International Journal of Case Method Research & Application (2009) XXI, 2 © 2009 WACRA®. All rights reserved ISSN 1554-7752

ENCOURAGING YOUNG AND BEGINNING TEACHERS´ COMPETENCIES AND SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS

Eva Jarošová and Hana Lorencová University of Economics

PRAGUE, CZECH REPUBLIC

Abstract

This paper presents the experience with the design and the application of a training program for young teachers at the University of Economics in Prague, Czech Republic. The main aim of the course, as described in the paper, is to support beginning faculty members in developing their pedagogical competencies and to enhance their self-efficacy beliefs. The paper shows the process of designing and redesigning the content of the program and discusses ways of encouraging self-efficacy beliefs in teacher training. KEYWORDS: University instructors, self-efficacy, teacher training, active learning methods, beginning teachers

INTRODUCTION

The Czech Republic’s changing society has brought discussions about the need for transforming the Czech education system, including existing pedagogical approaches. The proposed transformation means, among other things, the implementation more active learning methods. Admittedly, Czech educational institutions, including universities, still tend to use teacher-centered methods. These methods are, on the one hand, based mainly on lecturing and, on the other hand, on passive acquisition of information and knowledge, but not on active and independent creative creation of knowledge. Learning approaches, which emphasize active student participation, such as experiential learning or case study based learning, have seen use. For example, at the University of Economics in Prague, the reluctance to move toward the application of modern pedagogical approaches is considered as one of its weaknesses. In 2007, this was pointed out in a situational analysis assessing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT analysis). The SWOT analysis was conducted as part of the long- term development plan of the University of Economics in Prague.

Changing the culture of an institution does not happen by itself. Moving from a traditional, teacher-centered, mostly lecture-format institution to adopt a student-centered teaching model requires institutional support. The course design described in this paper is an attempt to encourage and support young faculty members at the start of their professional careers to apply participative teaching strategies and use tools, which may help students to develop critical thinking, interpersonal and team work skills.

COURSE DESIGN: THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS

The course design for training young teachers at the University of Economics is based on social

cognitive and experiential learning theory. Experiential learning may be defined as an integrated learning process, which involves four separate stages: concrete experiences, observations and reflections, formulating abstract concepts and generalizations, and testing implications of the concepts in new

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situations in a different context [Kolb, Rubin, Osland, 1991]. According to Kolb [1984], one of the most significant writers on the subject, experiential learning theory offers an approach to education and learning that is modeled on traditions of philosophy, social psychology and cognitive psychology (based on the work of Lewin, Dewey and Piaget). The theory postulates that it is possible to learn about oneself and the world by reflecting on one’s experience or experiences, and, consequently, arrive at conclusions which may be used when planning future ways of acting.

Moreover, the experiential learning model implies that not only one’s own experience, but also observing others contributes to developing necessary professional skills [Robbins, Hunsaker, 2003]. Thus, it builds on social cognitive theory, postulated above all by Albert Bandura. He described observation learning mechanisms (also called vicarious) which make it possible to acquire behavior patterns by imitating other people’s behavior, and, at the same time, benefit from their mistakes. According to Bandura [1996], if one was to rely solely on one’s own experience, regardless of other people’s experiences, learning would be too long, inefficient, and hardly successful. In learning by observation, emotions are rather significant; they may be related to it and be present in the form of acquired attitudes, as a result of positive or negative (even vicarious) emotional experience [Bandura, 1996]. The learning goal may be, e.g., acquiring a skill, even a complex one – including skills needed for applying interactive methods in university instruction.

Experiential learning interventions can be valuable tools for improving participants’ self-efficacy [Johnson, Johnson, 1994; Coll, Lay, Zegwaard, 2002]. Properly-designed education activities foster self-efficacy through use of social interactions [Bandura, 1993]. The concept of self-efficacy is an integral part of Bandura’s social cognitive theory. According to Bandura [1995], self-efficacy is one’s perceived performance capability in a given situation. In other words, self-efficacy is an individual’s perception of his or her ability to organize and perform tasks [Coll, Lay, and Zegwaard 2002]. Decades of empirical research into self-efficacy support the contention that self-efficacy beliefs enhance a person’s interest in a task, his/her persistence, willingness to exert effort directed toward task performance. In contrast, individuals who perceive low levels of self-efficacy are less likely to even make an attempt, are more likely to fail in the task, and more likely to belittle their expectations about their personal competence. With regard to these findings, improving teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in relevant skills, so that they may be able to use active learning methods in class, should be an integral part of all teacher-training.

COURSE DESIGN AND COURSE CONTENT

During the 2002/2003 academic year, the University of Economics, Prague, began the process of

developing a training course for young, beginning teachers. The aim of the course is to support young and beginning teachers in creating peer networks. The size of the group in a given year varied from ten to seventeen teachers. In 2007, and increase in demand resulted in the formation of two groups. As of this writing, more than 70 teachers have taken the course. Initially designed for young teachers with up to three years of teaching experience, teachers with more than five years of teaching experience also participated. In 2008, reacting to the interest in the course, the University administration agreed to provide funding for two courses, one for beginners and one for more experienced teacher.

Most of the courses are taught by instructors of the Department of Managerial Psychology and Sociology of the University of Economics, Prague. Some instructors are from the Czech Critical Thinking Association and others come from institutions outside the Czech Republic, e.g., the University of Denver, U.S.A. Two former course participants have joined the course instructor team and have contributed to the course content by focusing on special themes such as how to use modern technology in instruction. The course instructors, although their professional background is varied, share the belief that university teaching should not merely facilitate “passing on” information, but should empower students to develop critical thinking skills.

During the course, participants are acquainted with theoretical fundamentals of active teaching methods (pedagogical constructivism, experiential theory, collaborative learning theory). The focus is, however, on experiential learning, i.e., the participants themselves or in interaction with other participants should try out particular teaching techniques related to given theoretical approaches. At the same time, the course involves basics of mental hygiene for university teachers. In 2008, the course content (52 hours of in-class instruction) covered the following topics:

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• Learning styles (Mumford and Honey, based on Kolb’s typology of cognitive styles and teaching different learning styles).

• Various Forms of Debate and Discussion (tools for developing students’ critical thinking skills).

• Effective Lecturing (“small participative tools” that are easily adapted to a large classroom format; questioning techniques etc.).

• Experiential Learning Activities (e.g., role playing, simulation, and other group work activities) • Informal Feedback: how to “detect” and “collect” feedback from students. • Case Study Teaching. • Demands and stress on teachers: mental hygiene principles. • Using Modern Technology in Teaching.

Over time, feedback received from course participants and new practices, based on experience at

partner universities in the U.S. and Canada, have been incorporated and will continue be incorporated in the course.

Questionnaires have been used to ask participants to provide feedback on the appropriateness of course content and to solicit suggestions for future training. In addition, pre-course questionnaires probed the participants’ familiarity with certain teaching methods and how frequently they had used these methods in their classes. Post-course questionnaires inquired about the participants experience with participative teaching methods during the course, their intentions to incorporate these methods into their classes in the future and reasons why they would not use these methods.

Data from a 2007 pre-course-post-course analysis [Jarošová, Lorencová, Bakič-Tomič, 2007] showed that the beginning teachers, for the most part, had been exposed as students to traditional teaching methods only. Those who responded to the post-course questionnaire (N=34), expressed great enthusiasm for the teaching methods (role playing, case studies, etc.) they learned about during the training. Several respondents regretted that they had no ‘role models’ for using these methods. They were concerned about the reactions of their students, e.g., that their students might not accept these ‘new methods’.

METHODOLOGICAL GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING TEACHERS´ COMPETENCIES

AND YOUNG AND BEGINNING TEACHERS´ SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS

The results of the 2008 data analysis persuaded the course designers to further emphasize learning by observation elements and to add teaching modules in support of developing the young teacher’s competencies and self-efficacy beliefs. Methodological guidelines and recommendations are based on cognitive and experiential learning theory (see above). The training program is designed to allow course participants to:

• Obtain information about theoretical and behavioral guidelines for the implementation of various pedagogical methods, and to learn why these methods may work. This is facilitated through the use of these methods in teaching the course, by explaining the theoretical background of the methods, and by observing and discussing behavioral patterns in teaching situations (e.g., answering students´ questions).

• Try out actively recommended techniques and behavior patterns reflecting particular skills. A method called “microteaching”, where sessions are videotaped, is increasingly being used in the course. This method enables course participants not only to master communication skills, but also to apply various techniques to engage students. In the microteaching sessions, participants take on the role of students and simulate student reactions.

• Be successful in applying active methods and to understand why they were successful. To experience this, it is necessary, not only to use the acquired knowledge or skills in practice, but also to receive structured feedback from course instructors and group members.

• The feedback provided should focus primarily on the strengths and on possible improvements. Recommendations and advice given should be phrased in a sensitive, constructive and supporting manner.

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• Analyze successful and unsuccessful applications of selected teaching skills. Information about one’s performance based on oral and written feedback received and on viewing video tapes will permit participants to reflect on their own and their colleagues’ teaching performance. As a result of the feedback, self-reflection and observation of other course participants are encouraged to will serve to analyze (in writing) successful and unsuccessful applications of teaching tools and skills.

• Observe “model” situations when active teaching methods are applied. In “micro-teaching-sessions”, participants observe each other. They observe how others manage situations or use teaching methods and tools. And of course, they observe course instructors´ as “role models”.

To make the course effective, it is vital to encourage, both during and after the course, participant

self-reflection and to continue to provide support to allow the transfer of the acquired skills to the class room. In 2008, the following features were added to the design:

1. A web site where participants can post pedagogical experiences, acquire additional theoretical knowledge, and be informed about methodological guideline changes.

2. Assistance in designing action plans and in identifying interim goals for the gradual adoption of the new methods in the classroom.

3. Supporting peer-to–peer learning through interaction with course participants and through collaboration with one faculty member.

4. Video taping of life class performances that are subsequently viewed and discussed with one of the instructors.

5. On-going support by course instructors while a teacher introduces a new teaching method in his/her class. Course instructors may post information about course participants´ contributions on the web page or act as personal consultants during the academic year.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors believe that for the program of developing pedagogical skills to be successful, there

needs to be room for personal experimentation with pedagogical methods, opportunities to learn through observation and receiving supportive, critical feedback. Sufficient time should be dedicated to allow the anchoring of the newly acquired knowledge in a relevant theoretical framework, thus creating the basis for further professional growth, new plans and practical applications.

Applying experiential learning principles is an effective tool for gaining experience in mastering important teaching skills. The group, composed of peers of the same age group, represents a ‘secure’ learning environment for developing professional, here pedagogical, and skills. This learning experience and the continuing support by the instructors to assist in the transfer of the newly gained skills to the classroom will lead to enhanced individual self-efficacy for the young teacher at a time when it is most important, at the beginning of a professional career.

REFERENCES

Bandura, A., “Perceived Self-Efficacy in cognitive development and functioning, “Educational

Psychology (1993) 28, pp. 117- 148. Bandura, A. (Ed.), Self-efficacy in Changing Societies (Cambridge University Press, 1995). Bandura, A., Social learning. In Manstead, A. S. R. and Hewstone, M (Eds.), The Blackwell

Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (Oxford. Blackwell, 1996) Bandura, A, Self-efficacy. The Exercise of Control (W.H. Freeman and Company, 1997). Coll, R. K. and Lay, M. C. and Zegwaard, K. E., "Enhancing Access to Experiential Learning in a

Science and Technology Degree Programme,“ Journal of Vocational Education and Training (2002/2), pp.197–217.

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Johnson, R. T., Johnson, D.W., An Overview of Cooperative Learning. In: J. Thousand, A. Villa and

A. Nevin (Eds.), Creativity and Collaborative Learning (Brookes Press, 1994). Kolb, D., Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Prentice-

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