldwhichareusedtoproducepineoil,aswellaspineneedleandturpentineoil–seeBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONPinesawdusthasbeenusedforcenturiesasahighlyesteemedhouseholdremedyforavarietyofailments.‘Itisagrand,gentle,althoughpowerfulexternalantisepticremedy,appliedasapoulticeinrheumatismwhenlocalised,hardcanceroustumours,tuberculosisinthekneeoranklejoints,diseaseofthebone,inshort,allsluggishmorbiddeposits...Ihaveuseditbehindtheheadforfailingsight,downthespineforgeneraldebility,ontheloinsforlumbago,etc.allwiththebestresults.’75

ACTIONSAnalgesic(mild),antirheumatic,antiseptic,bactericidal,expectorant,insecticidal,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONThecrudeoilisobtainedbysteamdistillationfromthesawdustandwoodchipsfromtheheartwoodandrootsofthetree(wastagefromthetimbermills),andthensubmittedtofractionaldistillationunderatmosphericpressuretoproducepineessentialoil.

CHARACTERISTICSAwater-whiteorpaleyellowliquidwithasweet-balsamic,pinewoodscent.Itblendswellwithrosemary,pineneedle,cedarwood,citronella,rosewood,holeafandoakmoss.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTerpineol,estragole,fenchone,fenchylalcoholandborneol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic;non-irritant(exceptinconcentration);possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,debility,lumbago,muscularachesandpains,poorcirculation,rheumatism,stiffness,etc.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,sinusitis.

OTHERUSESUsedextensivelyinmedicine,particularlyinveterinaryantisepticsprays,disinfectants,detergentsandinsecticides(asasolventcarrier).Employedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,toiletries,bathproductsandperfumes.Alsousedinpaintmanufacturealthoughitisincreasinglybeingreplacedbysynthetic‘pineoil’.

PINE,SCOTCHPinussylvestris

Pinussylvestris

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMSForestpine,Scotspine,Norwaypine,pineneedle(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtallevergreentree,upto40metreshighwithaflatcrown.Ithasareddish-brown,deeplyfissuredbark,longstiffneedleswhichgrowinpairs,andpointedbrowncones.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEurasia;cultivatedintheeasternUSA,Europe,Russia,theBalticStatesandScandinavia,especiallyFinland.

OTHERSPECIESLikethefirtree,therearenumerousspeciesofpinewhichyieldanessentialoilfromtheirheartwoodaswellasfromtheirtwigsandneedlesandarealsousedtoproduceturpentine.TheoilfromtheneedlesoftheScotchpineisoneofthemostusefulandsafesttherapeutically.Otherspecieswhichproducepineneedleoilincludetheeasternwhitepine(P.strobus)fromtheeasternUSAandCanada,thedwarfpine(P.mugovar.pumilio)grownincentralandsouthernEurope,andtheblackpine(P.nigra)fromAustriaandYugoslavia.Manyvarieties,suchasthelongleafpine(Pinuspalustris),areusedto

produceturpentine.Inaddition,theoilcommonlyknownasSiberianpineneedleoilisactuallyfromtheSiberianfir(Abiessibirica).SeealsodwarfpineandtheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheyoungmaceratedshootsareaddedtothebathfornervousexhaustion,circulatorydisorders,slow,healingwounds,arthritis,rheumatismandskindisorders.ItwasusedbytheAmericanIndianstopreventscurvy,andtostuffmattressestorepelliceandfleas.Asaninhalationithelpsrelievebronchialcatarrh,asthma,blockedsinuses,

etc.Thepinekernelsaresaidtobeexcellentrestorativesforconsumptives,andafterlongillness.

ACTIONSAntimicrobial,antineuralgic,antirheumatic,antiscorbutic,antiseptic(pulmonary,urinary,hepatic),antiviral,bactericidal,balsamic,cholagogue,choleretic,deodorant,diuretic,expectorant,hypertensive,insecticidal,restorative,rubefacient,stimulant(adrenalcortex,circulatory,nervous),vermifuge.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilbydrydistillationoftheneedles.2.Gumturpentineisproducedbysteamdistillationfromtheoleoresin:seeentryonturpentine.(Aninferioressentialoilisalsoproducedbydrydistillationfromthewoodchippings,etc.)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Pineneedleoilisacolourlessorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithastrong,dry-balsamic,turpentine-likearoma.Itblendswellwithcedarwood,rosemary,teatree,sage,lavender,juniper,lemon,niaouli,eucalyptusandmarjoram.2.Seeentryonturpentine.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS50–90percentmonoterpenehydrocarbons:pinenes,carene,dipentene,limonene,terpinenes,myrcene,ocimene,camphene,sabinene;alsobornylacetate,cineol,citral,chamazulene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant(exceptinconcentration),possiblesensitization.Avoidinallergicskinconditions.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Cuts,lice,excessiveperspiration,scabies,sores.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,gout,muscularachesandpains,poorcirculation,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,coughs,sinusitis,sorethroat.Genito-urinarysystem:Cystitis,urinaryinfection.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu.Nervoussystem:Fatigue,nervousexhaustionandstressrelatedconditions,neuralgia.

OTHERUSESUsedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmetics,toiletries(especiallybathproducts)and,toalimitedextent,perfumes.Employedasaflavouringredientinmajorfoodproducts,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

PLAIZingibercassumunar

FAMILYZingiberaceae

SYNONYMSZ.montanum,Z.cassumunar‘Roxburgh’,Z.purpureum‘Roscoe’,cassumunarginger.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONTherootofthistropicalperennialplantistuberous,withlongfleshyfibresandjointedappendages,muchlikegingerbutslightlylarger.Thefreshrhizome,whichisyellowinside,hasacool,green,camphoraceous,spicy-warmscent.Thestemismadeofgreenleafsheatheswhicharegrass-likewithbrownish-purplepointedshootsbearingpaleyellowflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoThailand,IndonesiaandIndia:itisnowcommonlyfoundthroughoutAsia.SinceplaiisanimportantmedicinalplantinThailand,therearemanyregionswhereplaiiscultivatedandtherearenowatleastthreenativevarietiesorsub-speciesfoundinThailand.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralsub-species(andessentialoilchemotypes)ofplaidependingonthelocationoftheplantfromwhichithasbeenextracted.Essentialoilproducedfromrhizomesgrowninthenorth-westregionisthemosttypicalfromThailandandcontainsalmostasmuchterpinen-4-olasteatreeoil.Terpinen-4-olhasbeenwellresearched,andistoknowntoactivatewhitebloodcells:italsohassignificantantibacterial,antiviralandantifungalproperties.Oilproducedfromthecentralregioncontainsmoresabinene.Zingibercassumunarisacloserelativeofgingerandgalangal,bothofwhichareusedtoproduceessentialoils.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONZingibercassumunariswidelyusedinfolkloreremediesasasingleplantorascomponentofherbalrecipesinThailandandmanyAsiancountriesforthetreatmentsofconditions,suchasinflammation,sprainsandstrains,rheumatismandmuscularpain.Althoughitisderivedfromthesameplantfamilyasginger(Zingiberofficinale),itdoesnotpossesstheclassicwarmingeffectcommontoginger.Instead,plaihasacoolingactiononinflamedareas,makingitanexcellentchoicefortreatinginjuries,post-operativepainandalltypesofmuscularandjointpainsuchastornmusclesandligamentsaswellasconditionssuchasarthritisandrheumatism.Forthisreason,plaihaslongbeenregardedbyThaimassagetherapistsasoneofthemostessentialoilstohaveattheirdisposal.Althoughgenerallydilutedwithacarrieroil,itcanbeapplieddirectlytotheskinwhentreatingareasofseverepainorinflammationthatareclosetothesurfaceoftheskin.Itisreportedtoeasepainforupto16–20hours–itisevenusedbyThaiboxersforpainrelief!Usedinskincare,theoilexhibitsgoodantioxidantpropertiesandisusedin

Thaiculturetotreatstretchmarksandscars;alsotohealwounds.Plaiherbal

compoundisusedtraditionallyintheformofapoulticeanddecoctionforthetreatmentofarangeofdigestivedisordersincludingcolic,constipation,diarrhoea,flatulence,nauseaheartburn.ZingibercassumunarisalsoatraditionalThairemedyforrespiratoryconditions,includingasthma,catarrh,coldsandcoughs,feverandinfluenza.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antioxidant,antibacterial,antimicrobial,antihistamine,antineuralgic,antifungal,anti-inflammatory,antiseptic,antispasmodic,antitoxic,antiviral,carminative,digestive,diuretic,febrifugal,laxative,rubefacient,rejuvenating,stimulant,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONSteamdistilledfromthefreshrhizome(roots)ofthePlaiplant(Zingibercassumunar).

CHARACTERISTICSTheoilisapaleambercolourwithafresh,herbaceous,spicy-greenscentandaresinous,slightlyfloralundertone.Itwillblendswellwithblackpepper,bergamot,ginger,grapefruit,lemongrass,lime,jasmine,lavender,neroli,petitgrain,rosemary,sandalwoodandteatree.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThemainactivechemicalconstituentsoftheoilareterpinen-4-ol(upto49percent)sabinene(upto45percent),DMPBD(uptopercent),g-terpineneanda-terpinene–dependingonthesourceoftheoil.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritatingandnonsensitizing.Besttocheckforanypossiblesensitizationduetovariantsinchemotypesavailable.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,cuts,stretchmarks,scars,wounds.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Alltypesofachesandpainscausedbyinflammation,includingarthritisandrheumatism,cramp,gout,jointproblems,musclespasm,sprainsandstrains,tornmusclesandligamentsaswellaspost-operativepain.Digestivesystem:Cramps,colic,constipation,diarrhea,flatulence,indigestion,heartburn.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,catarrh,chroniccolds,bronchitis,congestion,fever,flu,sinusitis.Genito-urinarysystem:Menstrualcramps.Immunesystem:Stimulatestheimmunesystemandboostsvitality.

Nervoussystem:Anxiety,nervoustension,stress.

OTHERUSESThefreshrhizomeorpowderedrootismuchusedintraditionalThaicuisine.Theoilisusedinthepharmaceuticalindustry,forexample,inmosquitorepellantformulations.

R

RAVENSARARavensaraaromatica

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMSMadagascarclove-nutmeg,aromaticravensare,Ravensaraanisata,Agatophyllumaromaticum.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONThegenusRavensaraincludesmanyspeciesofevergreentreesorshrubsnativetoMadagascarandtheComoroIslands.Theseevergreentreescangrowupto30metrestallinrainforests,usuallyonalltypeofsoils.Thebest-knownspeciesofthisgenusisR.aromaticausedforitsessentialoil.Itgrowstoaheightofabout20metreswithseveralbuttressrootsatthebase,withreddishbark,darkgreenshinyleavesandsmallyellow-greenflowers.Thefruit,afleshyberry,areanimportantfoodsourceforbirds.Allpartsofthetreearearomatic.

DISTRIBUTIONR.aromaticaisnativetoMadagascarandoncethrivedintherainforests,butisnowanendangeredspeciesduetode-forestationandover-exploitation.Bytheearlypartofthiscentury,thisspeciesrequiredprotectionastheproductionoftheessentialoilfromthebark,usedbythepharmaceuticalindustry,wasparticularlydestructiveasitrequiredfellingthetrees.Onlytheleavescannowbeusedforoilproduction,topreventcuttingdownthewholetree.Thereisnowaconservationprogrammeinplacetoprotectthesetrees:itisthereforeimportanttoobtaintheessentialoiloftheleaffromsustainablesources.

OTHERSPECIESThereareover30speciesofRavensarathatgrowinMadagascar.ThecommonnameofthegenusRavensaraisactuallyalatinizationoftheMalagasytermravintsarawhichmeans‘goodleaves’,atermoriginallyusedbythenativestodescribeanotherspeciesoftree.Europeanbotanistsinthe

nineteenthcenturymadeseveralattemptstoclassifythevariousindigenousaromatictreesofMadagascar,butduetothesimilarityofthetwonames‘ravintsara’and‘ravensara’theycametobeusedalmostinterchangeably.Thebotanicalconfusionbetweenthesetwospecieshascontinuedtocauseagreatdealofuncertaintyastotheirpreciseorigins.Infact,theessentialoilsderivedfromthesetwospeciesareverydifferentaromaticallyaswellasintheirchemicalcomposition.However,mostofso-called‘ravensara’oilfromMadagascar,isactuallyproducedfromtheCinnamomumcamphoraspecies(evenifitissaidtoderivefromR.aromatica)sogreatcareneedstobetakeninidentifyingthecorrectsourceofeachoil.SeealsoentryforRavintsara.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInMadagascar,thisgenusoftreesiscommonlycalledhazomanitra,meaning‘treethatsmells’,asthewholepartoftheplantisaromatic.Traditionally,theMalagasypeopleusedthebarkandstemasatonicandasanantibacterialmedicine.Theleaveswerealsoburntinhomesafteradeathtopreventthespreadofdiseasewhiletheanise-flavouredbarkwasusedintheproductionoflocalrum.TheoilfromtheRavensaragenusisreferredtolocallyas‘theoilthatheals’becauseitisusedforsomanydifferentconditions.Theessentialoilfromthebark,R.anisata(asynonymforR.aromatica)isknownas‘havozo’andhasastronganise-likeodour.

ACTIONSAntiviral,antibacterial,antifungal,anti-infectious,antiseptic,antispasmodic,expectorant,immune-stimulant.

EXTRACTION1.Ravensaraoilissteamdistilledfromtheleavesoftheplant.2.Theessentialoildistilledfromthebarkiscalledhavozo.3.Anessentialoilisalsoextractedoccasionallyfromthefleshyfruitsorberries.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Ravensaraoil(fromtheleaf)hasasweet,fresh,slightlylemony,licorice-likescentwithanearthyundertone.2.Havozo(fromthebark)hasafresh,stronganiseed-likeodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTS1.Theoilfromtheleafcontainsrelativelysmallamountsofmethylchavicol(estragole),myrcene,a-pineneandlinaloolwiththemainconstituentsbeinglimonene(approx.13–22percent)andsabinene(approx.10–16percent)withverylittle1,8-cineole(1.8–3.3percent).2.Havozo(barkoil)hasahighmethylchavicolcontent(upto90percent).

SAFETYDATA1.Ravensara(R.aromatica)isgenerallyconsideredasafeoil(non-toxicandnon-irritant)althoughitisbestavoidedduringpregnancy.2.Havozooilisnotrecommendedforuseinaromatherapyduetoitshighmethylchavicolcontent,asitisasuspectedcarcinogen.Researchhasshown,neverthelessthisoilhaspotentantimicrobialproperties,beingactiveagainstE.coli.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Chickenpox,coldsores,herpes(alltypes),shingles.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Achinglimbs,arthritis,cramp,gout,musclefatigue,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Bronchitis,colds,congestion,influenza,sinusitis,throatandlunginfections,whoopingcough.Immunesystem:Viralinfectionsespeciallyherpes,hepatitis,chickenpox.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,insomnia,nervoustension,stress.

OTHERUSESRavensaraspecieshavebeenusedforalongtimetoproduceessentialoilsforthepharmaceuticalsindustry.Inperfumeryusage,itisemployedasamiddlenote.

RAVINTSARACinnamomumcamphora

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMSCinnamomumcamphoract.1,8-cineole.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONCinnamomumcamphoraisatallevergreentropicaltreecharacteristicoftheLaurelfamilythatgrowsupto20–30metrestall.Thefoliageisbrightgreenandtheleaveshaveaglossy,waxyappearancebearingmassesofsmallwhiteflowersinspring.Itproducesclustersofshinyblackberriesandhasapalebarkthatisveryroughandfissuredvertically.

DISTRIBUTIONC.camphoraisnativetoChina,Japan,andTaiwanbuthasbeenintroducedtomanycountriesthroughouttheworldincludingIndia,AustraliaandtheUSA,whereinplacessuchasFloridaitisbecomingincreasinglyinvasiveandadangertothenativeflora.ThisspeciesisnotindigenoustoMadagascarandwasintroducedontotheislandduringthemiddle

ofthenineteenthcentury.AstheplantbecameaccustomedtotheMalagasyclimateitbecameadistinctsubspecies,whichintimeadaptedsowelltothenewenvironment,naturalizinginthecentral-easternregions,thatitbecameaverysustainablespeciesforproducinganessentialoil,nowcalledravintsaraoil.However,sinceitiscleartherearemanydifferentsub-varietiesofC.camphorainvariouspartsoftheworld,itispossiblethattherealsoexistedanothernativearomatictreealreadygrowinginMadagascaroriginallyknownasravintsarabythelocalpeople.AccordingtoGeorgesM.HalperninTheHealingTrail:EssentialOilsofMadagascar,anindigenoustreeofthisnamehadbeenpartoftheMalagasycultureformanycenturiesanditsleaveswereusedasatraditionalfolkmedicine.

OTHERSPECIESThegenusCinnamomumhasapproximately250differentspecies,manyofwhichyieldanessentialoilondistillation.AmongstthemostimportantareC.zeylanicum(cinnamonbarkandleafoils)andC.cassia(cassiaoil).ThesinglespeciesC.camphoraitselfproducesawiderangeofessentialoilsincluding:camphor,howoodandleafoil,sassafrasandravintsara.Alltheseessentialoils,althoughderivedfromthesametropicaltreeorbotanicalspecies,differintheirchemicalprofileenormouslydependingonthecountryoforiginaswellasthepartoftheplantusedtoextracttheoil:e.g.leaforbark.

Thereareatleast6differentchemotypesofC.camphoraessentialoilduetothisfactor,includingthecamphor,linalool,1,8-cineole,nerolidol,safroleandborneoltypes.Forexample,C.camphora,growninTaiwanandJapan,isknownasHooil,andhaslinaloolasitsmajorconstituent,whereasinIndiaandSriLankathecamphortypeofC.camphoraremainsthemostimportant.ThevarietyofC.camphoracultivatedinMadagascarcontainshighlevelsof1,8-cineoleandnocamphor.Inordertoavoidanyconfusion,ithasbeensuggestedthatRavintsarashouldbelabelled:‘Cinnamomumcamphoract.1,8-cineole.’

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThetermCinnamomumisderivedfromtheGreekrootkinnamonorkinnamomonmeaning‘sweetwood’.Thewordravintmeansleafandsarameans‘goodforyou’accordingtotheMalagasytradition,asthelocalpeoplehavelongappreciatedthetherapeuticvalueofitsleaveswhichwereusedinfolkmedicinetotreatdigestivecomplaints,headaches,coldsandchestinfections.Ithasalsobeenusedforculinaryapplicationsandemployedasaherbaltea.TheMalagasypeoplethemselvesbelievethattheoriginalRavintsaratreeisanindigenousspecies:a‘cousin’ofthewell-known

C.camphoraspecies,whichhassincebeenintroduced.

ACTIONSAntibacterial,anticatarrhal,antifungal,anti-infectious,antimicrobial,antirheumatic,antiviral,decongestant,cicatrisant(woundhealer),expectorant,immuneandneurotonic.

EXTRACTIONSteamdistilledfromtheleavesoftheplant.

CHARACTERISTICSFresh,woody,slightlyfloral,balsamic,eucalyptus-likescent.Itblendswellwitheucalyptus,rosemary,bay,frankincense,cardamon,pine,cypress,juniperandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSRavintsaraisakintoEucalyptusglobulusoil(asbothareparticularlyeffectiveforrespiratoryinfections)duetoitshigh1,8-cineolecontentrangingfrom45–55percent.Othermajorconstituentsincludemonoterpenes(sabinene15percent,alpha-pineneandbeta-pinene),sesquiterpenes(beta-carophyllene),monoterpenicalcohols(alpha-terpineol7percentandterpineol)andesters(terpenylacetate).

NOTE:Ravintsaraessentialoilcontainatleast45percent1,8-cineolecomparedtoapproximately5percentfoundinRavensaraaromaticaoil.

SAFETYDATARavintsaraoilisgenerallyverywelltoleratedbythemajorityofthepopulation,althoughlikeeucalyptus,itcancausesensitizationinsomeindividualsandshouldbeusedinmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Shingles,herpes,verrucas,wartsandathletesfoot.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Achingmusclesandjoints.Respiratorysystem:Coughs,colds,influenzaandotherrespiratoryailmentssuchasasthma,bronchitis,sinusitis,laryngitis,otitis,tonsillitisandwhoopingcough.Immunesystem:Viralinfectionsespeciallyair-borneinfections.Nervoussystem:Nervousdebility

OTHERUSESRavintsaraoilisproducedina‘pharmaceuticalgrade’forthechemicalandperfumeryindustry.

ROSE,CABBAGERosacentifolia

Rosacentifolia

FAMILYRosaceae

SYNONYMSRosemaroc,Frenchrose,Provencerose,hundred-leavedrose,Moroccanottoofrose(oil),Frenchottoofrose(oil),rosedemai(absoluteorconcrete).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONTherosewhichisgenerallyusedforoilproductionisstrictlyahybridbetweenR.centifolia,apinkrose,andR.gallica,adarkredrose.Thisvariety,knownasrosedemai,growstoaheightof2.5metresandproducesanabundanceofflowerswithlargepinkorrosy-purplepetals.Therearetwosubspecies–oneismorespinythantheother.

DISTRIBUTIONThebirthplaceofthecultivatedroseisbelievedtobeancientPersia;nowcultivatedmainlyinMorocco,Tunisia,Italy,France,YugoslaviaandChina.Theconcrete,absoluteandoilaremainlyproducedinMorocco;theabsoluteinFrance,ItalyandChina.

CabbageRose

OTHERSPECIESThereareover10,000typesofcultivatedrose!ThereareseveralsubspeciesofR.centifolia,dependingonthecountryoforigin.Othertherapeuticspeciesaretheredroseorapothecaryrose(R.gallica)oftraditionalWesternmedicine,theorientalortearose(R.indica),theChineseorJapanese

rose(R.rugosa)andtheTurkishorBulgarianrose(R.damascena)whichisalsoextensivelycultivatedforitsoil.RecentlyrosehipseedoilfromR.rubiginosahasbeenfoundtobeaveryeffectiveskintreatment;itpromotestissueregenerationandisgoodforscars,burnsandwrinkles.Thewildrose(Eubatusrubus)isnowalsobeingusedtoproducearareabsolutewitharich,spicy-earthyfragrance.SeealsoentryondamaskroseandtheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThehealingvirtuesoftherosehavebeenknownsinceantiquityandalthoughrosesarerarelyusedinherbalpracticenowadays,uptotheMiddleAgestheyplayedanessentialpartinthemateriamedica,andstill

fulfilanimportantroleinEasternmedicine.Theywereusedforawiderangeofdisorders,includingdigestiveandmenstrualproblems,headachesandnervoustension,livercongestion,poorcirculation,fever(plague),eyeinfectionsandskincomplaints.‘Thesymbolismconnectedwiththeroseisperhapsoneoftherichestandmostcomplexassociatedwithanyplant...traditionallyassociatedwithVenus,theGoddessofloveandbeauty,andinourmaterialisticagetheGoddessiscertainlyaliveandwellinthecosmeticsindustryforroseoil(mainlysynthetic)isfoundasacomponentin46%ofmen’sperfumesand98%ofwomen’sfragrances.’76TheFrenchorMoroccanrosepossessesnarcoticpropertiesandhasthe

reputationforbeingaphrodisiac(moresothantheBulgariantype),possiblyduetothehighpercentageofphenylethanolintheformer.Forfurtherdistinctionsbetweenthedifferentpropertiesofrosetypes,seedamaskrose.

ACTIONSAntidepressant,antiphlogistic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,anti-tubercularagent,antiviral,aphrodisiac,astringent,bactericidal,choleretic,cicitrisant,depurative,emmenagogue,haemostatic,hepatic,laxative,regulatorofappetite,sedative(nervous),stomachic,tonic(heart,liver,stomach,uterus).

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilorottobywaterorsteamdistillationfromthefreshpetals.(Rosewaterisproducedasabyproductofthisprocess.)2.Concreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromthefreshpetals.(AroseleafabsoluteisalsoproducedinsmallquantitiesinFrance.)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theoilisapaleyellowliquidwithadeep,sweet,

rosy-floral,tenaciousodour.2.Theabsoluteisareddishorangeviscousliquidwithadeep,rich,sweet,rosy-spicy,honeylikefragrance.Itblendswellwithjasmine,cassie,mimosa,neroli,geranium,bergamot,lavender,clarysage,sandalwood,guaiacwood,patchouli,benzoin,chamomile,Perubalsam,cloveandpalmarosa.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSIthasover300constituents,someinminutetraces.Mainlycitronellol(18–22percent),phenylethanol(63percent),geraniolandnerol(10–15percent),stearopten(8percent),farnesol(0.2–2percent),amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Brokencapillaries,conjunctivitis(rosewater),dryskin,eczema,herpes,matureandsensitivecomplexions,wrinkles.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Palpitations,poorcirculation.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,coughs,hayfever.Digestivesystem:Cholecystitis,livercongestion,nausea.Genito-urinarysystem:Irregularmenstruation,leucorrhoea,menorrhagia,uterinedisorders.Nervoussystem:Depression,impotence,insomnia,frigidity,headache,nervoustensionandstress-relatedcomplaints–‘Buttheroseprocuresusonethingaboveall:afeelingofwellbeing,evenofhappiness,andtheindividualunderitsinfluencewilldevelopanamiabletolerance.’77

OTHERUSESRosewaterisusedasahouseholdcosmeticandculinaryarticle(especiallyinPersiancookery).Theconcrete,absoluteandoilareemployedextensivelyinsoaps,cosmetics,toiletriesandperfumesofalltypes–floral,oriental,chypres,etc.Someflavouringuses,especiallyfruitproductsandtobacco.

ROSE,DAMASKRosadamascena

FAMILYRosaceae

SYNONYMSSummerdamaskrose,Bulgarianrose,Turkishrose(Anatolian

roseoil),ottoofrose(oil),attarofrose(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONSmallpricklyshrubbetween1metreand2metreshigh,withpink,veryfragrantbloomswiththirty-sixpetals,andwhitishhairyleaves.Itrequiresaveryspecificsoilandclimate.

DISTRIBUTIONBelievedtobeanativeoftheOrient,nowcultivatedmainlyinBulgaria,TurkeyandFrance.SimilartypesaregrowninChina,IndiaandRussia;however,Indiaproducesonlyrosewaterandaytar–amixtureofroseottoandsandalwood.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanydifferentsubspecies:theTurkishvarietyisknownsimplyasR.damascena.‘Trigintipetala’istheprincipalcultivarincommercialcultivation,knownasthe‘Kazanlikrose’.Bulgariaalsogrowsthewhiterose(R.damascenavar.alba)orthemuskrose(R.muscatta)whichisusedasawindbreakaroundthedamaskroseplantations.SeealsocabbageroseandtheBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION‘Thedamaskrose,onaccountofitsfragrance,belongstothecephalics;butthenextvaluablevirtuethatitpossessesconsistsinitscatharticquality...oilofrosesisusedbyitselftocoolhotinflammationsorswellings,andtobindandstayfluxesofhumourstosores.’78RosehipsarestillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,mainlydueto

theirhighvitaminCcontent(alsoAandB).Forfurthergeneralproperties,seeentryforcabbagerose.

ACTIONSSeecabbagerose.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilorottobywaterorsteamdistillationfromthefreshpetals.2.Aconcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromthefreshpetals.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Apaleyelloworoliveyellowliquidwithaveryrich,deep,sweet-floral,slightlyspicyscent.2.Theabsoluteisareddishorangeoroliveviscousliquidwitharich,sweet,spicy-floral,tenaciousodour.Itblendswellwithmostoils,andisusefulfor‘roundingoff’blends.TheBulgariantypeisconsideredsuperiorinperfumerywork,butintherapeuticpracticeitismoreamatterofdifferingpropertiesbetweenthevarioustypesofrose.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycitronellal(34–55percent),geraniolandnerol(30–40percent),stearopten(16–22percent),phenylethanol(1.5–3percent)andfarnesol(0.2–2percent),withmanyothertraceconstituents.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeecabbagerose.

OTHERUSESSeecabbagerose.

ROSEMARYRosmarinusofficinalis

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSR.coronarium,compassplant,incensier.

Rosemary

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAshrubbyevergreenbushupto2metreshighwithsilverygreen,needle-shapedleavesandpaleblueflowers.Thewholeplantisstronglyaromatic.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion,nowcultivated

worldwideinCalifornia,Russia,MiddleEast,England,France,Spain,Portugal,Yugoslavia,Morocco,China,etc.Themainoil-producingcountriesareFrance,SpainandTunisia.

OTHERSPECIESR.officinalisisthetypeusedforoilproductionbutitisgenerallynotspecified,althoughtherearemanydifferentcultivars,forexamplepine-scentedrosemary(R.officinalisvar.angustifolius).SeealsoBotanicalClassification.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONOneoftheearliestplantstobeusedforfood,medicineandmagic,beingregardedassacredinmanycivilizations.SprigsofrosemarywereburntatshrinesinancientGreece,fumigationswereusedintheMiddleAgestodriveawayevilspirits,andtoprotectagainstplagueandinfectiousillness.Ithasbeenusedforawiderangeofcomplaintsincludingrespiratoryand

circulatorydisorders,livercongestion,digestiveandnervouscomplaints,muscularandrheumaticpain,skinandhairproblems.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificfor‘depressivestateswithgeneraldebilityandindicationsofcardiovascularweakness’.79

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antimicrobial,antioxidant,antirheumatic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,aphrodisiac,astringent,carminative,cephalic,cholagogue,choleretic,cicatrisant,cordial,cytophylactic,diaphoretic,digestive,diuretic,emmenagogue,fungicidal,hepatic,hypertensive,nervine,parasiticide,restorative,rubefacient,stimulant(circulatory,adrenalcortex,hepatobiliary),stomachic,sudorific,tonic(nervous,general),vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationofthefreshfloweringtopsor(inSpain)thewholeplant(poorerquality).

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowmobileliquidwithastrong,fresh,mintyherbaceousscentandawoody-balsamicundertone.Poorqualityoilshaveastrongcamphoraceousnote.Itblendswellwitholibanum,lavender,lavandin,citronella,oregano,thyme,pine,basil,peppermint,labdanum,elemi,cedarwood,petitgrain,cinnamonandotherspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlypinenes,camphene,limonene,cineol,borneolwithcamphor,linalol,terpineol,octanone,bornylacetate,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant(indilutiononly),nonsensitizing.Avoidduringpregnancy.Nottobeusedbyepileptics.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,dandruff,dermatitis,eczema,greasyhair,insectrepellent,promoteshairgrowth,regulatesseborrhoea,scabies,stimulatesscalp,lice,varicoseveins.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arteriosclerosis,fluidretention,gout,muscularpain,palpitations,poorcirculation,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,whoopingcough.Digestivesystem:Colitis,dyspepsia,flatulence,hepaticdisorders,hypercholesterolaemia,jaundice.Genito-urinarysystem:Dysmenorrhoea,leucorrhoea.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,infections.Nervoussystem:Debility,headaches,hypotension,neuralgia,mentalfatigue,nervousexhaustionandstress-relateddisorders.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedinsoaps,detergents,cosmetics,householdspraysandperfumes,especiallycolognes.Alsousedasamaskingagent.Extensivelyemployedinmostmajorfoodcategories,especiallymeatproducts,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.Servesasasourceofnaturalantioxidants.

ROSEWOODAnibarosaeodora

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMSA.rosaeodoravar.amazonica,boisderose,Brazilianrosewood.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONMedium-sized,tropical,evergreentreewithareddishbarkandheartwood,bearingyellowflowers.Usedextensivelyfortimber.NB:ThisisoneofthetreesthatisbeingextensivelyfelledintheclearingoftheSouthAmericanrainforests;thecontinualproductionofrosewoodoilisconsequentlyenviromentallydamaging.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheAmazonregion;BrazilandPeruarethemainproducers.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralspeciesoftimberallknownasrosewood;however,theessentialoilisonlydistilledfromtheabovespecies.FrenchGuianausedtoproducethecayennerosewood(Ocoteacaudata),whichissuperiorinqualitytothePeruvianorBraziliantype.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONUsedforbuilding,carvingandFrenchcabinetmaking.Nowadays,mostrosewoodgoestoJapanfortheproductionofchopsticks.

ACTIONSMildlyanalgesic,anticonvulsant,antidepressant,antimicrobial,antiseptic,aphrodisiac,bactericidal,cellularstimulant,cephalic,deodorant,stimulant(immunesystem),tissueregenerator,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationofthewoodchippings.

CHARACTERISTICSColourlesstopaleyellowliquidwithaverysweet,woody-floralfragrancewithaspicyhint.Blendswellwithmostoils,especiallycitrus,woodsandflorals.Ithelpsgivebodyandroundsoffsharpedges.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLinalol(90–97percent)incayennerosewood;intheBrazilianoilslightlyless(80–90percent).Alsocineol,terpineol,geraniol,citronella!,limonene,pinene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,dermatitis,scars,wounds,wrinklesandgeneralskincare:sensitive,dry,dull,combinationoily/dry,etc.‘Althoughitdoesnothaveanydramaticcurativepower...Ifinditveryusefulespeciallyforskincare.Itisverymildandsafetouse.’80Immunesystem:Colds,coughs,fever,infections,stimulatestheimmunesystem.Nervoussystem:Frigidity,headaches,nausea,nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESOnceextensivelyusedasasourceofnaturallinalol,nowincreasinglyreplacedbythesyntheticform.Acetylatedrosewoodoilisusedextensivelyinperfumerywork–soaps,toiletries,cosmeticsandperfumes.Theoilisemployedinmostmajorfoodcategories,alcoholicandsoftdrinks.

RUERutagraveolens

FAMILYRutaceae

SYNONYMSGardenrue,herb-of-grace,herbygrass.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnornamental,shrubbyherbwithtough,woodybranches,small,smooth,bluish-greenleavesandgreenyyellowflowers.Thewholeplanthasastrong,aromatic,bitteroracridscent.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion;foundgrowingwildextensivelyinSpain,Morocco,Corsica,SardiniaandAlgeria.ItiscultivatedmainlyinFranceandSpainforitsoil;alsoinItalyandYugoslavia.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveraldifferenttypesofrue,suchasthesummerrue(R.montana),winterrue(R.chalepensis)andSardinianrue(R.angustifolia),whicharealsousedtoproduceessentialoils.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAfavouredremedyoftheancients,especiallyasanantidotetopoison.Itwasseenasamagicherbbymanyculturesandasaprotectionagainstevil.Itwasalsousedfornervousafflictions.‘Ithelpsdisordersinthehead,nervesandwomb,convulsionsandhystericfits,thecolic,weaknessofthestomachandbowels;itresistspoisonandcuresvenomousbites.’81

ACTIONSAntitoxic,antitussive,antiseptic,antispasmodic,diuretic,emmenagogue,insecticidal,nervine,rubefacient,stimulant,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshherb.

CHARACTERISTICSAyellowororangeviscousmasswhichgenerallysolidifiesatroomtemperature,withasharp,herbaceous-fruityacridodour.Thewinterrueoildoesnotsolidifyatroomtemperature.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlymethylnonylketone(90percentinsummerrueoil).

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin(duetomainconstituent).Skinandmucousmembraneirritant.Abortifacient.‘Rueoilshouldneverbeusedinperfumeryorflavourwork.’82

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedatallinaromatherapy.’83

OTHERUSESEmployedasasourceofmethylnonylketone.

S

SAGE,CLARYSalviasclarea

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSClary,clarywort,muscatelsage,cleareye,seebright,commonclary,clarry,eyebright.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONStoutbiennialorperennialherbupto1metrehighwithlarge,hairyleaves,greenwithahintofpurple,andsmallblueflowers.

ClarySage

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernEurope;cultivatedworldwideespeciallyintheMediterraneanregion,Russia,theUSA,England,MoroccoandcentralEurope.TheFrench,MoroccanandEnglishclaryareconsideredofsuperiorqualityforperfumerywork.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothegardensage(S.officinalis)andtheSpanishsage(S.lavendulaefolia),whicharebothusedtoproduceessentialoils.Othertypesofsageincludemeadowclary(S.pratensis)andvervainsage(S.verbenaca).Clarysageshouldnotbeconfusedwiththecommonwaysideherbeyebright(Euphrasia).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisherb,highlyesteemedintheMiddleAges,hasnowlargelyfallenoutofuse.Itwasusedfordigestivedisorders,kidneydisease,uterineandmenstrualcomplaints,forcleansingulcersandasageneralnervetonic.Themucilagefromtheseedswasusedfortreatingtumoursandforremovingdustparticlesfromtheeyes.Likegardensage,itcoolsinflammationandisespeciallyusefulforthroatand

respiratoryinfections.

ACTIONSAnticonvulsive,antidepressant,antiphlogistic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,aphrodisiac,astringent,bactericidal,carminative,cicatrisant,deodorant,digestive,emmenagogue,hypotensive,nervine,regulator(ofseborrhoea),sedative,stomachic,tonic,uterine.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefloweringtopsandleaves.(Aconcreteandabsolutearealsoproducedbysolventextractioninsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowy-greenliquidwithasweet,nuttyherbaceousscent.Itblendswellwithjuniper,lavender,coriander,cardamon,geranium,sandalwood,cedarwood,pine,labdanum,jasmine,frankincense,bergamotandothercitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSLinalylacetate(upto75percent),linalol,pinene,myrceneandphellandrene,amongothers.Constituentsvaryaccordingtogeographicalorigin–thereareseveraldifferentchemotypes.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.Avoidduringpregnancy.Donotuseclarysageoilwhiledrinkingalcoholsinceitcaninduceanarcoticeffectandexaggeratedrunkenness.Clarysageisgenerallyusedinpreferencetothegardensageinaromatherapyduetoitslowertoxicitylevel.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSE

Skincare:Acne,boils,dandruff,hairloss,inflamedconditions,oilyskinandhair,ophthalmia,ulcers,wrinkles.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Highbloodpressure,muscularachesandpains.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,throatinfections,whoopingcough.Digestivesystem:Colic,cramp,dyspepsia,flatulence.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,labourpain,dysmenorrhoea,leucorrhoea.Nervoussystem:Depression,frigidity,impotence,migraine,nervoustensionandstress-relateddisorders.OTHERUSESTheoilandabsoluteareusedasfragrancecomponentsandfixativesinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Theoilisusedextensivelybythefoodanddrinkindustry,especiallyintheproductionofwineswithamuscatelflavour.

SAGE,COMMONSalviaofficinalis

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSGardensage,truesage,Dalmatiansage.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreen,shrubby,perennialherbupto80cmshighwithawoodybase,soft,silver,ovalleavesandamassofdeepblueorvioletflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion;cultivatedworldwideespeciallyinAlbania,Yugoslavia,Greece,Italy,Turkey,France,ChinaandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveraldifferentspeciesandcultivarswhichhavebeendeveloped,suchastheMexicansage(S.azureagrandiflora)andtheredsage(S.colorata)bothofwhichareusedmedicinally.EssentialoilsarealsoproducedfromotherspeciesincludingtheSpanishsage(S.lavendulaefolia)andclarysage(S.selarea)–seeseparateentriesandBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAherbofancientrepute,valuedasaculinaryandmedicinalplant–calledherbasacraor‘sacredherb’bytheRomans.Ithasbeenusedforavarietyofdisordersincludingrespiratoryinfections,menstrualdifficultiesanddigestivecomplaints.Itwasalsobelievedtostrengthenthe

sensesandthememory.ItisstillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificfor

inflammationsofthemouth,tongueandthroat.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,anti-oxidant,antiseptic,antispasmodic,astringent,digestive,diuretic,emmenagogue,febrifuge,hypertensive,insecticidal,laxative,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedleaves.(Aso-called‘oleoresin’isalsoproducedfromtheexhaustedplantmaterial.)

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowmobileliquidwithafresh,warm-spicy,herbaceous,somewhatcamphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithlavandin,rosemary,rosewood,lavender,hyssop,lemonandothercitrusoils.ThecommonsageoilispreferredinperfumeryworktotheSpanishsageoilwhich,althoughsafer,hasalessrefinedfragrance.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThujone(about42percent),cineol,borneol,caryophylleneandotherterpenes.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin(duetothujone).Abortifacient;avoidinpregnancy.Avoidinepilepsy.Usewithcareoravoidintherapeuticworkaltogether–Spanishsageorclarysagearegoodalternatives.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESUsedinsomepharmaceuticalpreparationssuchasmouthwashes,gargles,toothpastes,etc.Employedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,shampoos,detergents,anti-perspirants,colognesandperfumes,especiallymen’sfragrances.Theoilandoleoresinareextensivelyusedforflavouringfoods(mainlymeatproducts),softdrinksandalcoholicbeverages,especiallyvermouth.Italsoservesasasourceofnaturalanti-oxidants.

SAGE,SPANISHSalvialavendulaefolia

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSLavender-leavedsage.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreenshrub,similartothegardensagebutwithnarrowerleavesandsmallpurpleflowers.Thewholeplantisaromaticwithascentreminiscentofspikelavender.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothemountainsinSpain,italsogrowsinsouthwestFranceandYugoslavia.TheoilismainlyproducedinSpain.

OTHERSPECIESAverysimilaroilisdistilledinTurkeyfromaGreekvariety,S.triloba,whichisusedforpharmaceuticalpurposes.Seealsoentriesonclarysageandcommonsageforothertypesofsage.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInSpainitisregardedassomethingofa‘cure-all’.Believedtopromotelongevityandprotectagainstalltypesofinfection(suchasplague).Usedtotreatrheumatism,digestivecomplaints,menstrualproblems,infertilityandnervousweakness.

ACTIONSAntidepressant,anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,antiseptic,antispasmodic,astringent,carminative,deodorant,depurative,digestive,emmenagogue,expectorant,febrifuge,hypotensive,nervine,regulator(ofseborrhoea),stimulant(hepatobiliary,adrenocorticalglands,circulation),stomachic,tonic(nerveandgeneral).

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleaves.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowmobileliquidwithafresh-herbaceous,camphoraceous,slightlypinelikeodour.Itblendswellwithrosemary,lavandin,lavender,pine,citronella,eucalyptus,juniper,clarysageandcedarwood.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCamphor(upto34percent),cineol(upto35percent),limonene(upto41percent),camphene(upto20percent),pinene(upto20percent)andotherminorconstituents.

SAFETYDATARelativelynon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.Avoidduringpregnancy;useinmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,cuts,dandruff,dermatitis,eczema,excessivesweating,hairloss,gingivitis,guminfections,sores.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,debility,fluidretention,muscular

achesandpains,poorcirculation,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,coughs,laryngitis.Digestivesystem:Jaundice,livercongestion.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea,sterility.Immunesystem:Colds,fevers,’flu.Nervoussystem:Headaches,nervousexhaustionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,cosmetics,toiletriesandperfumes,especially‘industrial’typefragrances.Extensivelyemployedinfoods(especiallymeatproducts),aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

SANDALWOODSantalumalbum

FAMILYSantalaceae

SYNONYMSWhitesandalwood,yellowsandalwood,EastIndiansandalwood,sandalwoodMysore,sanders-wood,santal(oil),whitesaunders(oil),yellowsaunders(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmall,evergreen,parasitictreeupto9metreshighwithbrown-greytrunkandmanysmooth,slenderbranches.Ithasleatheryleavesandsmallpinky-purpleflowers.Thetreemustbeoverthirtyyearsoldbeforeitisreadyfortheproductionofsandalwoodoil.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotropicalAsia,especiallyIndia,SriLanka,Malaysia,IndonesiaandTaiwan.Indiaisthemainessentialoilproducer;theregionofMysoreexportsthehighestqualityoil,althoughsomeoilisdistilledinEuropeandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTheAustraliansandalwood(S.spicatumorEucaryaspicata)producesaverysimilaroil,butwithadry-bittertopnote.Theso-calledWestIndiansandalwoodoramyris(Amyrisbalsamifera)isapoorsubstituteandbearsnobotanicalrelationtotheEastIndiansandalwood.

Sandalwood

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONOneoftheoldestknownperfumematerials,withatleast4000yearsofuninterrupteduse.Itisusedasatraditionalincense,asacosmetic,perfumeandembalmingmaterialallovertheEast.Itisalsoapopularbuildingmaterial,especiallyfortemples.InChinesemedicineitisusedtotreatstomachache,vomiting,gonorrhoea,

choleraicdifficultiesandskincomplaints.IntheAyurvedictraditionitisusedmainlyforurinaryandrespiratoryinfections,foracuteandchronicdiarrhoea.InIndiaitisoftencombinedwithroseinthefamousscentaytar.

ACTIONSAntidepressant,antiphlogistic,antiseptic(urinaryandpulmonary),antispasmodic,aphrodisiac,astringent,bactericidal,carminative;cicatrisant,diuretic,expectorant,fungicidal,insecticidal,sedative,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywaterorsteamdistillationfromtherootsandheartwood,powderedanddried.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellow,greenishorbrownishviscousliquidwithadeep,soft,sweet-woodybalsamicscentofexcellenttenacity.Itblendswellwithrose,violet,tuberose,clove,lavender,blackpepper,bergamot,rosewood,geranium,labdanum,oakmoss,benzoin,vetiver,patchouli,mimosa,cassie,costus,myrrhandjasmine.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAbout90percentsantalols,6percentsesquiterpenehydrocarbons:santene,teresantol,borneol,santalone,tri-cyclo-ekasantalal,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,dry,crackedandchappedskin,aftershave(barber’srash),greasyskin,moisturizer.Respiratorysystem:Bronchitis,catarrh,coughs(dry,persistent),laryngitis,sorethroat.Digestivesystem:Diarrhoea,nausea.Genito-urinarysystem:Cystitis.Nervoussystem:Depression,insomnia,nervoustensionandstress-relatedcomplaints.

OTHERUSESUsedtobeusedasapharmaceuticaldisinfectant,nowlargelyabandoned.Extensivelyemployedasafragrancecomponentandfixativeinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes–especiallyoriental,woody,aftershaves,chypres,etc.Extensivelyusedintheproductionofincense.Employedasaflavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategories,includingsoftandalcoholicdrinks.

SANTOLINASantolinachamaecyparissus

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSLavandulataemina,cottonlavender

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnevergreen,woodyshrubwithwhitish-greyfoliageandsmall,brightyellow,ball-shapedflowersborneonlongsinglestalks.Thewholeplanthasastrongratherrankodour,abitlikechamomile.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoItaly,nowcommonthroughouttheMediterraneanregion.Muchgrownasapopularborderherb.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralvarietiessuchasS.fragrantissima.Itis

notrelatedtotruelavender(Lavandulaangustifolia)despitethecommonname.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItwasusedasanantidotetoallsortsofpoison,andtoexpelworms;also‘goodagainstobstructionoftheliver,thejaundiceandtopromotethemenses’.84Itwasusedtokeepawaymothsfromlinen,torepelmosquitos,andasaremedyforinsectbites,warts,scabsandverrucae.TheArabsaresaidtohaveusedthejuiceforbathingtheeyes.

ACTIONSAntispasmodic,antitoxic,anthelmintic,insecticidal,stimulant,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheseeds.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowliquidwithastrong,acrid,herbaceousodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSOnlyoneprincipalconstituent:santolinenone.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin.‘Thereisnosafetydataavailable...likelytobedangerouslytoxic.’85

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESLittleusedinflavourorperfumeryworkduetotoxicity.

SASSAFRASSassafrasalbidum

FAMILYLauraceae

SYNONYMSS.officinale,Laurussassafras,S.variifolium,commonsassafras,NorthAmericansassafras,sassafrax.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAdeciduoustreeupto40metreshighwithmanyslenderbranches,asoftandspongyorange-brownbarkandsmallyellowy-greenflowers.Thebarkandwoodarearomatic.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoeasternpartsoftheUSA;theoilismainlyproducedfromFloridatoCanadaandinMexico.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralotherspecies,notablytheBraziliansassafras(Ocoteapretiosa)whichisalsousedtoproduceanessentialoil(alsohighlytoxic).SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONIthasbeenusedfortreatinghighbloodpressure,rheumatism,arthritis,gout,menstrualandkidneyproblems,andforskincomplaints.‘Sassafraspith–usedasademulcent,especiallyforinflammationoftheeyes,andasasoothingdrinkincatarrhalaffection.’86Thewoodandbarkyieldabrightyellowdye.

ACTIONSAntiviral,diaphoretic,diuretic,carminative,pediculicide(destroyslice),stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedrootbarkchips.

CHARACTERISTICSAyellowy-brown,oilyliquidwithafresh,sweet-spicy,woodycamphoraceousodour.(Asafrol-freesassafrasoilisproducedbyalcoholextraction.)

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSSafrole(80–90percent),pinenes,phellandrenes,asarone,camphor,thujone,myristicinandmenthane,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAHighlytoxic–ingestionofevensmallamountshasbeenknowntocausedeath.Carcinogen.Irritant.Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedintherapy,whetherinternallyorexternally.’87

OTHERUSESSassafrasoilandcrudearebannedfromfooduse;safrol-freeextractisusedtoalimitedextentinflavouringwork.Safrolisusedasastartingmaterialforthefragranceitem‘heliotropin’.

SAVINEJuniperussabina

FAMILYCupressaceae

SYNONYMSSabinacacumina,savin(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAcompactevergreenshrubabout1metrehigh(thoughmuchtallerintheMediterraneancountries),whichtendstospreadhorizontally.Ithasapalegreenbarkbecomingroughwithage,small,darkgreenleavesandpurplish-blackberriescontainingthreeseeds.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoNorthAmerica,middleandsouthernEurope.TheoilisproducedmainlyinAustria(theTirol),alittleinFranceandYugoslavia.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothecommonjuniper(J.communis)andothermembersofthefamily–seejuniper.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONItwasusedatonetimeasanointmentordressingforblisters,inordertopromotedischarge,andforsyphiliticwartsandotherskinproblems.Itisrarelyadministerednowadaysbecauseofitspossibletoxiceffects.

ACTIONSPowerfulemmenagogue,rubefacient,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthetwigsandleaves.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworoliveoilyliquidwithadisagreeable,bitter,turpentine-likeodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSSabinol,sabinylacetate,terpinene,pinene,sabinene,decylaldehyde,citronellol,geraniol,cadineneanddihydrocuminylalcohol.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin.Dermalirritant.Abortifacient.‘Theoilisbannedfromsaletothepublicinmanycountriesduetoitstoxiceffects(nervepoisonandbloodcirculationstimulant).’88

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedintherapy,whetherinternallyorexternally.’89

OTHERUSESOccasionalperfumeryuse.Littleemployednowadays.

SAVORY,SUMMERSaturejahortensis

Saturejahortensis

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSSatureiahortensis,Calaminthahortensis,gardensavory.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAnannualherbupto45cmshighwithslender,erect,slightlyhairystems,linearleavesandsmall,palelilacflowers.

SummerSavory

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEurope,naturalizedinNorthAmerica.Extensivelycultivated,especiallyinSpain,France,YugoslaviaandtheUSAforitsessentialoil.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothethymefamily,withwhichitsharesmanycharacteristics.Thereareseveraldifferenttypes‘ofsavory’whichincludeS.thymbra,foundinSpain,whichcontainsmainlythymol,andthewintersavory(S.montana)–seeseparateentry.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONApopularculinaryherb,withapepperyflavour.Ithasbeenusedtherapeuticallymainlyasateaforvariousailmentsincludingdigestivecomplaints(cramp,nausea,indigestion,intestinalparasites),menstrualdisordersandrespiratoryconditions(asthma,catarrh,sorethroat).

Appliedexternally,thefreshleavesbringinstantrelieffrominsectbites,beeandwaspstings.‘Thiskindisbothhotteranddrierthanthewinterkind...itexpelstough

phlegmfromthechestandlungs,quickensthedullspiritsinthelethargy.’90

ACTIONSAnticatarrhal,antiputrescent,antispasmodic,aphrodisiac,astringent,bactericidal,carminative,cicatrisant,emmenagogue,expectorant,fungicidal,stimulant,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthewholedriedherb.(Anoleoresinisalsoproducedbysolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowoilwithafresh,herbaceous,spicyodour.Itblendswellwithlavender,lavandin,pineneedle,oakmoss,rosemaryandcitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCarvacrol,pinene,cymene,camphene,limonene,phellandreneandborneol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATADermaltoxin,dermalirritant,mucousmembraneirritant.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedontheskinatall.’91

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinperfumeryworkforitsfreshherbaceousnotes.Theoilandoleoresinareusedinmostmajorfoodcategories,especiallymeatproductsandcannedfood.

SAVORY,WINTERSaturejamontana

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMSS.obovata,Calaminthamontana.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAbushyperennialsubshrubupto40cmshighwithwoodystemsatthebase,linearleavesandpalepurpleflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotheMediterraneanregion,nowfoundalloverEurope,TurkeyandtheUSSR.TheoilismainlyproducedinSpain,MoroccoandYugoslavia.

OTHERSPECIESThecreepingvarietyofthewintersavory(S.montanasubspicata)isalsoawell-knowngardenherb.Seealsosummersavory(S.hortensis)andBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONIthasbeenusedasaculinaryherbsinceantiquity,muchinthesamewayassummersavory.Itwasusedasadigestiveremedyespeciallygoodforcolic,andinGermanyitisusedparticularlyfordiarrhoea.Whencomparedagainstmanyvarietiesofthyme,rosemaryandlavender,

recentresearchhasshown‘thenetsuperiorityoftheantimicrobialpropertiesofessenceofsavory’.92

ACTIONSSeesummersavory.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthewholeherb.(Anoleoresinisalsoproducedbysolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithasharp,medicinal,herbaceousodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycarvacrol,cymeneandthymol,withlesseramountsofpinenes,limonene,cineol,borneolandterpineol.

SAFETYDATASeesummersavory.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedontheskinatall.’93

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinperfumerywork.Theoilandoleoresinareemployedtosomeextentinflavouring,mainlymeatsandseasonings.

SCHINUSMOLLESchinusmolle

FAMILYAnacardiaceae

SYNONYMSPeruvianpepper,Peruvianmastic,Californianpeppertree.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtropicalevergreentreeupto20metreshighwithgraceful,droopingbranches,featheryfoliageandfragrantyellowflowers.Theberriesorfruithaveanaromatic,pepperyflavour.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSouthAmerica;foundgrowingwildinMexico,Peru,Guatemalaandothertropicalregions,includingCalifornia.IthasbeenintroducedintoNorthandSouthAfricaandtheMediterraneanregion.ThefruitsarecollectedforessentialoilproductioninSpain,GuatemalaandMexico.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothemastictree(Pistacialentiscus)–seeentryonmastic.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInGreeceandotherMediterraneancountriesanintoxicatingbeverageismadefromthefruitsofthetree.Thefruitisalsousedasasubstituteforblackpepperinthegrowingareas.DuringWorldWarII,theoilofblackpepperwasunavailableandwasconsequentlyreplacedbyschinusmolle.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antiviral,bactericidal,carminative,stimulant,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefruitorberries.(Anoilfromtheleavesisalsoproducedinsmallquantities.)

CHARACTERISTICSApalegreenorolive,oilyliquidwithawarm,woody-pepperyscentwithasmokyundertone.Itblendswellwithoakmoss,clove,nutmeg,cinnamon,blackpepperandeucalyptus.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlyphellandrene,alsocaryophyllene,pineneandcarvacrol.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESeeblackpepper.

OTHERUSESUsedasasubstituteforblackpepperinperfumeryand

flavouringwork.

SNAKEROOTAsarumcanadense

FAMILYAristolochiaceae

SYNONYMSWildginger,Indianginger.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAninconspicuousbutfragrantlittleplantnotmorethan35cmshighwithahairystem,twoglossy,kidney-shapedleavesandacreepingrootstock.Thesolitarybell-shapedflowerisbrownishpurple,andcreamywhiteinside.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoNorthAmerica,especiallyNorthCarolina,KansasandCanada.TheoilisproducedintheUSAmainlyfromwild-growingplants.

OTHERSPECIESItshouldnotbeconfusedwith‘serpentariaoil’fromtheVirginiansnakeroot(Aristolochiaserpentaria)whichbelongstothesamebotanicalfamilybutcontainsasaroneandisconsideredtoxic.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisplanthasbeenemployedforcenturiesinfolkmedicinebutisnowlittleprescribed.Itusedtobeusedforchronicchestcomplaints,dropsy,rheumatismandpainfulbowelandstomachspasms.Itwasalsoconsidereda‘valuablestimulantincasesofamenorrhoeaandcolds’andfor‘promotingacopiousperspiration’.94Thename(oftheVirginianvarietyatleast)derivesfromitsuseinaidingthe

bodytocombatnettlerash,poisonivyandsomesnakebites.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antispasmodic,carminative,diuretic,diaphoretic,emmenagogue,expectorant,febrifuge,stimulant,stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedrhizomesandcrushedroots.

CHARACTERISTICSAbrownish-yelloworamberliquidwithawarm,woody-spicy,rich,gingerlikeodour.Itblendswellwithbergamot,costus,oakmoss,patchouli,pineneedle,clarysage,mimosa,cassieandotherflorals.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSPinene,linalol,borneol,terpineol,geraniol,eugenolandmethyleugenol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEMaypossiblybeusedforitsantispasmodicqualities,forexampleforperiodpainsorindigestion.

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinperfumerywork.Mainlyusedasaflavouringagentwithotherspicymaterials,especiallyinconfectionery.

SPIKENARDNardostachysjatamansi

FAMILYValerianaceae

SYNONYMSNard,‘false’Indianvalerianroot(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtenderaromaticherbwithapungentrhizomeroot.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothemountainousregionsofnorthernIndia;alsoChinaandJapan(seeotherspecies).TheoilismainlydistilledinEuropeortheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothecommonvalerian(Valerianaofficinalis)andtheIndianvalerian(V.wallichii)withwhichitsharesmanyqualities.Therearealsoseveralothersimilarspecies,notablytheChinesespikenard(N.chinensis)whichisalsousedtoproduceanessentialoil.Nottobeconfusedwithaspicorspikelavender(Lavandulalatifolia),norwithessentialoilsfromthemuskroot(Ferulasumbul)whichiscollectedfromthesamearea.Therootsofseveralotherplantsarealsocommonlysoldas‘Indianvalerianroot’.

Spikenard

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONSpikenardisoneoftheearlyaromaticsusedbytheancientEgyptiansandismentionedintheSongofSolomonintheBible.ItisalsotheherbwhichMaryusedtoanointJesusbeforetheLastSupper;‘ThentookMaryapoundofointmentofspikenard,verycostly,andanointedthefeetofJesus,andwipedhisfeetwithherhair;andthehousewasfilledwiththeodouroftheointment.’95TheoilwasalsousedbytheRomanperfumers,orunguentarii,inthe

preparationofnardinum,oneoftheirmostcelebratedscentedoils,andbytheMughalempressNurJehaninherrejuvenatingcosmeticpreparations.ItwasalsoaherbknowntoDioscoridesas‘warminganddrying’,goodfornausea,flatulentindigestion,menstrualproblems,inflammationsandconjunctivitis.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antipyretic,bactericidal,deodorant,fungicidal,laxative,sedative,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedandcrushedrhizomeandroots.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworambercolouredliquidwithaheavy,sweet-woody,spicy-animalodour,somewhatsimilartovalerianoil.Itblendswellwithlabdanum,lavender,oakinoss,patchouli,pineneedle,vetiverandspice

oils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSBornylacetate,isobornylvalerianate,borneol,patchoulialcohol,terpinylvalerianate,terpineol,eugenolandpinenes,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAProbablysimilartovalerian,i.e.non-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Allergies,inflammation,matureskin(rejuvenating),rashes,etc.Nervoussystem:Insomnia,nervousindigestion,migraine,stressandtension.

OTHERUSESLittleusedthesedays,usuallyasasubstituteforvalerianoil.

SPRUCE,HEMLOCKTsugacanadensis

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMSPinuscanadensis,Abiescanadensis,spruce,easternhemlock,commonhemlock,hemlock(oil),spruce(oil),firneedle(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAlargeevergreentreeupto50metrestall,withslenderhorizontalbranches,finelytoothedleavesandsmallishbrowncones,whichyieldsanaturalexudationfromitsbark.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetothewestcoastoftheUSA.TheoilisproducedinVermont,NewYork,NewHampshire,VirginiaandWisconsin.

OTHERSPECIESNumerouscultivarsofthisspeciesexist;oftentheoilisproducedfromamixtureofdifferenttypes.Similaroils,alsocalledsimply‘spruceoil’areproducedfromtheblackspruce(Piceanigraormariana),theNorwayspruce(P.abies)andthewhiteorCanadianspruce(P.glauca).Theessentialoilfromthewesternhemlock(Tsugaheterophylla),containsquitedifferentconstituents.ItisalsocloselyrelatedtotheDouglasfir(Pseudotsugataxifolia),whichisalsousedtoproduceanessentialoilandabalsam.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThebarkofthehemlockspruce(which

containstanninsandresinaswellasvolatileoil)iscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaindicatedfordiarrhoea,cystitis,mucouscolitis,leucorrhoea,uterineprolapse,pharyngitis,stomatitisandgingivitis.Anextractofthebarkisalsousedinthetanningindustry.

ACTIONSAntimicrobial,antiseptic,antitussive,astringent,diaphoretic,diuretic,expectorant,nervine,rubefacient,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheneedlesandtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowliquidwithapleasing,fresh-balsamic,sweet-fruityodour.Itblendswellwithpine,oakmoss,cedarwood,galbanum,benzoin,lavender,lavandinandrosemary.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlypinenes,limonene,bornylacetate,tricyclene,phellandrene,myrcene,thujone,dipenteneandcadinene,amongothers.Constituentsvaryaccordingtosourceandexactbotanicalspecies(sometimesmixed).

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationmusclesandjoints:Muscularachesandpains,poorcirculation,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,coughs,respiratoryweakness.Immunesystem:Colds,’flu,infections.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,stress-relatedconditions–‘openingandelevatingthroughgrounding...excellentforyogaandmeditation.’96

OTHERUSESUsedinveterinaryliniments.Extensivelyusedforroomsprayperfumes,householddetergents,soaps,bathpreparationsandtoiletries,especiallyintheUSA.

STYRAX,LEVANTLiquidambarorientalis

FAMILYHamamelidaceae

SYNONYMSBalsamstyracis,orientalsweetgum,Turkishsweetgum,asiaticstyrax,styrax,storax,liquidstorax.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAdeciduoustreeupto15metreshighwithapurplish-greybark,leavesarrangedintofivethree-lobedsections,andwhiteflowers.Thestyraxisapathologicalsecretionproducedbypoundingthebark,whichinducesthesapwoodtoproducealiquidfrombeneaththebark.Ithardenstoformasemi-solidgreenish-brownmasswithasweetbalsamicodour.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAsiaMinor.ItformsforestsaroundBodrum,Milas,MuglaandMarmarisinTurkey.

OTHERSPECIESVerysimilartotheAmericanstyrax(L.styraciflua)orredgum,whichproducesanaturalexudationslightlydarkerandharderthantheLevanttype.Therearealsomanyothertypesofstyrax;Styraxofficinaleproducedthestyraxofancientcivilizations.NB:Styraxbenzoinisthebotanicalnameforbenzoin,withwhichitsharessimilarqualities.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInChinaitisusedforcoughs,colds,epilepsyandskinproblems,includingcuts,woundsandscabies.IntheWestithasbeenrecommendedasaremedyforcatarrh,diphtheria,gonorrhoea,leucorrhoea,ringworm,etc.AsyrupmadefromthebarkoftheAmericanstyraxisusedfordiarrhoeaanddysenteryinthewesternUSA.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antimicrobial,antiseptic,antitussive,bactericidal,balsamic,expectorant,nervine,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthecrude.(Aresinoidandabsolutearealsoproducedbysolventextraction).

CHARACTERISTICSAwater-whiteorpaleyellowliquidwithasweet-balsamic,rich,tenaciousodour.Itblendswellwithylangylang,jasmine,mimosa,rose,lavender,carnation,violet,cassieandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlystyrenewithvanillin,phenylpropylalcohol,cinnamicalcohol,benzylalcoholandethylalcohol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.Frequentlyadulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Cuts,ringworm,scabies,wounds.Respiratorysystem:Bronchitis,catarrh,coughs.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,stress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESUsedincompoundbenzointincture,mainlyforrespiratoryconditions.Theoilandresinoidareusedasfixativesandfragrancecomponentsmainlyinsoaps,floralandorientalperfumes.Theresinoidandabsoluteareusedinmostmajorfoodcategories,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,antispasmodic,bactericidal,carminative,diaphoretic,emmenagogue,fungicidal,stomachic.

T

TAGETESTagetesminuta

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMST.glandulifera,tagette,taget,marigold,Mexicanmarigold,wronglycalled‘calendula’(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAstronglyscentedannualherbabout30cmshighwithbrightorange,daisylikeflowersandsoftgreenovalleaves.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSouthAmericaandMexico.NowgrowswildinAfrica,Europe,AsiaandNorthAmerica.TheoilismainlyproducedinSouthAfrica,France,ArgentinaandEgypt,theabsoluteinNigeriaandFrance.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralothertypesoftageteswhichsharesimilarcharacteristicsandareusedtoproduceessentialoils,notablytheFrenchmarigold(T.patula)andtheAfricanorAztecmarigold(T.erecta)–seealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.NB:Nottobeconfusedwiththe‘true’marigold(Calendulaofficinalis)which

hasverydifferentpropertiesandconstituents,andisusedextensivelyinherbalmedicine(andoccasionallytomakeanabsolute).Seeentryonmarigold.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInIndiathelocallygrownfloweringtopsoftheFrenchmarigoldaredistilledintoareceiverwhichcontainsasolvent,oftensandalwoodoil,toproduce‘attargenda’–apopularIndianperfumematerial.InChinatheflowersoftheAfricanmarigoldareusedforwhoopingcough,colds,colic,mumps,soreeyesandmastitis–usuallyasadecoction.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,antispasmodic,bactericidal,carminative,diaphoretic,emmenagogue,fungicidal,stomachic.

EXTRACTION1.Anessentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshfloweringherb.2.Anabsolute(andconcrete)bysolventextractionfromthefreshfloweringherb.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Adarkorangeoryellowmobileliquidwhichslowlysolidifiesonexposuretoairandlight,withabitter-green,herbyodour.2.Anorange,oliveorbrownsemi-liquidmasswithanintense,sweet,greenfruityodour.Itblendswellwithclarysage,lavender,jasmine,bergamotandothercitrusoilsinverysmallpercentages.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlytagetones,withocimene,myrcene,linalol,limonene,pinenes,carvone,citral,camphene,valericacidandsalicylaldehyde,amongothers.

SAFETYDATA‘Itisquitepossiblethat“tagetone”(themainconstituent)isharmfultothehumanorganism.’97Somereportedcasesofdermatitiswiththetagetesspecies.Usewithcare,inmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Bunions,calluses,corns,fungalinfections.

OTHERUSESUsedinsomepharmaceuticalproducts.Theabsoluteandoilareemployedtoalimitedextentinherbaceousandfloralperfumes.Usedforflavouringtobaccoandinmostmajorfoodcategories,includingalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

TANSYTanacetumvulgare

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSChrysanthemumvulgare,C.tanacetum,buttons,bitterbuttons,bachelor’sbuttons,scentedfern,cheese.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhardyperennialwaysideherb,upto1metrehighwithasmoothstem,darkfernyleavesandsmall,round,brilliantyellowflowersborneinclusters.Thewholeplantisstronglyscented.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetocentralEurope;naturalizedinNorthAmericaandnowfoundinmosttemperateregionsoftheworld.TheessentialoilismainlyproducedinFrance,Germany,Hungary,PolandandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothemedicinalherbfeverfew(Tanacetumparthenium),themarigoldsanddaisyfamily.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTraditionallyusedtoflavoureggsandomelettes.Ithasalonghistoryofmedicinaluse,especiallyamonggypsies,andisregardedassomethingofa‘cureall’.Itwasusedtoexpelworms,totreatcoldsandfever,preventpossiblemiscarriageandeasedyspepsiaandcrampingpains.Externally,thedistilledwaterwasusedtokeepthecomplexionpale,andthebruisedleavesemployedasaremedyforscabies,bruises,sprainsandrheumatism.Itwasalsousedgenerallyfornervousdisordersandtokeepfliesandverminaway.TheflowersarestillcurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecific

(usedexternally)forwormsinchildren.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,anti-inflammatory,antispasmodic,carminative,diaphoretic,digestive,emmenagogue,febrifuge,nervine,stimulant,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthewholeherb(aerialparts).

CHARACTERISTICSAyellow,oliveororangeliquid(darkeningwithage)withawarm,sharpspicyherbaceousodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThujone(66–81percent),camphor,borneol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin–poisonousduetohighthujonecontent.Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedinaromatherapywhetherinternallyorexternally.’98

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinherbaceous-typeperfumes.Theoilusedto

beusedinalcoholicdrinks–itisnolongerusedforflavouring.

TARRAGONArtemisiadracunculus

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSEstragon(oil),littledragon,Russiantarragon.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialherbwithsmoothnarrowleaves;anerectstemupto1.2metrestall,andsmallyellowy-green,inconspicuousflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEurope,southernRussiaandwesternAsia.Nowcultivatedworldwide,especiallyinEuropeandtheUSA.TheoilismainlyproducedinFrance,Holland,HungaryandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTheso-calledFrenchtarragonor‘sativa’,whichiscultivatedasagardenherb,isasmallerplantwithasharperflavourthantheRussiantypeandisasterilederivativeofthewildspecies.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheleafiscommonlyusedasdomesticherb,especiallywithchickenorfish,andtomaketarragonvinegar.Thenameisthoughttoderivefromanancientuseasanantidotetothebitesofvenomouscreaturesand‘maddedogges’.ItwasfavouredbythemaharajahsofIndiawhotookitasatisane,andinPersiaitwasusedtoinduceappetite.‘Theleaves,whicharechieflyused,areheatinganddrying,andgoodfor

thosethathavetheflux,oranyprenaturaldischarge.’99Theleafwasalsoformerlyusedfordigestiveandmenstrualirregularities,whiletherootwasemployedasaremedyfortoothache.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,aperitif,carminative,digestive,diuretic,emmenagogue,hypnotic,stimulant,stomachic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleaves.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowmobileliquid(turningyellowwithage),withasweet-anisic,spicy-greenscent.Itblendswellwithlabdanum,galbanum,lavender,oakmoss,vanilla,pineandbasil.

Tarragon

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSEstragole(upto70percent),capillene,ocimene,nerol,phellandrene,thujoneandcineol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAModeratelytoxicdueto‘estragole’(methylchavicol);useinmoderationonly.Possiblycarcinogenic.Otherwisenon-irritant,non-sensitizing.Avoidduringpregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEDigestivesystem:Anorexia,dyspepsia,flatulence,hiccoughs,intestinalspasm,nervousindigestion,sluggishdigestion.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea,PMT.

OTHERUSESUsedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Employedasaflavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategories,especiallycondimentsandrelishes,aswellasalcoholicandsoftdrinks.

TEATREEMelaleucaalternifolia

FAMILYMyrtaceae

SYNONYMSNarrow-leavedpaperbarkteatree,ti-tree,ti-trol,melasol.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmalltreeorshrub(smallestoftheteatreefamily),withneedle-likeleavessimilartocypress,withheadsofsessileyelloworpurplishflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoAustralia.Othervarietieshavebeencultivatedelsewhere,butM.alternifoliaisnotproducedoutsideAustralia,mainlyinNewSouthWales.

OTHERSPECIESTeatreeisageneralnameformembersoftheMelaleucafamilywhichexistsinmanyphysiologicalformsincludingcajeput(M.cajeputi)andniaouli(M.viridiflora),andmanyotherssuchasM.bracteataandM.linariifolia–seeBotanicalClassificationsection.

TeaTree

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThenamederivesfromitslocalusageasatypeofherbaltea,preparedfromtheleaves.OurpresentknowledgeofthepropertiesandusesofteatreeisbasedonaverylonghistoryofusebytheaboriginalpeopleofAustralia.Ithasbeenextensivelyresearchedrecentlybyscientificmethodswiththefollowingresults:‘1.Thisoilisunusualinthatitisactiveagainstallthreevarietiesofinfectiousorganisms:bacteria,fungiandviruses.2.Itisaverypowerfulimmuno-stimulant,sowhenthebodyis

threatenedbyanyoftheseorganismsti-treeincreasesitsabilitytorespond.’100

ACTIONSAnti-infectious,anti-inflammatory,antiseptic,antiviral,bactericidal,balsamic,cicatrisant,diaphoretic,expectorant,fungicidal,immuno-stimulant,parasiticide,vulnerary.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamorwaterdistillationfromtheleavesandtwigs.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyellowy-greenorwater-whitemobileliquidwithawarm,fresh,spicy-camphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithlavandin,lavender,clarysage,rosemary,oakmoss,pine,cananga,geranium,marjoram,andspiceoils,especiallycloveandnutmeg.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSTerpinene-4-ol(upto30percent),cineol,pinene,terpinenes,cymene,sesquiterpenes,sesquiterpenealcohols,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Abscess,acne,athlete’sfoot,blisters,burns,coldsores,dandruff,herpes,insectbites,oilyskin,rashes(nappyrash),spots,verrucae,warts,wounds(infected).Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,coughs,sinusitis,tuberculosis,whoopingcough.Genito-urinarysystem:Thrush,vaginitis,cystitis,pruritis.Immunesystem:Colds,fever,’flu,infectiousillnessessuchaschickenpox.

OTHERUSESEmployedinsoaps,toothpastes,deodorants,disinfectants,gargles,germicidesand,increasingly,inaftershavesandspicycolognes.

THUJAThujaoccidentalis

FAMILYCupressaceae

SYNONYMSSwampcedar,whitecedar,northernwhitecedar,easternwhitecedar,treeoflife,Americanarborvitae,cedarleaf(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAgracefulpyramid-shapedconiferoustreeupto20metreshighwithscale-likeleavesandbroadly-wingedseeds,sometimesplantedashedging.Thetreemustbeatleastfifteenyearsoldbeforeitisreadytobeusedforessentialoilproduction.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetonortheasternNorthAmerica;cultivatedinFrance.TheoilisproducedmainlyinCanadaandtheUSA,similaroilsarealsoproducedintheEast–seehere.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyformsandcultivatedvarietiesofthistree:thewesternredcedarorWashingtoncedar(T.plicata);theChineseorJapanesecedar(T.orientalisorBiotaorientalis);theNorthAfricanvariety(T.articulata)whichyieldsaresinknownas‘sanderac’.Thehibatree(Thujopsisdolobrata)isusedtoproducehibawoodoilandhiba

leafoilinJapan.Hibawoodoil,accordingtoavailabledata,isnon-toxic,non-irritantandnon-sensitizing(unliketheotherthujaoils),andhasexcellentresistancetofungiandbacteriaduetotheketonicsubstancesfoundintheoil.ItisusedextensivelyinJapanasanindustrialperfume.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONUsedasanincensebyancientcivilizationsforritualpurposes.Adecoctionofleaveshasbeenusedforcoughs,fever,intestinalparasites,cystitisandvenerealdiseases.Theointmenthasbeenusedforrheumatism,gout,warts,verrucae,psoriasisandotherailments.ThetwigsarecurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,usedspecifically

forbronchitiswithcardiacweakness,andwarts.

ACTIONSAntirheumatic,astringent,diuretic,emmenagogue,expectorant,insectrepellent,rubefacient,stimulant(nerve,uterusandheartmuscles),tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshleaves,twigsandbark.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlesstopaleyellowy-greenliquidwithasharp,fresh,camphoraceousodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThujone(approx.60percent),fenchone,camphor,sabineneandpinene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATAOraltoxin–poisonousduetohighthujonecontent.Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedinaromatherapyeitherinternallyorexternally.’101

OTHERUSESUsedinpharmaceuticalproductssuchasdisinfectantsandsprays;alsoasacounter-irritantinanalgesicointmentsandliniments.Afragrancecomponentinsometoiletriesandperfumes.Employedasaflavouringredientinmostmajorfoodcategories(providedthatthefinishedfoodisrecognizedthujone-free).

THYME,COMMONThymusvulgaris

FAMILYLamiaceae(Labiatae)

SYNONYMST.aestivus,T.ilerdensis,T.webbianus,T.valentianus,Frenchthyme,gardenthyme,redthyme(oil),whitethyme(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialevergreensubshrubupto45cmshighwithawoodyrootandmuch-brancheduprightstem.Ithassmall,grey-green,oval,aromaticleavesandpalepurpleorwhiteflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSpainandtheMediterraneanregion;nowfoundthroughoutAsiaMinor,Algeria,Turkey,Tunisia,Israel,theUSA,Russia,ChinaandcentralEurope.TheoilismainlyproducedinSpainbutalsoinFrance,Israel,Greece,Morocco,Algeria,GermanyandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTherearenumerousvarietiesofthyme–thecommonthymeisbelievedtohavederivedfromthewildthymeormother-of-thyme(T.serpyllum),whichisalsousedtoproduceanessentialoilcalledserpolet,similarineffecttothecommonthymeoil.

Thyme

Anotherspeciesusedfortheproductionoftheso-calledredthymeoilisparticularlytheSpanishsaucethyme(T.zygis),ahighlypenetratingoilgoodforcellulitis,sportsinjuries,etc.(although,likethecommonthyme,itisaskinirritant).Otherspeciesusedforessentialoilproductionincludelemonthyme(T.citriodorus),afreshscentedoilgoodforasthmaandotherrespiratoryconditions,safeforchildren.Spanishmarjoram(T.Mastichina)isactuallybotanicallyclassifiedasavarietyofthyme,withwhichitsharesmanycommonproperties,despiteitscommonname.Spanishmarjoramcontainsmainly1,8-cineole(upto75percent)andlinalool(upto20percent),sotherapeuticallyhasmuchincommonwitheucalyptus,beingwellsuitedtotreatingviralandbacterialrespiratoryinfections.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONOneoftheearliestmedicinalplantsemployedthroughouttheMediterraneanregion,wellknowntobothHippocratesandDioscorides.ItwasusedbytheancientEgyptiansintheembalmingprocess,andbytheancientGreekstofumigateagainstinfectiousillness;thenamederivesfromtheGreekthymosmeaning‘toperfume’.Itisalsoalong-establishedculinaryherb,especiallyusedforthepreservationofmeat.Ithasawiderangeofuses,thoughinWesternherbalmedicineitsmainareas

ofapplicationarerespiratoryproblems,digestivecomplaintsandthepreventionandtreatmentofinfection.IntheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaitisindicatedfordyspepsia,chronicgastritis,bronchitis,pertussis,asthma,children’s

fordyspepsia,chronicgastritis,bronchitis,pertussis,asthma,children’sdiarrhoea,laryngitis,tonsillitisandenuresisinchildren.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,antimicrobial,antioxidant,antiputrescent,antirheumatic,antiseptic(intestinal,pulmonary,genito-urinary),antispasmodic,antitussive,antitoxic,aperitif,astringent,aphrodisiac,bactericidal,balsamic,carminative,cicatrisant,diuretic,emmenagogue,expectorant,fungicidal,hypertensive,nervine,revulsive,rubefacient,parasiticide,stimulant(immunesystem,circulation),sudorific,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywaterorsteamdistillationfromthefreshorpartiallydriedleavesandfloweringtops.1.‘Redthymeoil’isthecrudedistillate.2.‘Whitethymeoil’isproducedbyfurtherredistillationorrectification.(AnabsoluteisalsoproducedinFrancebysolventextractionforperfumeryuse.)

CHARACTERISTICS1.Ared,brownororangeliquidwithawarm,spicy-herbaceous,powerfulodour.2.Aclear,paleyellowliquidwithasweet,green-fresh,milderscent.Itblendswellwithbergamot,lemon,rosemary,melissa,lavender,lavandin,marjoram,Perubalsam,pine,etc.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThymolandcarvacrol(upto60percent),cymene,terpinene,camphene,borneol,linalol;dependingonthesourceitcanalsocontaingeraniol,citralandthuyanol,etc.Therearemanychemotypesofthymeoil:notablythe‘thymol’and

‘carvacrol’types(warmingandactive);the‘thuyanol’type(penetratingandantiviral);andthemilder‘linalol’or‘citral’types(sweet-scented,non-irritant).

SAFETYDATARedthymeoil,serpolet(fromwildthyme),‘thymol’and‘carvacrol’typeoilsallcontainquitelargeamountsoftoxicphenols(carvacrolandthymol).Theycanirritatemucousmembranes,causedermalirritationandmaycausesensitizationinsomeindividuals.Useinmoderation,inlowdilutiononly.Theyarebestavoidedduringpregnancy.Whitethymeisnota‘complete’oilandisoftenadulterated.Lemonthyme

and‘linalol’typesareingenerallesstoxic,non-irritant,withlesspossibilityofsensitization–safeforuseontheskinandwithchildren.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Abscess,acne,bruises,burns,cuts,dermatitis,eczema,insectbites,

lice,guminfections,oilyskin,scabies.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,cellulitis,gout,muscularachesandpains,obesity,oedema,poorcirculation,rheumatism,sprains,sportsinjuries.Respiratorysystem:Asthma,bronchitis,catarrh,coughs,laryngitis,sinusitis,sorethroat,tonsillitis.Digestivesystem:Diarrhoea,dyspepsia,flatulence.Genito-urinarysystem:Cystitis,urethritis.Immunesystem:Chills,colds,’flu,infectiousdiseases.Nervoussystem:Headaches,insomnia,nervousdebilityandstress-relatedcomplaints–‘helpstoreviveandstrengthenbothbodyandmind’.102

OTHERUSESTheoilisusedinmouthwashes,gargles,toothpastesandcoughlozenges.‘Thymol’isisolatedforpharmaceuticaluseinsurgicaldressings,disinfectantsetc.Usedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,toiletries,aftershaves,perfumes,colognes,etc.Extensivelyemployedbythefoodanddrinkindustry,especiallyinmeatproducts.

TONKADipteryxodorata

FAMILYLeguminosae

SYNONYMSCoumarounaodorata,tonquinbean,Dutchtonkabean.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAverylargetropicaltreewithbigellipticalleavesandvioletflowers,bearingfruitwhichcontainasingleblackseedor‘tonkabean’,aboutthesizeofabutterbean.Thebeans,knownas‘rumara’bythenatives,arecollectedanddried,thensoakedinalcoholorrumfortwelvetofifteenhourstomakethemswell.Whentheyareremovedfromthebaththeybecomedriedandshrunken,coveredinawhitishpowderofcrystallizedcoumann.

The‘curing’ofthebeansispartlyaconventional‘salespromotion’techniqueratherthananindicationofquality,sincethefrostedappearancehascometobeexpectedoftheproduct.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSouthAmerica,especiallyVenezuela,GuyanaandBrazil;cultivatedinNigeriaandelsewhereinWestAfrica.Mostbeanscome

fromSouthAmericaafter‘curing’,tobeprocessedinEuropeandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyspeciesofDipteryxwhichproducebeanssuitableforextraction.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInHollandthefattysubstancefromthebeansissoldas‘tarquinbutter’,whichusedtobeusedasaninsecticideagainstmothinlinencupboards.‘Thefluidextracthasbeenusedwithadvantageinwhoopingcough,butitparalysestheheartifusedinlargedoses.’103

ACTIONSInsecticidal,narcotic,tonic(cardiac).

EXTRACTIONAconcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromthe‘cured’beans.

CHARACTERISTICSTheabsoluteisasemi-solidyelloworambermasswithaveryrich,warmandsweetherbaceous-nuttyodour.Itblendswellwithlavender,lavandin,clarysage,styrax,bergamot,oakmoss,immortelleandcitronella.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlycoumarin(20–40percent)intheabsolute.

SAFETYDATAOralanddermaltoxin,duetohighcoumarincontent.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESUsedtoalimitedextentasapharmaceuticalmaskingagent.Theabsoluteisemployedasafixativeandfragrancecomponentinoriental,new-mownhayandchypres-typeperfumes.Itisnolongerusedasaflavouring(duetothecoumarinbaninmanycountries),thoughitisstillusedtoflavourtobacco.

TUBEROSEPolianthestuberosa

FAMILYAgavaceae

SYNONYMSTuberosa,tubereuse

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtender,tall,slimperennialupto50cmshigh,withlongslenderleaves,atuberousrootandlarge,veryfragrant,whitelilylikeflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativeofCentralAmerica,whereitisfoundgrowingwild.CultivatedforitsoilinsouthernFrance,Morocco,China,TaiwanandEgypt.

OTHERSPECIESRelatedtothenarcissusandjonquil.TheChinesespeciesoftuberoseissomewhatdifferentfromtheFrenchandMoroccantype,althoughbotharesinglefloweredvarieties.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThedoublefloweredvarietyisgrownforornamentalpurposesandforusebythecutflowertrade.‘Pureabsoluteextractionoftuberoseisperhapsthemostexpensivenaturalfloweroilatthedisposalofthemodernperfumer.’104

ACTIONSNarcotic.

EXTRACTIONAconcreteandabsolutebysolventextractionfromthefreshflowers,pickedbeforethepetalsopen.(Anessentialoilisalsoobtainedbydistillationoftheconcrete.)

CHARACTERISTICSTheabsoluteisadarkorangeorbrownsoftpaste,withaheavy,sweetfloral,sometimesslightlyspicy,tenaciousfragrance.Itblendswellwithgardenia,violet,opopanax,rose,jasmine,carnation,orris,Perubalsam,neroliandylangylang.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMethylbenzoate,methylanthranilate,benzylalcohol,butyricacid,eugenol,nerol,farnesol,geraniol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANosafetydataavailable–oftenadulterated.

Tuberose

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEPerfume.

OTHERUSESUsedinhigh-classperfumes,especiallyofanoriental,floralorfantasytype.Occasionallyusedforflavouringconfectioneryandsomebeverages.

TURMERICCurcumalonga

FAMILYZingiberaceae

SYNONYMSC.domestica,Amomoumcurcuma,curcuma,Indiansaffron,Indianyellowroot,curmuma(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialtropicalherbupto1metrehigh,withathickrhizomeroot,deeporangeinside,lanceolaterootleavestaperingateachend,anddullyellowflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthernAsia;extensivelycultivatedinIndia,China,Indonesia,JamaicaandHaiti.TheoilismainlydistilledinIndia,ChinaandJapan.SomerootsareimportedtoEuropeandtheUSAfordistillation.

OTHERSPECIESCloselyrelatedtothecommonginger(Zingiberofficinale).NottobeconfusedwiththeIndianturmericorAmericanyellowroot(Hydrastiscanadensis).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAcommonhouseholdspice,especiallyforcurrypowder.Itishighinmineralsandvitamins,especiallyvitaminC.Itisalsousedextensivelyasalocalhomemedicine.InChineseherbalismitisusedforbruises,sores,ringworm,toothache,chest

pains,colicandmenstrualproblems,usuallyincombinationwithremedies.Itwasonceusedasacureforjaundice.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,anti-arthritic,antiinflammatory,antioxidant,bactericidal,cholagogue,digestive,diuretic,hypotensive,insecticidal,laxative,rubefacient,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthe‘cured’rhizome–boiled,cleanedandsun-dried.(Anoleoresin,absoluteandconcretearealsoproducedbysolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICSAyellowy-orangeliquidwithafaintbluefluorescenceandafreshspicywoodyodour.Itblendswellwithcananga,labdanum,elecampane,ginger,orris,cassie,clarysageandmimosa.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlytumerone(60percent),withar-tumerone,atlantones,zingiberene,cineol,borneol,sabineneandphellandrene,amongothers.

SAFETYDATATheketone‘tumerone’ismoderatelytoxicandirritantinhighconcentration.Possiblesensitizationproblems.‘Theessentialoilofturmericmustbeusedinmoderationandwithcareforafairlylimitedperiod.’105

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSECirculationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,muscularachesandpains,rheumatism.Digestivesystem:Anorexia,sluggishdigestion,livercongestion.

OTHERUSESEmployedinperfumerywork,fororientalandfantasy-typefragrances.Theoleoresinisusedasaflavouringredientinsomefoods,mainlycurries,meatproductsandcondiments.

TURPENTINEPinuspalustrisandotherPinusspecies

FAMILYPinaceae

SYNONYMSTerebinth,therebentine,gumthus,gumturpentine,turpentinebalsam,spiritofturpentine(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTION‘Gumturpentine’isatermlooselyappliedtothenaturaloleoresinformedasaphysiologicalproductinthetrunksofvariousPinus,PiceaandAbiesspecies.Turpentinerefersbothtothecrudeoleoresin(amixtureofoilandresin)andtothedistilledandrectifiedessentialoils.

DISTRIBUTIONAllovertheworld.ThelargestproduceristheUSA,alsoMexico,France,Portugal,Spain,Greece,Scandinavia,NewZealand,Tasmania,India,China,theUSSR,etc.

OTHERSPECIESApartfromthelongleafpine(Pinuspalustris),whichistheleadingsourceofAmericangumturpentine,othersourcesintheUSAincludetheslashpine(P.elliottii)andtheMexicanwhitepine(P.ayacahuite).InIndiathechirpine(P.roxburghii);inTasmaniathelodgepolepine(P.contortavar.latifolia);inChinathemassonorSouthernredpine(P.massoniana);inEuropeandScandinaviatheScotchpine(P.sylvestris)andtheseapine(P.pinaster),aswellasmanyothers.SeeBotanicalClassificationsection.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONKnowntoGalenandHippocratesforitsmanyapplications,especiallywithregardtopulmonaryandgenito-urinaryinfections,digestivecomplaintsandexternallyasatreatmentforrheumaticorneuralgicpainandskinconditions.InChinatheoleoresinhasbeenused(bothinternallyandexternally)forcenturiesforexcessphlegm,bronchitis,rheumatism,stiffjoints,toothache,boils,sores,ringwormanddermatitis.Theturpentineessenceorspiritofturpentineissaidtobefourtimesmore

activethanthecrudeturpentine.

ACTIONSAnalgesic,antimicrobial,antirheumatic,antiseptic,antispasmodic,balsamic,diuretic,cicatrisant,counter-irritant,expectorant,haemostatic,parasiticide,rubefacient,stimulant,tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteam(orwater)distillationfromthecrudeoleoresin,thenrectified.‘Ithastobepurifiedbecauseitisviscous,colouredandacidic.’106

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourless,waterwhitemobileliquidwithafresh,warmbalsamic,familiarodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlyalphapinene(approx.50percent),betapinene(25–35percent)andcarene(20–60percent)intheAmericanoils.InEuropeanoilsthealphapinenecanconstituteupto95percent–constituentsvaryaccordingtosource.

SAFETYDATAEnvironmentalhazard–marinepollutant.Relativelynon-toxicandnon-irritant;possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.Avoidtherapeuticuseoremployinmoderationonly.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEUsewithcarefor:Skincare:Boils,cuts,fleas,insectrepellent,lice,ringworm,scabies,wounds.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,gout,muscularachesandpains,rheumatism,sciatica.Respiratorysystem:Bronchitis,catarrh,whoopingcough.Genito-urinarysystem:Cystitis,leucorrhoea,urethritis.Immunesystem:Colds.Nervoussystem:Neuralgia.

OTHERUSESUsedinmanyointmentsandlotionsforachesandpains;andincoughandcoldremedies.Neitheroilnoroleoresinisusedinperfumerywork,althoughresinderivativesareusedasfixativeagentsandinpineandindustrialperfumes.Mainlyknownasapaintandstainremover,solventandinsecticide.Alsousedasastartingmaterialfortheproductionofterpineol,etc.

V

VALERIANValerianafauriei

FAMILYValerianaceae

SYNONYMSV.officinalis,V.officinalisvar.angustifolium,V.officinalisvar.latifolia,Europeanvalerian,commonvalerian,Belgianvalerian,fragrantvalerian,gardenvalerian.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialherbupto1.5metreshighwithahollow,erectstem,deeplydissecteddarkleavesandmanypurplishwhiteflowers.Ithasshort,thick,greyishroots,largelyshowingaboveground,whichhaveastrongodour.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEuropeandpartsofAsia;naturalizedinNorthAmerica.ItismainlycultivatedinBelgiumforitsoil,alsoinFrance,Holland,England,Scandinavia,Yugoslavia,Hungary,ChinaandtheUSSR.

OTHERSPECIESThereareover150speciesofvalerianfoundindifferentpartsoftheworld.TheEasternvarietiesareslightlydifferentfromtheWesterntypes:theoilfromtheJapaneseplantcalled‘kessoroot’(V.officinalis)ismorewoody;theoilfromtheIndianvalerian(V.wallichii)ismoremusky.Alsocloselyrelatedtospikenard(Nardostachysjatamansi)–seeentry.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONThisherbhasbeenhighlyesteemedsincemedievaltimes,andusedtobecalled‘allheal’.IthasbeenusedintheWestforavarietyofcomplaints,especiallywherethereisnervoustensionorrestlessness,suchasinsomnia,migraine,dysmenorrhoea,intestinalcolic,rheumatism,andasapainreliever.OntheContinenttheoilhasbeenusedforcholera,epilepsyandforskin

complaints.InChinaitisusedforbackache,colds,menstrualproblems,bruisesandsores.TherootiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecific

for‘conditionspresentingnervousexcitability’.107

ACTIONSAnodyne(mild),antidandruff,diuretic,antispasmodic,bactericidal,carminative,depressantofthecentralnervoussystem,hypnotic,hypotensive,regulator,sedative,stomachic.

EXTRACTION1.Essentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtherhizomes.2.Anabsolute(andconcrete)bysolventextractionoftherhizomes.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Anolivetobrownliquid(darkeningwithage)withawarmwoody,balsamic,muskyodour;agreentopnoteinfreshoils.2.Anolive-brownviscousliquidwithabalsamic-green,woody,bitter-sweetstrongodour.Itblendswellwithpatchouli,costus,oakmoss,pine,lavender,cedarwood,mandarin,petitgrainandrosemary.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMainlybornylacetateandisovalerate,withcaryophyllene,pinenes,valeranone,ionone,eugenylisovalerate,borneol,patchoulialcoholandvalerianol,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitization.Useinmoderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENervoussystem:Insomnia,nervousindigestion,migraine,restlessnessandtensionstates.

OTHERUSESUsedinpharmaceuticalpreparationsasarelaxantandinherbalteas.Theoilandabsoluteareusedasfragrancecomponentsinsoapsandin‘moss’and‘forest’fragrances.Usedtoflavourtobacco,rootbeer,liqueursandappleflavourings.

VANILLAVanillaplanifolia

FAMILYOrchidaceae

SYNONYMSV.fragrans,commonvanilla,Mexicanvanilla,Bourbonvanilla,Reunionvanilla.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialherbaceousclimbingvineupto25metreshigh,withgreenstemsandlargewhiteflowerswhichhaveadeepnarrowtrumpet.Thegreencapsulesorfruitsarereadytopickaftereightorninemonthsontheplant,andthenhavetobe‘cured’.Theimmaturevanilla‘pod’or‘bean’whichisfrom14cmsto22cmslong,hastobefermentedanddriedtoturnitintothefragrantbrownvanillapodsofcommerce–aprocesswhichcantakeuptosixmonthstocomplete.Duringthedryingprocessvanillincanaccumulateaswhitecrystalsonthesurfaceofthebean.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoCentralAmericaandMexico;cultivatedmainlyinMadagascarandMexico;alsoTahiti,theComoroIslands,EastAfricaandIndonesia,althoughthepodsareoftenprocessedinEuropeortheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveraldifferentspeciesofvanilla,suchastheTahitivanilla(V.tahitensis)whichisasmallerbean,andthe‘vanillons’type(V.pompona)whichproducesaninferiorqualityoil.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONWhenvanillaisgrownincultivationthedeeptrumpet-shapedflowershavetobehand-pollinated;exceptinMexicowherethenativehummingbirdsdomostofthework!

ACTIONSBalsamic.

EXTRACTIONAresinoid(oftencalledanoleoresin)bysolventextractionfromthe‘cured’vanillabeans.(Anabsoluteisoccasionallyproducedbyfurtherextractionfromtheresinoid.)

CHARACTERISTICSAviscousdarkbrownliquidwitharich,sweet,balsamic,vanilla-likeodour.Itblendswellwithsandalwood,vetiver,opopanax,benzoin,balsamsandspiceoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSVanillin(1.3–2.9percent)withover150otherconstituents,manyofthemtraces:hydroxybenzaldehyde,aceticacid,isobutyricacid,caproicacid,eugenolandfurfural,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,commonsensitizingagent.Widelyadulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.

OTHERUSESUsedinpharmaceuticalproductsasaflavouringagent.Usedasafragranceingredientinperfumes,especiallyorientaltypes.Widelyusedtoflavourtobaccoandasafoodflavouring,mainlyinicecream,yoghurtandchocolate.

VERBENA,LEMONAloysiatriphylla

FAMILYVerbenaceae

SYNONYMSA.citriodora,Verbenatriphylla,Lippiacitriodora,L.triphylla,verbena,herbLouisa.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhandsomedeciduousperennialshrubupto5metreshighwithawoodystem,veryfragrant,delicate,palegreen,lanceolateleavesarrangedinthrees,andsmall,palepurpleflowers.Oftengrownasanornamentalbushingardens.

DISTRIBUTIONNativeofChileandArgentina;cultivated(andfoundsemi-wild)intheMediterraneanregion–France,Tunisia,Algeria–aswellasKenyaandChina.TheoilismainlyproducedinsouthernFranceandNorthAfrica.

OTHERSPECIESBotanicallyrelatedtotheoreganofamily–seeBotanicalClassificationsection.Nottobemistakenfortheso-called‘Spanishverbena’or‘verbena’oil(Spanish)(Thymushiamalis),norconfusedwiththeherb‘vervain’(Verbenaofficinalis).ThisisfurtherconfusedsincetheFrenchnameforverbenaisverveine(Verveinecitronelle,Verveineodorante).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION‘Theusesoflemonverbenaaresimilartothoseofmint,orangeflowersandmelissa.’108Itisindicatedespeciallyinnervousconditionswhichmanifestasdigestivecomplaints.ThedriedleavesarestillusedasapopularhouseholdteaespeciallyontheContinent,bothasarefreshing,uplifting‘pick-me-up’andtohelprestoretheliverafterahang-over.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,carminative,detoxifying,digestive,febrifuge,hepatobiliarystimulant,sedative(nervous),stomachic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthefreshlyharvested

herb.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleoliveoryellowmobileliquidwithasweet,fresh,lemony,fruity-floralfragrance.Itblendswellwithneroli,palmarosa,olibanum,Tolubalsam,elemi,lemonandothercitrusoils.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSCitral(30–35percent),nerolandgeraniol,amongothers.

LemonVerbena

SAFETYDATAPossiblesensitization;phototoxicityduetohighcitrallevels.Othersafetydataisunavailableatpresent–however,trueverbenaoilisvirtuallynon-existent.Mostso-called‘verbenaoil’iseitherfromtheSpanishverbena(aninferioroil),oramixoflemongrass,lemon,citronella,etc.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSEDigestivesystem:Cramps,indigestion,livercongestion.Nervoussystem:Anxiety,insomnia,nervoustensionandstress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESUsedinperfumeryandcitruscolognes–‘eaudeverveine’isstillpopularinFrance,EuropeandAmerica.

VETIVERVetiveriazizanoides

FAMILYPoaceae(Gramineae)

SYNONYMSAndropogonmuricatus,vetivert,khuskhus.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtall,tufted,perennial,scentedgrass,withastraightstem,longnarrowleavesandanabundantcomplexlaceworkofundergoundwhiterootlets.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetosouthIndia,IndonesiaandSriLanka.AlsocultivatedinReunion,thePhilippines,theComoroIslands,Japan,WestAfricaandSouthAmerica.TheoilismainlyproducedinJava,HaitiandReunion;someisdistilledinEuropeandtheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESBotanicallyrelatedtolemongrass,citronella,litseacubebaandflouveoil(alsofromtherootsofatropicalgrass).

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTherootletshavebeenusedintheEastfortheirfinefragrancesinceantiquity.Theyareusedbythelocalstoprotectdomesticanimalsfromvermin,andthefibresofthegrassarewovenintoaromaticmatting.ItisgrowninIndiatoprotectagainstsoilerosionduringthetropicalrainyseason.InIndiaandSriLankatheessenceisknownas‘theoiloftranquillity’.

ACTIONSAntiseptic,antispasmodic,depurative,rubefacient,sedative(nervoussystem),stimulant(circulatory,productionofredcorpuscles),tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtherootsandrootletswashed,chopped,driedandsoaked.(Aresinoidisalsoproducedbysolventextractionforperfumerywork.)

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkbrown,oliveoramberviscousoilwithadeepsmoky,earthywoodyodourwithasweetpersistentundertone.Thecolourandscentcanvaryaccordingtothesource–Angolaproducesaverypaleoilwithadry-woodyodour.Itblendswellwithsandalwood,rose,violet,jasmine,opopanax,patchouli,oakmoss,lavender,clarysage,mimosa,cassieandylang

ylang.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSVetiverol,vitivone,terpenes,e.g.vetivenes,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,cuts,oilyskin,wounds.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arthritis,muscularachesandpains,rheumatism,sprains,stiffness.Nervoussystem:Debility,depression,insomnia,nervoustension–‘Vetiverisdeeplyrelaxing,sovaluableinmassageandbathsforanybodyexperiencingstress.’109

OTHERUSESEmployedasafixativeandfragranceingredientinsoaps,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallyorientaltypes.Theoilisusedinfoodpreservatives,especiallyforasparagus.

VIOLETViolaodorata

FAMILYViolaceae

SYNONYMSEnglishviolet,gardenviolet,blueviolet,sweet-scentedviolet.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmall,tender,perennialplantwithdarkgreen,heart-shapedleaves,fragrantviolet-blueflowersandanobliqueundergroundrhizome.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEuropeandpartsofAsia;cultivatedingardensworldwide.ItismainlygrowninsouthernFrance(Grasse)andtoalesserextentinItalyandChinaforperfumeryuse.

OTHERSPECIESThereareover200speciesofviolet;themaintypescultivatedforaromaticextractionarethe‘Parma’andthe‘Victoria’violets.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONBoththeleafandflowershavealongtraditionofuseinherbalmedicine,mainlyforcongestivepulmonaryconditionsand

sensitiveskinconditions,includingcapillaryfragility.Theleafhasalsobeenusedtotreatcystitisandasamouthwashforinfectionsofthemouthandthroat.Itisreportedtohavemildpain-killingproperties,probablyduetothepresenceofsalicylicacid(asin‘aspirin’).

Violet

Theflowersarestillusedtomakea‘syrupofviolet’whichisusedasalaxativeandcolouringagent.ThedriedleafandflowersarecurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificfor‘eczemaandskineruptionswithseriousexudate,particularlywhenassociatedwithrheumaticsymptoms’.

ACTIONSAnalgesic(mild),anti-inflammatory,antirheumatic,antiseptic,decongestant(liver),diuretic,expectorant,laxative,soporific,stimulant(circulation).

EXTRACTIONAconcreteandabsolutefrom1.freshleaves,and2.flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS1.Theleafabsoluteisanintensedarkgreenviscousliquidwithastronggreen-leafodourandadelicatefloralundertone.2.Theflowerabsoluteisayellowish-greenviscousliquidwithasweet,rich,floralfragrance,characteristicofthefreshflowers.Itblendswellwithtuberose,clarysage,boronia,tarragon,cumin,hop,basil,hyacinthandotherflorals.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSBothleavesandpetalscontainnonadienal,

parmone,hexylalcohol,benzylalcohol,iononeandviolaquercitin,amongothers.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,eczema,refinesthepores,threadveins,wounds.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Fibrosis,poorcirculation,rheumatism.Respiratorysystem:Bronchitis,catarrh,mouthandthroatinfections.Nervoussystem:Dizziness,headaches,insomnia,nervousexhaustion–thescentwasbelievedto‘comfortandstrengthentheheart’.

OTHERUSESUsedinhigh-classperfumerywork;occasionallyusedinflavouring,mainlyconfectionery.

W

WINTERGREENGaultheriaprocumbens

FAMILYEricaceae

SYNONYMSAromaticwintergreen,checkerberry,teaberry,gaultheria(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAsmallevergreenherbupto15cmhighwithslendercreepingstemsshootingfortherecttwigswithleatheryserratedleavesanddroopingwhiteflowers,whicharefollowedbyfleshyscarletberries.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoNorthAmerica,especiallythenortheasternregionandCanada.TheoilisproducedintheUSA.

OTHERSPECIESThereareseveralotherGaultheriaspecieswhicharealsousedforoilproduction,sharingsimilarproperties.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONTheplanthasbeenusedforrespiratoryconditionssuchaschronicmucousdischarge,butismainlyemployedforjointandmuscularproblemssuchaslumbago,sciatica,neuralgia,myalgia,etc.ThedriedleafandstemarecurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforrheumatoidarthritis.Theessentialoilhasbeenusedinterchangeablywithsweetbirchoil,both

beingmadeupalmostexclusivelyofmethylsalicylate.

ACTIONSAnalgesic(mild),anti-inflammatory,antirheumatic,antitussive,astringent,carminative,diuretic,emmenagogue,galactagogue,stimulant.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteam(orwater)distillationfromtheleaf,previouslymaceratedinwarmwater.Theessentialoildoesnotoccurcrudelyintheplant,butisonlyproducedduringtheprocessofdecompositioninwarmwater.

CHARACTERISTICSApaleyelloworpinkishliquidwithanintensesweet-woody,almostfruityodour.Itblendswellwithoregano,mints,thyme,ylangylang,narcissusandvanilla.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAlmostexclusivelymethylsalicylate(upto98percent),withformaldehydeandgaultheriline.

SAFETYDATAToxic,irritantandsensitizing–anenvironmentalhazardormarinepollutant.Thetrueoilisalmostobsolete,havingbeenreplacedbysyntheticmethylsalicylate.Seealsosweetbirchoil.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Avoidbothinternallyandexternally.’110

OTHERUSESSomepharmaceuticaluse,suchas‘Olbas’oil.Someperfumeryapplicationsespeciallyinforest-typefragrances.ExtensivelyusedasaflavouringagentintheUSAfortoothpaste,chewinggum,rootbeer,Coca-Cola,andothersoftdrinks.

WORMSEEDChenopodiumambrosioidesvar.anthelminticum

FAMILYChenopodiaceae

SYNONYMSC.anthelminticum,Americanwormseed,chenopodium,Californianspearmint,Jesuit’stea,Mexicantea,herbsanctimariae,Baltimore(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAhairy,coarse,perennialwaysideherbupto1metrehighwithstout,erectstem,oblong-lanceolateleavesandnumerousgreenish-yellowflowers,thesamecolourastheleaves.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoSouthAmerica;cultivatedmainlyintheeastandsoutheastUSA,alsoIndia,HungaryandtheUSSR.

OTHERSPECIESTheparentplant,C.ambrosioides,isalsousedtoproduceanessentialoilwithsimilarproperties.TherearemanydifferentmembersintheChenopodiumorGoosefootfamily,suchasGoodKingHenry(C.bonus-

henricus),aEuropeanvarietywhoseleaveswereeatenlikespinach.SeealsoBotanicalClassificationsection.Theso-called‘Russianwormseedoil’orwormseedLevant(Artemisiacina)is

quitedifferentfromtheAmericantype,althoughitisalsousedasananthelminticandisextremelytoxic,containingmainlycineol.HERBAL/FOLKTRADITION‘UsedformanyyearsbythelocalIndiansas

aneffectiveanthelmintic...severalIndiantribesoftheeasternpartoftheUnitedStatesusethewholeoftheherbdecoctedtohelpeasepainfulmenstruationandotherfemalecomplaints.’111Apartfrombeingusedtoexpelroundworm,hookwormanddwarftapeworm,theherbhasalsobeenemployedforasthma,catarrhandotherchestcomplaints,andtotreatnervousdisease.InChinaitisusedtotreatarticularrheumatism.Causesdizzinessandvomitinginconcentration.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,antirheumatic,antispasmodic,expectorant,hypotensive.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthewholeherb,especiallythefruitorseeds.

CHARACTERISTICSAcolourlessorpaleyellowoilwithasweet-woody,camphoraceous,heavyandnauseatingodour.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAscaridole(60–80percent),cymene,limonene,terpinene,myrcene.

SAFETYDATAAverytoxicoil–casesoffatalpoisoninghavebeenreportedeveninlowdoses.Effectscanbecumulative.Duetohighascaridolecontent,theoilmayexplodewhenheatedortreatedwithacids.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedintherapyeitherinternallyorexternally.Oneofthemosttoxicessentialoils.’112

OTHERUSESInpharmaceuticalsitsanthelminticapplicationshavebeenreplacedbysynthetics.Usedasafragrancecomponentinsoaps,detergents,cosmeticsandperfumes.Itsuseisnotpermittedinfoods.

WORMWOODArtemisiaabsinthium

Artemisiaabsinthium

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSCommonwormwood,greenginger,armoise,absinthium(oil).

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialherbupto1.5metreshighwithawhitishstem,silvery-green,dividedleavescoveredinsilkyfinehairs,andpaleyellowflowers.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEurope,NorthAfricaandwesternAsia;naturalizedinNorthAmerica.ItisextensivelycultivatedincentralandsouthernEurope,theUSSR,NorthAfricaandtheUSA,wheretheoilismainlyproduced.

OTHERSPECIESTherearemanyotherArtemisiaspeciessuchasdavanaandtheRomanwormwood.Seealsoentryonmugwort(A.vulgaris)alsocommonlycalled‘armoise’;remedyforepilepsyandasanaromaticstewingherbtobanishfleas.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONUsedasanaromatic-bitterforanorexia,asadigestivetonicandasacholereticforliverandgallbladderdisorders,usuallyintheformofadiluteextract.Itisalsousedtopromotemenstruation,reducefeverandexpelworms.Itwasonceusedasaremedyforepilepsyandasanaromaticstewingherbtobanishfleas.

ACTIONSAnthelmintic,choleretic,deodorant,emmenagogue,febrifuge,insectrepellent,narcotic,stimulant(digestive),tonic,vermifuge.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromtheleavesandfloweringtops.(Anabsoluteisoccasionallyproducedbysolventextraction.)

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkgreenorbluishoilwithaspicy,warm,bitter-greenodourandasharp,freshtopnote.The‘de-thujonized’oilblendswellwithoakmoss,jasmine,neroli,lavenderandhyacinth.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSThujone(upto71percent),azulenes,terpenes.

SAFETYDATAToxic.Abortifacient.Habitualusecancauserestlessness,

nightmares,convulsions,vomitingand,inextremecases,braindamage.In1915theFrenchbannedtheproductionofthedrinkAbsinthewiththisplant,duetoitsnarcoticandhabit-formingproperties.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSENone.‘Shouldnotbeusedintherapyeitherinternallyorexternally.’113

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinrubefacientpharmaceuticalpreparationsandasafragrancecomponentintoiletries,cosmeticsandperfumes.Widelyemployed(atminutelevels)asaflavouringagentinalcoholicbittersandvermouths;alsotoalesserextentinsoftdrinksandsomefoods,especiallyconfectioneryanddesserts.

Y

YARROWAchilleamillefolium

FAMILYAsteraceae(Compositae)

SYNONYMSMilfoil,commonyarrow,nosebleed,thousandleaf–andmanyothercountrynames.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAperennialherbwithasimplestemupto1metrehigh,withfinelydissectedleavesgivingalacyappearance,bearingnumerouspinky-white,denseflowerheads.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetoEurasia;naturalizedinNorthAmerica.Nowfoundinmosttemperatezonesoftheworld.TheoilismainlydistilledinGermany,Hungary,FranceandYugoslavia,alsotheUSAandAfrica.

OTHERSPECIESAveryextensivespecies.OthervarietiesincludetheLigurianyarrow(A.ligustica)andthemuskyarroworiva(A.moschata),whichalsoproducesanessentialoilcontainingmainlycineol–usedinthepreparationof‘ivaliquor’,amedicinalaperitif.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONAnage-oldherbalmedicineusedforawidevarietyofcomplaintsincludingfever,respiratoryinfections,digestiveproblems,nervoustensionandexternallyforsores,rashesandwounds.ItsuseinthetreatmentofwoundsissaidtogobacktoAchilleswhouseditforinjuriesinflictedbyironweapons.ItisusedinChinamainlyformenstrualproblemsandhaemorrhoids.In

Norwayitisalsousedforrheumatism.ThestalksaretraditionallyusedfordivinationintheIChing,theChineseclassic.ItiscurrentintheBritishHerbalPharmacopoeiaasaspecificforthromboticconditionswithhypertension.

ACTIONSAnti-inflammatory,antipyretic,antirheumatic,antiseptic,

antispasmodic,astringent,carminative,cicatrisant,diaphoretic,digestive,expectorant,haemostatic,hypotensive,stomachic,tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbysteamdistillationfromthedriedherb.

CHARACTERISTICSAdarkblueorgreenisholiveliquidwithafresh,green,sweetherbaceous,slightlycamphoraceousodour.Itblendswellwithcedarwood,pine,chamomile,valerian,vetiverandoakmoss.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSAzulene(upto51percent),pinenes,caryophyllene,borneol,terpineol,cineol,bornylacetate,camphor,sabineneandthujone,amongothers.Constituents,especiallyazulenelevels,varyaccordingtosource.

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,possiblesensitizationinsomeindividuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,burns,cuts,eczema,hairrinse(promoteshairgrowth),inflammations,rashes,scars,tonestheskin,varicoseveins,wounds.

Yarrow

Circulationmusclesandjoints:Arteriosclerosis,highbloodpressure,

rheumatoidarthritis,thrombosis.Digestivesystem:Constipation,cramp,flatulence,haemorrhoids,indigestion.Genito-urinarysystem:Amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea,cystitisandotherinfections.Immunesystem:Colds,fever,’flu,etc.Nervoussystem:Hypertension,insomnia,stress-relatedconditions.

OTHERUSESOccasionallyusedinpharmaceuticalbathpreparationsforskinconditions.Limiteduseinperfumesandaftershaves.Employedasaflavouringredientinvermouthsandbitters.

YLANGYLANGCanangaodoratavar.genuina

FAMILYAnnonaceae

SYNONYMSUnonaodorantissimum,flowerofflowers.

GENERALDESCRIPTIONAtalltropicaltreeupto20metreshighwithlarge,tender,fragrantflowers,whichcanbepink,mauveoryellow.Theyellowflowersareconsideredbestfortheextractionofessentialoil.

DISTRIBUTIONNativetotropicalAsia,especiallyIndonesiaandthePhilippines.MajoroilproducersareMadagascar,ReunionandtheComoroIslands.

OTHERSPECIESVerycloselyrelatedtocananga(C.odoratumvar.macrophylla),althoughtheoilproducedfromtheylangylangisconsideredofsuperiorqualityforperfumerywork,havingamorerefinedquality.

HERBAL/FOLKTRADITIONInIndonesia,theflowersarespreadonthebedsofnewlymarriedcouplesontheirweddingnight.IntheMoluccaIslands,anointmentismadefromylangylangandcucumaflowersinacoconutoilbaseforcosmeticandhaircare,skindiseases,topreventfever(includingmalaria)andfightinfections.IntheVictorianage,theoilwasusedinthepopularhairtreatmentMacassar

oil,duetoitsstimulatingeffectonthescalp,encouraginghairgrowth.Theoilwasalsousedtosootheinsectbites,andisthoughttohavearegulatingeffectoncardiacandrespiratoryrhythm.

cardiacandrespiratoryrhythm.

ACTIONSAphrodisiac,antidepressant,antiinfectious,antiseborrhoeic,antiseptic,euphoric,hypotensive,nervine,regulator,sedative(nervous),stimulant(circulatory),tonic.

EXTRACTIONEssentialoilbywaterorsteamdistillationfromthefreshlypickedflowers.Thefirstdistillate(about40percent)iscalledylangylangextra,whichisthetopgrade.Therearethenthreefurthersuccessivedistillates,calledGrades1,2and3.A‘complete’oilisalsoproducedwhichrepresentsthetotalor‘unfractionated’oil,butthisissometimesconstructedbyblendingylangylang1and2together,whicharethetwoleastpopulargrades.(Anabsoluteandconcretearealsoproducedbysolventextractionfortheirlong-lastingfloral-balsamiceffect.)

CHARACTERISTICSYlangylangextraisapaleyellow,oilyliquidwithanintenselysweet,soft,floral-balsamic,slightlyspicyscent–agoodoilhasacreamyrichtopnote.Averyintriguingperfumeoilinitsownright,italsoblendswellwithrosewood,jasmine,vetiver,opopanax,bergamot,mimosa,cassie,Perubalsam,rose,tuberose,costusandothers.Itisanexcellentfixative.Theothergradeslackthedepthandrichnessoftheylangylangextra.

PRINCIPALCONSTITUENTSMethylbenzoate,methylsalicylate,methylparacretol,benzylacetate,eugenol,geraniol,linalolandterpenes:pinene,cadinene,amongothers.

YlangYlang

SAFETYDATANon-toxic,non-irritant,afewcasesofsensitizationreported.Useinmoderation,sinceitsheadyscentcancauseheadachesornausea.

AROMATHERAPY/HOMEUSESkincare:Acne,hairgrowth,hairrinse,insectbites,irritatedandoilyskin,generalskincare.Circulationmusclesandjoints:Highbloodpressure,hyperpnoea(abnormallyfastbreathing),tachycardia,palpitations.Nervoussystem:Depression,frigidity,impotence,insomnia,nervoustensionandstress-relateddisorders–‘Thewriter,workingwithodorousmaterialsformorethantwentyyears,longagonoticedthat...ylangylangsoothesandinhibitsangerbornoffrustration.’114

OTHERUSESExtensivelyusedasafragrancecomponentandfixativeinsoaps,cosmeticsandperfumes,especiallyorientalandfloraltypes;ylangylangextratendstobeusedinhigh-classperfumes,ylangylang3insoaps,detergents,etc.Usedasaflavouringredient,mainlyinalcoholicandsoftdrinks,fruitflavoursanddesserts.

REFERENCES

PartI1.Naves,Y.R.NaturalPerfumeMaterials,p.3.2.Davis,P.AromatherapyAnA–Z,p.7.3.Tisserand,R.TheArtofAromatherapy,p.21.4.Naves,asabove,p.5.5.Chetwynd,T.DictionaryofSymbols,p.9.6. Yearbook of Pharmacy and Transactions of the British Pharmaceutical

Conference,1907,p.217.7.Maury,M.GuidetoAromatherapy,p.7.8.Valnet,J.ThePracticeofAromatherapy,p.44.9.AgbiotechNewsandInformation,1990,Vol.11,No.2,p.211.10.Baerheim&Scheffer,EssentialOilsandAromaticPlants.11.Davis,asabove,p.173.12.Baerheim&Scheffer,asabove.13. Tisserand, R. Psychology of Perfumery, ’91 Conference Report.

InternationalJournalofAromatherapy,Vol.Ill,No.3,p.10.14.Maury,asabove,p.94.15.Whitmont,E.PsycheandSubstance,p.24.16.Hoffmann,D.TheNewHolisticHerbal,p.14.17.Lavabre,M.AromatherapyWorkbook,p.98.18.Steele,J.InternationalJournalofAromatherapy,Vol.11,No.2,p.8

PartII1.Davis,P.LondonSchoolofAromatherapynotes,19832.Tisserand,R.TheEssentialOilSafetyDataManual,p.76.3.Grieve,M.AModernHerbal,p.63.4.Grieve,asabove,p.79.5.Lavabre,M.AromatherapyWorkbook,p.123.6.Hoffmann,D.TheHolisticHerbal,p.168.7.Tisserand,R.TheEssentialOilSafetyDataManual,p.102.

8.Tisserand,R.TheArtofAromatherapy,p.183.9.Ceres,HerbsforHealthyHair,p.19.10.Leung,A.Y.EncyclopediaofCommonNaturalIngredients,p.62.11.Maury,M.GuidetoAromatherapy,p.96.12.Leung,asabove,p.64.13.Mills,S.Y.TheA–ZofModernHerbalism,p.36.14.Tisserand,TheEssentialOilSafetyDataManual,p.7815.Grieve,asabovep.127.16.Cribb,J.W.&A.B.UsefulWildPlantsinAustralia,p.36.17.Grieve,asabovep.155.18.BritishHerbalPharmacopoeia1983,p.14.19.Tisserand,asabove,p.79.20.Tisserand,asabove,p.81.21.Tisserand,asabove,p.81.22.Parvati,J.Hygieia,AWoman’sHerbal,p.105.23.Mills,asabove,p.59.24.Arctander,S.PerfumeandFlavorMaterialsofNaturalOrigin,p.157.25.Lavabre,asabove,p.117.26.deBairacliLevy,J.TheIllustratedHerbalHandbook,p.5427.Tisserand,asabove,p.82.28.Arctander,asabove,p.170.29.Leung,asabove,p.149.30.Culpeper,N.CompleteHerbal,p.110.31.Leungasabove,p.155.32.Tisserand,asabove,p.84.33.Franchomme,P.PhytoguideI,p.35.34.Maury,asabove,p.104.35.Leung,asabove,p.166.36.Davis,P.AromatherapyAnA–Z,p.135.37.Devprakash,RohanTembare,SuhasGurav,SenthilKumarG.P.,T.Tamizh

Mani,AreviewofphytochemicalconstituentsandpharmacologicalactivityofPlumeriaspecies,AcademicSciences,8December2011.

38.Lassak,E.V.&McCarthy,T.AustralianMedicinalPlants,p.201.39.Maury,asabove,p.104.40.SchoolofHerbalMedicine,MateriaMedica,PartII,p.27.41.Tisserand,asabove,p.85.42.Culpeper,asabove,p.198.

43.Worwood,V.A.TheFragrantPharmacy,p.107.44.Culpeper,asabove,p.202.45.Grieve,asabove,p.445.46.Tisserand,R.TheArtofAromatherapy,p.238.47.Culpeper,asabove,p.211.48.Grieve,asabove,p.471.49.Culpeper,asabove,p.216.50.Grieve,asabove,p.517.51.Davis,asabove,p.214.52.Culpeper,asabove,p.227.53.Grieve,asabove,p.522.54.Davis,asabove,p.221.55.SchoolofHerbalMedicine,asabove,p.25.56.Culpeper,asabove,p.234.57.Grieve,asabove,p.536.58.Tisserand,TheEssentialOilSafetyDataManual,p.86.59.Tisserand,asabove,p.86.60.Culpeper,asabove,p.247.61.Davis,asabove,p.233.62.Grieve,asabove,p.573.63.Davis,asabove,p.236.64.BritishHerbalPharmacopoeia1983,p.148.65.Younger,D.HouseholdGods,p.53.66.Younger,asabove,p.43.67.Tisserand,asabove,p.189.68.Tisserand,R.TheEssentialOilSafetyDataManual,p.8869.Tisserand,asabove,p.88.70.Guenther,E.TheEssentialOils,Vol.IV,p.5.71.Maury,asabove,p.89.72.Grieve,asabove,p.626.73.Tisserand,asabove,p.89.74.Maury,asabove,p.90.75.Younger,asabove,p.67.76.Warren-Davis,D.Thesymbolismoftherose,TheHerbalReview,Autumn

1989,p.2.77.Maury,asabove,p.87.78.Culpeper,asabove,p.298.

79.BritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,1983,p.181.80.Lavabre,asabove,p.86.81.Culpeper,asabove,p.305.82.Arctander,asabove,p.563.83.Tisserand,asabove,p.107.84.Culpeper,asabove,p.21185.Culpeper,asabove,p.21186.Grieve,asabove,p.71587.Tisserand,asabove,p.90.88.Arctander,asabove,p.581.89.Tisserand,asabove,p.92.90.Culpeper,asabove,p.319.91.Tisserand,asabove,p.69.92.Valnet,J.ThePracticeofAromatherapy,p.186.93.Tisserand,asabove,p.69.94.LeStrange,R.AHistoryofHerbalPlants,p.44.95.TheHolyBible;StJohn12:3.96.Lavabre,asabove,p.64.97.Arctander,asabove,p.607.98.Tisserand,asabove,p.94.99.Culpeper,asabove,p.363.100.Davis,asabove,p.328.101.Tisserand,asabove,p.96.102.Culpeper,asabove,p198.103.Davis,asabove,p.326.104.Grieve,asabove,p.819.105.Guenther,E.TheEssentialOils,Vol.V,p.348.106.Lautie,R.&Passebecq,A.Aromatherapy:TheUseofPlantEssences in

Healing,p.86.107.Valnet,asabove,p.188.108.BritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,1983,p.226109.Grieve,asabove,p.831.110.Grieve,asabove,p.835.111.Tisserand,asabove,p.112112.LeStrange,asabove,p.72.113.Tisserand,asabove,p.96.114.Tisserand,asabove,p.98.

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deBairacli,Levy,J.TheIllustratedHerbalHandbook,Faber&Faber,1982.Baerheim,S.A.&SchefferJ.J .C.EssentialOilsandAromaticPlants,Dr.W.JunkPublications,1989.

Beckett,S.HerbstoSootheYourNerves,Thorsons,1977.Beresford-Cooke,C.MassageforHealingandRelaxation,Arlington,1986.Bianchini, F.&Corbetta. F.Health Plants of theWorld – Atlas ofMedicinalPlants,NewsweekBooks,NewYork,1977.

Blunt,TheArtofBotanicalIllustration,Collins,1950.Boulos, C. & Danin A. Medicinal Plants of North Africa, ReferencePublications, 1983.BritishHerbalPharmacopoeia,BritishHerbalMedicineAssociation,1983.

Buchman, D.D. Feed Your Face, Duckworth, 1980. Buchman, D.D. HerbalMedicine,Rider,1984.

Ceres,HerbsforHealthyHair,Thorsons,1977.Chetwynd,T.ADictionaryofSymbols,Paladin,1982.Chiej,R.TheMacdonaldEncyclopediaofMedicinalPlants,ArnoldoMondadoriEditore,Milan,1984.

Conway,D.TheMagicofHerbs,Mayflower,1973.Coon,N.TheDictionaryofUsefulPlants,Rodale,Emmaus,Pa.,1974.Cribb,A.B.&J.W.UsefulWildPlantsinAustralia,Fontana/Collins,1982.Culpeper,N.Culpeper’sCompleteHerbal,W.Foulsham&Co.Ltd,1952.Dastur,J.F.UsefulPlantsofIndiaandPakistan,D.B.TaraporevalaSons&Co.Ltd,India,1985.

Davies, W.C. New Zealand Native Plant Studies, A.H. & A.W. Reed,Wellington,1961.

Davis,P.AromatherapyAnA–Z,C.W.Daniel,1988.Day,I.PerfumerywithHerbs,Darton,LongmanandTodd,1979.

Douglas,J.S.MakingYourOwnCosmetics,PelhamBooks,1979.Downing,G.TheMassageBook,Penguin,1974.Franchomme, P. Phytoguide I, International Phytomedical Foundation, LaCourtete,France,1985.

Furia,T.E.&Bellanca.N.Fenaroli’sHandbookofFlavourIngredientsVol.I,2nded.,CRCPress,Cleveland,Ohio,1975.

Gardner, J. Healing Yourself During Pregnancy, The Crossing Press,California,1987.

Grieve,M.AModernHerbal,Penguin,1982.Griggs,B.TheHomeHerbal,Pan,1983.Guenther,E.TheEssentialOils,VanNostrand,NewYork,1948.Hall, R., Klemme D.& Niephaus J. The H & R Book: Guide to FragranceIngredients,JohnsonPublishing,1985.

Hepper,C.HerbalCosmetics,Thorsons,1987.Heriteau,J.PotpourrisandotherFragrantDelights,Penguin,1975.Hoffmann,D.TheNewHolisticHerbal,ElementBooks,1990.Huxley,A.NaturalBeautyWithHerbs,Darton,LongmanandTodd,1977.Jessee,J.E.PerfumeAlbum,RobertE.Krieger,1974.Khan,I.TheDevelopmentofSpiritualHealing,SufiPublishingCo.,1974.Krochmal A. & C. A Guide to the Medicinal Plants of the United States,Quadrangle,TheNewYorkTimesBookCo.,1973.

Lassak,E.V.&McCarthy,T.AustralianMedicinalPlants,Methuen,Australia,1983.

Launert, E. Edible and Medicinal Plants of Britain and Northern Europe,Hamlyn,1981.

Lautie, R. & Passebecq, A. Aromatherapy: the Use of Plant Essences inHealing,Thorsons,1982.

Lavabre,M.AromatherapyWorkbook,HealingArtsPress,Vermont,1990.Lawrence,B.M.EssentialOils,AlluredPublishingCo.,Wheaton,USA,1978.Leung,A.Y.Encyclopedia ofCommonNatural Ingredients, JohnWiley,NewYork,1980.

Little,K.KittyLittle’sBookofHerbalBeauty,Penguin,1980.Maury,M.MargueriteMaury’sGuidetoAromatherapy,C.W.Daniel,1989.Mabey,R.TheCompleteNewHerbal,ElmTreeBooks,1988.Mclntyre,A.HerbsforPregnancyandChildbirth,SheldonPress,1988.Metcalfe,J.HerbsandAromatherapy,Webb&Bower,1989.Meunier,C.LavandesetLavandins,Charle-YvesChaudoreille,Edisud,Aix-en-

Provence,France,1985.Mills,S.Y.TheA–ZofModernHerbalism,Thorsons,1989.Naves,Y.R.&Mazuyer,G.NaturalPerfumeMaterials,Reinhold Publishing,NewYork,1947.

Page,M.TheObserversBookofHerbs,FrederickWarne,1980.Parvati.J.Hygieia,AWoman’sHerbal,WildwoodHouse,1979.Phillips,R.WildFlowersofBritain,Pan,1977.Poucher,W.A.Perfumes,CosmeticsandSoapsVolII,ChapmanandHall,1932.Price,S.PracticalAromatherapy,Thorsons,1983.Rapgay,L.TibetanTherapeuticMassage,publishedbytheauthor,India,1985.Ranson,F.BritishHerbs,Penguin,1949.Rose,F.TheWildFlowerKey,FrederickWarne,1981.Ryman,D.TheAromatherapyHandbook,Century,1984.Stead,C.ThePowerofHolisticAromatherapy,JavelinBooks,1986.Stobart,T.Herbs,SpicesandFlavourings,Penguin,1979.LeStrange,R.AHistoryofHerbalPlants,AngusandRobertson,1977.Temple,A.A.FlowersandTreesofPalestine,SPCK,Macmillan,1929Thomson,W.A.R.HealingPlants–AModernHerbal,Macmillan,1978.Tisserand,M.AromatherapyforWomen,Thorsons,1985.Tisserand, R. The Essential Oil Safety Data Manual, The Association ofTisserandAromatherapists,1985.

Tisserand,R.TheArtofAromatherapy,C.W.Daniel,1985.Valnet, J. The Practice of Aromatherapy, C.W. Daniel, (English translation),1982.

Weiss,R.F.HerbalMedicine,Arcanum,1988.Whitmont,E.C.PsycheandSubstance,NorthAtlanticBooks,1980.Williams,D.LectureNotesonEssentialOils,EveTaylorLtd,1989.Worwood,V.A.TheFragrantPharmacy,Macmillan,1990.Wren, R.C. Potter’s New Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations,C.W.Daniel,1988.

Yearbook of Pharmacy and Transactions of the British PharmaceuticalConference,ThePharmaceuticalPress,Bloomsbury,London,1907.

Younger,D.HouseholdGods,E.W.Allen,1898.

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GENERALGLOSSARY

Abortifacient:capableofinducingabortion.Absolute: ahighlyconcentratedviscous, semi-solidor solidperfumematerial,usuallyobtainedbyalcoholextractionfromtheconcrete.

Acrid:leavingaburningsensationinthemouth.Aerophagy:swallowingofair.Allergy: hypersensitivity causedby a foreign substance, small doses ofwhichproduceaviolentbodilyreaction.

Alliaceous:garlicoronionlike.Alopecia:baldness,lossofhair.Alterative:correctsdisorderedbodilyfunction.Amenorrhoea:absenceofmenstruation.Amoebicidal:asubstancewiththepowerofdestroyingamoebae.Anaemia:deficiencyineitherqualityorquantityofredcorpusclesintheblood.Anaemic:relatingtoanaemia,causedbyorsufferingfromanaemia.Anaesthetic:lossoffeelingorsensation;substancewhichcausessuchaloss.Analgesic:remedyoragentwhichdeadenspain.Anaphrodisiac:reducessexualdesire.

Annual:referstoaplantwhichcompletesitslifecycleinoneyear.Anodyne:stillspainandquietsdisturbedfeelings.Anorexia:conditionofbeingwithout,orhavinglosttheappetiteforfood.Anthelmintic:avermifuge,destroyingorexpellingintestinalworms.Anti-anaemic:anagentwhichcombatsanaemia.Anti-arthritic:anagentwhichcombatsarthritis.Antibilious:anagentwhichhelpsremoveexcessbilefromthebody.

Antibiotic:preventsthegrowthof,ordestroys,bacteria.Anticatarrhal:anagentwhichhelpsremoveexcesscatarrhfromthebody.Anticonvulsant:helpsarrestorpreventconvulsions.Antidepressant:helpsalleviatedepression.Antidiarrhoeal:efficaciousagainstdiarrhoea.Anti-emetic: an agent which reduces the incidence and severity of nausea orvomiting.

Antihaemorrhagic: an agent which prevents or combats haemorrhage orbleeding.

Antihistamine: treats allergic conditions; counteracts effects of histamine(whichproducescapillarydilationand,inlargerdoses,haemoconcentration).

Anti-inflammatory:alleviatesinflammation.Antilithic:preventstheformationofacalculusorstone.Antimicrobial:anagentwhichresistsordestroyspathogenicmicro-organisms.Antineuralgic:relievesorreducesnervepain.Antioxidant: a substance used to prevent or delay oxidation or deterioration,especiallywithexposuretoair.

Antiphlogistic:checksorcounteractsinflammation.Antipruritic:relievessensationofitchingorpreventsitsoccurrence.Antiputrescent:anagentwhichpreventsandcombatsdecayorputrefaction.Antipyretic:reducesfever;seealsofebrifuge.Antirheumatic:helpspreventandrelieverheumatism.Antisclerotic:helpspreventthehardeningoftissue.Antiscorbutic:aremedyforscurvy.Antiscrofula: combats the development of tuberculosis of lymph nodes(scrofula).

Antiseborrhoeic:helpscontroltheproductionofsebum,theoilysecretionfromsweatglands.

Antiseptic:destroysandpreventsthedevelopmentofmicrobes.Antispasmodic:preventsandeasesspasmsorconvulsions.Antitoxic:anantidoteortreatmentthatcounteractstheeffectsofpoison.Antitussive:relievescoughs.Antiviral:substancewhichinhibitsthegrowthofavirus.Aperient:amildlaxative.Aphonia:lossofvoice.Aperitif:astimulantoftheappetite.Aphrodisiac:increasesorstimulatessexualdesire.Apoplexy: sudden loss of consciousness, a stroke or sudden severehaemorrhage.

Aril:thehuskormembranecoveringtheseedofaplant.Aromatherapy:thetherapeuticuseofessentialoils.Aromatic:asubstancewithastrongaromaorsmell.Arteriosclerosis:lossofelasticityinthewallsofthearteriesduetothickeningandcalcification.

Arthritis:inflammationofajointorjoints.Asthenia:seedebility.

Astringent:causescontractionoforganictissues.Atony:lesseningorlackofmusculartoneortension.Axil:upperanglebetweenastemandleaforbract.Bactericidal:anagentthatdestroysbacteria(atypeofmicrobeororganism).Balsam: a resinous semi-solid mass or viscous liquid exuded from a plant,whichcanbeeitherapathologicalorphysiologicalproduct.A‘true’balsamischaracterizedbyitshighcontentofbenzoicacid,benzoates,cinnamicacidorcinnamates.

Balsamic:asoothingmedicineorapplicationhavingthequalitiesofabalsam.Bechic:anythingwhichrelievesorcurescoughs;orreferringtocough.Biennial:aplantwhichcompletesitslifecycleintwoyears,withoutfloweringinthefirstyear.

Bilious:aconditioncausedbyanexcessivesecretionofbile.Bitter: a tonic component which stimulates the appetite and promotes thesecretionofsalivaandgastricjuicesbyexcitingthetastebuds.

Blenorrhoea: abnormally free secretion and discharge of mucus, sometimesfromthegenitals(asingonorrhoea).

Blepharitis:inflammationoftheeyelids.Calculus: a solid pathological concentration (or ‘stone’), usually of inorganicmatterinamatrixofproteinandpigment,formedinanypartofthebody.

Calmative:asedative.Calyx:thesepalsorouterlayeroffloralleaves.Capsule:adryfruit,openingwhenripe,composedofmorethanonecarpel.Cardiac:pertainingtotheheart.Cardiotonic:havingastimulatingeffectontheheart.Carminative:settlesthedigestivesystem,relievesflatulenceCatarrh: inflammation of mucous membranes, usually associated with anincreaseinsecretionofmucus.

Cathartic: purgative, capable of causing a violent purging or catharsis of thebody.

Cellulite:accumulationoftoxicmatterintheformoffatinthetissue.Cephalic: remedy for disorders of the head; referring or directed towards thehead.

Cerebral:pertainingtothelargestpartofthebrain,thecerebrum.Chemotype:thesamebotanicalspeciesoccurringinotherformsduetodifferentconditionsofgrowth,suchasclimate,soil,altitude,etc.

Chlorosis:aformofanaemiararelyencounterednowadays.

Cholagogue:stimulatesthesecretionandflowofbileintotheduodenum.Cholecystokinetic:agentwhichstimulatesthecontractionofthegallbladder.Choleretic:aidsexcretionofbilebytheliver,sothereisagreaterflowofbile.Cholesterol: a steroidalcohol found innervous tissue, redbloodcells, animalfatandbile.Excesscanleadtogallstones.

Cicatrisant:anagentwhichpromoteshealingbytheformationofscartissue.Cirrhosis: degenerative change in any organ (especially liver), caused byvarious poisons, bacteria or other agents, resulting in fibrous tissueovergrowth.

Colic: pain due to contraction of the involuntary muscle of the abdominalorgans.

Colitis:inflammationofthecolon.Compress: a lint or substance applied hot or cold to an area of the body; forreliefofswellingandpain,ortoproducelocalizedpressure.

Concrete:aconcentrated,waxy,solidorsemi-solidperfumematerialpreparedfrompreviouslyliveplantmatter,usuallyusingahydrocarbontypeofsolvent.

Constipation: congestion of the bowels; incomplete or infrequent action ofbowels.

Contagious disease: a disease spreading from person to person by directcontact.

Cordial:astimulantandtonic.Corolla:thepetalsofaflowerconsideredasawhole.Counterirritant: applications to the skin which relieve deep-seated pain,usuallyappliedintheformofheat;seealsorubefacient.

Cutaneous:pertainingtotheskin.Cystitis:bladderinflammation,usuallycharacterizedbypainonurinating.Cytophylactic:referringtocytophylaxis–theprocessofincreasingtheactivityofleucocytesindefenceofthebodyagainstinfection.

Cytotoxic:toxictoallcells.Debility:weakness,lackoftone.Decoction: a herbal preparation, where the plant material (usually hare orwoody)isboiledinwaterandreducedtomakeaconcentratedextract.

Decongestive:anagentfortherelieforreductionofcongestion,e.g.mucous.Demulcent:asubstancewhichprotectsmucousmembranesandallaysirritation.Depurative:helpscombatimpurityinthebloodandorgans;detoxifying.Deodorant:anagentwhichcorrects,masksorremovesunpleasantodours.Dermal:pertainingtotheskin.

Dermatitis:inflammationoftheskin;manycauses.Diaphoretic:seesudorific.Diarrhoea:frequentpassageofunformedliquidstools.Digestive:substancewhichpromotesoraidsthedigestionoffood.Disinfectant:preventsandcombatsthespreadofgerms.Diuretic:aidsproductionofurine,promotesurination,increasesflow.Dropsy:excessoffluidinthetissues;seealsooedema.Drupe:afleshyfruit,withoneormoreseeds,eachsurroundedbyastonylayer.Dysmenorrhoea:painfulanddifficultmenstruation.Dyspepsia:difficultywithdigestionassociatedwithpain, flatulence,heartburnandnausea.

Elliptical:shapedlikeanellipse,orregularcurve.Emetic:inducesvomiting.Emmenagogue:inducesorassistsmenstruation.Emollient:softensandsoothestheskin.

Emphysema: condition in which the alveoli of the lungs are dilated, or anabnormalamountofairispresentintissuesofbodycavities.

Engorgement:congestionofapartofthetissues,orfullness(asinthebreasts).Enteritis:inflammationofthemucousmembraneoftheintestine.Enzyme: complex proteins that are produced by living cells, and catalysespecificbiochemicalreactions.

Erythema:asuperficialrednessoftheskinduetoexcessofblood.Essential oil: a volatile and aromatic liquid (sometimes semi-solid) whichgenerally constitutes the odorous principles of a plant. It is obtained by aprocessofexpressionordistillationfromasinglebotanicalformorspecies.

Expectorant: helps promote the removal of mucous from the respiratorysystem.

Febrifuge:combatsfever.Fixative: a material which slows down the rate of evaporation of the morevolatilecomponentsinaperfumecomposition.

Fixed oil: a name given to vegetable oils obtained from plants which, incontradistinction to essential oils, are fatty, dense and non-volatile, such asoliveorsweetalmondoil.

Florets: the small individual flowers in the flowerheads of the Compositaefamily.

Follicle:adry,onecelled,many-seededfruit.Fungicidal:preventsandcombatsfungalinfection.Galactagogue: increases secretionofmilk.Gastritis: inflammationof stomach

lining.Genito-urinary:referringtoboththegenitalandreproductivesystems.Germicidal:destroysgermsormicro-organismssuchasbacteria,etc.Gingivitis:inflammationofthegums,manifestedbyswellingandbleeding.Gout:adiseasewhichinvolvesexcessuricacidintheblood.Gums: ‘true’ gums are little used in perfumery, being virtually odourless.However,theterm‘gum’isoftenappliedto‘resins’,especiallywithrelationto turpentines, as in the Australian ‘gum tree’. Strictly speaking, gums arenaturalorsyntheticwater-solublematerials,suchasgumarabic.

Haematuria:bloodintheurine.Halitosis:offensivebreath.Hallucinogenic:causesvisionsordelusions.Haemorrhoids:piles,dilatedrectalveins.Haemostatic:arrestsbleeding.Heartwood:thecentralportionofatreetrunk.Hepatic:relatingtotheliver(tonesandaidsitsfuction).Herpes: inflammationof the skinormucousmembranewithclustersofdeep-seatedvesicles.

Hormone: a product of living cells which produces a specific effect on theactivityofcellsremotefromitspointoforigin.

Hybrid: a plant originating by fertilization of one species or subspecies byanother.

Hypertension:raisedbloodpressure.Hypertensive:agentwhichraisesbloodpressure.Hypnotic:causingsleep.Hypocholesterolaemia:loweringthecholesterolcontentoftheblood.Hypoglycaemia:loweredbloodsugarlevelsorconcentration.Hypotension:lowbloodpressure,orafallinbloodpressurebelowthenormalrange.

Hypotensive:agentwhichlowersbloodpressure.Hysteria:apsychoneurosismanifestingitselfinvariousdisordersofthemindorbody.

Inflorescence: floweringstructureabove the last stem leaves (includingbractsandflowers).

Infusion:aherbalremedypreparedbysteepingtheplantmaterialinwater.Insecticide:repelsinsects.Insomnia:inabilitytosleep.Lanceolate:lance-shaped,ovalandpointedatbothends(usuallyaleafshape).

Larvicidal:anagentwhichpreventsandkillslarvae.Laxative:promotesevacuationofthebowels.Legume:afruitconsistingofonecarpel,openingononeside,suchasapea.Leucocyte:whitebloodcellsresponsibleforfightingdisease.Leucocytosis:anincreaseinthenumberofwhitebloodcellsabovethenormallimit.

Leucorrhoea:whitedischargefromthevagina.Ligulet:anarrowprojectionfromthetopofaleafsheathingrasses.Linear:ofleaves,narrowandmoreorlessparallel-sided.Lipolytic:causinglipolysis,thechemicaldisintegrationorsplittingoffats.Lithuria:amorbidconditionmarkedby thepresenceofexcessiveamountsofuricacidintheurine.

Lumbago:apainfulrheumaticafflictionofthemusclesandfibroustissueofthelumbarregionoftheback.

Lymphatic:pertainingtothelymphsystem.Macerate:soakuntilsoft.Menopause:thenormalcessationofmenstruation,alifechangeforwomen.Menorrhagia:excessivemenstruation.Metrorrhagia:uterinebleedingoutsidethemenstrualcycle.Microbe:aminutelivingorganism,especiallypathogenicbacteria,viruses,etc.Mucilage:asubstancecontaininggelatinousconstituentswhicharedemulcent.Mucolytic:dissolvingorbreakingdownmucous.Narcotic: a substancewhich induces sleep; intoxicating or poisonous in largedoses.

Nervine:strengtheningandtoningtothenervesandnervoussystem.Nephritis:inflammationofthekidneys.Neuralgia: a stabbing pain along a nerve pathway. Neurasthenia: nervousexhaustion.

Oedema: a painless swelling caused by fluid retention beneath the skin’ssurface.

Oestrogen:ahormoneproducedbytheovary,necessaryforthedevelopmentoffemalesecondarysexualcharacteristics.

Oleogumresin:anaturalexudationfromtreesandplantsthatconsistsmainlyofessentialoil,gumandresin.

Oleoresin: a natural resinous exudation from plants, or an aromatic liquidpreparation, extracted from botanical matter using solvents. They consistalmostentirelyofamixtureofessentialoilandresin.

Olfaction:thesenseofsmell.Ophthalmia:inflammationoftheeye,atermusuallyappliedtoconjunctivitis.Otitis:inflammationoftheear.Ovate:egg-shaped.Palpitation: undue awareness of the heartbeat, occasioned by anxiety. Rapidheartbeatsorabnormalrhythm.

Panacea:acure-all.Pappus:thecalyxinacompositeflowerhavingfeatheryhairs,scalesorbristles.Parasiticide:preventsanddestroysparasitessuchasfleas,lice,etc.Parturient:aidingchildbirth.Pathogenic:causingorproducingdisease.Pathological:unnaturalordestructiveprocessonlivingtissue.Pediculicide:anagentwhichdestroyslice.Peptic:appliedtogastricsecretionsandareasaffectedbythem.Perennial: a plant which lives for more than two years, normally floweringeveryyear.

Petiole:thestalkofaleaf.Pharmacology: medical science of drugs which deals with their actions,propertiesandcharacteristics.

Pharmacopoeia: an official publication of drugs in common use, in a givencountry.

Physiological:describesthenaturalbiologicalprocessesofalivingorganism.Phytohormones:plantsubstancesthatmimictheactionofhumanhormones.Phytotherapy:thetreatmentofdiseasebyplants;herbalmedicine.Pinnate:aleafcomposedofmorethanthreeleafletsarrangedintworowsalongacommonstalk.

Pomade:apreparedperfumematerialobtainedbytheenfleurageprocess.Poultice:thetherapeuticapplicationofasoftmoistmass(suchasfreshherbs)totheskin,toencouragelocalcirculationandtorelievepain.

Prophylactic:preventiveofdiseaseorinfection.Prostatitis:anyinflammatoryconditionoftheprostategland.Prurigo:chronicskindiseasewithirritation,itchingandpapulareruption.Pruritis:itching.Psoriasis:askindiseasecharacterizedbyredpatchesandsilverscaling.Psychosomatic:themanifestationofphysicalsymptomsresultingfromamentalstate.

Pulmonary:pertainingtothelungs.

Purgative:asubstancestimulatinganevacuationofthebowels.Pyelitis:inflammationofthekidney.Pyorrhoea:bleedingoradischargeofpus.Raceme:aninflorescence,usuallyconicalinoutlineinwhichthelowestflowersopenfirst.

Receptacle:theupperpartofthestemfromwhichthefloralpartsarise.Rectification:theprocessofredistillationappliedtoessentialoilstoridthemofcertainconstituents.

Refrigerant:cooling–reducesfever.Regulator:anagentthathelpsbalanceandregulatethefunctionsofthebody.Relaxant:soothing,causingrelaxation,relievingstrainortension.Renal:pertainingtothekidney.Resins: a natural or prepared product, either solid or semi-solid in nature.Natural resinsareexudations from trees, suchasmastic;prepared resinsareoleoresinsfromwhichtheessentialoilhasbeenremoved.

Resinoids:aperfumerymaterialpreparedfromnaturalresinousmatter,suchasbalsams,gumresins,etc.,byextractionwithahydrocarbontypeofsolvent.

Resolvent: an agent which disperses swelling, or effects absorption of a newgrowth.

Restorative:anagentthathelpsstrengthenandrevivethebodysystems.Revulsive:relievespainbymeansofthediversionofbloodordiseasefromonepartofthebodytoanother;seealsocounterirritant.

Rhinitis:inflammationofthemucousmembraneofthenose.Rhizome:anundergroundstemlastingmorethanoneseason.Rosette:leaveswhicharecloselyarrangedinaspiral.Rubefacient:asubstancewhichcausesrednessoftheskin,possiblyirritation.Sciatica: pain down the back of the legs, in the area supplied by the sciaticnerve,duetovariouscausesincludingpressureonthenerveroots.

Sclerosis:hardeningoftissueduetoinflammation.Scrofula:anoutdatednamefortuberculosis.Seborrhoea: increased secretion of sebum, usually associated with excessiveoilysecretionfromthesweatglands.

Sedative:anagentwhichreducesfunctionalactivity;calming.Sessile:withoutastalk.Sialogogue:anagentthatstimulatesthesecretionofsaliva.Soporific:asubstancewhichinducessleep.Spasmolytic:seeantispasmodic.

Spike:aninflorescenceinwhichthesessileflowersarearrangedinaraceme.Splenic:relatingtothespleen,thelargestendocrinegland.Splenitis:inflammationofthespleen.Stimulant:anagentwhichquickensthephysiologicalfunctionsofthebody.Stomachic:digestiveaidandtonic;improvingappetite.Styptic:anastringentagentwhichstopsorreducesexternalbleeding.Sudorific:anagentwhichcausessweating.Synergy: agentsworking together harmoniously; coordination in the action ofmuscles,organsorsubstancessuchasdrugs.

Tachycardia:abnormallyincreasedheartbeatandpulserate.Tannin:asubstancewhichhasanastringentaction,andhelpssealthetissue.Thrombosis:formationofathrombusorbloodclot.Thrush: an infection of the mouth or vaginal region caused by a fungus(candida).

Tincture:aherbalremedy,orperfumerymaterialpreparedinanalcoholbase.Tonic:strengthensandenlivensthewholeorspecificpartsofthebody.Tracheitis:inflammationofthewindpipe.Trifoliate:aplanthavingthreedistinctleaflets.Tuber:aswollenpartofanundergroundstemofoneyear’sduration,capableofnewgrowth.

Umbel:umbrella-like;aflowerwhere thepetiolesallarisefromthe topof thestem

Uterine:pertainingtotheuterus.Urticaria:hives,nettlerash,acuteorchronicaffectionoftheskincharacterizedbytheformationofweals,attendedbyitching,stingingorburning.

Vasoconstrictor:anagentwhichcausesnarrowingofthebloodvessels.Vasodilator:anagentwhichdilatesthebloodvessels.Vermifuge:expelsintestinalworms.Vesicant:causingblisteringtotheskin;acounterirritant.Vesicle:asmallblisterorsaccontainingfluid.Volatile:unstable,evaporateseasily,asin‘volatileoil’;seeessentialoil.Vulnerary:anagentwhichhelpshealwoundsandsoresbyexternalapplication.Whorl:acircleofleavesaroundanode.

THERAPEUTICINDEX

Essentialoilscanbeusedtotreatawiderangeofcommoncomplaints,includingthose listedbelow.Special caremustbe taken regarding theuseofoilswhichcan cause irritation in concentration, and those oils which are known to bephototoxic, suchasbergamot, lemonandorange.Beforeusingaparticularoil,thesafetydatainformationontheindividualoilsshouldbeconsulted.Manyoftheconditionsmentionedherecouldbenefitfromcombiningan

aromatherapyapproachwithotherformsoftreatment,suchasdietarymeasures,exercise,herbalmedicines,osteopathyorcounselling,amongothers.Themostusefulandcommonlyavailableoilsforaparticularconditionare

showninitalics.Aguidetoabbreviatedtermsofsuggestedapplicationasoutlinedinthe

chapters‘HowtoUseEssentialOilsatHome’and‘CreativeBlending’,isasfollows:

M:MassageS:SkinlotionC:CompressH:HaircareF:FlowerWaterB:BathV:VaporizationI:Inhalation(Steam)D:DoucheN:NeatApplication

SkinCare

Acne(M,S,F,B,I,N):Bergamot,camphor(white),cananga,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,galbanum,geranium,grapefruit,immortelle,juniper,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemon,lemongrass,lime,linaloe,litseacubeba,mandarin,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrtle,niaouli,palmarosa,patchouli,petitgrain,rosemary,rosewood,sage(clary&Spanish),sandalwood,teatree,thyme,vetiver,violet,yarrow,ylangylang.

Allergies(M,S,F,B,I):Melissa,chamomile(German&Roman),immortelle,

truelavender,spikenard.

Athlete’sfoot(S):Clovebud,eucalyptus,lavender(true&spike),lemon,lemongrass,myrrh,patchouli,teatree.

Baldness&haircare(S,H):WestIndianbay,whitebirch,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),chamomile(German&Roman),grapefruit,juniper,patchouli,rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),yarrow,ylangylang.

Boils,abscesses&blisters(S,C,B):Bergamot,chamomile(German&Roman),eucalyptusbluegum,galbanum,immortelle,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemon,mastic,niaouli,clarysage,teatree,thyme,turpentine.

Bruises(S,C):Arnica(cream),borneol,clovebud,fennel,geranium,hyssop,sweetmarjoram,lavender,thyme.

Burns(C,N):Canadianbalsam,chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,eucalyptusbluegum,geranium,immortelle,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),marigold,niaouli,teatree,yarrow.

Chapped&crackedskin(S,F,B):Perubalsam,Tofubalsam,benzoin,myrrh,patchouli,sandalwood.

Chilblains(S,N):Chamomile(German&Roman),lemon,lime,sweetmarjoram,blackpepper.

Coldsores/herpes(S):Bergamot,eucalyptusbluegum,lemon,teatree.

Congested&dullskin(M,S,F,B,I):Angelica,whitebirch,sweetfennel,geranium,grapefruit,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemon,lime,mandarin,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrtle,niaouli,orange(bitter&sweet),palmarosa,rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,rosewood,ylangylang.

Cuts/sores(S,C):Canadianbalsam,benzoin,borneol,cabreuva,cade,chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,elemi,eucalyptus(bluegum,lemon&peppermint),galbanum,geranium,hyssop,immortelle,lavender(spike&true),lavandin,lemon,lime,linaloe,marigold,mastic,myrrh,niaouli,Scotchpine,Spanishsage,Levantstyrax,teatree,thyme,turpentine,vetiver,yarrow.

Dandruff(S,H):WestIndianbay,cade,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),eucalyptus,spikelavender,lemon,patchouli,rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),teatree.

Dermatitis(M,S,C,F,B):Whitebirch,cade,cananga,carrotseed,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),chamomile(German&Roman),geranium,immortelle,hops,hyssop,juniper,truelavender,linaloe,litseacubeba,mint(peppermint&spearmint),palmarosa,patchouli,rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),thyme.

Dry&sensitiveskin(M,S,F,B):Perubalsam,Tolubalsam,cassie,chamomile(German&Roman),frankincense,jasmine,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),rosewood,sandalwood,violet.

Eczema(M,S,F,B):Melissa,Perubalsam,Tolubalsam,bergamot,whitebirch,cade,carrotseed,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),chamomile(German&Roman),geranium,immortelle,hyssop,juniper,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),marigold,myrrh,patchouli,rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,Spanishsage,thyme,violet,yarrow.

Excessiveperspiration(S,B):Citronella,cypress,lemongrass,litseacubeba,petitgrain,Scotchpine,Spanishsage.

Greasyoroilyskin/scalp(M,S,H,F,B):WestIndianbay,bergamot,cajeput,camphor(white),cananga,carrotseed,citronella,cypress,sweetfennel,geranium,jasmine,juniper,lavender,lemon,lemongrass,!itseacubeba,mandarin,marigold,mimosa,myrtle,niaouli,palmarosa,patchouli,petitgrain,rosemary,rosewood,sandalwood,clarysage,teatree,thyme,vetiver,ylangylang.

Haemorrhoids/piles(S,C,B):Canadianbalsam,Copaibabalsam,coriander,cubebs,cypress,geranium,juniper,myrrh,myrtle,parsley,yarrow.

Insectbites(S,N):Frenchbasil,bergamot,cajeput,cananga,chamomile(German&Roman),cinnamonleaf,eucalyptusbluegum,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemon,marigold,melissa,niaouli,teatree,thyme,ylangylang.

Insectrepellent(S,V):Frenchbasil,bergamot,borneol,camphor(white),

Virginiancedarwood,citronella,clovebud,cypress,eucalyptus(bluegum&lemon),geranium,lavender,lemongrass,litseacubeba,mastic,melissa,patchouli,rosemary,turpentine.

Irritated&inflamedskin(S,C,F,B):Angelica,benzoin,camphor(white),Atlascedarwood,chamomile(German&Roman),elemi,immortelle,hyssop,jasmine,lavandin,truelavender,marigold,myrrh,patchouli,rose(cabbage&damask),clarysage,spikenard,teatree,yarrow.

Lice(S,H):Cinnamonleaf,eucalyptusbluegum,galbanum,geranium,lavandin,spikelavender,parsley,Scotchpine,rosemary,thyme,turpentine.

Mouth&guminfections/ulcers(S,C):Bergamot,cinnamonleaf,cypress,sweetfennel,lemon,mastic,myrrh,orange(bitter&sweet),sage(clary&Spanish),thyme.

Psoriasis(M,S,F,B):Angelica,bergamot,whitebirch,carrotseed,chamomile(German&Roman),truelavender.

Rashes(M,S,C,F,B):Perubalsam,Tofubalsam,carrotseed,chamomile(German&Roman),hops,truelavender,marigold,sandalwood,spikenard,teatree,yarrow.

Ringworm(S,H):Geranium,spikelavender,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrrh,Levantstyrax,teatree,turpentine.

Scabies(S):Tolubalsam,bergamot,cinnamonleaf,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemongrass,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),Scotchpine,rosemary,Levantstyrax,thyme,turpentine.

Scars&stretchmarks(M,S):Cabreuva,elemi,frankincense,galbanum,truelavender,mandarin,neroli,palmarosa,patchouli,rosewood,sandalwood,spikenard,violet,arrow.

Slacktissue(M,S,B):Geranium,grapefruit,juniper,lemongrass,lime,mandarin,sweetmarjoram,orangeblossom,blackpepper,petitgrain,rosemary,yarrow.

Spots(S,N):Bergamot,cade,cajeput,camphor(white),eucalyptus(lemon),

immortelle,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemon,lime,litseacubeba,mandarin,niaouli,teatree.

Ticks(S,N):Sweetmarjoram.

Toothache&teethingpain(S,C,N):Chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrrh.

Varicoseveins(S,C):Cypress,lemon,lime,neroli,yarrow.

Verrucae(S,N):Tagetes,teatree.

Warts&corns(S,N):Cinnamonleaf,lemon,lime,tagetes,teatree.

Wounds(S,C,B):Canadianbalsam,Perubalsam,Tolubalsam,bergamot,cabreuva,chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,cypress,elemi,eucalyptus(bluegum&lemon),frankincense,galbanum,geranium,immortelle,hyssop,juniper,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),linaloe,marigold,mastic,myrrh,niaouli,patchouli,rosewood,Levantstyrax,teatree,turpentine,vetiver,yarrow.

Wrinkles&matureskin(M,S,F,B):Carrotseed,elemi,sweetfennel,frankincense,galbanum,geranium,jasmine,labdanum,truelavender,mandarin,mimosa,myrrh,neroli,palmarosa,patchouli,rose(cabbage&damask),rosewood,clarysage,sandalwood,spikenard,ylangylang.

Circulation,MusclesandJoints:

Accumulationoftoxins(M,S,B):Angelica,whitebirch,carrotseed,celeryseed,coriander,cumin,sweetfennel,grapefruit,juniper,lovage,parsley.

Achesandpains(M,C,B):Ambrette,staranise,aniseed,Frenchbasil,WestIndianbay,cajeput,calamintha,camphor(white),chamomile(German&Roman),coriander,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),silverfir,galbanum,ginger,immortelle,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemongrass,sweetmarjoram,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),niaouli,nutmeg,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),hemlockspruce,thyme,turmeric,turpentine,vetiver.

Arthritis(M,S,C,B):Allspice,angelica,benzoin,whitebirch,cajeput,camphor

(white),carrotseed,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),celeryseed,chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,coriander,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),silverfir,ginger,guaiacwood,juniper,lemon,sweetmarjoram,mastic,myrrh,nutmeg,parsley,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,Spanishsage,thyme,tumeric,turpentine,vetiver,yarrow.

Cellulitis(M,S,B):Whitebirch,cypress,sweetfennel,geranium,grapefruit,juniper,lemon,parsley,rosemary,thyme.

Debility/poormuscletone(M,S,B):Allspice,ambrette,borneol,ginger,grapefruit,sweetmarjoram,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,Spanishsage.

Gout(M,S,B):Angelica,Frenchbasil,benzoin,carrotseed,celeryseed,coriander,guaiacwood,juniper,lovage,mastic,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,thyme,turpentine.

Highbloodpressure&hypertension(M,B,V):cananga,garlic,truelavender,lemon,sweetmarjoram,melissa,clarysage,yarrow,ylangylang.

Muscularcramp&stiffness(M,C,B):Allspice,ambrette,coriander,cypress,grapefruit,jasmine,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),sweetmarjoram,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,thyme,vetiver.

Obesity(M,B):Whitebirch,sweetfennel,juniper,lemon,mandarin,orange(bitter&sweet).

Oedema&waterretention(M,B):Angelica,whitebirch,carrotseed,cypress,sweetfennel,geranium,grapefruit,juniper,lavage,mandarin,orange(bitter&sweet),rosemary,Spanishsage.

Palpitations(M):Neroli,orange(bitter&sweet),rose(cabbage&damask),ylangylang.

Poorcirculation&lowbloodpressure(M,B):Ambrette,Perubalsam,WestIndianbay,benzoin,whitebirch,borneol,cinnamonleaf,coriander,cumin,cypress,eucalyptusbluegum,galbanum,geranium,ginger,lemon,lemongrass,lovage,neroli,niaouli,nutmeg,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,Spanishsage,hemlockspruce,thyme,violet.

Rheumatism(M,C,B):Allspice,angelica,staranise,aniseed,Perubalsam,Frenchbasil,WestIndianbay,benzoin,whitebirch,borneol,cajeput,calamintha,camphor(white),carrotseed,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),celeryseed,chamomile(German&Roman),cinnamonleaf,clovebud,coriander,cypress,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),sweetfennel,silverfir,galbanum,ginger,immortelle,juniper,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemon,lovage,sweetmarjoram,mastic,niaouli,nutmeg,parsley,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,Spanishsage,hemlockspruce,thyme,turmeric,turpentine,vetiver,violet,yarrow.

Sprains&strains(C):WestIndianbay,borneol,camphor(white),chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),ginger,immortelle,jasmine,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),sweetmarjoram,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,thyme,turmeric,vetiver.

RespiratorySystem

Asthma(M,V,I):Asafetida,Canadianbalsam,Perubalsam,benzoin,cajeput,clovebud,costus,cypress,elecampane,eucalyptus(bluegum,lemon&peppermint),frankincense,galbanum,immortelle,hops,hyssop,lavender(spike&true),lavandin,lemon,lime,sweetmarjoram,melissa,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrrh,myrtle,niaouli,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),hemlockspruce,teatree,thyme.

Bronchitis(M,V,I):Angelica,staranise,aniseed,asafetida,Canadianbalsam,copaibabalsam,Perubalsam,Tolubalsam,Frenchbasil,benzoin,borneol,cajeput,camphor(white),caraway,cascarillabark,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),clovebud,costus,cubebs,cypress,elecampane,elemi,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),silverfir,frankincense,galbanum,immortelle,hyssop,labdanum,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemon,sweetmarjoram,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),melissa,myrrh,myrtle,niaouli,orange(bitter&sweet),pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,sandalwood,hemlockspruce,Levantstyrax,teatree,thyme,turpentine,violet.

Catarrh(M,V,I):Canadianbalsam,Tolubalsam,cajeput,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),cubebs,elecampane,elemi,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),frankincense,galbanum,ginger,hyssop,jasmine,lavandin,

lavender(spike&true),lemon,lime,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrrh,myrtle,niaouli,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),sandalwood,Levantstyrax,teatree,thyme,turpentine,violet.

Chill(M,B):Copaibabalsam,benzoin,cabreuva,calamintha,camphor(white),cinnamonleaf,ginger,grapefruit,orange(bitter&sweet),blackpepper.

Chroniccoughs(M,V,I):Canadianbalsam,costus,cubebs,cypress,elecampane,elemi,frankincense,galbanum,immortellehops,hyssop,jasmine,melissa,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrrh,myrtle,sandalwood,Levantstyrax.

Coughs(M,V,I):Angelica,staranise,aniseed,copaibabalsam,Perubalsam,Tolubalsam,Frenchbasil,benzoin,borneol,cabreuva,cajeput,mmphor(white),caraway,cascarillabark,Atlascedarwood,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),silverfir,ginger,hyssop,labdanum,sweetmarjoram,myrrh,niaouli,blackpepper,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),hemlockspruce,teatree.

Croup(M,I):Tolubalsam.

Earache(C):Frenchbasil,chamomile(German&Roman),lavender(spike&true).

Halitosis/offensivebreath(S):Bergamot,cardamon,sweetfennel,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrrh.

Laryngitis/hoarseness(1):Tolubalsam,benzoin,caraway,cubebs,lemoneucalyptus,frankincense,jasmine,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),myrrh,sage(clary&Spanish),sandalwood,thyme.

Sinusitis(1):Frenchbasil,cajeput,cubebs,eucalyptusbluegum,silverfir,ginger,labdanum,peppermint,niaouli,pine(longleaf&Scotch),teatree.

Sorethroat&throatinfections(V,I):Canadianbalsam,bergamot,cajeput,eucalyptus(bluegum,lemon&peppermint),geranium,ginger,hyssop,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),myrrh,myrtle,niaouli,pine(longleaf&Scotch),sage(clary&Spanish),sandalwood,teatree,thyme,violet.

Tonsillitis(1):Bergamot,geranium,hyssop,laurel,myrtle,sage(clary&Spanish),thyme.

Whoopingcough(M,I):Asafetida,immortelle,hyssop,truelavender,mastic,niaouli,rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),teatree,turpentine.

DigestiveSystem

Colic(M):Staranise,aniseed,calamintha,caraway,cardamon,carrotseed,chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,coriander,cumin,dill,sweetfennel,ginger,hyssop,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),sweetmarjoram,melissa,mint(peppermint&spearmint),neroli,parsley,blackpepper,rosemary,clarysage.

Constipation&sluggishdigestion(M,B):Cinnamonleaf,cubebs,sweetfennel,lovage,sweetmarjoram,nutmeg,orange(bitter&sweet),palmarosa,blackpepper,tarragon,turmeric,yarrow.

Cramp/gastricspasm(M,C):Allspice,staranise,aniseed,caraway,cardamon,cinnamonleaf,coriander,costus,cumin,galbanum,ginger,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lovage,mint(peppermint&spearmint),neroli,orange(bitter&sweet),blackpepper,clarysage,tarragon,lemonverbena,yarrow.

Gripingpains(M):Cardamon,dill,sweetfennel,parsley.

Heartburn(M):Cardamon,blackpepper.Indigestion/flatulence(M):Allspice,angelica,staranise,aniseed,Frenchbasil,calamintha,caraway,cardamon,carrotseed,cascarillabark,celeryseed,chamomile(German&Roman),cinnamonleaf,clovebud,coriander,costus,cubebs,cumin,dill,sweetfennel,galbanum,ginger,hops,hyssop,laurel,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemongrass,linden,litseacubeba,lovage,mandarin,sweetmarjoram,melissa,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrrh,neroli,nutmeg,orange(bitter&sweet),parsley,blackpepper,petitgrain,rosemary,clarysage,tarragon,thyme,valerian,lemonverbena,yarrow.

Livercongestion(M):Carrotseed,celeryseed,immortelle,linden,rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,Spanishsage,turmeric,lemonverbena.

Lossofappetite(M):Bergamot,caraway,cardamon,ginger,laurel,myrrh,

blackpepper.

Nausea/vomiting(M,V):Allspice,Frenchbasil,cardamon,cascarillabark,chamomile(German&Roman),clovebud,coriander,sweetfennel,ginger,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),melissa,mint(peppermint&spearmint),nutmeg,blackpepper,rose(cabbage&damask),rosewood,sandalwood.

Genito-urinaryandEndocrineSystems

Amenorrhoea/lackofmenstruation(M,B):Frenchbasil,carrotseed,celeryseed,cinnamonleaf,dill,sweetfennel,hops,hyssop,juniper,laurel,lovage,sweetmarjoram,myrrh,parsley,rose(cabbage&damask),sage(clary&Spanish),tarragon,yarrow.

Dysmenorrhoea/cramp,painfulordifficultmenstruation(M,C,B):Melissa,Frenchbasil,carrotseed,chamomile(German&Roman),cypress,frankincense,hops,jasmine,juniper,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lovage,sweetmarjoram,rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),tarragon,yarrow.

Cystitis(C,B,D):Canadianbalsam,copaibabalsam,bergamot,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),celeryseed,chamomile(German&Roman),cubebs,eucalyptusbluegum,frankincense,juniper,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lovage,mastic,niaouli,parsley,Scotchpine,sandalwood,teatree,thyme,turpentine,yarrow.

Frigidity(M,S,B,V):Cassie,cinnamonleaf,jasmine,neroli,nutmeg,parsley,patchouli,blackpepper,cabbagerose,rosewood,clarysage,sandalwood,ylangylang.

Lackofnursingmilk(M):Celeryseed,dill,sweetfennel,hops.

Labourpain&childbirthaid(M,C,B):Cinnamonleaf,jasmine,truelavender,nutmeg,parsley,rose(cabbage&damask),clarysage.

Leucorrhoea/whitedischargefromthevagina(B,D):Bergamot,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),cinnamonleaf,cubebs,eucalyptusbluegum,frankincense,hyssop,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),sweetmarjoram,mastic,

myrrh,rosemary,clarysage,sandalwood,teatree,turpentine.

Menopausalproblems(M,B,V):Cypress,sweetfennel,geranium,jasmine,rose(cabbage&damask).

Menorrhagia/excessivemenstruation(M,B):Chamomile(German&Roman),cypress,rose(cabbage&damask).

Premenstrualtension/PMT(M,B,V):Carrotseed,chamomile(German&Roman),geranium,truelavender,sweetmarjoram,neroli,tarragon.

Pruritis/itching(D):Bergamot,Atlascedarwood,juniper,lavender,myrrh,teatree.

Sexualoveractivity(M,B):Hops,sweetmarjoram.

Thrush/candida(B,D):Bergamot,geranium,myrrh,teatree.

Urethritis(B,D):Bergamot,cubebs,mastic,teatree,turpentine.

ImmuneSystem

Chickenpox(C,S,B):Bergamot,chamomile(German&Roman),eucalyptus(bluegum&lemon),truelavender,teatree.

Colds/’flu(M,B,V,I):Angelica,staranise,aniseed,copaibabalsam,Perubalsam,Frenchbasil,WestIndianbay,bergamot,borneol,cabreuva,cajeput,camphor(white),caraway,cinnamonleaf,citronella,clovebud,coriander,eucalyptus(bluegum,lemon&peppermint),silverfir,frankincense,ginger,grapefruit,immortelle,juniper,laurel,lemon,lime,sweetmarjoram,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrtle,niaouli,orange(bitter&sweet),pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,rosewood,Spanishsage,hemlockspruce,teatree,thyme,turpentine,yarrow.

Fever(C,B):Frenchbasil,bergamot,borneol,camphor(white),eucalyptus(bluegum,lemon&peppermint),silverfir,ginger,immortelle,juniper,lemon,lemongrass,lime,mint(peppermint&spearmint),myrtle,niaouli,rosemary,rosewood,Spanishsage,hemlockspruce,teatree,thyme,yarrow.

Measles(S,B,I,V):Bergamot,eucalyptusbluegum,lavender(spike&true),teatree.

NervousSystem

Anxiety(M,B,V):Ambrette,Melissa,Frenchbasil,bergamot,cananga,frankincense,hyssop,jasmine,juniper,truelavender,mimosa,neroli,hemlockspruce,Levantstyrax,lemonverbena,ylangylang.

Depression(M,B,V):Allspice,ambrette,Melissa,Canadianbalsam,Frenchbasil,bergamot,cassie,grapefruit,immortelle,jasmine,truelavender,neroli,rose(cabbage&damask),clarysage,sandalwood,hemlockspruce,vetiver,ylangylang.

Headache(M,C,V):Chamomile(German&Roman),citronella,cumin,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),grapefruit,hops,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),lemongrass,linden,sweetmarjoram,mint(peppermint&spearmint),rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,rosewood,sage(clary&Spanish),thyme,violet.

Insomnia(M,B,V):Melissa,Frenchbasil,calamintha,chamomile(German&Roman),hops,truelavender,linden,mandarin,sweetmarjoram,neroli,petitgrain,rose(cabbage&damask),sandalwood,thyme,valerian,lemonverbena,vetiver,violet,yarrow,ylangylang.

Migraine(C):Angelica,Melissa,Frenchbasil,chamomile(German&Roman),citronella,coriander,truelavender,linden,sweetmarjoram,mint(peppermint&spearmint),clarysage,valerian,yarrow.

Nervousexhaustionorfatigue/debility(M,B,V):Allspice,angelica,asafetida,Frenchbasil,borneol,cardamon,cassie,cinnamonleaf,citronella,coriander,costus,cumin,elemi,eucalyptus(bluegum&peppermint),ginger,grapefruit,immortelle,hyacinth,hyssop,jasmine,lavandin,spikelavender,lemongrass,mint(peppermint&spearmint),nutmeg,palmarosa,patchouli,petitgrain,Scotchpine,rosemary,sage(clary&Spanish),thyme,vetiver,violet,ylangylang.

Neuralgia/sciatica(M,B):Allspice,WestIndianbay,borneol,celeryseed,chamomile(German&Roman),citronella,coriander,eucalyptus(bluegum&

peppermint),geranium,immortelle,hops,spikelavender,sweetmarjoram,mastic,mint(peppermint&spearmint),nutmeg,pine(longleaf&Scotch),rosemary,turpentine.

Nervoustensionandstress(M,B,V):Allspice,ambrette,angelica,asafetida,Melissa,Canadianbalsam,copaibabalsam,Perubalsam,Frenchbasil,benzoin,bergamot,borneol,calamintha,cananga,cardamon,cassie,cedarwood(Atlas,Texas&Virginian),chamomile(German&Roman),cinnamonleaf,costus,cypress,elemi,frankincense,galbanum,geranium,immortelle,hops,hyacinth,hyssop,jasmine,juniper,truelavender,lemongrass,linaloe,linden,mandarin,sweetmarjoram,mimosa,mint(peppermint&spearmint),neroli,orange(bitter&sweet),palmarosa,patchouli,petitgrain,Scotchpine,rose(cabbage&damask),rosemary,rosewood,clarysage,sandalwood,hemlockspruce,thyme,valerian,lemonverbena,vetiver,violet,yarrow,ylangylang.

Shock(M,B,V):Melissa,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),neroli.

Vertigo(V,I):Melissa,lavandin,lavender(spike&true),mint(peppermint&spearmint),violet.

BOTANICALCLASSIFICATION

The following list is based on the work of Arthur O. Tucker and Brian M.LawrencepublishedinHerbs,SpicesandMedicinalPlantsVolII,OryxPress,1987,asthe‘BotanicalNomenclatureofCommercialSourcesofEssentialOils,Concretes and Absolutes’. lt represents an up-to-date survey of aromaticmaterialscurrentlyproducedcommercially,inwhichthebotanicalnamesareinaccordancewith the recentguidelinessetoutby the InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.

ParmeliaceaeParmeliacirrhata(P.nepalensis):Indianmoss.

UsneaceaeEverniafurfuraceae:Treemoss.Everniaprunastri:Oakmoss.Ramalinafastigiata:Chinesemoss.Ramalinasubcomplanata:Indianmoss.UsneabarbataisharvestedwithEverniafurfurceaasTreemoss.UsnealuceaisharvestedwithRamalinasubcomplanataasHaraphool.

PinaceaeAbiesalba(A.pectinata):Silverfir,whitefir,silverspruce,Europeansilverfir,whitespruce.

Abiesbalsamea(A.balsamifera,Pinusbalsamea):Balsamfir,Canadianbalsam,balsam tree,American silver fir, balm of gilead fir, Canada turpentine (oil)Abiesmayriana:MayrSakhalinfir,Japanesefirneedle(oil).

Abiessachalinensis:Sachalinfir,Japanesefirneedle(oil).Abiessibirica:Siberianfir,Siberian‘pine’(oil).Cedrus atlantica: Atlantic cedar, Atlas cedar, African cedar, Moroccancedarwood(oil),libanol(oil).

Cedrusdeodara(C.deodorata):Deodarcedar,Himalayancedar.Cedruslibani:CedarofLebanon.

Piceaabies(P.excelsa):Norwayspruce,commonspruce,burgundypitch(oil),Juraturpentine(oil).

Piceaglauca(P.alba,P.canadensis):Whitespruce,Canadianspruce.Piceajezoensis:Yeddospruce,Yezospruce.Piceamariana(P.nigra):Blackspruce,Canadianblack‘pine’.Pinusayacahuite:Mexicanwhitepine,turpentine(oil).Pinuscontortavar. latifolia:Lodgepolepine, turpentine (oil);othersubspeciesexist.

Pinuselliottii(P.caribaea):Slashpine,turpentine(oil);othersubspeciesexist.Pinushalepensis:Aleppopine,Jerusalempine.Pinus insularis (P. khasya, P. kesiya, P. khasyana, P. langbianensis): Khasipine,Benguetpine,Indianturpentine(oil).

Pinuskoraiensis:Koreanpine.Pinusmassoniana:Massonpine,southernredpine,turpentine(oil).Pinusmerkusii(P.latteri):Merkuspine.Pinus mugo (P. montana): Mountain pine, Swiss mountain pine; othersubspeciesexistincludingvar.mughus(P.mughus):Mughopinevar.pumilio(P.pumilio):Dwarfpine,pineneedle(oil)Pinusnigra:Austrianpine,blackpine;othersubspeciesexist.

Pinuspalustris:Longleafpine,longleafyellowpine,southernyellowpine,pitchpine,gumturpentine(oil).

Pinuspinaster:Seapine,turpentine(oil).Pinusponderosa:Ponderosapine,westernyellowpine;othersubspeciesexist.Pinusradiata:Montereypine,NewZealandturpentine(oil).Pinusroxburghii:Chirpine,Indianturpentine(oil).Pinusstrobus:Whitepine,Canadianwhitepine;manysubspeciesexist.Pinus sylvestris: Scotch pine, turpentine (oil); many subspecies and cultivarsexist.

Pinustabulaeformis:Chinesepine.Pinusyunnanensis:Yunnanpine,Chinesepine.Pseudotsugamenziesii(P.taxifolia):Douglasfir,Oregonbalsam(oil);twomainsubspeciesexist:var.menziesii:CoastDouglasfir.var.glauca:RockyMountainDouglasfir.

Tsuga canadensis (Pinus canadensis, Abies canadensis): Hemlock, easternhemlock,commonhemlock,spruce(oil);manycultivarsexist.

Taxodiaceae

Cryptomeriajaponica:Cryptomeria,Japanesecedar,sugi;manycultivarsexist.

CupressaceaeChamaecyparis funebris (Cupressus funebris): Mourning cypress, Chineseweepingcypress,Chinesecedarwood(oil).

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana: Port Orford cedar, Oregon cedar, Lawson falsecypress;numerouscultivarsexist.

Chamaecyparisnootkatensis:Alaskacedar,Alaskayellowcedar,yellowcedar.Chamaecyparisobtusaexistsintwovarieties:var.obtusa:Hinokifalsecypressvar.formosana(C.taiwanensis):Formosanhinoki.

Cupressuslusitanica:KenyacypressCupressussempervirens:Mediterraneancypress;manycultivarsexist,themostcommonbeing‘Stricta’,theItaliancypress.

Cupressustorulosa:Himalayancypress.Juniperus ashei (J. mexicana): Mountain cedar, rock cedar, Mexican cedar,Mexicanjuniper.

Juniperuscommunis:Juniper,commonjuniper;manycultivarsexistsuchasvar.depressa:Canadianjunipervar.communis(var.erecta).

Juniperusoxycedrus:Pricklyjuniper,cadejuniper,junipertar,cade(oil),pricklycedar,medlartree.

Juniperusphoenicea:Phoenicianjuniper,Phoeniciansavin(oil).Juniperussabina (Sabinacacumina):Savin juniper,savin(oil);manycultivarsexist.

Juniperussmerka:Yugoslavianjuniper.Juniperus squamata (J. recurva var. squamata): Single seed juniper, scaly-leavedNepaljuniper;severalcultivarsexist.

Juniperusvirginiana:Easternredcedar;redcedar,southernredcedar,Bedfordcedarwood(oil),Virginiancedarwood(oil);manycultivarsexist.

Neocallitropsispancheri(N.araucarioides,Callitropsisaraucarioides):Pancherneocallitropsis,araucaria(oil).

Thuja occidentalis: Northern white cedar, white cedar, eastern white cedar,Americanarborvitae,thuja,swampcedar,cedarleaf(oil);manycultivarsexist.

Thuja orientalis (Biota orientalis): Chinese or Japanese cedar Thuja plicata:Westernredcedar,westernarborvitae,Washingtoncedar.

Thujopsisdolobrata:Hiba;twovarietiesexist:var.dolobrata:Azunaro

var.hondae:Hinoki-asunaro.Widdringtonia cupressoides (W. dracomontana, W. whytei): Mountainwiddringtonia,mlangecedar.

PodocarpaceaeDacrydiumfranklinii:Huonpine,huondacrydium.

AraucariaceaeAgathisaustralis:Kauri,kauripine,NewZealandkauri.

PandanaceaePandanusfascicularis (P.odoratissimus):Padang,attarofkewda(oil),attarofkeora(oil).

Poaceae(Gramineae)Anthoxanthumodoratum:Sweetvernalgrass,flouve(oil).Cymbopogon citratus (Andropogon citratus, A. schoenathus): West Indianlemongrass,Madagascarlemongrass,Guatemalalemongrass.

Cymbopogonflexuosus(Andropogonflexuosus):EastIndianlemongrass.Cymbopogonmartinii(Andropogonmartinii):Rosha;thisspeciesoccursintwoeco-chemotypes:var.martinii (var.motia): Palmarosa,motia, East Indian geranium, Turkishgeranium,Indianroshavar.sofia:Gingergrass,sofia.

Cymbopogon nardus (Andropogon nardus): Citronella; this exists in twovarieties:var.nardus:Ceyloncitronella,Lenabatucitronella.var.confertiflorus.

Cymbopogonpendulus(Andropogonpendulus):Jammulemongrass.Cymbopogonwinterianus:Javacitronella.Vetiveriazizanoides(Andropogonmuricatus):Vetiver,khuskhus,vetivert(oil).

CyperaceaeCyperusmitis(C.scariosussensu):Nagarmotha.Cyperusrotundus:Nut-grass,coco-grass.

AraceaeAcarus calamus var. angustatus (Calamus aromaticus): Sweet flag, calamus,sweetsedge, sweet root, sweet rush, sweetcane, sweetmyrtle,myrtlegrass,

myrtlesedge,cinnamonsedge;severalvarietiesexist.

LiliaceaeAlliumcepa:Onion;numerouscultivarsexist.Alliumfistulosum:Welshonion,cibol,stoneleek.Alliumkurrat(A.porrumvar.aegyptiacum):kurrat.Alliumsativum:Garlic,allium,poorman’streacle;threevarietiesexist:var.sativum:Cultivatedgarlicvar.ophioscorodon:Serpentgarlic,giantgarlic,rocambolevar.pekinense:Pekinggarlic.

Alliumschoenoprasum:Chives,cive;twovarietiesexist:var.schoenoprasum:Cultivatedchivesvar.alpinum(A.sibiricum):Largechives.

Alliumscorodoprasum:Sandleek;severalsubspeciesexist.Alliumtricoccum:Ramps,wildleek.Alliumtuberosum(A.odorum):Chinesechives,garlicchives,orientalgarlic.Hyacinthusorientalis(Scillanutans):Hyacinth,bluebell.

SmilaceaeSmilaxmedica (S. aristolochiaefolia):Mexican sarsaparilla; several subspeciesexist.

AmaryllidaceaeNarcissusjonquilla:Jonquil.Narcissuspoeticus:Poet’snarcissus,pheasant’seye;twosubspeciesexist:var.poeticusvar.radiiflorus.

AgavaceaePolianthestuberosa(Polyanthestuberosa):Tuberose.

IridaceaeIrisflorentina:Florentineorris,orrisroot.Irisgermanica:Germaniris,flagiris,orrisroot.Irispallida:Paleiris,orrisroot.

ZingiberaceaeAlpinia officinarum (Languas officinarum, Radix galanga minoris): Galanga,

lessergalangal,Chineseginger, small ginger,East Indianginger, colic root,gingerroot.

Curcumalonga(C.domestica,Amomoumcurcuma):Turmeric,curcuma,Indiansaffron,Indianyellowroot.

Elettaria cardamomum:Cardamom, cardamum, cardamon; there are twomainvarieties:var.cardamomum(var.minus,var.minuscula):Mysorecardamomvar.major:Wildcardamom.

Hedychiumflavescens(H.flavum):Longoze.Hedychiumspicatum:Sanna,ekangi.Zingiberofficinale:Ginger,commonginger,Jamaicaginger.

OrchidaceaeVanilla planifolia (V. fragrans): Vanilla, Bourbon vanilla, Mexican vanilla,commonvanilla,Reunionvanilla.

Vanillapompona:West Indianvanilla,vanillon,Pomponavanilla,Guadeloupevanilla.

Vanillatahitensis:Tahitivanilla.

PiperaceaePipercubeba(Cubebaofficinalis):Cubebs,cubeba,tailedpepper,cubebpepper.Pipernigrum:Pepper,blackpepper,whitepepper,piper.

BetulaceaeBetulaalba(B.odorata,B.albavar.pubescens,B.pendula):Whitebirch,silverbirch,Europeanwhitebirch.

Betulaalleghaniensis:Yellowbirch.Betula lenta (B. capinefolia): Sweet birch, southern birch, cherry birch,mountainmahogany,mahoganybirch.

Betulanigra:Blackbirch.Betulapapyrifera:Paperbirch,birchbud(oil);severalsubspeciesexist.Betulaverrucosa:Birchbud(oil),birchtar(oil);manycultivarsexist.

SalicaceaePopulus balsamifera (P. tacamahacca): Poplar, tacamahac, hackmatack; twosubspeciesexist.

Moraceae

Ficuscarica:Fig.Humuluslupulus:Hops,commonhop,Europeanhop,lupulus.

SantalaceaeSantalum album: East Indian sandalwood, white sandalwood, white saunders,yellow sandalwood, yellow saunders, sanderswood, Mysore sandalwood,yellowsandalwood.

Santalumspicatum(fucaryaspicata):Australiansandalwood.

AristolochiaceaeAristolochiaserpentaria:Virginiansnakeroot,serpentaria(oil).Asarumcanadense:Canadiansnakeroot,wildginger,Indianginger.

ChenopodiaceaeChenopodiumalbum:Lamb’squarters.Chenopodium ambrosioides (var. anthelminticum): Wormseed, Americanwormseed, chenopodium, Californian spearmint, Jesuit’s tea, Mexican tea,herbsanctimariae,Baltimore(oil).

Chenopodiumbonus-henricus:Allgood,GoodKingHenry.

CaryophyllaceaeDianthuscaryophyllus:Carnation,clovepink.Dianthusplumarius:Pink.

MagnoliaceaeMicheliachampaca:Champaca.Micheliafigo.

IlliciaceaeIlliciumverum:Staranise,Chineseanise,illicium,Chinesestaranise.

AnnonaceaeCananga odorata (Canangium odoratum): two forms exist: var. odorata (var.genuina,Unonaodorantissimum):Ylangylangvar.macrophylla:Cananga.

MyristicaceaeMyristica fragrans (M. officinalis, M. moschana, M. aromatica, M.

amboinensis):Nutmegandmace.

MonimiaceaePeumusboldus(Bolduboldus,Boldoafragrans):Boldo,boldus,boldu.

LauraceaeAnibaduckei:Brazilianrosewood,boisderose.Anibaparviflora:Brazilianrosewood,boisderose.Anibarosaeodoravar.amazonica:Brazilianrosewood,boisderose.Cinnamomum burmanii (C. pedunculata): Indonesian cassia, padang cassia,padangcinnamon,Bataviacassia,Javacassia,Korintjecassia.

Cinnamomum camphora (Laurus camphora): Camphor tree, true camphor,laurelcamphor,gumcamphor,Japanesecamphor,Formosacamphor;severalsubvarietiesexist.

Cinnamomum cassia (C. aromaticum, Laurus cassia): Cassia, Chinesecinnamon,falsecinnamon,cassiacinnamon,cassialignea.

Cinnamomumcecidodaphne:Nepalesetejpat.Cinnamomumculiliban(C.culiliwan):Lawang.Cinnamomumloueirii:Saigoncinnamon.Cinnamomummicranthum:Chinesesassafras.Cinnamomumtamala:Indiancassia.Cinnamomumzeylanicum(C.verum,Lauruscinnamomum):Cinnamon,Ceyloncinnamon,Seychellescinnamon,Madagascarcinnamon,truecinnamon.

Cryptocaryamassoy(Massoiaaromatica):Massoi.Laurusnobilis;Grecian laurel, sweetbay, laurel, truebay,Mediterraneanbay,Romanlaurel,noblelaurel,laurelleaf(oil);threesubspeciesexist.

Linderaumbellatavar.umbellata:Kuru-moji;severalothersubspeciesexist.Litseacubeba(L.citrata):May-chang,exoticverbena,tropicalverbena.Nectandraelaiophora:Louronhamuy.Ocoteacaudata(Licariaguianensis):Cayennerosewood.Ocoteacymbarum(Mespilodaphnesassafras):Amazoniansassafras.Ocoteapretiosa:Braziliansassafras.Phoebenanmu.Sassafras albidum (S. officinale, Laurus sassafras, S. variifolium): Commonsassafras,NorthAmericansassafras,sassafrax.

Brassicaceae(Cruciferae)Armoracia rusticana (A. lapathifolia,Cochleariaarmoracia):Horseradish, red

cole,raifort.Brassicajuncea:Indianmustard,brownmustard.Brassicanigra:Blackmustard.Cheiranthuscheiri:Wallflower.

ResedaceaeResedaodorata:Reseda,commonmignonette.

GrossulariaceaeRibesnigrum:Blackcurrant,niribine(oil);severalcultivarsexist.

HamamelidaceaeLiquidambar orientalis: Oriental sweetgum, Levant styrax, Asiatic styrax,storax,Turkishsweetgum,liquidstorax.

Liquidambarstyraciflua:Sweetgum,Americanstyrax,storax,redgum.

RosaceaePrunus dulcis (P. communis, P. amygdalus, Amygdalus communis, A. dulcis):Almond;therearetwovarieties:var.dulcis:Sweetalmondvar.amara:Bitteralmond.

Rosa alba (R. damascena var. alba): White rose; the main cultivar is called‘Semiplena’,similartotheBulgarian‘Suaveolens’.

Rosacanina:Dogrose,doghip.Rosa centifolia: Cabbage rose, Provence rose, French rose, rose de mai,hundred-leavedrose.

Rosadamascena:Summerdamaskrose,Turkishrose,Bulgarianrose;themaincultivar is ‘Trigintipetala’ or ‘Kazanlik rose’. There are also several othersubspeciesincluding:var.semperflorens:Autumndamaskrose.

Rosa gallica: French rose, Provins rose; the two main cultivars were once‘Conditorum’or theHungarian rose, and ‘Officinalis’, ‘Apothecary’ roseorthereddamaskrose.

Rosaindica:Tearose,orientalrose.Rosamuscatta:MuskroseRosarubiginosa(R.eglanteria):Eglantine,sweetbriar.Rosarugosa:Rugosarose,ramanasrose,Japaneserose,Chineserose.

Mimosaceae

MimosaceaeAcaciacaven(A.cavenia):Romancassie.Acaciadealbata(A.decurrensvar.dealbata):Mimosa,Sydneyblackwattle.Acacia farnesiana (Cassia ancienne): Sweet acacia, cassie, huisache, popinac,opopanax.

Fabaceae(Leguminosae)Copaiferacoricea:Copaiba.Copaiferaguyanensis:Copaiba.Copaiferalansdorffinii:Copaiba.Copaiferamartii:Copaiba.Copaiferamultijuga:Copaiba.Copaifera officinalis: Copaiba, copahu balsam, copaiva, Jesuit’s balsam, parabalsam,Maracaibobalsam,balsamcopaiba(oil).

Copaiferareticulata:Copaiba.Daniellia thurifera: Ogea gum, illorin gum, balsam Sierra Leone,‘frankincense’.

Dipteryx odorata (Coumarouna odorata): Tonka, Dutch tonka bean, tonquinbean.

Glycyrrhizaglabra:Liquorice,licorice.Melilotus officinalis: Yellow melilot, common melilot, white melilot, cornmelilot, melilot trefoil, sweet clover, plaster clover, sweet lucerne, wildlaburnum,king’sclover,melilotin(oleoresin).

Myrocarpusfastigiatus:Cabreuva,cabureicica.Myrocarpusfrondosus:Cabreuva.Myroxylonbalsamum:thisgroupisdividedintothreemainsubspecies:var.balsamum(var.genuinum,Myrospermumtoluiferum,Toluiferum balsamum, Balsamum americanum, Balsamum tolutanum:Opobalsam,Tolubalsam,Thomasbalsam,resintoluvar. pereirae (Myrospermum pereirae, Toluifera pereirae, Myroxylonpereirae): Peru Balsam, Peruvian balsam, Indian balsam, black balsam var.punctatum(Myroxylonpunctatum).

Robiniapseudo-acacia:Blacklocust,falseacacia.Spartium junceum (Genista juncea): Spanish broom,weaver’s broom, genista,genet.

Trifoliumpratense:Redclover;severalvarietiesexist.Trigonellafoenum-graecum:Fenugreek.

Geraniaceae

GeraniaceaeGeraniummacrorrhizum:Bulgariangeranium.Pelargonium graveolens: Rose geranium, geranium; numerous other varietiesandcultivarsexistsuchas:P.odoratissimum,P.radens,P.capitatumandP.xasperum.

ZygophyllaceaeBulnesiasarmienti:Guaiacwood,champacawood(oil).

RutaceaeAgathosmabetulina (Barosmabetulina):Buchu,mountainbuchu, shortbuchu,bookoo,buku,bucco.

Agathosmacrenulata(Barosmacrenulata):Ovalbuchu,crenatebuchu.Amyris balsamifera (Schimmelia oleifera): Amyris, West Indian sandalwood,WestIndianrosewood.

Boroniamegastigma:Boronia,brownboronia.Citrus aurantifolia (C. latifolia, C.medica var. acida): Lime, Mexican lime,WestIndianlime,sourlime.

Citrus aurantium var. amara (C. vulgaris, C. bigaradia): Bitter orange, sourorange, Seville orange, bigarade (oil), neroli bigarade (oil), orange flower(oil),petitgrainorange(oil).

Citrus bergamia (C. aurantium subsp. bergamia): Bergamot; the two maincultivarsare‘Castagnaro’and‘Femmenillo’.

Citrushystrix:Leech-lime,Mauritiuspapeda,combava(oil).Citrusjambhiri:Roughlemon(Javalemon);thetwomaincultivarsare‘Estes’and‘Milam’.

Citruslimetta:Italianlime,limette(oil).Citruslimon(C.limonum):Lemon,cedro(oil);therearemanycultivarsnotably‘Berna’,‘Eureka’,‘Lisbon’,‘FemminelloOvale’and‘FemminelloSfusato’.

Citrusmedica:Citron,cedrat;themaincultivaris‘Diamante’.Citrusxparadisi(C.maximavar.racemosa,C.racemosa):Grapefruit;therearemanycultivars.

Citrus reticulata (C. deliciosa, C. nobilis, C. unshiu): Mandarin, tangerine,satsuma;therearemanycultivars,themostcommonbeing‘Crava’.

Citrus sinensis (C. aurantium var. sinensis, C. aurantium var. dulcis): Sweetorange, Portugal orange, China orange; there are many cultivars notably‘Valencia’;alsoproducesneroliPortugalornerolipetalae(oil).

CitrusjambhirixC.aurantifolia:Lemonn’lime.

CitruslimonxC.sinensis:Lemonange.CitrusreticulataxC.xparadisi:Tangelo.Dictamusalbus:Dittany,fraxinella,burningbush,gasplant.Galipeatrifoliata(G.officinalis,G.cusparia,Cuspariatrifoliata):Angustora.Luvungascandens:Sugandhkokila.Pilocarpus jaborandi (Pernambuco jaborandi, P. pennatifolius): Jaborandi,Jaborandi,jamborandi.

Rutaangustifolia:Sardinianrue,NorthAfricanrue.Rutachalepensis(R.bracteosa):Winterrue,Sicilianrue,NorthAfricanrue.Rutagraveolens:Rue,gardenrue,herb-of-grace,herbygrass.Rutamontana:Summerrue,Spanishrue,NorthAfricanrue.Skimmialaureola.Zanthoxylum alatum: Tomarseed. Zanthoxylum piperitum: Prickly ash, ‘san-sho’.Zanthoxylumrhetsa(Z.bodrunga):Mulilam.Zanthoxylumschinifolium(Z.mantchuricum):Pepperbush.

Zanthoxylumsimulans(z.bungei):Chinesepepper,Szechuanpepper.

BurseraceaeBoswelliabhau-dajiana:Frankincense.Boswelliacarteri:Frankincense,olibanum,gumthus.Boswelliafrereana:Africanelemi,elemifrankincense.Boswelliapapyrifera:Sudanesefrankincense.Boswelliasacra(B.thuriferasensu):Saudifrankincense.Boswelliaserrata:Indianfrankincense,Indianolibanum.Burseraaloexylon:Linaloe.Burserafagaroides:Linaloe.Burseraglabrifolia(B.delpechiana):Linaloe,Mexicanlinaloe,‘copallemon’.Burserapenicillata:Linaloe.Burserasimaruba(Elaphriumsimaruba):WestIndianbirch,WestIndianelemi,gumbolimbo,incensetree.

Canarium luzonicum (C. commune): Elemi, Manila elemi, elemi gum, elemiresin.

Commiphoraerythraea:Opopanax,bisabolmyrrh.Commiphora madagascariensis (C. abyssinica, Balsamodendron habessinica):Abyssinianmyrrh.

Commiphoramolmol:Somalianmyrrh.Commiphoramyrrha:Commonmyrrh,hirabolmyrrh.

MeliaceaeAglaiaodorata.Cabraleacangerana:Cangerana.Cedrelaodorata:West Indiancedar,Spanishcedar,cigar-boxcedar,Barbadoscedar.

EuphorbiaceaeCroton eluteria: Cascarilla, sweetwood bark, sweet bark, Bahama cascarilla,aromaticquinquina,falsequinquina,cascarillabark(oil).

AnacardiaceaePistacialenticus:Mastic,masticktree,mastix,mastich,lentisk.Schinusmolle:Peruvianpeppertree,Peruvianmastic,Californiapeppertree.

TiliaceaeTiliavulgaris(T.europaea):Limetree,linden,commonlime,lyne,tillet,tilea.

AquifoliaceaeIlexparaguayensis:Paraguaytea.

MalvaceaeAbelmoschus moschatus (Hibiscus abelmoschus): Ambrette, seed musk seed,Egyptianalcee,targetleavedhibiscus,muskmallow.

ByttneriaceaeTheobromacacoa:Cocoa,chocolate;severalcultivarsexist.

TheaceaeCamelliasinensis:Tea;therearetwovarieties:var.sinensis:Chinateavar.assamica:Assamtea.

DipterocarpaceaeDipterocarpusalatus:Gurjun.Dipterocarpusjourdainii:Gurjun.Dipterocarpustuberculatus:Gurjun.

Dipterocarpusturbinatus:Gurjun,EastIndiancopaibabalsam.Dryobalanops aromatica (D. camphora): Borneo camphor, East Indiancamphor,Baroscamphor,Sumatracamphor,Malayancamphor,Borneol(oil).

CistaceaeCistus ladaniferus: Labdanum, cistus, ciste, cyste, ambreine, European rockrose.

Cistusincanus(C.villosus,C.polymorphus):Labdanum;threesubspeciesexist:C.polymorphus,C.corsicusandC.creticus.

ViolaceaeViolaalba:Parmaviolet;therearethreesubspecies.Violaodorata:Sweetviolet,Englishviolet,gardenviolet,blueviolet.Violasuavis:Russianviolet.

ThymelaeaceaeAquilariaagallocha:Agarwood,aloeswood,agar.Aquilariamalaccensis:Indonesianagarwood.

MyrtaceaeEucalyptuscitriodora:Lemon-scentedgum,citronscentedgum,spottedgum.Eucalyptuscneorifolia:KangarooIslandnarrow-leavedmallee.Eucalyptusdives:Broad-leavedpeppermint,bluepeppermint,peppermint.Eucalyptusdumosa:Mallee,Congomallee.Eucalyptuselata(E.andreana,E.lindleyana,E.longifolia,E.numerosa):Riverpeppermint,riverwhitegum.

Eucalyptusglobulus (var.globulus):Bluegum,Tasmanianbluegum,southernbluegum,fevertree,gumtree,eucalyptus,stringybark.

Eucalyptus goniocalyx (E. elaeophora): Long-leaved box, bundy, apple jack,olive-barkedbox.

Eucalyptus leucoxylon: Yellow gum, white ironbark, white gum; threesubspeciesexist.

Eucalyptusmacarthurii:Camdenwoolybut,Paddy’sriverbox.Eucalyptusoleosa:Redmallee,glossy-leavedredmallee.Eucalyptus piperita: Peppermint eucalyptus. Eucalyptus polybractea: Blue-leavedmallee.

Eucalyptusradiata (E.australiana,E.phellandra):Narrow-leavedpeppermint,greypeppermint;twosubspeciesexist.

Eucalyptussideroxylon:Redironbark,ironbark,mugga;twosubspeciesexist.Eucalyptussmithii:Gullygum,gullypeppermint,blackbuttpeppermint.Eucalyptusstaigerana.Eucalyptusviminalis;twosubspeciesexist.

Eucalyptus viridis: Green mallee.Melaleuca alternifolia (M. linariifolia var.alternifolia): Tea tree, narrow-leaved paperbark tea tree, ti-tree, ti-trol,melasol.

Melaleucabracteata:Teatree.Melaleuca cajeputi: Cajuput, cajeput, white tea tree, white wood, swamp teatree,punktree,paperbarktree.

Melaleuca leucadendra (Myrtus leucodendra): Cajeput, cajuput, river tea tree,weepingteatree.

Melaleucalinariifolia:Teatree.Melaleucaminor:Cajuput,cajeput.Melaleucaquinquenervia:Cajeput,cajuput.Melaleucaviridiflora:Niaouli.Myrtuscommunis:Myrtle;atleasttwosubspeciesexist.Pimentadioica(P.officinalis):Allspice,pimento,pimenta,Jamaicapepper.Pimentaracemosa(P.acris,Myrciaacris):Bay,WestIndianbay,bayrumtree,wildcinnamon,bayberry,myrcia.

Syzygiumaromaticum (Eugeniaaromatica,E. caryophyllata,E. caryophyllus):Clove.

TurneraceaeTurneradiffusa(T.aphrodisiaca):Damiana.Apiaceae(Umbelliferae).Ammivisnaga:Khellaseed,visnaga.Anethumgraveolens (Peucedanumgraveolens,Fructusanethi):Dill,Europeandill,Americandill.

Anethumsowa:Indiandill.Angelica archangelica (A. officinalis): Angelica, European angelica, gardenangelica;twosubspeciesexist.

Angelicaatropurpurea:Purpleangelica,Americanangelica.Angelicakeiskei:Japaneseangelica.Angelicaursina:Japaneseangelica.Anthricuscerefolium(A.longirostris):Chervil,gardenchervil,saladchervil.Apiumgraveolens:Celery;thereareatleastfourvarieties,including:var.dulce:Sweetceleryvar.rapaceum:Celeriac.

Carumcarvi(Apiumcarvi):Caraway,carum.Carumroxburghianum:Ajmud(Indian).

Coriandrummaritimum:Samphire,rocksamphire.Coriandrumsativum:Coriander,Chineseparsley.Cuminumcyminum(C.odorum):Cumin,cummin,Romancaraway.Daucuscarota:Carrot,wildcarrot,QueenAnne’slace,bird’snest,carrotseed(oil);thereareatleasttwelvesubspecies.

Doremaammoniacum:Ammoniac,Bombaysumbul,boi.Ferula asafoetida: Asafetida, asafoetida, gum asafetida, devil’s dung, food ofthegods,giantfennel.

Feruladiversittata(F.suavolens):Sumbul,muskroot.Ferulafoetida:Asafetida.Ferulagalbaniflua(F.gummosa):Galbanum,‘bubonion’.Ferulajaeschkeana;fourvarietiesexist.Ferulamoschata(F.sumbul):Sumbul,muskroot.Foeniculum vulgare (F. officinale, F. cappilaceum, Anethum foeniculum):Fennel,fenkel;itssubspeciesinclude:var.azoricum:Florencefennelvar.dulce:Sweetfennelvar. amara: Bitter fennel Levisticum officinale (Angelica levisticum,Ligusticumlevisticum):Lovage,garden lovage,commonlovage,oldEnglishlovage,Italianlovage,maggiherb,smellage,Cornishlovage.

Levisticummutellina:Alpinelovage.Ligusticumscoticum:Sealovage.Pastinacasativa:Parsnip;therearefoursubspecies.Petroselinumsativum (P.hortense,Apiumpetroselinum,Carumpetroselinum):Parsley; there are four varieties including: Petroselinum crispum: Curly-leavedparsley.

Pimpinellaanisum(Anisumofficinalis,A.vulgare):Aniseed,anise,sweetcumin.Pimpinellamajor:Greatburnet,saxifrage.Pimpinellasaxifraga:Burnersaxifrage,blackcaraway.Trachyspermumcopticum(T.ammi,Carumcopticum,Carumajowan,Ptychotisajowan,Ammicopticum):Ajowan,ajuan,omum.

EricaceaeGaultheria procumbens: Wintergreen, tea berry, checkerberry, aromaticwintergreen,gaultheria(oil).

Styracaceae

Styraxbenzoin:Gumbenzoin,styraxbenzoin,gumbenjamin,Sumatrabenzoin.Styraxmacrothyrsus:Vietnamstyrax.Styraxparalleloneurus:Haminjontoba(Indonesian),Sumatrabenzoin.Styraxtonkinensis:Siamstyrax,Siambenzoin

OleaceaeJasminumauriculatum:Indianjasmine.Jasminum grandiflorum (J. officinale var. grandiflorum): Catalonian jasmine,Royaljasmine,jasmin,Spanishjasmine,Italianjasmine.

Jasminumofficinale:Jasmine,commonjasmine,poet’sjessamine,jessamine.Jasminum sambac: Arabian jasmine, sambac; there are two cultivars: ‘GrandDuke’and‘MaidofOrleans’.

Osmanthusfragrans:Sweetolive,fragrantolive,teaolive.Syringavulgaris:Commonlilac;numerouscultivarsexist.

BoraginaceaeHeliotropiumarborescens(H.peruvianum):Heliotrope.

VerbenaceaeAloysia triphylla (A. citriodora, Lippia citriodora, L. triphylla, Verbenatriphylla):Lemonverbena,verbena,herbLouisa.

Lippiaabyssinica(L.adoensis):Gambianteabush.Lippiaaffinis:Oregano.Lippiacardiostegia:Oregano.Lippiaformosa:Oregano.Lippiafragrans:Oregano.Lippiagraveolens(L.berlandieri):Mexicanoregano.Lippiamicromeria:Falsethyme.Lippiaoriganoides:Oregano.Lippiapalmeri:Mexicanoregano.Lippiapseudo-thea:Braziliantea.Lippiaumbellata:Oregano.

Lamiaceae(Labiatae)Aeollanthusgamwelliae(A.graveolens):Ninde.Calaminthaofficinalis(C.clinopodium,Melissacalminta):Calamintha, calamint, common calamint, mill mountain, mountain balm,mountainmint,basilthyme.

Hedeomafloribundum:Oregano.

Hedeomapatens:Oregano.Hedeomapulegioides:NorthAmericanpennyroyal,squawmint,stinkingbalm,tickweed,mosquitoplant.

Hyssopus officinalis: Hyssop, ‘azob’; four subspecies exist, including var.decumbens.

Lavandula angustifolia (L. officinalis, L. vera): Common lavender, truelavender, garden lavender; this variety is divided into two subspecies: L.delphinensisandL.fragrans.Inadditionmanycultivarsexist.

Lavandula x intermedia (L. hybrida, L. hortensis): Lavandin; several cultivarsexist.

Lavandula latifolia (L. spica): Spike lavender, spike, aspic, broad-leavedlavender,lesserlavender.

Lavandulastoechas:Frenchlavender,stoechaslavender;sixsubspeciesexist.Melissaofficinalis:Lemonbalm,balm,melissa,commonbalm,beebalm,sweetbalm,heart’sdelight,honeyplant;twosubspeciesexist.

Menthaaquatica:Watermint,bergamotmint.Mentha canadensis (M. arvensis var. villosa, M. arvensis var. glabrata, M.arvensisvar.piperascens):Cornmint,Japanesepeppermint,NorthAmericanfieldmint.

Menthaxgracilis(M.gentilis):Scotchspearmint,redmint.Menthaxpiperita:Peppermint.Menthapulegium:Pennyroyal,Europeanpennyroyal,puddingplant,pulegium.Menthaspicata(M.viridis,M.longifolia):Spearmint.Menthasuaveolens(M.rotundifolia):Pineapplemint.Mentha x villosa var. alopecuroides:Woollymint, applemint, Bowles’mint,Egyptianmint.

Monardacitriodora:Lemonbeebalm,lemonbergamot;twovarietiesexist.Monardaclinopodia:Beebalm,wildbergamot.Monardadidyma:Oswegotea,oswegobeebalm,bergamot.Monarda fistulosa: Wild bergamot, horsemint, bee balm; four varieties existincludingvar.menthifolia.Monardaxmedia:severalcultivarsexist.

Monardapectinata:Ponybeebalm.Nepetacataria:Catnip,catmint.Ocimumbasilicum:Basil,sweetbasil;numerouscultivarsandchemotypesexist,including‘Comoran’basil(exoticorReunionBasil)andthe‘true’sweetbasil(French,EuropeanorcommonBasil).

Ocimumcanum(O.americanum):Hoarybasil,hairybasil.

Ocimumgratissimum(O.viride):EastIndianbasil,treebasil,shrubbybasil.Ocimumkilimanjaricum:Camphorbasil.Ocimumsanctum:Holybasil,sacredbasil.Origanumxapplii:Oregano.Origanum marjorana (Marjorana hortensis): Sweet marjoram, knottedmarjoram.

Origanumxmarjorana:Oregano,marjoram.Origanumonites:Potmarjoram,Frenchmarjoram.Origanumsyriacum(O.maru):Syrianoregano.Origanumvulgare:Commonoregano;thisisdividedintosixsubspecies:subsp.vulgare:Wildmarjoram,oreganum(oil);severalcultivarsexist.subsp.glandulosum:Oregano.subsp.gracile(O.tytthanthum,O.kopetdaghense):Russianoregano.subsp. hirtum (O. hirtum, O. heracleoticum): ·Winter, Greek or Italianoregano.subsp.virens(O.virens):Wildmarjoram.subsp.viride(O.heracleoticum):Wildmarjoram.

Perilla frutescens (P. ocymoides): Perilla, beefsteak plant; numerous varietiesexist.

Pogostemoncablin(P.patchouly):Patchouli,patchouly,puchaput.Pogostemonheyneanus(P.patchouli):Falsepatchouly.Rosmarinusofficinalis:Rosemary;othervarietiesexistincluding:var.officinalis:Commonrosemary;numerouscultivarsandformsexist.var. angustifolia (R. tenuifolius): Pine-scented rosemary, pine-needledrosemary.var. lavandulaceus (R. officinalis f. humulis, f. procumbens): Prostraterosemary;numerouscultivarsexist.

Salviaclevelandii:Bluesage.Salviadorisiana;Peach-scentedsage,BritishHonduransage.Salviaelegans(S.rutilans):Pineapple-scentedsage.Salviafruticosa(S.triloba):Greeksage.Salvialavendulidefolia:Spanishsage,lavender-leavedsage.Salvialeucophylla:Greysage,purplesage.Salvia officinalis: Common sage, dalmatian sage, garden sage;many cultivarsexist.

Salviapomifera(S.calycina):Applesage.Salviaselarea:Clary,clarysage,muscatelsage,clarywort,cleareye,seebright,

commonclary,clarry,eyebright.Salviaverbenacea(S.clandestina,S.horminoides):Vervainsage,wildclary.Salviaviridis(S.horminum):Bluebeardsage,Josephsage,red-toppedsage.Satureja douglasii (Micromeria chamissonis, M. douglasii): Yerba buena(Spanish).

Saturejahortensis (Satureiahortensis,Calaminthahortensis):Summersavory,gardensavory.

Satureja montana (S. obovata, Calamintha montana): Winter savory; at leastfivesubspeciesexist.

Saturejathymbra:Za’atarrumi(Arabic).Thymuscaespititius(T.micans,T.serpyllum):Tinythyme,tuftedthyme.Thymus capitatus (Satureja capitata, Thymbra capitata, Coridothymuscapitatus): Conehead thyme, corido thyme, Cretan thyme, thyme of theancients,headedsavory,Spanishoreganum(oil),Israelioreganum(oil).

Thymuscephalatos.Thymus x citriodorus (T. lanuginosus var. citriodorum, T. serpyllum var.citriodorus,T. ‘Limoneum’):Lemon thymeThymusherba-barona:Carawaythyme.

Thymushirtus.Thymushyemalis:oftenwronglycitedasthesourceofSpanishverbenaoil.Thymusloscosii;twosubspeciesexist.Thymusmastichina:Masticthyme,Spanishmarjoram.Thymuspraecox:Creepingthyme;fivesubspeciesexistandseveralcultivars.Thymus pulegoides: Wild thyme, Dutch tea thyme; several subspecies andcultivarsexist.

Thymusquinquecostatus:Japanesethyme;twoformsareknown.Thymusserpyllum:Wildthyme,mother-of-thyme;twosubspeciesexist.Thymus vulgaris (T. aestivus, T. ilerdensis, T. webbianus, T. valentianus):garden thyme,commonthyme,FrenchThyme,red thyme(oil),white thyme(oil).

Thymuszygis(T.sabulicola,T.sylvestris):Spanishsaucethyme,redthyme(oil).OtherlesserknownspeciesandcultivarsalsoexistintheThymusgroup.

SolanaceaeNicotianatabacum:Tobacco.

Rubiaceae

Anthocephalusindicus(A.cadamba):Cadamba,kadamba.Coffeaarabica:Coffee,commoncoffee,Arabiancoffee;manycultivarsexist.Coffeacanephora(C.robusta):Robustacoffee;manycultivarsexist.Gardenia jasminoides (G. florida, G. grandiflora, G. radicans): Commongardenia,Capejasmine,gardinia.

Leptactinasenegambica:Karo-karounde.

CaprifoliaceaeLoniceraetrusca(L.gigantea):Honeysuckle.Lonicerapericlymenum:Commonhoneysuckle.

Sambucusnigra:Elderberry,elderflower.

ValerianaceaeNardostachyschinensis:Chinesespikenard.Nardostachysjatamansi:Nard,spikenard,‘false’Indianvalerianroot.Valerianafauriei(V.officinalis,V.officinalisvar.angustifolia,V.officinalisvar.latifolia): Common valerian, European valerian, Belgian valerian, fragrantvalerian,gardenvalerian;otherchemotypesexistsuchas:Japanesevalerian,‘kessoroot’.

Valerianawallichii:Indianvalerian.

Asteraceae(Compositae)Achilleaerba-rotta(A.moschata):Iva,muskyarrow.Achillealigustica:Ligurianyarrow.Achilleamillefolium:Commonyarrow,milfoil,nosebleed,thousandleaf;atleasttwosubspeciesexist.

Arnicamontana (A. fulgens, A. sororia):Arnica, leopard’s bane,wolf’s bane;twosubspeciesexist.

Artemisiaabrotanum:Southernwood,oldman,lad’slove.Artemisiaabsinthium:Wormwood,commonwormwood,greenginger,armoise,absinthium(oil).

Artemisiaafra:Africanwormwood,lanyana,wildeals.Artemisiaannua:Annualwormwood,sweetAnnie.Artemisiadracunculus:Frenchtarragon,Russiantarragon,estragon(oil).Artemisiagenipi(A.spicata,A.laxa,A.mutellina,A.glacialis):Genipi.Artemisiaherba-alba(A.sieversiana):Armoise.Artemisiajudaica:Semencontra.Artemisiamaritima(A.cina):Levantwormseed.

Artemisiapallens:Davana.Artemisiapontica:Romanwormwood,smallabsinthe.Artemisiaprinceps:Japanesemugwort.Artemisiavestita.Artemisiavulgaris:Mugwort,Indianwormwood.Atractylodeslancea:Atractylis;twovarietiesexist.Baccharisdracunculifolia:Vassoura.Baccharisgennistelloides:Carquueja.Balsamita major (Chrysanthemum balsamita, Pyrethrum majus): Costmary,mintgeranium,sweetMary,Bibleleaf,balsamite.

Blumeabalsamifera:Ngaicamphor.Blumeachinensis:Tombak-tombak.Blumealacera.Blumeamyriocephala(B.lanceolaria).Brachylaenahutchinsii:Muhuhu.Calendulaofficinalis:Poet’smarigold,potmarigold,calendula,marygold,gold-bloom,hollygold,commonmarigold,marybud.

Carphephorus odoratissimus, Trilisa odoratissima, Liatris odoratissima,Frasera speciosa: Deertongue, hound’s tongue, deer’s tongue, Carolinavanilla,vanillaleaf,wildvanilla,vanillatrilisa,whart’stongue,liatris(oil).

Chamaemelumnobile(Anthemisnobilis):Romanchamomile,camomile,Englishchamomile,gardenchamomile,sweetchamomile,truechamomile.

Chamaemelumsuaveolens(Matricariamatricarioides):Pineappleweed.Conyzacanadensis(ErigeronCanadensis):Fleabane,horseweed.Eriocephaluspunctulatus:Eriocephalee.Helichrysumangustifolium:Immortelle,everlasting,helichrysum.Helichrysumitalicum:Curryplant,white-leavedeverlasting.Helichrysumstoechas:Everlasting,immortelle;atleasttwosubspeciesexist.Helichrysumorientale:Everlasting,immortelle.Inula helenium (Helenium grandiflorum, Aster officinalis, A. helenium):Elecampane, scabwort, alant, horseheal, yellow starwort, elf dock, wildsunflower,velvetdock.

Matricaria recutita, (M. chamomilla): German chamomile, Hungarianchamomile, sweet false chamomile, camomile, blue chamomile, singlechamomile,wildchamomile.

Ormentismixta(Anthemismixta):Moroccanchamomile.Ormentismulticaulis:Moroccanchamomile.Pteroniaincana:Pteronia,bluedog.

Santolinachamaecyparissus(Lavendulataemina):Santolina,cottonlavender.Saussureacostus (S.lappa,Aucklandiacostus,Aplotaxislappa,A.auriculata):Costus.

Solidagoodora:Sweetgoldenrod,fragrantgoldenrod.Tageteslucida:Sweetmarigold,sweetmace,Mexicantarragon.Tageteserecta:Africanmarigold,Aztecmarigold,Tagetesminuta(T.glandulifera):Taget(oil),tagetes,tagette.Tagetespatula:Frenchmarigold,taget(oil).Tanacetum vulgare (Chrysanthemum vulgare, C. tanacetum): Tansy, bitterbuttons,bachelor’sbuttons,cheese,scentedfern.

BOTANICALINDEX

Thepaginationofthiselectroniceditiondoesnotmatchtheeditionfromwhichitwascreated.Tolocateaspecificpassage,pleaseusethesearchfeatureofyoure-bookreader’ssearchtools.

Abelmoschusmoschatus35–6Abiesalba92–3Abiesbalsamea41–2Abiesbalsamifera41,92Abiescanadensis185Abiesmayriana92Abiespectinata92Abiessachalinesis92Abiessibirica92,165Absinthium202–3absolutes29Acaciaarabica138Acaciacatechu138Acaciacavenia65Acaciadealbata65,137–8Acaciadecurrensvar.dealbata137Acaciafarnesiana65–6,151Acaciafloribunda138Achillealigustica203Achilleamillefolium203–4Achilleamoschata147,203Acoruscalamusvar.angustatus58–9AfricanCedar66,67AfricanMarigold133,187AfricanMyrrh143Agonisfragrans93–4Agothosmabetulina54–5Ajowan33

Ajowan33Ajuan33Alant84alchemy6alcohols27aldehydes26–7Allium99Alliumcepa112,150Alliumsativum99–100,112Alliumursinum99Allspiceviii,26,33–4,46,77,79,98,211–12,213,214,224Aloysiacitriodora198Aloysiatriphylla127,198–9AlpineLovage224Alpiniaofficinarum97–8Ambreine117AmbretteSeed35–6,81,211,223AmericanArborvitae190AmericanBlueFlag156AmericanCranesbill101AmericanDill82AmericanSilverFir41,92AmericanStyrax186AmericanWormseed202AmericanYellowRoot195Ammicopticum33Amomoumcurcuma62Amomumcardomomum62Amygdaluscommunisvar.amara34Amyris36,42,58,108,158,179,222Amyrisbalsamifera36,179,222AnatolianRose172ancientcivilizations4–5Andropogoncitratus124Andropogonflexuosus124Andropogonmartinii124Andropogonmartinivar,motia158

Andropogonmuricatus124Andropogonnardus75Andropogonschoenathus124Anethumfoeniculum89Anethumgraveolens82–3Anethumsowa82Angelica14,15,16,36–8,130,210,211,212,213,214,224Angelicaarchangelica130,224Angelicalevisticum130Angelicaofficinalis36Anibarosaeodora109,174–5Anibarosaeodoravar.amazonia174Anise8,14,38–9,46,90,103,168,211,212,213Aniseed14,39,168,211,212,213,214,221Anisumofficinalis39Anisumvulgare39Anthemisarvensis69Anthemismixta70Anthemisnobilis71Anthriscuscerefolium73–4Anthriscuslongirostris73Anthriscussylvestris73Apiumcarvi61Apiumgraveolens68–9Apiumgraveolensvar.dulce68Apiumgraveolensvar.rapaceum68Apiumpetroselinium159Aplotaxisauriculata78Aplotaxislappa78ApothecaryRose171ArabianMyrrh143AractiJaborandi114Aristolochiaserpentaria184Armoise141,202,203Armoracialapathifolia111Armoraciarusticana111Arnica39–40

Arnicacordifolia39Arnicafulgens39Arnicamontana39–40Arnicasororia39aromatherapy,thebirthof8–9aromaticmaterials26–30AromaticQuinquina64AromaticWintergreen201ArrudaBrava114Arrudodomato114Artemisiaabsinthium202–3Artemisiaarborescens141Artemisiacina202Artemisiadracunculus188–9Artemisiamoxa141Artemisiasinensis141Artemisiavulgaris39,203Asafetida40–1Asarumcanadense183–4AsiaticStyrax186Aspic119,120,185Asterhelenium84Asterofficinalis36AtlanticCedar66AtlasCedarwood13,66–7,68,211,212,213,219AttarofRose172Aucklandiacostus78AustralianSandalwood179Azob112AztecMarigold187Bachelor’sButtons188BahamaCascarilla64Balm41,48,50,57,16BalmMint139BalmofGileadFir41BalsamFir41BalsamofGilead41

BalsamofGilead41Balsamstyracis186BalsamTree41,44Balsamodendronmyrrha143Balsamumamericanum43Balsamumtolutanum43Baltimore202BarosCamphor52Barosmabetulina54Barosmacrenulata54Barosmaserratifolia54Basil12,14,15,16,24,44–6,57,97,109,141,174,189,200BasilThyme57BastardLavender119BataviaCinnamon74baths20BaumedePerouBrun55Bay46,118–19,130,150,170,210,211,214,221,224BayLaurel46,118,221BayLeaf46,77,113,120,132,144,148BayRumTree46–7Bayberry46,144BedfordCedarwood67BeeBalm48,136BelgianValerian196Benzoin13,24,29,41,43,44,47–8,68,70,74,81,117,123,129,140,143,146,158,163,172,179,186,187,198,210,211,212,214,224

Bergamot8,13,14,15,16,19,21,24,26,28,46,48–9,53,62,65,66,70,71,73,76,77,78,81,84,85,96,97,101,105,109,118,120,123,132,134,144,146,151,156,161,163,167,172,176,179,184,187,192,193,205,210,211,212,213,214,222,225

Betulaalba50–1Betulaalbavar.pubescens50Betulacapinefolia49Betulalenta49–50Betulanigra49Betulaodorata50Betulapapyrifera50

Betulapendula50Betulaverrucosa50Bigarade146,151,163Biotaorientalis191BirchBud50,51BirchTar49,50,51,60Bird’sNest63BisabolMyrrh65,143,150,151BitterAlmond10,34–5BitterButtons188BitterFennel89–90BitterOrange4,146,151–2,153,154,163,222BlackBalsam43BlackBirch49BlackCatechu138BlackMustard142BlackPepper11,13,14,79,132,162,167,179,183,210,211,212,213,221BlackPine165BlackSpruce185BlazingStar82BlueCamomile69BlueGumEucalyptus86–7,88,89,210,211,212,213,214BlueMalee86BluePeppermint87–8BlueViolet131,200Bluebell111,112Boabo88BoisdeRose174BoldoLeaf51Boldoafragrans51Boldu51Bolduboldus51Boldus51Bookoo54BorneoCamphor4,52,59Borneol13,14,15,27,37,52,59,60,78,93,102,104,107,113,118,124,141,148,155,165,169,174,177,179,182,183,184,185,188,192,195,197,204,210,211,212,214,223

204,210,211,212,214,223Boronia52–3,66,114,200Boroniamegastigma52–3Boswelliacarterivii,96–7Boswelliaserratevii,96BourbonGeranium100–1BourbonVanilla197BrandyMint139Brassicaalba49,50,142Brassicanapus142Brassicanigra49Brassicasinapioides142BrazilianMimosa138BrazilianRosewood174BrazilianSassafras180BritishIndiaLemongrass124Broad-leavedLavender120Broad-leavedLime126Broad-leavedPeppermintEucalyptus87–8,223,225Broom30,53–4BrownBoronia52BrownMustard142Bubonion98Bucca54Buchu54–5Buku54BulgarianRose171,172Bulnesiasarmienti72,108Burseradelpechiana125Burseraglabrifolia125–6BushBasil45Buttons188CabbageRose170–2,173,213,222Cabreuva55,210,211,212,214,222Cabureicica55Cade55–6,117,210,211,220Cajeput7,13,15,23,27,56–7,147,189,211,212,213,214,224

Cajuput56,132Calamint57Calamintha57–8,181,182,211,212,213,214,224,225Calaminthaclinopodium57Calaminthahortensis181Calaminthamontana182Calaminthanepeta57Calaminthaofficinalis57–8Calamus5,58–9,60,66,118,144Calamusaromaticus58Calamusodoratus58Calendula23,187Calendulaofficinalis133–4,187CaliforniaBay118CaliforniaPepperTree183CaliforniaSpearmint202Camomile69,71Campernella145Camphor4,5,11,13,14,15,27,28,45,52,59–60,97,109,110,121,154,169–70,174,178,181,188,191,204,210,211,212,214,221,223,225,226

CamphorBasil45CanadaTurpentine41CanadianBalsam41–2,92,210,211,212,213,214,219,222,224,225CanadianSnakeroot184CanadianSpruce185Cananga42,58,60–1,79,85,158,160,164,190,195,210,211,212,214,221Canangaodorata60–1Canangaodoratavar.geniuna204–5Canangaodoratavar.macrophylla60Canariumcommune85Canariumluzonicum85–6CapeJasmine99Caraway14,61,62,80,83,212,213,214,224,225Cardamom62,220Cardamon14,26,62,80,81,92,105,170,176,213,220Cardamoni62Carnation30,163,186,194CarolinaVanilla81,82

CarolinaVanilla81,82Carphephorusodoratissimus81–2CarrotSeed63,210,211,212,213,224Carum61Carumajowa33Carumcarvi61Carumcopticum33Carumpetroselinum159Cascarilla64CascarillaBark64,212,213,223Cassia5,56,61,64–5,161,169,221,222CassiaCinnamon64CassiaLignea64Cassie30,54,55,63,65–6,138,151,172,179,184,186,195,199,205Cassieancienne65Catmint57Catnip57CayennePepper162CayenneRosewood174,175CearaJaborandi114Cedarleaf190Cedarwood13,20,36,41,42,44,55,58,62,63,66–8,71,76,81,85,87,102,109,117,121,122,126,132,134,142,154,156,158,161,164,165,166,174,176,178,186,197,204

Cedrat123Cedro123Cedrusatlantica66–7Cedrusdeodora66Cedruslibani66CeleriacRoot68CeleryFruit68CelerySeed68–9,211,212,213,214CeylonCinnamon64,74Chamaemelumnobilis71Chamaemelumsuaveolens69,83Chamomile9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,19,20,23,26,49,69–71,81,98,109,114,118,123,134,146,172,180,204

Chamomile,Blue69

ChamomileMaroc70–1,98,118ChampacaWood72–3,108Checkerberry201Cheese61,188chemistry26–7Chenopodium51,202Chenopodiumanthelminticum202Chenopodiumbonus-henricus202CherryBirch49CherryLaurel119Chervil73–4ChinaOrange153ChineseAnise38ChineseCedar191ChineseCinnamon64ChineseGinger97,101ChineseMugwort141ChineseParsley77ChineseRose171ChineseSpikenard184ChineseStarAnise38ChirPine195Chrysanthemumtanacetum188Chrysanthemumvulgare188Chrysanthemumaromaticum64Chrysanthemumburmanii74Chrysanthemumcamphora109,110,169,170Chrysanthemumcassia169Chrysanthemumloureirii74Chrysanthemumverum64,74Chrysanthemumzeylanicum169Cinnamomumcamphora169–70Cinnamomumcamphoractlinalol108–10Cinnamomumcassia64–5Cinnamon4,5,7,14,21,24,28,34,46,58,61,62,64,74–5,78,85,86,92,97,98,120,127,131,132,153,169,174,183

CinnamonBark21,64,74,169CinnamonLeaf74,211,212,213,214

CinnamonLeaf74,211,212,213,214CinnamonSedge58circulation,musclesandjoints,the13Ciste117Cistus117–18Cistusincanus118Cistusladaniferus117–18Citron123Citron-scentedGum88Citronella8,13,20,23,26,36,46,68,75–6,78,120,125,131,137,138,154,158,161,165,174,175,178,193,198,199,211,214,220,224

Citrusaurantifolia125Citrusaurantiumsubsp.bergamia48Citrusaurantiumvar.amara146,151–2Citrusaurantiumvar.dulcis146,153Citrusaurantiumvar.natsudaidai153Citrusaurantiumvar.sinesis104Citrusbergamia48–9Citrusbigaradia146,151,163Citrusdeliciosa131Citrusgrandis104Citrushystrix125Citrusjavanica123Citruslatifolia125Citruslimetta125Citruslimon123–4Citruslimonum123Citrusmadurensis131Citrusmaximavar.racemosa104Citrusmaximaver.acida104Citrusnobilis131Citrusracemosa104Citrusreticulate131Citrussinensis153–4Citrusunshiu131Citrusvulgaris146,151Citrusxparadise104–5Clarry176

Clary176ClarySage11,14,16,26,29,30,35,37,43,53,66,70,71,77,78,81,113,114,116,117,118,119,120,122,125,142,144,146,148,151,153,156,160,161,163,172,176–7,178,184,187,190,193,195,199,200,210,211,212,213,214,225

ClaryWort176ClearEye176Clove4,8,12,13,15,23,24,26,27,34,56,62,75,76–7,82,91,92,96,99,101,114,121,122,131,173,189,190,132,144,145,153,161,163,167,172,179,183,190,210,211,212,213,214,221,222,224

CochinLemongrass124Cochleariaarmoracia111Cochleariamacrocarpa111ColicRoot97Combava125Commiphoraabyssinicia143Commiphoraerythrea65,150–1Commiphoramolmol143Commiphoramyrrha143–4CommonBalm136CommonBasil45CommonBroom54CommonCalamint57CommonClary176CommonFennel89CommonGardenia99CommonGarlic99CommonGinger101,195CommonHemlock185CommonHop110CommonIris156CommonJasmine115CommonJuniper116,117,181CommonLavender121CommonLime126CommonLovage130CommonMarigold133CommonMarjoram134

CommonMarjoram134CommonMelilot136CommonMyrrh143CommonOnion150CommonOregano134,154–5,198,201CommonParsley159CommonSage177,178CommonSassafras180CommonSpearmint140CommonThyme26,155,191,192CommonValerian184,196CommonVanilla82,197CommonWormwood202CompassPlant173compresses,hotandcold19concretes28–9ConeheadThyme155CopahuBalsam42Copaiba42,222CopaibaBalsam29,42,48,55,60,110,211,212,213,214,222,223Copaiferaofficinalis42Copaiva42CopalLemon125Coriander4,8,48,49,69,73,77–8,80,102,146,148,151,176,211,212,213,214,224

Coriandrumsativum77–8,80CoridoThyme155Coridothymuscapitatus155CornChamomile69CornMelilot136CornishLovage130Cornmint11,138–9CorsicanPepper144Costus37,53,63,65,66,78–9,108,130,179,184,197,205,212,213,214,226CottonLavender122,180Coumarounaodorata193creativeblending22–5CretanThyme155

Crotoneluteria64Chrysanthemumtanacetum188CubebBerry79Cubeba79,127,199Cubebaofficinalis79Cubebs79–80,211,212,213,214,221Cumin26,27,39,80,200,211,212,213,214,224Cuminumcyminum80Cuminumodorum60,80,204Cupressuslusitanica81Cupressussempervirens80–1Curcuma194–5Curcumadomestica194Curcumalonga194–5CurlyMint140Cymbopogoncitratus124–5Cymbopogonflexuosus93,124Cymbopogonmartiniivar.martinii158–9Cymbopogonmartiniivar.sofia158Cymbopogonnardus75–6Cymbopogonwinterianius75–6Cypress13,20,35,41,48,49,66,68,71,78,80–1,85,105,107,117,118,119,120,134,143,156,170,189,211,212,213,214,219,220

Cyste117Cytisusscoparius53Dacrydiumfranklinii164Daffodil145DalmatianSage177DamaskRose171,172–3,210,211,212,213,214,222Daucuscarota63Daucuscarotasubsp.sativus63Davana203Deer’sTongue81Deertongue81–2Devil’sDung40digestivesystem,the14Dillvi,26,61,82–3,213,224

Dillvi,26,61,82–3,213,224Dipteryxodorata193DoradoAzul83–4douche20DouglasFir185Dryobalanopsaromatica52Dryobalanopscamphora52DutchMyrtle144DutchTonkaBean193DwarfPine163–4,165Dyer’sGreenweed53EastAfricanAcacia138EastAfricaCedarwood67EastIndianBasil44EastIndianCamphor52EastIndianDill82EastIndianGeranium158EastIndianLemongrass124EastIndianNutmeg148EastIndianRoot97EastIndianSandalwood36,179East,treasuresfromthe5–6EasternHemlock185EasternRedCedar67EasternWhiteCedar190EasternWhitePine165Edeltanne92EgyptianAlcee35Elecampane78,84–5,195,212,226Elemivii,83,85–6,117,123,126,132,174,198,210,211,212,214,223ElemiGum85ElemiResin85Elettariacardamomum62Elettariacardamomumvar.major62ElfDock84EnglishBogMyrtle144EnglishChamomile71

EnglishViolet200Essenced’Aunée84essentialoils:howtheywork12howtouseathome18–21esters26Estragon188Eucalyptus8,11,12,13,15,20,23,24,26,27,56,57,84,86–9,93,94,107,121,123,132,134,140,141,144,166,170,178,183,192,210,211,212,213,214,223,224

Eucalyptuscitriodora88–9Eucalyptusdivesvar.Type87–8Eucalyptusglobulusvar.globulus86–7Eucalyptuspiperita86,88Eucalyptuspolybractea86Eucalyptusradiatavar.australiana86,87Eucalyptusradiatavar.phellandra86–7,88Eucalyptussmithii86Eucaryaspicata179Eugeniaaromatica76Eugeniacaryophyllata76Eugeniacaryophyllus76Euphrasia176EuropeanAngelica36,37EuropeanBasil45EuropeanDill82EuropeanHop110EuropeanHound’sTongue82EuropeanMandarin131EuropeanOregano154EuropeanPennyroyal161EuropeanRockRose117EuropeanSilverFir92EuropeanValerian196EuropeanWhiteBirch49,50Everlasting30,113Everniafurfuracea149

Everniaprunastri149ExoticBasil44–5ExoticVerbena127extraction,methodsof27–9EyeBright176FalseCinnamon64FalseCubebs79‘False’IndianValerianRoot184FalsePatchouli160FalsePepper79FalseQuinquina64FelonHerb141Fenkel89Fennel11,13,14,15,26,27,40,61,89–91,123Fenugreek91–2Ferulaasa-foetida40–1Ferulahermonic98Ferulasumbul185FeverPlant45FeverTree86Feverfew188FieldMint138Fig110FirNeedle41,92–3,117,151,185FishMint140FlagIris58,155,156FlorenceFennel90FlorentineOrris156Flouve199FlowerofFlowers204flowerwaters20Foeniculumazoricum90Foeniculumcapillaceum89Foeniculumofficinale89Foeniculumvulgarevar.amara90FoodoftheGods40ForestPine165

ForestPine165FormosaCamphor59Fragonia93–4fragrantharmony24FragrantValerian196FranceIndianVerbena124Frangipani94–6Frankincensevii,4,5,7,13,14,20,24,29,48,65,82,85,86,96–7,102,126,143,151,162,170,176,210,211,212,213,214,222,223

Fraseraspeciosa81FrenchBasil45–6,211,212,213,214FrenchFennel89FrenchLavender122FrenchMarigold187FrenchMarjoram57,134FrenchOttoofRose170FrenchRose170FrenchTarragon188FrenchThyme191Frostwort118Fructusanethi82Galanga97Galangalofficinalis97Galangal97–8,101,166Galbanum30,79,80,83,98–9,112,117,130,186,189,210,211,212,213,214,224

GardenAngelica36GardenChamomile71GardenChervil73GardenFennel89GardenLavender121GardenLovage130GardenParsley159GardenRue175GardenSage176,177,178GardenSavory181GardenSpearmint140

GardenThyme191GardenValerian196GardenViolet200Garden-beakedParsley73Gardenia99Gardeniacalyculata99Gardeniacitriodora99Gardeniaflorida99Gardeniagrandiflora99Gardeniajasminoides99Gardeniaradicans99Garlic8,13,14,40,99–100,112,150Gaultheria201Gaultheriaprocumbens201Gayfeather82Genet53Genista53Genistajuncea53Genistatinctoria53genito-urinaryandendocrinesystems14–15Geranium8,13,15,19,24,27,30,34,46,47,49,63,70,71,76,90,97,98,100–1,105,108,109,113,114,117,120,122,123,137,143,146,148,158,161,163,172,176,179,190,210,211,212,213,214,220,222,226

Geraniummaculatum101Geraniumrobertianum101GermanChamomile9,12,69–70,71,226GermanIris156GiantFennel40Ginger14,26,34,78,96,97,101–2,104,132,144,156,158,166,167,183,184,195,202,211,212,213,214,220,221,226

GingerRoot97,101Gingergrass158Gold-bloom133GoldenSamphire85Goldenrod103–4Gomenol147GoodKingHenry202Grapefruit13,73,104–5,167,210,211,212,214,222

Grapefruit13,73,104–5,167,210,211,212,214,222Gratiolaofficinalis112–13GreatMugwort141GrecianLaurel118GreekMarjoram154GreenBroom53GreenGinger202GreenMint140GreenlandMoss105–6GreyPeppermintEucaly86–7Grindelia106–8GroveMarjoram154GuaiacGum108Guaiacum108Guaiacumofficinale108Guaiacumsanctum108Guaiacwood60,72,108,158,172GuatamalaLemongrass124guidelines,therapeutic10–11GullyGum86GumAcacia65GumArabic65GumAsafetida40GumBenjamin47GumBezoin47GumCamphor59GumCistus117GumMyrrh143GumThus96,195GumTree86,88GumTurpentine166,195habitat26haircare19HairyBasil44–5HeadedSavory155Heart’sDelight136Hedeomapulegoides161

HedgeHyssop112–13Heleniumgrandiflorum84Helianthemumcanadense118Helichrysum53,113–14,193,210,211,212,213,214,226Helichrysumangustifolia113–14Helichrysumarenarium113Helichrysumorientale114Helichrysumstoechas113–14Hemlock41,185,186HemlockSpruce185–6,211,212,214,219HerbBergamot48HerbLouisa198HerbRobert101HerbSanctiMariae202Herb-of-Grace175herbalmedicine9–10Herbygrass175Hiba191Hibiscusabelmoschus35Hibiscusesculentus35HimalayanDeodarCedarwood66HirabolMyrrh143,151historicalroots3–7HoLeaf59,108,109,110,165HoWood108–10HoaryBasil45Hollygold133HolyBasil45Hon-sho59,109Honeyplant136Hopsvi,11,14,16,110–11,210,211,212,213,214,221Horseheal84Horseradish111Hound’sTongue81,82Huisache65Humuluslupulus110Hundred-leavedRose170HungarianChamomile69

HungarianChamomile69HuonPine164Hyacinth30,98,110,111–12,134,200,203,214,220Hyacinthusnonscriptus112Hyacinthusorientalis111–12Hydrastiscanadensis195Hyptissuavolens83–4Hyssop11,13,14,15,27,46,112–13,144,177,210,211,212,213,214,225Hyssopusofficinalis112–13Iaborandi114Illicium38Illiciumverum38–9Immortelle53,113–14,193Immunesystem,the15Incensier173IndianBalsam43IndianDill82IndianFennel90IndianGinger101,183IndianRosha158IndianSaffron194IndianTurmeric194,195IndianValerian184,185,196IndianYellowRoot194internaluse21Inula84,85Inulacrithmoides85Inulagraveolens85Inulahelenium84–5Inulaodora85Iris58,144,155–7Irisforentina156Irisgermanica156Irispallida155–7Irispseudacorus156Irisversicolor156IsraeliOriganum155ItalianCypress80

ItalianJasmine115ItalianLime125ItalianLovage130Iva203Jaborandi114–15JamaicaGinger101JamaicaPepper33Jamborandi114Jamguaraddi114JapaneseCamphor52,59JapaneseCedar191JapaneseFennel90JapaneseFirNeedle(oil)92JapaneseMint138JapaneseOrange153JapaneseRose171JapaneseStarAnise38Jasmin30Jasmine14,15,16,21,23,24,27,29,42,48,49,60,61,66,70,71,73,78,96,99,101,112,115–16,129,141,145,146,157,158,163,167,172,176,179,186,187,194,199,203,205,210,211,212,213,214,224,226

Jasminumauriculatum115Jasminumgrandiflorum115Jasminumofficinale115Jasminumsambac115,116JavaCitronella76JavaLemon123JavaPatchouli160Jessamine115Jesuit’sBalsam42Jesuit’sTea202Jonquil145,194Joy-of-the-mountain45Juniper4,7,13,14,15,16,20,21,34,41,48,49,55,66,67,68,81,101,109,116–17,118,119,123,132,143,164,166,170,176,178,181,210,211,212,213,214,220

JuniperTar55

JuniperTar55Juniperberry(oil)117Juniperusashei67Juniperuscommunis55,116–17Juniperusmexicana67Juniperusoxycedrus117Juniperusprocera67Juniperussabina117,181Juniperussmerka55,116–17Juniperusvirginiana55,67–8,117KaempferiaGalanga97KazanlikRose172KessoRoot196ketones27KhusKhus199King’sClover136KnottedMarjoram134Labdanum30,34,44,58,60,62,66,70,71,81,82,85,86,93,114,117–18,119,122,123,151,156,161,163,164,174,176,179,185,189,195,211,212,213,223

LambMint140Languasofficinarum97LargeGalanga97Laurel27,46,47,59,118–19,127,144,169LaurelCamphor59LaurelLeaf118Lauruscamphora59Lauruscassia64Lauruscinnamomum74Laurusnobilis118–19Laurussassafras180Lavandin30,36,42,47,71,77,80,82,86,98,117,118,119–20,123,125,130,138,141,142,144,148,154,161,164,174,177,178,182,186,190,192,193,210,211,212,213,214,225

Lavandulaangustifolium121–2Lavanduladelphinensis122

Lavandulafragrans122Lavandulahortensis119Lavandulalatifolia120–1Lavandulaofficinalis121Lavandulaspica120Lavandulastoechas122Lavandulataemina180Lavandulavera121Lavandulaxintermedia119–20Lavenderviii,3,6,7,8,11,12,13,14,15,16,19,20,21,23,24,26,27,28,29,30,34,38,42,47,49,69,70,71,77,79,80,81,85,86,87,90,93,97,98,101,105,109,113,114,117,118,120–2,123,125,126,132,134,136,137,138,140,141,143,144,146,153,154,161,162,163,166,167,172,174,176,177,178,179,180,182,183,185,186,187,189,190,192,193,197,199,203,210,211,212,213,214,225,226

Lavender-leavedSage178Leech-lime125Lemon8,12,13,14,15,16,19,20,21,24,26,27,28,46,48,49,53,70,73,76,81,87,93,94,123–4,125,127,140,146,152,153,163,166,177,192,199,210,211,212,213,214,220,222,223,224,225

LemonBalm12,14,16,26,57,125,136,137,192,198,210,211,212,213,214,224,225

LemonThyme192LemonVerbena198–9,213,214,224Lemon-scentedEucalyptus26,87,88–9,210,211,212,213,214,223Lemon-scentedGum88Lemongrass13,14,20,26,124–5,127,137,158,167,199,210,211,212,213,214,220

LenabatuCitronella75Lentisk135Leopard’sBane39Leptospermumscoparium132LesserCalamintha57LesserLavender120LevantGalbanum98LevantStyrax186–7,210,211,212,214,222Levisticumofficinale130–1Liatris81,82

Liatris81,82Liatrisodoratissima81Liatrisspicata82Liatrissquarrosa82Libanol66LigurianYellow203Ligusticumlevisticum130Ligusticummutellina130Ligusticumscoticum130Lime13,14,46,102,109,120,123,125,126,144,148,158,167,210,211,212,214,222,223

LimeTree126Limette125Linaloevii,23,27,125–6,210,211,214,223Linden59,126–7,213,214,223Lippiacitriodora198Lippiagraveolens154Lippiapalmeri154Lippiatriphylla198LiquidStorax186Liquidambarorientalis186–7Liquidambarstyraciflua186Litseacitrata127Litseacubeba127,199,210,211,213,221LittleDragon188Lobariapulmonaria149LodgepolePine195LongleafPine164–5,195,219LongleafYellowPine164Lotus128–9Lovage13,15,91,130–1,211,212,213,224Lupulus110Lyne126Mace147,148Macis147MadagascarCinnamon74MadagascarLemongrass124

MaggiHerb130MahaPengiriCitronella75–6MahoganyBirch49MalayanCamphor52Mandarin11,13,14,24,74,81,131,143,148,163,197,210,211,212,213,214,222

ManilaElemi85Manuka132–3MaracaiboBalsam42MaranhamJaborandi114Marigold133–4,187,188,210,211,226Marjoramvi,viii,12,13,14,15,16,18,24,26,57,70,81,87,93,113,134–5,140,154,155,162,166,190,192,210,211,212,213,214,225

Marjoranahortensis134Marjoranaonites134Marybud133Marygold133massage18MassonPine195Mastic29,117,135–6,183,210,211,212,213,214,218,223,225Mastich135MastickTree5,135,183Mastix135Matricaria10Matricariachamomilla69Matricariarecutita69–70MayChang127MeadowClary176MediterraneanBay118MediterraneanCypress80MedlarTree55Melaleucaalternifolia189–90Melaleucabracteata189Melaleucacajeputi56,189Melaleucalinariifolia189Melaleucaminor56Melaleucaquinquenervia56,147

Melaleucaviridiflora147,189Melasol189MelilotTrefoil136Melilotus136Melilotusarvensis136,138Melilotusofficinalis147Melissa12,14,16,26,57,125,136–7,192,198,210,211,212,213,214,224,225

Melissaofficinalis136–7Menthaarvensis138–9Menthapiperita139–40Menthapulegium161–2Menthaspicata140–1Menthaviridis140Menthol-scentedgum87MexicanCedar66,67MexicanJuniper67MexicanLime125MexicanLinaloe125MexicanMarigold133,187MexicanOregano154MexicanSage177MexicanTea202MexicanVanilla197MexicanWhitePine195Micheliachampaca72–3Milfoil203MillMountain57Mimosa30,44,53,54,55,63,65,66,85,97,114,136,137–8,145,151,156,158,172,179,184,186,195,199,205,211,214,222

Mimosahumilis138Mind,the16–17Mint13,14,57,83,84,138–41,161,198,201Monardadidyma48MoroccanCedarwood66MoroccanChamomile70,81MoroccanOttoofRose170Mother-of-thyme192

Mother-of-thyme192Motia158MountainBalm57MountainBuchu54MountainCedar67MountainMahogany49MountainMint57MountainPine163MoussedeChene149Moxa141,142Mugwort27,141–2,203MuscatelSage176MuskRose172MuskSeed35MuskYarrow203Muskmallow35Muskroot98Mustard104,111,142–3Myrcia46Myrciaacris46Myricacerifera46Myricagale144Myristica147Myristicaaromata147Myristicafragrans147–8Myristicaofficinalis147Myrocarpusfastigiatus55Myrocarpusfrondosus55Myrospermumpereirae43Myrospermumtoluiferum43–4Myroxylonbalsamumvar.balsamum43–4Myroxylonfrutescens43Myroxylonpereirae43Myrrhvii,4,5,12,13,14,24,28,29,48,65,86,126,143–4,146,150–1,153,161,179,210,211,212,213,223

Myrrha143Myrrhisodorata73Myrtle20,23,46,58,84,94,98,107,109,113,132,144,210,211,212,213,214,220,224

214,220,224MyrtleGrass58,144MyrtleSedge58Myrtuscommunis144MysoreCardamom62Narcissus30,98,112,145,194,201Narcissusjonquilla145Narcissusodorus145Narcissuspoeticus145Narcissuspseudo-narcissus145Nard184Nardostachyschinensis184–5Nardostachysjatamansi184–5,196Narrow-leavedPaperbarkTeaTree189Narrow-leavedPeppermintEucalyptus86,87,88NativeLemongrass124naturalplantorigins3–4naturalversus‘natureidentical’30neatapplication21Nelumbonucifera128–9Nepeta57Nepetacataria57Neroli4,13,14,15,16,19,20,34,35,44,49,60,62,66,70,71,73,78,96,97,99,101,102,105,108,109,112,123,125,129,131,145,146,147,151,152,153,160,161,163,167,172,194,198,203,211,212,213,214,222

NeroliBigarade146NeroliPetalae146,153NeroliPortugal146,153nervoussystem15–16Niaouli15,56,94,147,166,189,210,211,212,213,214,224NobleLaurel118NorthAmericanBayberry46NorthAmericanPennyroyal161NorthAmericanSassafras180NorthernWhiteCedar190NorwayPine165NorwaySpruce185

NorwaySpruce185Nosebleed123,203Nutmeg26,47,64,83,110,131,132,147–8,153,167,183,190,212,213,214,221

Nuxmoschata147Oak138Oakmoss23,36,37,42,46,60,64,69,71,82,98,108,114,117,118,121,122,123,130,134,142,143,148,149,154,158,160,161,163,165,179,182,183,184,185,186,189,190,193,197,199,203,204,219

Ocimumbasilicum44–6Ocimumcanum44,45Ocimumgratissimum44Ocimumkilimanjaricum45Ocimumminimum45Ocimumsanctum45Ocimumviride45Ocoteacaudate174Ocoteapretiosa180OldEnglishLavage130Olibanumvii,58,62,66,71,74,78,96,118,119,123,174,198Omum33Onion98,112,150Opobalsam44Opopanaxvii,24,34,37,46,65,69,78,86,98,118,130,143,150–1,161,194,198,199,205

Opopanaxchironium150Orange3,4,7,14,29,30,38,48,62,74,76,81,97,102,104,146,148,151–4OrangeBlossom4,146,211OrangeFlower7,29,30,96,146Oreganumsyriacum113OrientalRose171OrientalSweetgum186Origanum56Origanumglandulosum154Origanumheracleoticum154Origanummarjorana134–5Origanumonites134

Origanumvirens154Origanumvulgare154–5Ormensismixta70Ormensismulticaulis70–1Orris24,28,59,65,85,155–7,194,195,285OrrisButter155Orrisroot155,156Osmanthus157–8Osmanthusfragrans157–8oxides27PaleIris155–6Palmarosa27,105,158–9,163,172,198,210,211,213,214,220PaloSanto72,108PaperBirch50PaperbarkTree56Paprika162ParaBalsam42Parsleyvi,14,15,33,73,77,159–60,211,212,213,224Pastinacaopopanax151Patchouli12,14,21,24,34,35,37,43,44,58,67,68,70,78,82,85,96,98,101,102,108,118,120,121,122,129,142,143,151,160–1,172,179,184,185,197,199,210,211,213,214,225

Patchouly160PeaMint140Pelargonium100Pelargoniumgraveolens100–1Pelargoniumodorantissimum100Pelargoniumradens100–1Pennyroyal27,58,139,161–2Pepperviii,11,13,14,33,34,64,79,97,132,135,144,162–3,167,179,183Peppermint8,10,11,13,14,15,16,18,20,84,86–8,93,139–40,141,174,210,211,212,213,214,223,225

PeppermintEucalyptus86–7,88perfumes,personal24–5Pernambucojaborandi114Parnambucopennatifolius114PersianGalbanum98

PersianGalbanum98PeruBalsam13,24,29,44,74,104,107,114,138,148,172,192,194,205,210,211,212,214,222

PeruvianBalsam43PeruvianMastic135,183PeruvianPepper135,183Petitgrain4,20,43,78,109,121,131,148,152,163,167,174,197,210,211,213,214,222

PetitgrainBigarade163PetitgrainOrange(oil)163PetitgrainParaguay163Petroseliniumcrispum159Petroseliniumgraveolens100Petroseliniumhortense159Petroseliniumsativum159Peumusboldus51Pheasant’sEye145phenols27Piceaabies185Piceaglauca185Piceamariana185Piceanigra185Pilocarpusjaborandi114–15Pimenta93Pimentaacris46Pimentadioica33–4Pimentaofficinalis33Pimentaracemosa46–7,119Pimento33–4,46,64Pimpinellaanisum39Pine4,7,8,14,15,20,26,38,39,41,56,67,69,76,78,81,82,87,93,97,98,104,107,110,117,118,119,120,121,122,142,143,149,151,154,163–6,170,173,176,178,182,184,185,186,189,190,192,195,196,197,204

PineNeedle98,163,164,165,166,182,184,185Pine-scentedRosemary173PineappleWeed69PinksterLily145Pinusayacahuite195

Pinusbalsamea41Pinuscanadensis185Pinuscontortavar.latifolia195Pinuselliottii195Pinusmassoniana195Pinusmontana163Pinusmugo163Pinusmugovar.pumilio163–4,165Pinusnigra165Pinuspalustris164–5,195–6Pinuspumilio163Pinusroxburghii195Pinusstrobus165Pinussylvestris165–6,195Piper162Piperangustifolium79Pipercrassipes79Pipercubeba79–80Piperjaborandi114Pipermicrophyllus114Pipernigrum79,162–3Piperspicatus114Pipertrachylophus114Pistacialentiscus135–6,183PitchPine164Plai166–7PlasterClover136Plumeriarubra94–6Poet’sJessamine115Poet’sMarigold133Poet’sNarcissus145Pogostemoncablin160–1Pogostemonheyneanus160Pogostemonpatchouli160Polyanthestuberosa194pomades29PoorMan’sTreacle99Popinac65

Popinac65PortugalOrange153PotMarigold133PotMarjoram134PrairiePine82PricklyCedar55PricklyJuniper55proportions,correct23ProvenceRose170Prunusamygdalusvar.amara34Prunuscommunis34Prunusdulcisvar.amara34–5Prunuslaurocerasus119Pseudotsugataxifolia185Ptychotisajowan33Puchaput160PuddingGrass161Pulegium161PunkTree56QueenAnne’sLace63Quercusrobur149Radixgalangalminoris97Raifort111Ramsons99Rape142Ravensara167–9Ravensaraaromatica167–9Ravintsara169–70RedCedar67,191RedCole111RedGum186RedOnion150RedRose170,171RedSage177RedThyme21,191,192ResinTolu44

resinoids29respiratorysystem,the13ReunionBasil44ReunionGeranium100ReunionVanilla197Rhododendrongroenlandicum105–6RockCedar67RomanCaraway80RomanCassie65RomanChamomile12,69,70,71,226RomanFennel89RomanLaurel118,119RomanWormwood203Rosacentifolia170–2Rosadamascene172–3Rosadamascenevar.alba172Rosagallica16,170,171Rosaindica171Rosamuscatta172Rosarubiginosa171Rosarugosa171Rose3,5,6,7,11,13,14,16,17,19,20,21,23,24,27,30,35,38,43,48,54,55,62,68,70,71,73,77,90,96,99,101,102,108,114,116,117,123,126,129,130,132,145,146,156,158,160,161,163,170–3,179,186,199

RosedeMai170RoseGeranium100,101RoseMaroc170Rosehip171Rosemaryviii,6,7,11,13,14,15,16,19,20,23,24,26,27,30,47,66,79,80,86,87,93,94,104,105,113,117,119,120,121,125,132,134,140,141,142,144,146,148,154,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,170,173–4,177,178,182,183,186,190,192,197,210,211,212,213,214,225

Rosewood15,23,24,27,36,66,80,102,109,110,121,126,127,158,165,174–5,177,179,205,210,211,213,214,221,222

Rosmarinuscoronarium173Rosmarinusofficinalis173–4Rosmarinusofficinalisvar.angustifolius173RoundCardamon62

RoundCardamon62RoyalJasmine115Rue175–6RussianFennel90RussianTarragon188,189RussianWormseed202Rutaangustifolia175Rutachalepensis175Rutagraveolens175–6Rutamontana175Sabinacacuminal181safetyprecautions11Sage6,7,11,12,13,14,15,16,23,27,29,64,86,98,113,121,142,161,164,166,176–8,210,211,212,213,214,216,225

SaigonCinnamon74SaladChervil73Salviaazureagrandiflora177Salviacolorata177Salvialavendulaefolia176,177,178Salviaofficinalis176,177–8Salviapratensis176Salviasclarea176–7Salviatriloba178Salviaverbenaca176Sandalwood4,13,14,15,16,21,28,35,36,41,43,44,48,53,68,73,78,81,85,90,92,96,97,101,102,108,109,116,117,118,123,126,132,143,145,151,156,158,161,162,167,172,176,179–80,187,198,199,210,211,212,213,214,221,222

SandalwoodMysore179Sanderac191Sanderach135Sanders-wood179Santal179Santalumalbum179–80Santalumspicatum179Santolina180Santolinachamaecyparissus122,180

Santolinafragrantissima180SardinianRue175Sarepta142Sassafras180–1Sassafrasalbidum180–1Sassafrasofficinale180Sassafrasvariifolium180Sassafrax180Sativa188Satsuma131Satureiahortensis181Satureiathymbra182Saturejacapitata155Saturejahortensis57,181–2Saturejamontana57,182–3Saturejamontanasubspicata182Saturejaobovata182Saussureacostus78–9Saussurealappa78Savin67,117Savine181Savory15,27,57,155,181–3Scabwort84ScentedFern188ScentedGumTree88Schimmeliaoleifera36Schinusmolle135,183scientificrevolution6–7Scillanutans111ScotchPine4,164,165–6,195,210,211,213,214,219SeaLavage130SeaLavender122SeaPine195SeeBright176SenegalAcacia65SensitivePlant138Serpentaria184Serpolet192

Serpolet192SevilleOrange151SeychellesCinnamon74Shaddock104ShortBuchu54ShrubbyBasil44

ShrubbyRedCedarSiamBenzoin47,48SiamCardamon62SiberianFir92,165SilverBirch50SilverFirNeedle92–3Silver-skinnedOnion150Sinapsisnigra142SingleChamomile69skin,the12–13skincare,skinoilsandlotions18–19SlashPine195SmallGalangal97Small-leavedLime126Smellage130SmoothChervil73Snakeroot183–4Solidagocanadensis103–4SomaliMyrrh143SourLime125SourOrange151SouthAmericanMatico79SouthernBirch49SouthernBlueGum86SouthernRedCedar67SouthernRedPine195SouthernYellowPine164SpanishBroom54SpanishMarjoram134,192SpanishOnion150SpanishOregano154,155SpanishSage13,23,176,177,178,210,211,212,213,214,225,226SpanishSauceThyme192SpanishVerbena198,199Spartiumjunceum53–4Spearmint11,139,140–1,202,210,211,212,213,214,221,225Spike101SpikeLavender13,23,119,120–1,122,154,178,185,210,211,214,225

SpikeLavender13,23,119,120–1,122,154,178,185,210,211,214,225Spikenard4,83,184–5,196SpireMint140SpiritofTurpentine(oil)195,196SpottedGum88Spruce421,67,92,104,149,185–6SriLankaCitronella75,76StJohn’sHerb113StJohn’sPlant141StarAnise38–9,211212,213,214,221Staticecaroliniana122steaminhalation20Stictapulmonaceae149StingingNettle110Storax48,186StrasburgOnion150StrasburgTurpentine195StringyBark86Styrax4,42,47–8,98,112,129,138,186,193Styraxbenzoin47–8Styraxofficinale186Styraxparalleloneurus47Styraxtonkinensis47SumatraBenzoin47,48SumatraCamphor52SummerDamaskRose172SummerRue175SummerSavory57,182,183SwampCedar190SwampTeaTree56SweetAcacia65SweetBalm136SweetBark64SweetBasil44,45,46SweetBayLaurel118SweetBirch49–50,201SweetChamomile71SweetChervil73

SweetCicely73SweetClover136SweetCumin39SweetFalseChamomile69SweetFennel61,89,90,210,211,212,213,214,224SweetFlag58SweetInula85SweetLucerne136SweetMarjoram12,13,14,15,16,26,134–5,154,155SweetMyrrh150SweetMyrtle58,144SweetOrange131,146,151,152,153–4,163,222SweetRoot58SweetRush58SweetSedge58Sweet-scentedViolet200SweetwoodBark64SwissMountainPine163SydneyBlackWattle137synergies23SyrianOregano154Syzygiumaromaticum76–7Taget133Tagetes133,187–8Tageteserecta133,187Tagetesglandulifera187Tagetesminuta133,187–8Tagetespatula187Tagette187TahitiVanilla197TailedPepper79Tanacetumparthenium188Tanacetumvulgare188Tangerine131Tansy27,188Target–leavedHibiscus35Tarragon141,188–9,200,213,226

Tarragon141,188–9,200,213,226TasmanianGum86TeaRose171TeaTree12,13,14,15,19,20,21,23,24,27,56,69,84,93,94,132,133,134,144,147,160,166,167,189–90,210,211,212,213,214,224

Teaberry201Templin92,93Terebinth56,195terpenes26TexasCedarwood66,67,210,211,212,213,214therapeuticandaestheticproperties22Therebentine195ThomasBalsam44ThousandLeaf203Thuja190–1Thujaarticulata191Thujaoccidentalis190–1Thujaorientalis191Thujopsisdolobrata191Thymbracapitata155Thyme8,11,12,13,15,20,21,26,27,30,33,56,57,87,120,132,143,155,174,182,183,191–3,201,210,211,212,213,214,223,224,225,226

ThymeoftheAncients155Thymusaestivus191Thymuscapitans155Thymuscapitatus155Thymuscitriodorus192Thymushiamalis198Thymusilerdensis191Thymusmastichina134,192Thymusserpyllum192Thymusvalentiansus191Thymusvulgaris155Thymuswebbianus191Thymuszygis192Ti-tree189,190Ti-trol189TibetanAsafetida40

Tilia126–7Tiliacordata126Tiliaeuropaea126Tiliaplatyphylla126Tiliavulgaris126–7,155Tillet126ToluBalsam33,43–4,48,55,198,210,211,212,222Toluiferabalsamum43Toluiferapereirae43Tonka193TonquinBean193Trachyspermumammi33Trachyspermumcopticum33TreeofLife95,190Treemoss149Trigonellafoenum-graecum91–2Trilisaodoratissima81TripoliOnion150TropicalVerbena127TrueBay118TrueCamphor59TrueLavender119,120,121–2,180,210,211,212,222TrueMandarin131TrueSage177TrueSweetBasil45,46Tsugacanadensis41,185–6Tsugaheterophylla185Tubereuse194Tuberosa194Tuberose29,30,54,73,85,96,99,129,179,194,200,205TurkishGeranium158TurkishRose171,172TurkishSweetgum186Turmeric194–5,212Turpentine5,7,8,26,29,41,56,92,117,120,135–6,164,165,166,181,195–6,210,211,212,213,214,217,219

TurpentineBalsam195

Umbellulariacalifornia118Unonaodorantissimum204Urticadioica110Usneabarbata149Usneaceratina149Valerian7,16,184,185,196–7,204,213,214,226Valerianafauriei196–7Valerianaofficinalis184,196Valerianaofficinalisvar.angustifolium196Valerianaofficinalisvar.latifolia196Valerianawallichii184,196Vanilla24,42,43,81,82,189,197–8,201Vanillafragrans197VanillaLeaf81Vanillaplanifolia82,197–8Vanillapompona197Vanillatahitensis197VanillaTrilisa81Vanillons197vaporization20VelvetDock84Verbena26,30,124,125,127,198–9Verbenaofficinalis198Verbenatriphylla198Vervain124,198VervainSage176Verveinecitronelle198Verveineindienne198Verveineodorante198Vetiver24,37,54,66,67,68,71,97,102,117,118,122,132,151,156,161,179,185,198,199,204,205,210,211,212,214,220

Vetiveriazizamoides199Vetivert199Violaodorata200–1Violet30,42,49,53,54,65,85,98,112,122,138,156,158,179,186,194,199,200–1,210,211,212,213,214,223

200–1,210,211,212,213,214,223VioletLeaf(oil)30VirginianCedarwood55,67–8,117,210,211,212,213,214,220,221VirginiaSnakeroot184VosgesTurpentine92WashingtonCedar191WaxMyrtle46,144Weaver’sBroom53Weisstanne92WestIndianBay19,27,46–7,210,211,212,214,220,221,222,223,224WestIndianLemongrass124WestIndianLime125WestIndianNutmeg148WestIndianRosewood36WestIndianSandalwood36,179WesternHemlock185WesternRedCedar67Whart’sTongue81WhiteBirch13,21,49,50–1,210,211,212,221WhiteCedar190WhiteMelilot136WhiteMustard142WhitePepper162WhiteSandalwood179WhiteSaunders179WhiteSpruce92,185WhiteTeaTree56WhiteThyme191,192WhiteWood56WildBasil57WildBluebell112WildCardamon62WildCarrot63WildChervil73WildCinnamon46WildGarlic99WildGinger183

WildMarjoram113,154,155WildSunflower84WildThyme192WildVanilla81WildWormwood141WinterMarjoram154WinterRue175WinterSavory57,182–3Wintergreen49–50,201Wolf’sBane39WoodGarlic99Wormseed51,202WormseedLevant202Wormwood27,141,202–3Yarrow12,13,203–4,210,211,212,213,214,226YellowFlagIris58,156YellowMelilot136YellowSandalwood179YellowSaunders179YellowStarwort84YemenMyrrh143YlangYlang13,14,15,16,20,24,29,34,42,43,44,47,60,62,65,66,70,73,74,77,78,96,99,109,112,123,132,138,145,146,158,186,194,199,201,204–5,210,211,212,213,214

ZalouRoot98Zingibercassumunar166–7Zingiberofficinale97,101–2,167,195

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I should like tosincerely thank the followingpeoplewhohavemade thebookpossiblebycontributingtheirtimeandenergyinvariousways:BarbaraAustinMNIMHoftheHerbalTreatmentCentre,Cheltenham,forhercreativecriticismand suggestions regarding the relationship between aromatherapy andmedicalherbalism; JohnBlackandRogerDyer for theirvaluableexpertiseandcarefulcorrectionsconcerningtheproductionandchemistryofessentialoils;JillHarveyand John Hughes BAALA of the Gloucestershire County Library for helpingsortthroughalltheearlyherbalsinthe‘Hartland’collection;andMerilynKingRMN of Coney Hill Hospital, Gloucester, for her painstaking work on themedicalterminologyandusage.Iwouldalsoliketothankallmyfriendswhohavebeensoencouraging,

especiallymyfatherforallhishelp;JudithAllanforhereditorialnotes;CaraDenmanforherguidance;JillPureeforherinitialassistance;andlastbutnotleastmyhusbandAlec,forhisconstantsupport,andourdaughterNatasha,forputtingupwithme.MyappreciationalsogoestotheservicesoftheBritishLibrary,theChelsea

PhysicGarden,theRoyalHorticulturalSocietyandmylocalMinchinhamptonLibraryinGloucestershire.Itismyhopethatthisbookwillcontributealittletothecurrentknowledgeaboutaromaticplantsandessentialoils,andhelpbridgethegapbetweentheirdifferentareasofapplication.

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

JuliaLawlesshasbeeninterestedinaromaticoilssinceshewasachild,whenhermother,whowasabiochemist,becameinvolvedinresearchinessentialoils.In1983shetookovertheresponsibilityfortheformulationofnaturalproductsusingtheoilsforAquaOleum,thefamilybusiness.ShehasstudiedtheWesternandTibetanherbalmedicine, and is aqualifiedaromatherapist andmemberoftheInternationalFederationofAromatherapists.Sheistheauthorofovertwentybooksonnaturalaromaticsandisrecognizedasaninternationalauthorityinthisfield.

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