ENABLING ENVIRONMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL ROLES

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Enabling Environment with an emphasis on National IWRM Strategies

UNITED NATIONS

Distr.LIMITEDE/ESCWA/SDPD/2005/WG.1/314 April 2005ORIGINAL: ENGLISH

Workshop on Training of Trainers on the Application ofIWRM Guidelines in the Arab RegionKuwait, 14-18 May 2005

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL

COUNCIL

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR WESTERN ASIA

MODULE TWO

ENABLING ENVIRONMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL ROLES

: This document has been reproduced in the form in which it was received, without formal editing.Note

05-0228

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MODULE 2

ENABLING ENVIRONMENT WITH AN EMPHASIS ON NATIONAL IWRM STRATEGIES

RATIONALE Addressing the growing challenges associated with water resources managementwill require daring and difficult changes to existing institutions and policies

governing water resources. Far reaching and multi-sectoral approaches will becritical if we are to overcome inefficient use of our water resources and make theiruse sustainable. This will require the establishment of a proper enablingenvironment that ensures the rights of users and provides the appropriate level of

protection for the resource.are all part of ensuring that the

objectives of IWRM are met.

Policies, legislation, establishment of governing bodiesat various levels and knowledge management

The session will provide an overview of the enabling environment (policy,legislation, financing) and institutional roles (organizational framework andinstitutional capacity building) necessary for the effective implementation ofIWRM. It concentrates on the policy and strategy formulation with a focus on

national IWRM strategies and water efficiency plans. Other IWRM components(i.e., in the enabling environment and institutional roles) are discussed briefly here

but are elaborated further in modules 3, 4 and 15.

Water policies and practices in the ESCWA member countries are presented and aselected case study from the region is presented as an example for policy reform.

OBJECTIVES 1. Provide a broad overview and thus a setting for examining effective andpractical policy, legal, and institutional frameworks for IWRM.

2. Outline key elements of content of formulating national IWRM strategies andthe process to make people from different professional background aware ofeach others interests and insights.

3. Provide information on organizational settings in the countries of the ESCWA,

its advantages and disadvantages.MAIN REFERENCES &BACKGROUNDMATERIAL

- GWP. (2000).Integrated water resources management, TEC BackgroundPaper No. 4.

- GWP. (2003).IWRM and Water Efficiency Plans by 2005 Why, What andHow, TEC Background Paper No 10.

- GWP. (2004). Catalyzing Change: A handbook for developing integratedresources management (IWRM) and water efficiency strategies, 2004, TECBackground Paper No 11.

- World Bank/UNDP/FAO, FAO. (1995). Water sector policy review andstrategy formulation a general framework, Land and Water Bulletin 3.

- ESCWA. (1999). Current water policies and practices in selected ESCWAmember countries, E/ESCWA/ENR/1999/15.

- Water Issues Team, ESCWA. (2003).Local ownership and leadership asvehicles for effective capacity building in IWRM, paper presented at the ThirdWorld Water Forum, 16-23 March, 2003, Kyoto.

- ESCWA. (1999). Updating the assessment of water resources in ESCWAmember countries, E/ESCWA/ENR/1999/13.

- CEDARE, AWC. (2004). State of the water report in the Arab region- CEDARE, AWC, UNDP. (2004). Status of IWRM plans in the Arab region

-E/ESCWA/ENR/2001/11

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SUGGESTED INTERNETLINKS

- ESCWA: www. escwa.org.lb- Global Water Partnership: www.gwpforum.org- Global Water Partnership Mediterranean: www.gwpmed.org- AWARENET: www.cap-net.org/ShowNetworkDetail.php?NetworkID=3- UNDP/CAP-NET: www.cap-net.org

DIRECTLY RELATEDMODULES

3,4,15

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TOPIC SESSION TOPIC SYNTHESIS

QUESTIONS FORDISCUSSION

Issues for discussion: How relevant is the IWRM approach for the formulation andimplementation of water resources management policy in your country? What are theimplications of the IWRM approach for formulating and implementing water resourcesmanagement policy? What is the status of development and/or implementation of IWRMstrategies and water efficiency plans (responding to the WSSD 2005 target) in yourcountry?Discussion Keywords: mechanisms and processes of coordination within water and withmanagement of related resources (e.g., land, coastal, minerals, etc.); welfare for all,equity concern; more attention to demand management side, environmental needs andsustainability considerations.

Issues for discussion: How is political commitment to IWRM obtained?Discussion Keywords: Who wants reform? Who are the champions? Who are thewinners and losers? How can interest be negotiated?

Issues for discussion: How comprehensive and flexible should the policies be, how longshould it take to make policy, and at what cost?Discussion Keywords: Comprehensiveness, flexibility, ownership, and implementabilityvs. time, cost, and participation.

Issues for discussion: What are the trade-offs in terms of costs and benefits forparticipatory approaches in policy formulation and implementation?Keywords for discussion: Time, cost, and tradeoffs vs. ownership, new ideas, andimplementability.

Issues for discussion: Integration and coordination are often stated desirable goals. Whatare the practical implications and trade-offs in achieving these goals?

Keywords for discussion: Dispersed interest; adequate and capable institutions (do notappear overnight!); role of scientific research, transparency and monitoring.

Issues for discussion: Are the current legal and institutional settings in your countryconducive for IWRM planning and implementation?Keywords for discussion: Current institutional structures and responsibilities, nationalapex bodies, river basin organizations, regulatory bodies and enforcement agencies,service providers, civil society institutions and community based organizations, localauthorities; degree of involvement and consultation.

Taking an integrated approach to developing and managing water resources can advance goals such as reducing poverty, increasing food security, fostering economic growth, and protecting ecosystems. It can also tacklemore effectively specific water challenges, such as controlling flooding, mitigating the effects of drought,

eliminating water-borne diseases, managing transboundary river basins, and addressing increasing competitionfor water.

How does an IWRM approach do this? Water should be addressed within a larger hydrological and sustainabledevelopment context than is usually practiced through traditional sectoral approaches. This includes morecoordinated development and management of land and water, surface water and groundwater, the river basinand its adjacent coastal and marine environment, upstream and downstream interests. But IWRM is not justabout managing physical resources, it is also about reforming human systems to enable peoplemen andwomen and this fact should be clearly reflected to benefit from those resources. Water is an integrated resource,and this fact should be clearly reflected in our governance structures.

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An IWRM approach requires positive changes in the enabling environment, in institutional roles, and inmanagement instruments. In order to create an enabling environment, change and reforms should include

policies, legislative frameworks and financing and incentive structures. Regarding institutional roles, emphasisshould be given to creating appropriate and well coordinated organisational frameworks and buildinginstitutional capacity. In terms of management instruments, target areas entail water resources assessment,

planning, demand management, social change, conflict resolution, regulatory instruments, economicinstruments, information management and exchange. Adopting IWRM does not mean throwing everythingaway and starting all over again. More often it means adapting and building on existing institutions and

planning procedures to achieve a more integrated approach.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002 called for all countries to develop craftIWRM and water efficiency plans by the end of 2005 in a move to encourage more sustainable approach towater development and management.

The process of creating an IWRM and water efficiency plan1 is an opportunity for countries to take a coherentapproach to improving how they develop, manage and use water resources to meet development challenges and

the goals of sustainable development.

Creating an effective IWRM strategy requires a somewhat different process than that entailed in creating a one-off water resources planning document. Key differences include:

- Involvement from multiple sectors: While a water plan is usually designed and implemented by a wateragency, an IWRM strategy requires input and buy-in from all sectors that impact and are impacted by waterdevelopment and managementfor example, health, energy, finance, tourism, industry, agriculture, andenvironment.

- Broader focus: Whereas water plans tend to be driven principally by water issues alone, an IWRMstrategy looks at water in relation to other ingredients needed to achieve larger development goals or meetwater challenges.

- Dynamic rather than static: Unlike a water plan, which lays out a definitive sequence of actions anddecisions, an IWRM strategy aims at laying down a framework for a continuing and adaptive process ofstrategic and coordinated action.

- Stakeholder participation: Because it calls for changeand therefore buy-inat multiple levels, strategydevelopment requires broader and more extensive participation from stakeholders than a traditional

planning process.

In addition to these, creating of knowledge base, setting a clear timeframe and milestones, providing amechanism for monitoring and evaluation, addressing potential stumbling blocks are key elements for aneffective IWRM strategy.

In conclusion, a strategys success or failure depends on its ability to catalyze change. This is what matters

not the specific process, nor the form of the strategy document, but whether or not it results in positive action.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

.................................................................................................. 7A. DEFINING THE INTEGRATED IN IWRMA.1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 7A.2. IWRM AS A TOOL FOR CHANGE ............................................................................................................. 7

A.3. IWRM CHANGE AREAS .......................................................................................................................... 8B. NATIONAL IWRM AND WATER EFFICIENCY PLANS ............................................................................... 13

........................................................... 13B.1. KEY MESSAGES FROM THE WSSD ACTION TARGET ON IWRMB.2. RESPONDING TO THE IWRM TARGET .................................................................................................. 13

C. CURRENT WATERPRACTICES AND POLICIES IN THE ESCWA REGION .............................................. 18

D. REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................................. 23

E. ANNEX ONE: CASE STUDY ON EGYPT WATERMANAGEMENT POLICY................................................ 25

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

........................................................................................... 8BOX 1 THE THIRTEEN KEY IWRM CHANGE AREASFIGURE 1: IWRM IS AN ON-GOING PROCESS TO CHANGING SITUATIONS AND NEEDS ...................................... 9

....................... 12BOX 2. KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONSFIGURE 2. LOGISTICS OF PLANNING FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES..................................... 12BOX 3. IWRM STRATEGY: NOT JUST ANOTHER WATER PLAN ....................................................................... 14

.................................... 15BOX 4. CHECKLIST OF ISSUES THAT MIGHT BE ADDRESSED IN AN IWRM STRATEGYBOX 5. SUGGESTED BREAKDOWN OF ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES .............................................................. 15

................................................................................................................ 16BOX 6. I NVOLVING STAKEHOLDERSBOX 7: CASE STUDY ON WATERPOLICY AND STRATEGY BASED ON IWRM APPROACH AND PRINCIPLES... 22TABLE A.1. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS....................................................................... 29

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MODULE 2

ENABLING ENVIRONMENT

WITH AN EMPHASIS ON NATIONAL IWRM STRATEGIES

A. DEFINING THE INTEGRATED IN IWRM

A.1. Introduction

An Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach promotes the coordinated development andmanagement of water, land, and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and socialwelfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP, 2000).

This includes more coordinated development and management of:- Land and water,- Surface water and groundwater,- The river basin and its adjacent coastal and marine environment,- Upstream and downstream interests.

IWRM is not just about managing physical resources; it is also about reforming human systems to enablepeoplewomen and mento benefit from those resources. In terms of policy-making and planning, takingan IWRM approach requires that:

- Policies and priorities take water resources implications into account, including the two-wayrelationship between macro-economic policies and water development, management, and use,

- There is cross-sectoral integration in policy development,- Stakeholders are given a voice in water planning and management, with particular attention to

securing the participation of women and the poor.- Water-related decisions made at local and river basin levels are in-line with, or at least do not

conflict with, the achievement of broader national objectives, and- Water planning and strategies are integrated into broader social, economic, and environmental goals.

In practice, this means giving water an appropriate place on the national agenda; creating greater waterawareness among decision-makers responsible for economic policy and policy in water-related sectors;creating more effective channels for communication and shared decision-making between governmentagencies, organizations, interest groups and communities; and encouraging people to think outside the boxof traditional sectoral definitions.

A.2. IWRM as a tool for change

An IWRM approach requires positive changein the enabling environment, in institutional roles, and inmanagement instruments (see Box 1). Fundamentally, it is about change in water governance, i.e. the rangeof political, social, economic and administrative systems that are in place to develop and manage water

resources and deliver water services, at different levels of society.

Given that change is a fundamental part of the approach, IWRM should be viewed as a process rather a one-shot approach one that is long-term and forward moving but iterative rather than linear in nature (seeFigure 1). Inherent in this view is the need for an effective governance framework that fosters good decision-making on an on-going basis in response to changing needs and scenarios. As a process of change, whichseeks to shift water development and management systems from their currently unsustainable forms, IWRMhas no fixed beginnings or endings. The global economy and society are dynamic and the naturalenvironment is also subject to change; IWRM systems will, therefore, need to be responsive to change and

be capable of adapting to new economic, social and environmental conditions and to changing human values.

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It would be easy for policy makers and practitioners faced with the prospect of wholesale governance changeto conclude that it is all too complex with too many difficult trade-offs and choices to make. AdoptingIWRM does not mean throwing everything away and starting all over. More often it means adapting and

building on existing institutions and planning procedures to achieve a more integrated approach.

BOX 1 THE THIRTEEN KEY IWRM CHANGE AREAS

The enabling environment

1. Policies setting goals for water use, protection and conservation.2. Legislative framework the rules to follow to achieve policies and goals.3. Financing and incentive structures allocating financial resources to meet water needs.

Institutional roles

4. Creating an organizational framework forms and functions.5. Institutional capacity building developing human resources.

Management instruments

6. Water resources assessment understanding resources and needs.7. Plans for IWRM combining development options, resource use and human interaction.8. Demand management using water more efficiently.9. Social change instruments encouraging a water-oriented civil society.10. Conflict resolution managing disputes, ensuring sharing of water.11. Regulatory instruments allocation and water use limits.12. Economic instruments using value and prices for efficiency and equity.13. Information management and exchange improving knowledge for better water management.

Most countries that have objectively evaluated their current water situation have chosen to move towards anIWRM approach. They found that sectoral approaches were failing to deliver in a number of key areas.These countries have recognized that effectively addressing such issues is essential for the welfare of the

people and the prosperity of the country. This necessitate an integrated holistic approach to watermanagement, which acknowledges the strategic importance of water in the context of different institutionalsystems; taking into account the competing uses and the scarcity of resources.

A.3. IWRM change areas

Adopting a more sustainable and integrated approach to water management and development requireschange in many areas and at many levels. While this may seem a daunting proposition, it is important toremember that gradual change will produce more sustainable results than an attempt to completely overhaul

the whole system in one go.

When beginning the process of change, consider:- What changes musthappen to achieve agreed-upon goals?- Where is change possible given the current social, political, and economic situation?- What is the logical sequence for change? What changes need to come first to make other changes

possible?

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The GWPs IWRM ToolBox offers tools and case studies linked to each of the 13 change areas. These toolsand examples can help guide the process of change, but to be effective they must be adapted to the social,

political, and economic situation.

FIGURE 1: IWRM IS AN ON-GOING PROCESS TO CHANGING SITUATIONS AND NEEDS

A.3.1. The enabling environment

A proper enabling environment ensures the rights and assets of all stakeholders (individuals as well as publicand private sector organizations and companies, women as well as men, the poor as well as the better off,and protects public assets such as intrinsic environmental values. The enabling environment is determined bynational, provincial and local policies and legislation that constitute the rules of the game and enable allstakeholders to play their respective roles in the development and management of water resources. It alsoincludes the forums and mechanisms, including information and capacity building, created to establish theserules of the game and to facilitate and exercise stakeholder participation.

Promoting a participatory approach: In order to achieve efficient, equitable and sustainable water

management within the IWRM approach, major institutional change is needed. Both top-down and bottom-up participation of all stakeholders needs to be promoted - from the national-level down to the catchment orwatershed level. Decision-making should be governed by tconsultation and build on a participatory approach

brought down to the lowest appropriate level.

Role of civil society: In addition to government agencies and private companies, water development andmanagement should involve NGOs, community-based organizations that have full participation of womenand disadvantaged groups, and other sections of civil society. All these organizations and agencies have animportant role to play in enhancing access to water, in bringing about a balance between conservation anddevelopment, and in treating water as a social and economic good.

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Areas to target for change:- Policies setting goals for water use, protection and conservation. Policy development gives an

opportunity for setting national objectives for managing water resources and water service deliverywithin a framework of overall development goals.

- Legislative framework the rules to follow to achieve policies and goals. The required water lawscover ownership of water, permits to use (or pollute) it, the transferability of those permits, andcustomary entitlements. They underpin regulatory norms for e.g. conservation, protection, priorities,and conflict management. (Module 3)

- Financing and incentive structures allocating financial resources to meet water needs. Water projects tend to be indivisible and capital-intensive, and many countries have major backlog indeveloping water infrastructure. Countries need innovative financing approaches and appropriateincentives to achieve development goals. (Module 3)

A.3.2. Institutional roles.

Institutional development is critical to the formulation and implementation of IWRM policies and programs.

A number of factors determine what is appropriate in a given context: stage of development, financial andhuman resources, traditional norms and other specific circumstances. Flawed demarcation of responsibilities between actors, inadequate coordinating mechanisms, jurisdictional gaps or overlaps, and the failure tomatch responsibilities with authority and capacities for action are major difficulties in implementing anIWRM approach. The agencies involved in water resources management have to be considered in theirvarious geographic settings, taking into account the political structure of the country, the unity of theresource in a basin or aquifer and the role of community organizations and other interest groups in decisionsover water use and management. Institutional development is not simply about the creation of formallyconstituted organizations (e.g. service agencies, authorities or consultative committees). It also involvesconsideration of a whole range of formal rules and regulations, customs and practices, ideas and information,and interest or community group networks, which together provide the institutional framework or contextwithin which water management actors and other decision-makers operate.

The importance of effective co-ordination mechanisms: A key issue is the creation of effective co-ordination mechanisms between different agencies. Integration in the sense of organizational consolidationdoes not automatically lead to cooperation and coordination or more effective water resources management.Fragmented and shared responsibilities are a reality and are always likely to exist. There are many exampleswhere agencies or responsibilities have been merged without significant performance improvements;conversely, there are several examples where effective co-ordination mechanisms have allowed problems to

be handled well despite the need to involve several agencies. The simple act of putting all water functionswithin one agency will not necessarily remove conflicts of interest, and can result in the loss of transparency.

Areas to target for change:

- Creating an organizational framework forms and functions. Starting from the concept of reform of

institutions for better water governance, the practitioner needs to consider the required organizationsand institutions from transboundary to basin level, and from regulatory bodies, to local authoritiesand civil society organizations.

- Institutional capacity building developing human resources. This includes upgrading the skills andunderstanding of decision makers, water managers and professionals in all sectors, and undertakingcapacity building for regulatory bodies and for empowerment of civil society groups.

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A.3.3. Management instruments

Management instruments are the elements and methods that enable and help decision makers to makerational and informed choices between alternative actions. These choices should be based on agreed policies,available resources, environmental impacts and the social and economic consequences. Systems analysis,operations research and management theory offer a wide range of quantitative and qualitative methods.

These methods, combined with knowledge of economics, hydrology, hydraulics, environmental sciences,sociology and other disciplines pertinent to the problem in question, help define and evaluate alternativewater management options and implementation schemes. The art of IWRM is about knowing the availableelements and methods and consequently selecting, adjusting and applying customized tools to the givencircumstances.

Areas to target for change:

- Water resources assessment understanding resources and needs. It includes the collection ofhydrological, physiographic, demographic and socio-economic data, through setting up systems forroutine data assembly and reporting.

- Planning combining development options, resource use and human interaction. River, aquifer andlake basin planning entail a comprehensive assembly and modeling of data from all relevantdomains. The planning process must recognize social, economic and environmental needs using arange of assessment tools.

- Demand management using water more efficiently. Demand management involves the balancingof supply and demand, focusing on the better use of existing water withdrawals or reducingexcessive use rather than developing new supplies.

- Social change instruments encouraging a water-oriented civil society. Information is a powerfultool for changing behavior in the water world, through school curricula, university water courses and

professional and mid-career training. Transparency, product labeling and access to information areother key instruments.

- Conflict resolution managing disputes, ensuring sharing of water. Conflict management has a

separate focus as conflict is endemic in the management of water in many places and resolutionmodels must be at hand.

- Regulatory instruments allocation and water use limits. Regulation in this context covers waterquality, service provision, land use and water resource protection. Regulations are key forimplementing plans and policies and can fruitfully be combined with economic instruments.

- Economic instruments using value and prices for efficiency and equity. Economic tools involve theuse of prices, subsidies, and other market-based measures to provide incentives to all water users touse water carefully, efficiently and avoid pollution.

- Information management and exchange improving knowledge for better water management. Datasharing methods and technologies increase stakeholder access to information stored in public domaindata banks and effectively complement more traditional methods of public information. Informationexchange should be strengthened across sectors to include areas such as environment or tourism that

have direct implications for water quantity and quality.

A.3.4. Creating links across sectors and scales

Many organizations whose primary function is not water management are responsible for sectors, which aredirectly affected by water availability and water allocation policies, e.g. agriculture, industry, trade andenergy.

Institutional structures vary from country to country, but whatever the specific structure adopted, it isessential to have mechanisms for dialogue and co-ordination to ensure some measure of integration. A

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balance has to be met between providing a fully integrated approach where specific issues may get lost dueto lack of expertise or interest, and a sectoral approach where policies are followed by each sector withoutconsidering the needs and impacts on other sectors. The starting point in developing a strategy should be to

bring water-related sectors together and begin the process of cementing more formal ties. It is also importantthat the strategy reflects clear links between decision-making processes in water-related sectors and showshow the implementing desired changes can contribute to achieving key water-related objectives.

In some cases countries have created new organizations, or significantly changed the mandate of existingones as part of IWRM reformapex bodies and river basin (or catchment) organizations are the mostcommon examples (see Box 2). Reasons for establishing such bodies include: encouraging coordinatedaction on water and related issues, such as land management across sectors and/or decision-making levelsand encouraging more participatory management of resources.

BOX 2. KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS

- An ability to establish trusted technical competencies;- A focus on serious recurrent problems such as flooding or drought or supply shortages, and the

provision of solutions acceptable to all stakeholders;- Broad stakeholder involvement, catering for grassroots participation at a basin-wide level (e.g.

through water forums);- The capacity to collect fees, and attract grants and/or loans;- Clear jurisdictional boundaries and appropriate powers.

Source: IWRM Toolbox, GWP

However, experience shows that the formation of apex or river basin organizations alone will not guaranteean IWRM approachappropriate policies, legislation and capacity building must also support them. Nor isthe formation of such bodies essential to ensure an IWRM approach. Other options include strengtheningcoordination on water issues between existing sector-based agencies or placing water under the purview ofan agency with a broad natural resources mandate.

FIGURE 2. LOGISTICS OF PLANNING FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

WATER RESOURCES POLICY

A STRATEGY FOR WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Set the means to translate the objectives into actions

Set the timetable for achieving the water strategy, including specific programs

Set objectives and specify where we want to be

WATER ACTION PLANS

WATER PROJECTS

Specification and implementation

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B. NATIONAL IWRM AND WATER EFFICIENCY PLANS

B.1. Key messages from the WSSD action target on IWRM

In an effort to encourage a move towards more sustainable approaches to water development andmanagement, the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002 called on all countries todraft IWRM and water efficiency plans by the end of 2005.

In addition to this key WSSD target, Article 26 of the WSSD Plan of Implementation also includes a numberof specific recommendations on the issues that these plans should address and how they should be addressed.Countries have to evaluate which recommendations are useful to them and which are irrelevant or low-

priority. Some generic messages derived from Article 26 that are useful in developing a strategy include:- Strategies should help countries and regions move towards integrated water management and more

efficient use of water resources - employing the full range of policy instruments.- Strategies should cover institutional, financial and technological change and promote action at all

levels.- Strategies should give priority to meeting basic human needs, and take extra care to ensure access

for the poor.- Strategies should address the challenges of balancing the need to restore and protect ecosystemswith the needs of various water users.

- Stakeholder participation, capacity building, monitoring performance, and improving accountabilityof public institutions and private companies are all elements of an effective strategy.

- Strategies should respect and be adapted to local conditions.

B.2. Responding to the IWRM target

The process of creating an IWRM and water efficiency strategy is an opportunity for countries to take acoherent approach to improving their capacity to develop, manage and use water resources to promotesustainable development goals and meet development challenges.

In general, planning and strategy development are closely related. However, where as planning is meant toidentify concrete activities, strategy development is more concerned with defining future direction. Astrategy defines goals and agrees on how goals could be pursued outlining a range of possibilities suited todifferent contingencies. Planning is the translation of the chosen strategy into concrete objectives, activitiesand related means (see Box 3).

Some countries may choose to begin by considering the various ways in which water resources developmentand management have the potential to advance or hinder development goals. Others may choose a moretargeted approach and focus on specific water related problems that are hampering development.

Some countries may choose to create new strategies from scratch. Others may build on existing IWRM or

water plans or incorporate water into current national development strategies.

Regardless of the initial approach, strategies should go beyond the actions needed to solve current problemsor to achieve immediate objectives, and aim at institutionalizing changes that will promote more strategicand coordinated decision-making on an ongoing basis.

To do this, strategies need to encompass changes in the enabling environment, institutional roles, andmanagement instruments, as described above. In sum, creating a strategy is about catalyzing change toimprove water governance.

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BOX 3. IWRM STRATEGY: NOT JUST ANOTHER WATER PLAN

INVOLVEMENT FROM MULTIPLE SECTORS: While a water plan is usually designed and

implemented by a water agency, an IWRM strategy requires input and buy-in from all sectors thatimpact and are impacted by water development and managementfor example, health, energy,tourism, industry, agriculture, and environment.

BROADER FOCUS: Whereas water plans tend to be concerned exclusively with water supply anddemand issues, an IWRM strategy looks at water in relation to other ingredients needed to achievelarger development goals.

DYNAMIC RATHER THAN STATIC: Unlike a water plan, which lays out a definitive sequence ofactions and decisions, an IWRM strategy aims at laying down a framework for a continuing andadaptive process of strategic and coordinated action.

STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION: Because it calls for changeand therefore buy-inat multiplelevels, strategy development requires far broader and more extensive participation from stakeholdersthan a conventional planning process.

While adopting a more sustainable and integrated approach to water management and development requireschange in many areas and at many levels, this does not mean that major initial reforms are essential. Firststeps that can easily be implemented are enough to catalyze the process. A well-thought out set of changesthe kind embodied in a strategywill produce more sustainable results than either an attempt to completelyoverhaul the whole system or an ad hoc approach to change.

A successful strategy should build on the following principles:- Agreeing on goals and targets.- Laying down a framework for better decision-making on an on-going basis.- Linking the water strategy to broader development goals and national development planning

processes.- Anticipating capacity needs and making adequate investments in capacity building.- Involving and gaining the support of stakeholders, including women and the poor.- Allocating sufficient human and financial resources to the process.- Setting a timetable with milestones/targets.- Putting into place monitoring and evaluation mechanisms that feed back into the process.

An indicative, and not exhaustive, checklist of the kinds of issues that could be covered in an IWRM strategy

is given in Box 4.

Developing IWRM strategies requires a well organized process including definition of roles andresponsibilities, a framework for involving stakeholders, creating the knowledge base, setting milestoneindicators and putting into place mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation.

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BOX 4. CHECKLIST OF ISSUES THAT MIGHT BE ADDRESSED IN AN IWRM STRATEGY

a. Interfaces between macro-economic and water resource decision making (Modules 5 and 10)

b. Efficiency of water infrastructure (Module 11)

c. Mitigation of the effects of floods and droughts and other extreme water-related events (Module 7)

d. Non-conventional water resources and conservation technologies (Modules 8and 12 )

e. Water quality and broader environmental issues (Module 6, 7 and 8)

f. Eco-hydrological issues (Module 7)

g. Data collection systems, and access to information by users (Module 16)

h. Policy instruments and the legal and regulatory framework (Module 3)

i. The role of the state and the potential for public private partnerships (Module 11)

j. Processes for reconciling water quantity and quality needs of all water users (Module 6, 8,9, 12and 13)

k. Mechanisms for consultation and public participation (Modules 4,11)

l. Interfaces between river basins and adjacent coastal and marine environments (Modules 7, 13)

m. The roles of women in the provision, management and safeguarding of water (Module 0)n. Capacity building (Module 15)

o. Management agencies (including river basin organizations) (Modules 3, 8 and 9)

p. Mechanisms to achieve financial sustainability (Modules 5 and 10)

Defining responsibilitiesHow a country chooses to define roles and responsibilities depends to a large extent on its particularsituation, including its planning framework and decision-making structure. Some countries have centrallyorganized planning processes, while others delegate responsibility for planning and decision-making onwater resource issues to the province or regional or municipal levels or states. There is no one correct

administrative model. But whatever the model, the roles and responsibilities of the different actors need to beclearly defined at an early stage and accountability mechanisms need to be put in place. A suggestedbreakdown of roles and responsibilities is given in Box 5.

BOX 5. SUGGESTED BREAKDOWN OF ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

National government Lead role, owner of the process Mobilize funding Sets macro-economic policy environment

Steering committee Guide the process(with wide societal / interest group Mobilize support across sectors and interest groups

representation) Guarantee quality output Monitor implementation progress

Management team Manage day-to-day processes for strategy(group of qualified professionals/water development, implementation and capacity buildingauthorities/municipalities)

Facilitating institutions, Provide neutral platform for dialogue(for example, national and local NGOs, Support strategy development process by providing nationalcommittees, Regional, and sharing knowledgePartnerships local UN country teams) Foster capacity building and training

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Involving stakeholders

To be effective, strategies must balance two often-conflicting objectives: They must win broad-based supportfrom stakeholders to be effectively implemented without falling into the trap of endless consultation at theexpense of action. The key to balancing these objectives is to ensure broad participation by diversestakeholders in a well-organized, time-bound fashion at appropriate stages of the process and includemechanisms for conflict resolution. However, it should be recognized that building stakeholder support and

participation in integrated water resource management and development is an on-going process, not a one-time event that ends with the completion of the strategy. The main stakeholders to be brought in the processare presented in Box 6.

BOX 6. INVOLVING STAKEHOLDERS

Core stakeholders engaged in formulating a strategy may include:- Government Ministries and related institutions involved in national development planning and

policy making.- Government Ministries and related institutions involved in key water-related sectors, including

domestic water supply and sanitation, irrigation, agriculture, energy, health, industry, transport,fisheries and tourism.

- Water utilities, agencies and related bodies (e.g. Water Development Boards).

Stakeholders participating at different key stages of the strategy formulation process:- Local communities and community based organizations (mayors and religious leaders, for

example).- The private sector, including but not limited to water supply and sanitation service providers.- Financial agencies (e.g. donor agencies, international banks, micro-credit institutions).- Sectoral interest groups such as farmers and fishermen.

- Womens groups and associations- Representatives of indigenous communities- Non-government organizations- Media representatives- Research and training institutions, including Universities.

Creating the knowledge baseThere are two aspects to creating a knowledge base for a strategy:

Pulling together the knowledge needed to identify key water-related challenges, determine wherechange is needed, and set a baseline for monitoring progress and impacts.

Developing systems to feed knowledge into the decision-making process on an on-going basis.

A baseline assessment of key water resources and development issues provides a good basis for identifyingand prioritizing water challenges and objectives. The Global Environment Facility strongly recommendsstarting with a basin-by-basin analysis of competing uses of water resources and the land-use decisions ininfluencing them.

Setting a timeframe and milestonesHow long will it take to prepare an IWRM strategy? This depends. Some countries may take a rapid initialapproach, and then update as they delve into implementation. Other countries may choose to invest more

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timeperhaps to build stakeholder participation and ownershipin the strategic development process.Either way, agreeing on milestones and time-frames for completing the strategy is critical for success.

While the strategy should be flexible enough to adapt to changing political, economic and environmentalconditions, it may be useful to agree on a timeframe for regular review and updating. Many organizationsupdate their strategies every five years, but may do so more often during periods of rapid change.Implementation may take place using a step-by-step process based on a sequence of geographical coverageand timing of reforms. This offers room for change, improvement and process adjustment, provided that the

proper bases for sound decision-making have been established and follows clear and transparent criteria.

Monitoring and evaluationDefining indicators, establishing benchmarks, and setting mechanisms to ensure ongoing monitoring andevaluation are key activities in any successful implementation plan. Monitoring and evaluation activitieshave three main objectivesto see whether the implementation process is on track, to measure both short-and long-term impacts, and to evaluate impacts to determine if actions are indeed contributing to the largerdevelopment goals defined in the strategy.

Monitoring and evaluation of an IWRM reform process takes place at many different levels, from simpleproject progress to impact on national socio-economic and environmental situation. The higher the level, themore methodological issues arise and the more difficult it becomes to find descriptive indicators to ascertainimpacts. It is imperative to start the process by setting the goals and expected accomplishments, taking intoconsideration the feasibility of the monitoring and evaluation process, the validity and significance ofexpected results and the identification, definition and interpretation of indicators.

Addressing potential stumbling blocksAccording to a global GWP survey on the status of IWRM planning in 20042 and feedback from partners, thethree most common reasons that countries find their strategy development and implementation processesslowed down or stalled are: lack of support for the process, lack of funding, and lack of capacity. Lack ofsupport and high-level commitmentoften due to lack of understanding as to what a strategy is and how to

go about itis the primary obstacle in getting the process off the ground. Without a broad base of supportfrom the prime minister level down to the farmer in the field, successful implementation is unlikely.

With a good vision and understanding of the policy implications of an IWRM process, most countries should be able to mobilize financial resources domestically. Support from bilateral and multilateral donors areoptions for consideration; however it is very important to have in place a well conceived financial plan forneeded investments with feasible options for cost-recovery. Lack of appropriate technical, institutional, legaland managerial capacity to steer the reform process towards IWRM is a major obstacle in initiating anIWRM process. Building the local capacity rather than relying on external expertise is crucial for ensuringthe sustainability and ownership of the process (Module 15).

Ensuring effective implementation

The success of a strategy depends on its ability to catalyze change. What matters is not the specific processin itself or the form of the strategy document, but whether or not the process results in positive action. Whileit is useful to embody the strategy in a physical document, this should not be viewed as the end of the

process, which should be on-going.

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2 Based on an unpublished survey undertaken by GWP in 2004.


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In summary, some of the suggestions that can help avoid non-action include:

- Securing funds for implementation during the strategy formulation phase, to prevent the loss ofmomentum while funds are raised for implementation.

- Giving due attention to capacity-building at individual and institutional levels to ensure thatorganizations are able to take on new responsibilities and challenges.

- Ensuring broad-base support, grounded in different levels of government and society at large so that thestrategy is not vulnerable to changes in political regimes or the departure of key personnel.

- Assigning the same body responsible for leading the strategy development, the responsibility foroverseeing implementation, and making that body accountable to higher authorities.

- Proposing realistic actions in terms of what can be accomplished given the current socio-economic,institutional, and political context.

- Ensuring that water development and service provision are well matched to user needs and sustainable,in terms of financing and maintenance.

- Ensuring that monitoring and evaluation activities feed back into the process so that problems or

potential obstacles can be immediately dealt with.

- Adopting a flexible implementation process to adapt to changing conditions and take advantage of newopportunities.

Synchronize efforts with other national plans and strategies to encourage coordinated action and ensure therelevance of the strategy. Examples of relevant plans and strategies include:

- National Five Year Plans or Sustainable Development Strategies,

- National Plans on womens development and empowerment,

- National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans,

- National Plans to Combat Desertification,- Country poverty reduction strategy papers (PRSPs), and

- National strategies to meet the Millennium Development Goals.

C. CURRENT WATERPRACTICES AND POLICIES IN THE ESCWA REGION3

Traditional water policies and management strategies in the ESCWA region are not feasible when viewedfrom the different perspectives of social, economic and environmental considerations - IWRMconsiderations. A multitude of problems surrounds those old practices. The message stressed in all thestudies is that the availability of clean water in the region is so limited that a sub-optimal management ofwater resources cannot succeed in achieving the goal of sustainable economic development. The issues

involved in planning and applying an effective course of water resources management are complex,interrelated and often politically sensitive. Nonetheless, they cannot be avoided in this arid region ofincreasing population growth and deteriorating water resources.

Although there are many similarities among the policy issues and challenges faced by the countries of theregion, there are also differences in the specific requirements of each country. Different countries areadopting different approaches to national water sector reform that reflect important differences in their socio-economic and cultural conditions and in their legal and administrative systems.

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3 This section is extracted and summarized from the ESCWA Document on Current water policies and practices inselected ESCWA member countries, E/ESCWA/ENR/1999/15


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In all the new water policies and strategies, demand management has been given a central role. The generalobjectives are:

(a) To improve the use efficiency of the existing water resources, by implementing various technical andinstitutional measures;

(b) To improve the allocation efficiency of the water resources, enhance their productivity and maximizetheir benefits in all different uses, by formulating a special package of economic measures;

(c) To protect water resources from further deterioration in quality and quantity, through the utilization ofefficient legislation, regulations, monitoring, enforcement, and economic measures;

(d) To curb the growing demand for water in general, and in the agriculture sector in particular, by differentregulatory, technical and economic measures.

The reuse of wastewater and a concern regarding crop patterns and the water requirements of different cropsare advancing in many countries of the ESCWA region. In Jordan, for instance, the improvement ofirrigation techniques, the use of treated wastewater and the rehabilitation/upgrading of the distributionnetworks have become main issues. Water metering and water charges, as well as regulations, are also

gaining momentum.

To lower the financial water burden on public budgets, the delivery of water services by wholesaling waterto intermediaries and retailing distribution to end-users can be channeled to the private sector. Deliveryservices are usually best handled if assigned to autonomous utilities agencies operating at a local level.Egypt, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Lebanon and others are moving towards contracting private operators tohandle water utilities.

Water education and human resources training are indispensable, but are still underestimated in most of theESCWA member countries. This issue should have a higher priority among the strategic options. However,if the system of incentives remains unchanged in those countries, one should not expect to achieve a highlymotivated staff that can enhance performance. This kind of change could be most readily effected within the

context of autonomous water utilities, and even more so in the private sector.

Institutional reform is a central requirement in any comprehensive water resources management plan. But itis a long-term process that requires time, money and patience before it can bear fruit. Policy-makers shouldkeep that in mind and remain persistent.

In the region, no strategy included mention of a methodology of charging for the disposal of industrialeffluents. Moreover, none mentioned the importance of using the polluter pays principle, which if appliedand enforced, could be an efficient tool in reducing the levels of water pollution.

In order to accommodate the above observations, it will be necessary to develop an evaluation procedure thatwould override the economic arguments and replace them with others, taking into account that society is not

a purely economic creation.

Favorable economic conditions in the past have fostered water policies that focused on the development ofwater resources in most of the ESCWA member countries. These policies required substantial capitalinvestment in water infrastructure and in the operation and maintenance of water-related facilities to meetexpanding water requirements. Currently, the water situation is dramatically different, because of the over-exploitation of water resources, the degradation of water quality owing to development activities and

pollution, the inefficient use of water caused by increased competition among water users and the lack ofcomprehensive planning.

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Comprehensive planning for the establishment and implementation of a national water plan and theintegrated development and management of water resources is lacking in most of the countries. A nationalwater plan based on an integrated and holistic approach contributes significantly to the efficient developmentand management of water resources in the ESCWA region.

National water policies and strategies differ between countries, depending on their hydrological,hydrogeological and socio-economic conditions. Egypt, Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic have given

priority to further development and efficient utilization of their surface water, as well as to its protection andpreservation. In most of the GCC countries, water policies (or rather lack of it in certain cases), were drivenmainly by the previous agricultural policies aimed at achieving self-sufficiency in food, and were, naturallyfocused on the supply augmentation side. At present, many GCC countries have abandoned these agricultural

policies. The GCC countries are still focusing on policies dealing with the augmentation of water suppliesthrough seawater desalination, utilization of groundwater sources, and treated wastewater reuse. However, inthe last few years, a clear policy shift towards demand management and conservation has been made in someof the countries, particularly in Oman and Bahrain, and institutional reforms and consolidation of waterauthorities are made in some, such as in Saudi Arabia. The provision of adequate amounts of potable water,as well as improvements in sanitation and preservation of the environment, have been the main goals for all

countries in the region. Appreciable efforts recently have been made by some of the countries to meet thesegoals.

It is suggested that ESCWA member countries take into consideration the following basic concepts informulating realistic and practical water policies and strategies:

1. Successful national water resources management normally comprises three mains components: (a) a well-studied and achievable water-policy based on existing resource and future demands; (b) alternative optionsfor water plans and programs; and (c) the development of projects that are feasible within the availability offinancial and human resources. Since these three components are closely inter-related, any deviation or ill-definition of any of them may raise major difficulties in implementing the plans strategies. It is alsorecognized that long-term water plans may not be appropriate, since future water demands will dependentirely on changes in economic, environmental, social, political and technological conditions.

2. In the ESCWA region, the water situation is more critical than in many other developing countries, duemainly to the aridity in the Gulf countries in the south and the sharing of most of the water resources of theriparian countries in the north. It is evident that the countries in the ESCWA region should give moreemphasis to integrated water management and structural water development. Water usage is inefficientlymanaged, while the possibilities for additional development of water sources are considerably limited.However, the two basic models of water management and water development will continue to beindispensably inter-related and their integration is a must.

3. The bottom line that policy-makers should keep in mind is that there is no perfect solution that could beapplied to all cases. Postponing actions and implementing measures to curb the crippling water stress, has its

own negative socio-economic repercussions. The challenge is to find a reasonable and practical approach toactivate the vital process of optimizing the use and allocation of water resources; i.e. tailor the reforms to thereality of the water problems without hiding facts (for political reasons, for instance), or being extremely

pessimistic or optimistic.

4. Benefiting from the experience of other countries and examining the global perspectives to gain insightinto the broad requirements for ensuring water sustainability is always recommended. However, the actual

policies of balancing competing objectives, and manipulating different tools and measures to achieveappropriate water allocation schemes and optimal water management systems must be adapted andcustomized to the countrys own conditions. Start with the most feasible changes and then move on with themomentum of success to address the more difficult issues.

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5. Water use intensity should always be the guide stick to improvements in agricultural policy and croppatterns and in prioritizing new development projects and expanding the existing ones.

6. In irrigated agriculture, it may be impractical to meter water supplies to a large number of small farmers,as is the case in Egypt. Some practical solutions recommend measuring and pricing water delivered to anentire village, a WUA or to any other community-based association, relying on the organization to recover

costs from users and ensure the most efficient use of the water7. In the short-run, water pricing (whether for irrigation or municipal water) should be designed:

(a) To maintain and operate the water conveyance and distribution facilities;

(b) To provide incentives for conservation and the adoption of water-saving technologies;

(c) To be based on a progressive but simple tariff structure;

(d) To be transparent and equitable.

It is particularly important to inform users that the water bill they receive does not involve the sale of wateras a raw material, but instead is related to its storage, conveyance, delivery pressure, treatment anddecontamination. In the short run, water may remain subsidized. In the longer run, however, water prices

should gradually be increased to eventually cover the full cost of water, i.e., to equate the marginal values ofwater in different uses, take into account the environmental cost and remove differences between private andsocial cost.

8. Pricing water is often viewed as an unpopular action, but this need not to be so. Studies worldwide showthat people will pay the real cost of water if they receive reliable services. Currently, the poor who oftenreceive no public water and sanitation services pay many times the municipal rates to private water vendors(as in Yemen, for instance). Survey studies on Willingness-to-pay attitudes togetherwith user participation,can help design tariff structures that will cover service costs and also keep lifeline water use affordable to the

poor (World Bank, 1997). It must be always remembered, when designing the tariff structure of municipalwater, that only a small fraction of water use is used for drinking and preserving life. The larger portion ofmunicipal water consumption is for non-basic uses, such as watering lawns and gardens, washing clothes or

cars, bathing, flushing toilets, and filling swimming pools.9.Sources of financing should be clearly specified and planned from the beginning. The role of the privatesector should be intensified and facilitated, and cost recovery should be the minimum accepted goal whenestablishing the water charges for different uses.

10. It is important to establish a national water quality program supported by legislation and a coordinatedmechanism among concerned agencies. Meanwhile, the polluter pays principle should be one of themeasures adapted to control pollution. Environmental/health impact assessment studies should be carried outfor all water development plans.

11.Water recycling and the use of treated wastewater should be an issue of top priority, especially in theGCC region. Previous studies (Al-Zubari, 1998) show that if only 50 per cent of domestic water supplies aretreated and re-used in agriculture, the process could satisfy more than 14 per cent of the agricultural demandfor water and reduce fossil groundwater withdrawal by 15%, by 2020. However, more investigationregarding cost effectiveness and the environmental/health impact is required.

12. The issue of water reallocation from irrigation to other uses, although very problematic, cannot beavoided, especially in countries that have chronic municipal water shortages. To mitigate the effects of suchreallocation, it should be accompanied with an increase in technical efficiency in the agricultural sector.

13. Social barriersmay also be a constraint in implementing water demand management, such as the reuse oftreated wastewater in the agriculture sector and introducing charges for irrigation water. Social resistancerequires special handling. Direct contact with the affected communities and public awareness programs will

prove helpful in that respect.

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14. Agreements between riparian countries should provide the basis for water allocation and investmentactivities concerning international surface water, groundwater and water quality. Therefore, more attentionshould be directed to launching negotiations that will lead to collaborative action.

BOX 7: CASE STUDY ON WATERPOLICY AND STRATEGY BASED ON IWRM APPROACH AND PRINCIPLES

Palestinian Water Policy and Strategy

The National Water Policy, formulated by the Palestinian Water Authority embodies 15 main principles,which govern policy and planning in the water sector in Palestine

Policy Principles

All sources of water should be the property of the state All citizens have a right to water of good quality for personal consumption at costs they can afford Industrial and agricultural development and investment must be compatible with available water

resources Water is an economic good Sustainable development of all available water resources Coordinate the development of the water resources of Palestine at the national level, and

implementation at the appropriate local level Separation of institutional responsibilities for policy and regulatory functions from the service delivery

function Public participation Integrating water quality and water quantity Integrating water supply and wastewater management at all administrative levels Consistent water demand management Protection and pollution control of water resources

Polluters pay Conservation and optimum utilization of water resources Obtaining the right of water resources shared by other countries on the principle of equality

Based on the above guiding principles, the Palestinian Water Authority initiated and produced a draft Water Management Strategy in order to identify how to respond and contribute to the fulfillment of thePalestinian Water Policy. This strategy identified the following seven key elements as capturing the mostimportant issues and required strategic interventions: Pursue Palestinian water rights. Strengthen national policies and regulations. Build institutional capacity and develop human resources Improve information services and assessment of water resources

Govern water and wastewater investment and operations Enforce pollution control and protection of water resources Promote public awareness and participation

Source: Palestinian Water Strategic Planning Study, 2001, Palestinian Economic Council for Development andReconstruction (PECDAR), PNA

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D. REFERENCES

- Al-Zubari, Waleed. (1998). Towards the establishment of a total water cycle management and re-useprogramme in the GCC countries.

- Attia, Bayoumi. (1999). Water Strategy in Egypt. Presented in the Expert Group Meeting on Updatingthe Assessment of Water Resources in the ESCWA Member States held by ESCWA in Beirut from 20-23 April 1999.

- Attia, Bayoumi. (1997). A framework for the development of Egypts national water policy. In theProceedings of the Expert Consultation on National Water Policy Reform in the Near East, Beirut,Lebanon, December, 1996. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), regionaloffice for the Near East.

- Bani Hani, Mohammed. (1997). Water Policy Reform in Jordan. In the Proceedings of the ExpertConsultation on National Water Policy Reform in the Near East, Beirut, Lebanon, 9-10 December, 1996.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), regional office for the Near East.

- Bergkamp, G., J.Y. Pirot and M. Acreman. (1999). Optimization of water resources managementthrough maintaining the functions of the ecosystem. IUCN, The World Conservation Union.

- Briscoe, John. (1997). Managing water as an economic good: rules for reform. The World Bank, RDVCore Training Programme FY98 Activity 2.2.

- CEDARE, AWC. (2004). State of the water report in the Arab region

- CEDARE, AWC, UNDP. (2004). Status of IWRM plans in the Arab region

- El-Arabawy, Mohsen, B. Attia, and Tosswell. (1998). Water resources in Egypt: strategies for the nextcentury. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. American Society of Civil Engineers:

Nov./Dec, Vol. 124, No. 6, pp. 310-319.

- ESCWA. (1999). Updating the assessment of water resources in ESCWA member States.E/ESCWA/ENR/1999/13.

- ESCWA. (1999). Current water policies and practices in selected ESCWA member countries,E/ESCWA/ENR/1999/15.

- ESCWA, Water Issues Team. (2003).Local ownership and leadership as vehicles for effective capacitybuilding in IWRM, paper presented at the Third World Water Forum, 16-23 March, 2003, Kyoto.

- Fahmy, Hussam. (1996). Comparative analysis of Egyptian water policies. Water International, Vol. 21,pp. 33-45.

- FAO, World Bank, and UNDP. (1995). Water Sector Policy Review and Strategy Formulation: AGeneral Framework. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

- Goodman, A.S. and K.A. Edwards. (1992). Integrated water resources planning. Natural ResourcesForum, Vol. 16, No. 1, February, pp. 65-70.

- Grimble, Robin and Chan Man-Kwun. (1995). Stakeholder analysis for natural resource management indeveloping countries: some practical guidelines for making management more participatory andeffective. Natural Resources Forum, May, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 113-124.

- Keller, Andrew, Jack Keller and David Seckler. (1996).Integrated Water Resource Systems: theory and Policy Implications. Research Report 3. Colombo, Sri-Lanka: International Irrigation ManagementInstitute.

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- Le Moigne, Guy, Subramanian, Xie Eei and Sandra Giltner. (1994). A Guide to the Formulation ofWater Resources Strategy. World Bank Technical Paper No. 263. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

- Perry, C.J., Michael Rock and D. Seckler. (1997). Water as an economic good: a solution or a problem?Research Report 14. Colombo, Sri-Lanka: International Irrigation Management Institute.

- Ramon, Mateo. (1992). Administration of water resource: institutional aspects and managementmodalities. Natural Resources Forum, May, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 117-125.

- Raskin, Paul, Evan Hansen and Robert Margolis. (1996). Water and sustainability: global patterns andlong-range problems. Natural Resources Forum, February, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 1-15.

- Sellers, Jackie. (1993). Information needs for water resource decision-making. Natural ResourcesForum, August, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 228-234.

- Seragelding, Ismail. (1995). Water resource management: A New Policy for a Sustainable Future. WaterResources Development, Vol. 11, No. 3

- Spencer, Geoff. (1997). River basin development and management: key elements. The World Bank,RDV Core Training Programme FY98 Activity 2.2.

- UNDP. (1998). Capacity Management for Sustainable Management of Water Resources and the AquaticEnvironment. UNDP, March. One United Nations Plaza, New York.

- Winpenny, Jim. (1997). Water Policy Issues. Department for International Development; WaterResources Occasional Papers, No. 2, July.

- World Bank, (1994). A Strategy for Managing Water in the Middle East and North Africa. WashingtonD.C.

- WHO. (1999). Water conservation in the eastern Mediterranean region: A strategy for water-consciousdevelopment and prevention of water misuse and wastage. Presented in the Expert Group Meeting onUpdating the Assessment of Water Resources in the ESCWA member States. 20-23 April, 1999.ESCWA, Beirut, Lebanon.

- Zbigniew, Bochaniarz. (1992). Water management problems in economies in transition. NaturalResources Forum, Vol. 16, no.1, February, pp. 55-63.

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E. ANNEX ONE: CASE STUDY ON EGYPT WATERMANAGEMENT POLICY4

1. Current conditions and water-related problems

The Nile, the main sources of water in Egypt, provides an annual yield of 55.5 Billion cubic meters (BCM),as specified in the 1959 water agreement between Egypt and Sudan. Currently, around 10 BCM of water isadded to that stock through the use of groundwater (4.85 BCM/y) and other non-conventional sources ofwater (mainly reused drainage water and wastewater) to fill the growing gap between supply and demand ofwater (El-Arabawy et al., 1998).

The following points summarize the main issues shaping the water problems in Egypt:

1) Sources of pressure on the limited water resources are- Population growth;- Quality deterioration of surface and groundwater (agricultural, municipal, and industrial wastes);

and- Expansion of agricultural sector and other economic activities.

2) Low levels of efficiency of water conveyance and use- High rates of leakage and waste in water conveyance for all uses (e.g., 50% in the municipalwater due to malfunctioning networks);

- Inappropriate water-pricing policies leading to inefficient use of water in agricultural sector(consumes 85% of total water resources); and

- Adoption of water-intensive crop pattern by farmers due to lack of water pricing and othereconomic policies.

3) Diminishing of opportunities of supply augmentation- Almost all possible sources of freshwater supply has been developed;- Achieving better exploitation of Egypts share in the Nile water through the Upper Nile water

conservation projects is very much dependent on political conditions in the riparian states;- The economic cost for resources augmentation is very high; and

- Financing additional water supply and irrigation projects have caused an enormous increase inthe public debt, while private sources of finance are inadequate.

4) Incapable environment for efficient management of water resources- Water management is fragmented among Egypts different ministries and other public

institutions, with no central agency or institution is completely in charge and authorized tocoordinate the actions and decisions taken by various users of water resources. The Ministry ofPublic Works and Water Resources (MPWWR) is the agency responsible for watermanagement, however it lacks the authority to implement coordination among water users,enforce decisions and recommended actions or resolve conflicts that arise among differentsectors;

- Very low salaries in the government sector together with continuously increasing economic andfinancial pressures experienced by all levels of public servants, resulting in poor management

and lack of enforcement of water regulations;- Limited budgets for monitoring water quality, disposal of industrial wastewater, water extraction

and recycling, and monitoring the enforcement of water laws and regulations;- Lack of adequate training opportunities burden the water sector with unskilled and inefficient

human resources;

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4 Additional case studies of Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, Oman, and Saudi Arabia are available in theoriginal document Current water policies and practices in selected ESCWA member countries, ESCWA, Document #E/ESCWA/ENR/1999/15.


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- Water-related research and development efforts are also scattered among academic andgovernmental institutions, which in most cases lack the technical facilities to conduct properlevels of research;

- The system of assessing water resources will require: unified definitions of different conceptsand terminology, unified measuring and assessment techniques, unified analysis techniques, andcooperation and inter-linkage between different institutions;

- The data and information system is inadequately equipped with technological and humanresources, in addition to the existence of different databases at different governmentaldepartments, ministries, research institutions and others. Moreover, the system is deficient in theamount and type of data and information it holds, and particularly lacks technical, economic,financial, health and environmental data.

2. Managing water resources

(a) Previous water policies

The several national water policies that were designed during the past few decades to manage Egypts water

resources were very much directed towards augmenting water supply and building the infrastructure neededfor water conveyance and distribution, especially in the agriculture sector.

Most of those policies, however, were too optimistic regarding the possibility of providing Egypt withadditional water resources through the Upper Nile projects

5. They were also unrealistic in their expectations

and aimed at satisfying all expected future water needs. For instance, the 1990 water development policyassumed that the efficiency of the distribution network would be raised from 50 per cent to 80 per cent(Fahmy, 1996), which has not been the case so far.

Despite the uncertainties in the numbers used in the calculations and projections of these policies, noprobability was attached to the expected outcomes and no scenarios were generated on the two sides of theresource-requirement equation (Fahmy, 1996). Unrealistic expectations, along with rigid objectives and

inflexible options for achieving those objectives, led either to the unsatisfactory fulfillment or non-accomplishment of the water projects that were planned.

(b) Recent water policies

Egypts most recent water policy has added a new dimension, which directs more attention towardsmanaging the demand for water while emphasizing the need to improve the water quality and sustainadequate fresh water resources in the future. The following points highlight the major objectives of this new

policy (Attia, 1997 and 1999):

(i) Secure the future water supply of the Nile, while developing additional water resources(conventional or non-conventional) to meet the growing needs and demand for water;

(ii) To control the demand for water;(iii) To raise water-use efficiency levels;(iv) To rationalize the use of the available water and increase its productivity; and(v) To protect surface and groundwater from pollution and prevent further deterioration in water

quality.

26


5 Four conservation projects have been suggested to increase the river yield at Aswan and to reduce the amount of waterlost in the Upper Nile, such as the Jongli Canal, Bahr El-Ghazal and Marshes projects, that could add up to 9 BCM/yearto Egypts share of the Nile water. Work on the Jongli Canal halted several times due to the rebellion in southern Sudan.The expected water benefits of this project is estimated at 4 billion cubic meters annually, to be divided equally withSudan (Fahmy, 1996).


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The general trend of the new water policy has shifted from a supply orientation towards a somewhat morebalanced approach that considers both the supply and demand sides of the equation, with higher emphasis onprotecting the quality of water resources from further degradation.

3. Towards developing a water resources management strategy

The MPWWR of Egypt is trying to follow the guidelines for water resources management strategyrecommended in (FOA et al., 1995). They are recognizing that to achieve the policys targets calls for a long-term horizon that will provide time to introduce and effect the recommended institutional, technical andeconomical changes. The strategy began with a comprehensive assessment of the water resources andidentification of the critical issues deserving immediate attention. The problems as outlined by (El-Arabawyet al., 1998)and(Attia, 1999)include:

(a) Farmers are very much oriented towards the traditional irrigation system and try to avoid, wheneverpossible, the use of water-saving irrigation techniques;

(b) The cropping pattern is very biased towards water-intensive crops, such as rice, sugar cane and others,

which are related to the free-of-charge irrigation water system that has always prevailed;

(c) Fragmented land possession, due to the existing land tenure system, inhibits the utilization of moderntechnology in agriculture, which increases the O&M cost of irrigation canals and the drainage systemsand adds to the waste of irrigation water. Farmers have always opposed the idea of integrating their small

properties into relatively larger districts, despite the economical benefits of large-scale irrigation andcultivation projects;

(d) The high cost of water development projects. Recent studies have shown that the cost of water supply isabout LE 10 to LE 20 per 1,000 cubic meters. Water pricing and charging for irrigation water, however,is not accepted by the majority of farmers, and is politically resisted. This means that the concept of costrecovery will need further in-depth socio-economic investigation to identify the most feasible approach

to take;

(e) The agricultural sector used to be one of the most capable sectors in absorbing the continuouslyexpanding labor force. However, generating new jobs in the agricultural sector now depends directly onthe availability of the water resources needed to reclaim new lands and establish new settlements.

In addition to the above problems, two critical issues deserve the special attention of water-planners:

(a) The strategy of food security in basic crops is hard to implement and sustain without a rationalscheme for utilizing the limited water resources and solving the problems of low efficiency rates in using

both the scarce water and land resources;

(b) The current institutional systems of irrigation useshould be taken into account. For years, farmershave always relied on their own established and informal, but powerful, social organizations to guide andcontrol their relationships and interactions regarding the use of irrigation water. Accordingly, it may not

be wise to change that structure now. It would be better, instead, to develop and reconstruct the existingsocial organizations as sub-systems of the whole irrigation system. The legislative background of theseorganizations should be carefully considered before introducing any new formulas of organization.Technical assistance and training should be offered to members of these organizations. A dynamic and

practical information system related to irrigation and water use should be accessible to farmers and theviews of their organizations should be incorporated and utilized, through a participatory approach, informulating the water management strategies.

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Module 2


4. Strategic options for achieving the policy objectives

In 1997, the MPWWR identified a broad set of options that could be assessed and evaluated against thecriteria of effectiveness, economic efficiency, equity, sustainability, fiscal impact, environmental impact,administrative feasibility, political and public acceptability, regional development and internationalconsiderations. This list was somewhat modified later on (Attia, 1999). The major change was in excludingthe irrigation water pricing option while keeping that of cost recovery as a special case of pricing. The newset of options is categorized as follows:

(a) Options for an optimal utilization of existing water resources:

- Increasing water efficiency through the minimization of water losses in the use of surface andgroundwater sources. This necessitates implementing a number of technical improvements to reducewater conveyance loss, especially in irrigation uses. In addition to improved control structures, ageneral rehabilitation of canals and distributaries is being carried out. It is estimated that thisrehabilitation program will eliminate the unnecessary losses associated with transporting the Nile

water to farms, and could save one BCM of water annually by the year 2005 (El-Arabawy et al.,1998);- in the old lands, at the mesqa and farm levels, in the operation, maintenance and

management of the irrigation system;Involving WUA

- Setting a cost recovery system in which water users pay for the services of water distribution andnetwork maintenance. This could be handled better through the formation of a WUA, in addition toan intensive public awareness program to promote the idea. The work of the WUA should besupervised by persons affiliated to the MPWWR, whose job would involve coordination amongfarmers to ensure that they work as one team towards achieving the MPWWR strategies;

- to reduce the agricultural water consumption. The proposed policiesinclude:Changing the cropping pattern

- A gradual replacement of sugar cane with sugar beets, taking into account the lifetime of the current

sugar factories;- Reduction of the rice-cultivated area to about 900,000-1,000,000 feddans, which is sufficient to

satisfy the national demand for rice, on one hand, and prevent soil salinization and sea-waterintrusion, on the other hand;

- Introduction of new brands of rice and other crops with lower water requirements and highproductivity;

- Narrow

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ENABLING ENVIRONMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL ROLES