Encyclopedia of Color Science andTechnology

Ming Ronnier LuoEditor

Encyclopedia of ColorScience and Technology

With 831 Figures and 52 Tables

Editor

Ming Ronnier LuoState Key Laboratory of ModernOptical InstrumentationZhejiang UniversityHangzhou, China

School of DesignUniversity of LeedsLeeds, UK

Graduate Institute of Colour and IlluminationNational Taiwan University of Science and TechnologyTaipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

ISBN 978-1-4419-8070-0 ISBN 978-1-4419-8071-7 (eBook)ISBN 978-1-4419-8072-4 (print and electronic bundle)DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-8071-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016939599

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2016This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole orpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse ofillustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, orby similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exemptfrom the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in thisbook are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor theauthors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material containedherein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer NatureThe registered company is Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York

I like to dedicate this work to my family, my wife, Huimin, my son,Alan, and my daughter, Tina. They have given their unlimitedsupports over the years. Also, to my colleagues and students, forwhomwe have been able to continue to challenge the boundary ofcolor science and technology.

Preface

Color is everywhere in daily life. It makes the world vibrant and exciting.However, we frequently make difficult color decisions and struggle to describethem precisely. Color on its own spans physics, chemistry, computing, psy-chology, and perception, and contributes fundamentally to art, design, andmedia. With this in mind, the primary goal of this publication was to provide acomprehensive and multidisciplinary reference to the main fields in whichcolor is relevant. It can be used to promote the fields of color science andtechnology, to cover a wide range of disciplines, to provide good introductorymaterial for beginners, and to attract a new generation of color researchers andengineers. I am very proud to say we have successfully achieved this goal.Readers will be able to survey information on color related subjects frommanydifferent aspects and influence the way people work with color. It has been agreat honor and pleasure to coordinate this ambitious project. As an educator inthe field of color technology, I have been fortunate to lead the project thatincludes 14 sections divided into 254 chapters. In total, 153 experts wereinvited to contribute to the work. This is the first reference work to refer tocolor from the different points of view of color vision, color appearance,optical phenomena, colorants, metrology, color spaces, and many other colorrelated topics. It also includes domain specific entries such as color andvisualization, color in graphics, image processing, and color management.

Readers can access each topic as a printed reference and also as part ofSpringer online reference material. In addition, each author will continue toupdate their material for years to come. Although a substantial amount of workhas been accomplished, it is planned to extend the encyclopaedia to includenew content as it becomes relevant and available.

Ming Ronnier Luo

vii

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all the contributors, including the section leaders, whoeach assembled a strong group of authors in their specific expert areas, and allthe authors who prepared high quality input in a timely manner. I would like toparticularly thank Prof. van Bommout who almost single handedly deliveredthe section on lighting technology based on his vast knowledge of the subject.I would also like to thank the late Prof. Janos Schanda for leading the sectionon CIE standards. It is with sadness that we learnt he had passed away during abusy period of preparation: he will be greatly missed by all color people.

ix

About the Editor

Over the past 30 years, Ming Ronnier Luo has been involved in the field ofcolor science and color technology. His major contributions to color scienceinclude advances in color difference evaluation, color appearance modeling,color emotion and harmony understanding and prediction, and lighting qualitymeasurement. His mission has always been one of international disseminationof color expertise. He has created color and appearance postgraduate depart-ments at universities in China, Taiwan, and UK, and currently he is a GlobalExpertise Professor at Zhejiang University (China), the Professor of Color andImaging Science at the University of Leeds (UK), and a Chair Professor at theNational Taiwan University of Science and Technology (R.O.C.). He and hiscolleagues have copublished over 500 refereed journal and conference papers.He has successfully supervised 45 PhD students and has taught color sciencecourses to over 500master students. These are now spread across all continentsin academic institutions and industry. He has been heavily involved with theInternational Commission on Illumination (CIE), the world authority for thestandardization and specification of color and lighting, presently holding thepost of Vice President Publishing (2015–2019). He served the Director of CIEDivision One on Vision and Color (2007–2015), and a chair or an activemember of various technical and standardization committees. He was alsoChairman of the Color Measurement Committee of the Society of Dyers andColorists (1997–2002).

Ronnier has always worked closely with industry and strongly believes inthe transfer of technology. Many of his new technologies have become suc-cessful industrial products, collaborating with international companies

xi

xii About the Editor

covering the surface color, imaging, and illumination and supply chainindustries.

In recognition of his contributions to color science and technology, he hasgained a number of awards. These include the Dyers’ Company Silver Medal(1986–1987), The Bartleson Research Award (1994), and the Davis Medal ofthe Royal Photographic Society (2003). He was awarded the title of Fellow ofthe Society of Dyers and Colorists in 2000, their CentenaryMedal in 2004, andtheir GoldMedal in 2009. He became a Fellow of the Society of Image Scienceand Technology (2002) and the Dyers’ Company Research Medallist in(2006).

Section Editors

1. Section: Language and Cognition

Kimberly A. Jameson Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Sciences,University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

2. Section: Standards: CIE

Ming Ronnier Luo State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumenta-tion, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Graduate Institute of Colour and Illumination, National Taiwan University ofScience and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

xiii

xiv Section Editors

János Schanda Veszprém, Hungary

3. Section: Color Engineering: Computations

Philipp Urban Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research IGD,Technische Universit€at Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany

4. Section: Metrology: Concepts and Devices

Tzeng-Yow Lin National Measurement Laboratory R.O.C., Hsinchu,Taiwan, R.O.C.

Section Editors xv

5. Section: Vision: Concepts

Sophie Wuerger Department of Psychological Sciences, University ofLiverpool, Liverpool, UK

6. Section: Lighting

Wout van Bommel Nuenen, The Netherlands

7. Section: Materials: General

Stephen Burkinshaw School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, WestYorkshire, UK

xvi Section Editors

8. Section: Computer Graphics

Erik Reinhard Technicolor Research and Innovation, Cesson-Sévigné,France

9. Section: Physics

Joanne Zwinkels National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

10. Section: Vision: Concepts-2

Miyoshi Ayama Graduate School of Engineering/Center for OpticalResearch and Education, Utsunomiya University, Tochigi, Utsunomiya, Japan

Section Editors xvii

11. Section: Art and Design

José Luis Caivano Secretaria de Investigaciones FADU-UBA, Universidadde Buenos Aires, and Conicet, Buenos Aires, Argentina

12. Section: People

Renzo Shamey Color Science and Imaging Laboratory, North Carolina StateUniversity, Raleigh, NC, USA

13. Section: Vision: Phenomena14. Section: Vision: Physiology

Caterina Ripamonti Cambridge Research Systems Ltd, Rochester, Kent, UK

xviii Section Editors

15. Section: Color Science: Computations

Stephen Westland Colour Science and Technology, University of Leeds,Leeds, UK

List of Contributors

Jonathan Aboshiha The UCL Institute of Ophthalmology and MoorfieldsEye Hospital, London, UK

Nancy Alvarado Department of Psychology and Sociology, California StatePolytechnic University, Pomona, Pomona, CA, USA

Seyed Hossein Amirshahi AUT Textile Department, Amirkabir Universityof Technology, Tehran Polytechnic, Tehran, Iran

Malvina Arrarte-Grau Architecture, Landscape and Color Design,Arquitectura Paisajismo Color, Lima, Peru

Ulrich Bachmann Institute of Colour and Light, Zurich, Switzerland

Thomas Bechtold Research Institute for Textile Chemistry and Textile Phys-ics, Leopold Franzens University of Innsbruck, Dornbirn, Vorarlberg, Austria

Tony Belpaeme School of Computing andMathematics, University of Plym-outh, Plymouth, UK

Nathan A. Benjamin Calit2, Computer Science, University of California,Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

Martin Bide Department of Textiles, University of Rhode Island, FashionMerchandising and Design, Kingston, RI, USA

David L. Bimler School of Psychology, Massey University, PalmerstonNorth, New Zealand

Valerie Bonnardel Psychology, University of Winchester, Winchester,Hampshire, UK

Alex Bourque Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS,Canada

David Briggs Public Programs, National Art School, Sydney, NSW,Australia

Michael H. Brill Datacolor, Lawrenceville, NJ, USA

Berit Brogaard Department of Philosophy and the Brogaard Lab for Multi-sensory Research, University of Miami and University of Oslo, Miami, FL,USA

xix

xx List of Contributors

Angela M. Brown College of Optometry, Department of Optometry, OhioState University, Columbus, OH, USA

Robert R. Buckley National Archives of the UAE, Abu Dhabi, UAE

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Rochester,Rochester, NY, USA

John D. Bullough Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-tute, Troy, NY, USA

José Luis Caivano Secretaria de Investigaciones FADU-UBA, Universidadde Buenos Aires, and Conicet, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Ellen C. Carter Color Research and Application and, Konica Minolta,Pennsville, NJ, USA

J. N. Chakraborty Department of Textile Technology, National Institute ofTechnology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

Stephanie M. Chang Calit2, Computer Science, University of California,Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

Mark Changizi Institute for the Study of Human and Machine Cognition,Boise, ID, USA

Cheng-Hsien Chen Center for Measurement Standards, Industrial Technol-ogy Research Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan

Vladimir G. Chigrinov Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineer-ing, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Jae Hong Choi Department of Textile System Engineering, KyungpookNational University, Daegu, South Korea

Yi-Chen Chuang Center for Measurement Standards, Industrial TechnologyResearch Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan

Filip Ciesielczyk Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, PoznanUniversity of Technology, Poznan, Poland

Richard S. Cook Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berke-ley, CA, USA

Osvaldo Da Pos Department of Psychology, University of Padua, Padua,Italy

Olga Daneyko Department of Neuroscience, University of Parma, Parma,Italy

Don Dedrick Department of Philosophy and Department of Psychology,University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

Peter Dehoff Zumtobel Lighting, Dornbirn, Austria

Prutha S. Deshpande Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine,CA, USA

List of Contributors xxi

Oskar Elek Computer Graphics Department, Max-Planck-InstitutInformatik, Saarbr€ucken, Germany

Mark D. Fairchild College of Science, Rochester Institute of Technology,Rochester, NY, USA

Mariana Figueiro Lighting Research Center, Troy, NY, USA

Anna Franklin Psychology, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK

Harold Freeman Fiber and Polymer Science Program, North Carolina StateUniversity, Raleigh, NC, USA

Sergio Gago Calit2, School of Engineering, University of California, Irvine,Irvine, CA, USA

Karl Gegenfurtner Department of Psychology, Giessen University, Giessen,Germany

Alan Gilchrist Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ,USA

Edward J. Giorgianni Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

Adam Głaz Institute of English Studies, Maria Curie-Sklodowska Univer-sity, Lublin, Poland

Simone Gori Department of Human and Social Sciences, University ofBergamo, Bergamo, Italy

Developmental Neuropsychology Unit, Scientific Institute “E. Medea”,Bosisio Parini, Lecco, Italy

Parikshit Goswami School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, WestYorkshire, UK

Paul Green-Armytage School of Design and Art, Curtin University, Perth,Australia

Thomas L. Griffiths Department of Psychology, University of California atBerkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

J. Richard Hanley Department of Psychology, University of Essex,Colchester, UK

C. L. Hardin Department of Philosophy, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY,USA

Amanda Hardman School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aber-deen, UK

Ian G. Harris Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

Mathieu Hébert ERIS Group, CNRS, UMR 5516, Laboratoire HubertCurien, Université de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet de Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, France

xxii List of Contributors

Roger D. Hersch Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),Lausanne, Switzerland

Robert Hirschler SENAI/CETIQT Colour Institute, Rio de Janeiro, RJ,Brazil

Donald Hoffman Department of Cognitive Sciences, University ofCalifornia at Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

Stephanie Huette Department of Psychology, University of Memphis,Memphis, TN, USA

Shao-Tang Hung Center for Measurement Standards, Industrial TechnologyResearch Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan

Robert W. G. Hunt Department of Colour Science, University of Leeds,Leeds, UK

Kimberly A. Jameson Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Sciences,University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

Teofil Jesionowski Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering,Poznan University of Technology, Poznan, Poland

Yang Jiao Computer Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

Gabriele Jordan Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcas-tle upon Tyne, UK

Paul Kay Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA,USA

Algy Kazlauciunas Department of Color Science, University of Leeds,Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK

Sung-Hoon Kim Department of Textile System Engineering, KyungpookNational University, Daegu, Republic of Korea

Daniel C. Kiper Institute of Neuroinformatics, University of Zurich andSwiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Eric Kirchner Color Research, AkzoNobel Performance Coatings,Sassenheim, The Netherlands

Akiyoshi Kitaoka Department of Psychology, Ritsumeikan University,Kyoto, Japan

Martine Knoop Berlin University of Technology, Berlin, Germany

Balázs Kránicz University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary

John H. Krantz Natural Sciences, Department of Psychology, HanoverCollege, Hanover, IN, USA

Rolf G. Kuehni Charlotte, NC, USA

Eun-Mi Lee Department of Textile System Engineering, KyungpookNational University, Daegu, Republic of Korea

List of Contributors xxiii

David J. Lockwood Measurement Science and Standards, National ResearchCouncil Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Jorge Lopez-Moreno GMRV Group, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos,Móstoles, Madrid, Spain

Robert Lucas Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manches-ter, UK

Ming Ronnier Luo State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumenta-tion, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Graduate Institute of Colour and Illumination, National Taiwan University ofScience and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

Colin M. MacLeod Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo,Waterloo, ON, Canada

Kevin Mansfield UCL Institute for Environmental Design and Engineering,London, UK

JohnMardaljevic School of Civil and Building Engineering, LoughboroughUniversity, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK

Maria Manuela Marques Raposo Department of Chemistry, University ofMinho, Braga, Portugal

JasnaMartinovic School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,UK

Barry Maund Department of Philosophy, The University of WesternAustralia, Crawley, WA, Australia

John McCann McCann Imaging, Arlington, MA, USA

Terry McGowan Lighting Ideas, Inc, Cleveland Hts., OH, USA

ManuelMelgosa Optics Department, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Ralf Michel Institute Integrative Design | Master Studio Design, Universityof Applied Sciences FHNW Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Galen Minah College of Built Environments, Department of Architecture,University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

Yoko Mizokami Graduate School of Advanced Integration Science, ChibaUniversity, Chiba, Japan

John D. Mollon Department of Experimental Psychology, CambridgeUniversity, Cambridge, UK

Guillermo Monros Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Orgánica,Universitat Jaume I, Edifici Científico-Tècnic, Castelló, Spain

Nathan Moroney Hewlett-Packard Laboratories, Palo Alto, CA, USA

xxiv List of Contributors

Jan Morovic Hewlett-Packard Company, Sant Cugat del Valles/Barcelona,Catalonia, Spain

Maria Luisa Musso Architecture, Design and Urbanism, Color ResearchProgram, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Antal Nemcsics Department of Architecture, Budapest University of Tech-nology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

Larissa Noury Colour-Space-Culture, Paris, France

Leonhard Oberascher FH Joanneum University of Applied Sciences, Graz,Salzburg, Austria

Zena O’Connor Architecture, Design and Planning, University of Sydney,Sydney, Australia

Claudio Oleari Department of Physics, University of Parma, Parma, Italy

Nilg€un Olgunt€urk Department of Interior Architecture and EnvironmentalDesign, Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture, Bilkent University, Ankara,Turkey

Gertrud Olsson School of Architecture, KTH, Royal Institute of Technol-ogy, Stockholm, Sweden

Roy Osborne Color Research and Application, The Colour Group of GreatBritain, London, UK

Gilles Page Philips Lighting, Miribel, France

Stephen E. Palmer Department of Psychology, University of California,Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

Galina V. Paramei Department of Psychology, Liverpool Hope University,Liverpool, UK

Neil Parry Vision Science Centre, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, CentralManchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Aca-demic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK

Centre for Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, Institute of Human Develop-ment, University of Manchester, UK

Baingio Pinna Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Universitàdegli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy

Renata Pompas Milan, Italy

Bao-Jen Pong Center for Measurement Standards, Industrial TechnologyResearch Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan

Tania Pouli Technicolor, Cesson-Sévigné, France

Peter Raynham University College of London, London, UK

Tobias Ritschel Department of Computer Graphics, MPI Informatik,Saarbr€ucken, Germany

List of Contributors xxv

Herzog Robert Max-Planck Institute for Informatics, Saarbr€ucken, Germany

Marisa Rodriguez-Carmona Optometry and Visual Science, City Univer-sity London, London, UK

Georges Roque Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris,France

Miho Saito Department of Human Sciences, Waseda University, Mikajima,Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan

Masato Sakurai Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Nonoichi, Ishikawa,Japan

Abhijit Sarkar Surface, Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA

János Schanda Veszprém, Hungary

Karen B. Schloss Department of Cognitive, Linguistic, and PsychologicalSciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA

Eriko Miyahara Self California State University, Fullerton, CA, USA

Renzo Shamey Color Science and Imaging Laboratory, College of Textiles,North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

David R. Simmons School of Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow,Scotland, UK

Alessandro Soranzo Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK

Andrew Stockman Department of Visual Neuroscience, UCL Institute ofOphthalmology, London, UK

Kartic Subr Department of Computer Science, University College London,London, UK

Suchitra Sueeprasan Department of Imaging and Printing Technology,Chulalongkorn University Intellectual Repository, Chulalongkorn University,Pathumwan, Bangkok, Thailand

Lois Swirnoff The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and ArtCooper Square, New York, NY, USA

Ken Tapping D.R.A.O., National Research Council Canada, Penticton, BC,Canada

Muneto Tatsumoto Department of Neurology, Dokkyo Medical University,Tochigi, Japan

Sean Tauber Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, University ofCalifornia, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

Li-Lin Tay Measurement Science and Standards, National Research CouncilCanada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Krzysztof Templin Computer Graphics, Max Planck Institute for Informat-ics, Saarbr€ucken, Germany

xxvi List of Contributors

Peter Thorns Strategic Lighting Applications, Thorn Lighting Ltd,Spennymoor, Durham, UK

Richard J. D. Tilley Queen’s Buildings, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

AndrewTowns VivimedLabs Europe Ltd., Huddersfield,West Yorkshire, UK

H. Joel Trussell Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, NorthCarolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

Philipp Urban Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research IGD,Technische Universit€at Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany

Arne Valberg Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science andTechnology, Trondheim, Norway

Wout van Bommel Nuenen, The Netherlands

Peter van der Burgt Philips Lighting, Valkenswaard, The Netherlands

Michal Vik Faculty of Textile Engineering, Laboratory Color and Appear-ance Measurement, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic

Stephan Volker University of Technology Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Poorvi L. Vora Department of Computer Science, The George WashingtonUniversity, Washington, DC, USA

Mark Wainwright Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool JohnMoores University, Liverpool, UK

David Alan Warburton Topoi, Berlin, Germany

Romann M. Weber Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute ofTechnology, Pasadena, CA, USA

Mike Webster Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV,USA

Bor-Jiunn Wen Department of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering,National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan

Stephen Westland Colour Science and Technology, University of Leeds,Leeds, UK

Mary AnneWhite Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax,NS, Canada

Jonathan Winawer Department of Psychology, Stanford University,Stanford, CA, USA

Nathan Witthoft Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford,CA, USA

Christoph Witzel Department of Psychology, Giessen University, Giessen,Germany

List of Contributors xxvii

WayneWright Department of Philosophy, California State University, LongBeach, Long Beach, CA, USA

Sophie Wuerger Department of Psychological Sciences, University ofLiverpool, Liverpool, UK

Kaida Xiao Department of Psychological Sciences, Institute of Psychology,Health and Society, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Bei Xiao Department of Computer Science, American University, Washing-ton, DC, USA

Daniele Zavagno Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca,Milan, Italy

Sunčica Zdravković Department of Psychology, University of Novi Sad,NoviSad, Serbia

Laboratory for Experimental Psychology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade,Serbia

Jiyou Zhong National Engineering Research Center for Rare Earth Mate-rials, General Research Institute for Nonferrous Metals, Beijing, China

Weidong Zhuang National Engineering Research Center for Rare EarthMaterials, General Research Institute for Nonferrous Metals, Beijing, China

Joanne Zwinkels National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada