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Empowered Students; Empowered TeachersAuthor(s): William T. FaganSource: The Reading Teacher, Vol. 42, No. 8, Empowerment through Literacy (Apr., 1989), pp.572-578Published by: Wiley on behalf of the International Reading AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20200236 .
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William T. Fagan_
Empowered students;
empowered teachers
Children's natural language abilities must be nurtured, but often teachers do not capitalize on the existing strengths to build permanent literacy skills.
In recent years such terms as power, con
trol, ownership, empowerment, and dis
empowerment have been used to describe
the relationship between readers and writers
and their degree of competence in and the role of literacy in their lives. These terms (and un
derlying concepts) have been mostly directed
toward learners. By focussing on the learner
in this way, the teacher becomes the holder
and thus the potential dispenser of power. Teachers have power over how reading and
writing are taught, over how children experi ence reading and writing within the school
text.
Fitzclarence and Giroux (1984) state "In
actuality, power is at the root of all forms of
behavior in which people say no, struggle, re
sist, use opposition forms of discourse, and
dream new possibilities for human existence."
Thus teachers can use their power to inspire children, to help them develop competency in
reading and writing, and to understand the
role of reading and writing in their lives. Un
fortunately, however, some teachers may ac
tively interfere with the power that children have begun to develop with respect to literacy,
prior to their entering school.
I will examine the nature of the power over literacy which children often bring to school, and the manner in which teachers may interfere with this power.
Empowered students
Empowerment is defined here as a posi tive force and literacy is the medium. What is often overlooked in discussing empowerment is that many children come to school with a
great deal of power over literacy. We often read documentaries and scenarios of children
who prior to entering school have taken con
trol of print as readers and writers. One of the earliest to document this phe
nomenon was Almy (1949), who in her doc toral thesis studied the home learning opportunities of reading of 106 grade 1 chil
dren. She found that approximately 75% of the children engaged in playing with books,
magazines, and pencils and incorporated some form of reading in their play. She relates a particular incident. Two 5 year olds who had
recently experienced a train ride asked an
adult to make tickets for their train play. When the adult suggested that they make their own
tickets, one retorted "But we want it to really say Middletown" (p. 39).
It must be remembered that Almy's re
search was conducted at a time when parents/
caregivers were "not allowed" to be partners in
literacy development. Schools jealously guarded the materials necessary to make chil dren readers. (At that time, writing was
viewed mostly as handwriting and thus didn't
entail the same mystique as the power of read
ing and there was not the same concern about
allowing parents to be involved.)
572 The Reading Teacher April 1989
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Another pioneer in documenting the liter
acy competency of beginning school children was Durkin (1961, 1983). She conducted a
longitudinal study with 49 children who had learned to read prior to entering school. At the
time of school entrance, their reading levels as
measured by a standardized reading test
ranged from grade 1.5 to 4.6 with a mean of
2.3, thus demonstrating the considerable suc
cess which these children experienced as read
ers. She also pointed out the importance for
reading development of the children's percep tion of what it meant "to read." In more recent
years, the number of studies on young chil
dren as readers and writers has skyrocketed.
Non-school contexts Children are naturally meaning seekers
(Dyson, 1984). Thus, when they encounter
print (through reading or writing) they attempt to relate it to some known meaning, enlisting the attempt of others if necessary. "They learn
about its purpose, the processes by which oth
ers read and write and the specific visual fea tures that characterize print." Brailsford
(1984) and Goodall (1984) pointed out that
young children interpret print in terms of the context or environment in which it occurs.
Goodall reminds us that children's responses
may not be "word perfect." While the sign Su
permarket may be read as Groceries, it is
clear that the presence of print is related to the
nature of the environment; children are em
powered as "knowers" of their surroundings. Not only do young children use environ
mental cues to give meaning to print, they also
begin to note the specific visual features of the
printed code (Dyson, 1984). This ability may occur at a very young age. Lass (1982), who
observed her young son's early experiences with print, states: "When at 17 months he be
gan to point to and call any letter 'B' or T>,' I realized he knew letters were a separate cate
gory of visual stimulus. Then, when he'd say 'B' or T>' for any of the 24 letters, Td say, 'No, that's a GI for example. Soon he asked, 'What's that?' and pointed to a letter. It was
identified for him. And so it went, until at about two years he could identify all the up
percase and most lowercase letters."
Further evidence of children's control over print comes from the work of Taylor (1982) who studied children's use of print in the home. These children used print for a va
riety of purposes. Taylor relates one such in
stance. "When Debbie was almost five, she drew a smiling person and wrote 'dearmom
DEBBIE I AM SENDING A CARD.' Debbie Was
visiting her grandmother; her mother had
stayed at home because she was ill. Debbie
was sad that her mother was not with her and
so she wrote, 'dearmomdebbie,' and then
asked an adult to help her write, 'i am send
ing a card.' "
Debbie knew that print could
transcend space at one's bidding, and could be
used to keep in touch with loved ones sepa rated in that space.
Empowerment is a positive force and
literacy is the medium.
Another instance of print use which Tay lor documents related to four girls ages 4 to 8
who were setting up a clubhouse, and were
making plans for its operation. Taylor summa
rizes their use of print for this purpose as fol
lows: "As the children learned ways of dealing with one another through print, they also learned something of the ways of organizing a
business, marketing products, conducting fi
nancial transactions, and using computers.
They made elaborate preparations for beauty salons and restaurants."
Schooling (dis)empowerment Once children begin school, teachers
have a grave responsibility in the process of
empowerment through literacy. There are ba
sically two groups of students they must attend to: those already empowered (within their level of mastery), who need continued support and development, and those who have not yet
acquired mastery over print and its uses.
Brailsford (1984) observed a kindergar ten class with particular attention to six chil
dren, three of whom entered school with considerable knowledge of print and three
who were low in such knowledge. "All the
High Print children...demonstrated their ca
pability to interact with books for lengthy per iods of time, without adult suppport or social
dialogue. From the beginning of September, Mark, Janice, and Trevor could be totally ab
sorbed in books. They often interacted silently
Empowered students; empowered teachers 573
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with storybooks..." (p. 417). While the Low
Print children, on the other hand, entered
school being able to distinguish their degree of control over print in their environment and
print "in the text," over the course of the year
they became confused as to what they knew, what power they had. While Belinda (a Low Print child) had been proud that she could read the "Small is _" patterned chart in the
classroon in October, in February she saw
herself as lacking any such power. When she
was asked by the teacher's aide to help in read
ing a story, the conversation was as follows:
Teacher's aide: Do you think you can? Belinda: No Teacher's aide: You don't think you can do it? Belinda: I don't think so (p. 441).
There is little wonder that while the High Print children selected the book corner, Belinda commented "Books is boring
? I can't
read and that's all there is" (p. 417). Brailsford believes that the "mixed messages" which the
Low Print children received regarding the
meaning of print was a contributory factor to
their lack of progress in developing compe tency in reading. A similar conclusion was
drawn in studies by Dyson (1984) and Harms and Letton (1986). The significance of the teacher's role in early literacy development is
Too many teachers are themselves not
empowered but dependent on others
for what they do?slavishly following curriculum materials.
indicated by Dyson: "The process of making sense of symbols by puzzling out their con
nection with known meaning is young chil
dren's way of learning. We, as teachers, may not be able to stop it, but we may interfere
with it. Schools inevitably expose children to written language-and children inevitably work to make sense of their environment. But
the emphasis in schools.. .may not be on using written language but on isolated and easily measurable skills."
If this should happen, then as Harms and
Letton point out, "These children who have
confidently owned their reading experiences
may find to their disappointment that reading
in school measures learning the alphabet and
isolated letter/sound relationships, drilling on these elements and swiftly completing work
sheets that require underlining and matching "
These young learners are often confused about
the relationship between reading and writing at home and at school. The power they felt over reading and writing tends to be lost in the classroom.
Empowered teachers Shor and Freir? (1987) state that "educa
tion has to do with a permanent process of for
mation" (p. 118); teachers, of course, have a
crucial role to play in that process. One of the formation tasks which all teachers of elemen
tary students encounter is that of helping learners in the process of becoming literate.
This is only possible if the teachers are em
powered as literates themselves, and as help ers in assisting children towards a similar
goal. Unfortunately, a number of teachers,
rather than being so empowered, are depen dent on others for what they do to help chil dren develop reading and writing behaviors. Such teachers are inclined to follow a set of curriculum materials (language arts/reading basais) slavishly, materials, which according to Buswell (1982) often deny the intelligence of teachers and their roles as conceptualizers,
planners, and implementors. Paris (1985) also
expressed concern about the narrowness of lit
eracy programs, the focus on the what (the
comprehension of content) rather than on the
wh^whei^where of reading and writing in the context of one's life.
An even stronger point of view is given by Shor and Freir? (1987, p. 135): "The school is
increasing its separatism of the words we read
and the world we live in. In such a dichotomy, the world of reading is only the world of the
scholarly process, a closed world, cut off
from the world where we have experiences but
do not read about these experiences. This
scholarly world where we read words that re
late less and less to our concrete experiences outside has become more and more special ized in the bad sense of that word. In reading
words, school becomes a special place that
teachers use to read only school-words, not
reality words." From my recent research I have identified
three areas where the meaning of reading/
574 The Reading Tfeacher April 1989
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writing is divorced from real life, areas where
teachers play a key role in disempowering rather than in empowering children as readers
and writers.
Concepts of reading/writing Twenty-six each of low and regular
achievers in grades 3, 6, and 9 were observed
completing various literacy tasks, and were
questioned about their concepts of reading and
writing. They were shown a set of 12 photo
graphs of children and adults reading or writ
ing or engaging in other activities (watching television, playing cards) and were asked such
questions as: Who is reading (writing)? Who do you think is the best reader (writer)? Why do you think that? Tell me how you were
taught to read (write). What can you do to be
come a better reader (writer)? About three-quarters of all of the low
achievers and the achieving 6s and 9s believed that they had learned to read by focussing on sounds or on words. The achieving grade 3s
were the exception. While a large number of
these held similar beliefs to the others, over
one-quarter of them remembered having learned to read in what might be described as a "shared book situation" where a parent and
the child interacted throughout the reading of the text. A similar pattern was evident for re
membering how writing was learned, with all
of the groups (except achieving grade 3 s) mostly believing that their initial experiences with writing focussed on neatness and exact
ness.
However, the responses of the achieving grade 6s and 9s indicated that during their
years in school a majority had changed their notion of reading to a focus on meaning. "To
become a good reader you have to make sense
out of the text." "You must understand the au thor's message in a way that makes sense to
you." "You have to think about what you are
reading." There was a similar change to a
lesser extent among the low achieving grade 9
students. When the groups were asked how
they would suggest improving their reading, their suggestions were consistent with their
beliefs.
While the concepts of reading for some of
the groups indicated a change from how they perceived their initial experiences with read
ing, for some of the groups, their views of
writing had not changed much. The majority
of the subjects still thought of improving writ
ing in terms of "correctness." Just less than
one-half of the achieving grade 9 students, and less than one-quarter of all other groups could conceive of a writer as a reader. Fur
thermore, about three-quarters of the low
achieving grade 3s, just less than one-half of
the low achieving grade 6s and 9s and about one-third of the achieving groups believed that a teacher was necessary in order for them to
become readers and writers; that is, they be
lieved they could not become readers and
writers outside of a teacher context. They did
not have a sense of ownership. Riby-Williams
(1975) suggests that when students become
dependent on teachers, they do not see any reason for engaging in reading and writing be
yond the classroom since the teacher is no
longer a powerful figure outside of the class
room context.
Materials for reading/writing. The students were given a set of 17 read
ing tasks that may be described as including "ordinary, everyday" reading tasks-TV
guide, sales flyer, advertisement for pizza, contest announcement, etc. They were asked to do two things: (1) tell what the item was,
where it would be found, how it would be used, and (2) answer a specific question about
information from the item, for example, "What is on channel 11 at 4 pm?"
The achieving students were much better
than the low achieving children in dealing with these tasks and all groups (except achiev
ing grade 3s were better in recognizing the task than in answering specific questions.
There were some instances where a child
could recognize a task but could not access the
pertinent information for a specific question and vice versa. Only the low achieving grade 9s and the achieving grade 6s and 9s were able
to fully complete more than one-half of the
tasks, that is, recognize the task and access the
specific information. In brief, students do not
seem to be competent in reading ordinary tasks normally found outside of school.
Subsequent to the study, as part of a prac ticum experience in a senior reading course, the students (in the course) each worked with a child in the school setting over a period of 5
weeks. Initially, they searched the school re
cords, and engaged the children in various
reading tasks to develop an understanding of
Empowered students; empowered teachers 575
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the child's reading abilities and strategies. One
of the tasks was a modified version of the task
described above. Three of the classroom
teachers questioned why this kind of task
would be administered. "After all," one said, "it has nothing to do with reading in school."
Reading/writing in context Data on the teaching of reading/writing in
context comes fron a study of 16 teachers of
elementary students, each of whom was ob
served teaching two reading and writing les
sons. Only one of the 16 teachers related the
reading or writing event to children's lives out
side of the classroom. They sometimes related
the topic of the reading or writing exercise; for example, if a passage was about polar bears, the teacher might ask if anyone had
seen a polar bear in a zoo and to tell about it.
They did not relate the act of reading or writ
ing when someone would read or write stories or poems, answer questions, describe objects or events, write letters, etc. Typical "class room constrained" lessons are indicated by the
following descriptions provided by the class room observer.
(a) The grade 2 children were seated in their desks and the teacher asked them to open their
books to the story they had read last day. The teacher asked the children to read along with her.
After they had finished a page, the children were asked to close their books and the teacher read the first sentence to the children while leaving out one
word. The students were then instructed to guess which word of the sentence was missing. This
process was repeated several times with the same
sentence. Each sentence on the page was dealt with
in this manner. If a sentence was complicated, the teacher read it several times before the children
were allowed to guess the missing word.
After one page had been completed in this
manner, the teacher placed the page on an opaque
projector. The words that had been omitted in read
ing each sentence were covered up and individual
children were chosen to read a sentence and to
orally spell out the missing words. The teacher
then printed these words in the blanks. Once this process had been repeated with each sentence, the
teacher shut off the projector and the children were asked to write as much as they could remember of
what they had read.
(b) The children and the grade 2 teacher gath ered at the back of the classroom. The teacher sat
on a small chair with the children sitting on the floor in front of her. This was a new story for the
children (about the musk ox) and the teacher read it for the children as they followed along in their books. Once the story had been read, the teacher
reviewed the content of the story and pointed out
new words. The teacher then focussed on the char
acteristics and facts about the musk ox. The chil
dren acted out the part of the story where it talked about the herd of musk ox surrounding their babies
when being attacked by a predator. The teacher had
two children act as the baby musk ox and a number of children as the adults who formed a circle
around the child. One child became the predator and tried to get in.
When the children went to their seats, the
facts and characteristics which had been discussed were printed on a chart at the front of the class room. The teacher printed the information and af
ter the chart was completed, the children together read the information from the chart. The chart was
taken away and they were asked to write at least
three sentences in their notebooks or scribblers.
These sentences could be "in their own words" but were to include the usage of capitals, periods, com
mas, and connecting words. When the children fin
ished their sentences they read them to the teacher and made corrections where needed.
These lessons lack any meaningful con
text outside of a classroom environment. The
children are merely requested to follow the
procedures indicated by the teacher; the
teacher is perceived as the ultimate goal for
engaging in reading and writing activities.
The children were not aware of how such
reading and writing activities would help them
become better readers and writers, indepen dent of the particular classroom context.
Discussion/Implications Teachers have a crucial role to play in the
empowerment of children through literacy. The power of the children is limited by the power of the teachers; schools (teachers) con
trol not just students but the meaning which
they generate in relation to school experi ences, including literacy (Young, 1971). Teachers may exhibit their power either di
rectly, as in the nature or organization of their
teaching, or indirectly, through the hidden
curriculum which Fitzclarence and Giroux
(1984) define as "those messages, values, and
ideologies that are transmitted tacitly to stu
dents through any of the message systems of
the school, whether they be curriculum, the
forms of classroom relations, or the accept able modes of instruction."
Teachers sometimes overlook the fact that
children enter school posessing considerable
literacy knowledge. They are able to engage in reading and writing events (even if at a min
imal level of participation) and are aware of
their ability to do so. Unfortunately, those
children are often disempowered through ex
posure to meaningless activities that pass for
the teaching of reading and writing. Rather
than being allowed to write messages, lists, or
share in a story, they are often drilled on
576 The Reading Teacher April 1989
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words in isolation, or match up pictures and
words on worksheets. Sims (1982) maintains
that once we take away the contextual mean
ing for reading and writing, "the results have
been inane, programmed drill-the-skill-pack ages- divorced from the language and experi ence the children bring with them to school and force fed to them bit by boring bit."
In order to contribute to the empower ment of children through literacy, teachers
must (1) understand how reading and writing contribute to the lives of the children, and (2) provide reading and writing experiences which are familiar to the children from their out of school experiences. For these children
who have not experienced reading and writing
prior to entering school, the teacher should
begin with environmental print tasks to which the children can relate. Reading and writing
experiences should always provide an oppor
tunity for children to discuss what the particu lar reading or writing event means in their
lives. Reading and writing should not be
taught for the purpose of demonstrating
knowledge of skill for the teacher. One of the key uses of reading in chil
dren's lives is for enjoyment. The school
should promote this use of reading by making the library the "literacy center" and not just a
place where students go to find information to
complete an assignment for the teacher. Chil
dren should not only be allowed to go to the
library for books, they should also be given time to do so. They should be allowed time to
browse, to experience the range of literacy materials and to choose on their own if they wish. As long as teachers arrange a particular
library time and ensure that all children com
plete a project or choose a book in that time, the notion of their dependency on the teacher
for library use will be highlighted. Children must encounter a wide range of
literacy material in the classroom?trade
books, children's literature, newspapers, mag
azines, forms, brochures, flyers, etc. The
presence of "environmental literacy material"
helps the low achievers think of themselves as
readers and writers since they are often aware
of such materials in their lives, and often do not think of these literacy tasks as reading and
writing. One idea for using a range of "envi
ronmental reading materials" is the use of the
"grabbag" technique. A shopping bag is filled with a variety of reading tasks and one student
draws one and explains what it is/where it
would be found/why or how it would be used.
The other students then ask for pertinent in
formation in order to be able to use it, for ex
ample, "What kinds of pizza can we get?" Discussion may highlight how the information is arranged (organized) on various flyers/bro chures. Failure to include a range of materials
sends a message to the children that reading in
school is a special kind of reading and is re
stricted in terms of how they understand read
ing as part of their lives.
Do less telling, describing, and
explaining to children. Instead, ask them to tell, describe, and explain.
Teachers must monitor their use of lan
guage as they interact with children for it is
through such interaction that concepts are of
ten formed. The teacher who says "Boys and
girls, we have a whole lot of different stories
here that we are going to look at today" pro motes a misconception of "story" when the ar
ray of materials includes description, poetry, and even a recipe. The teacher who asks a
question about a particular text and then says "I want you to read to the end of the second
paragraph on page 57 to find the answer"
gives a message that the teacher is the most
significant cue in locating an answer. The
teacher who in response to children brain
storming likenesses and differences between summer and winter sports says "OK, that's
enough similarities, now let's go on to differ
ences" is informing the students that this activ
ity is the teacher's and they must play by the
teacher's rules.
Teachers must try to control what appears to be a "teacher instinct" of giving?telling,
describing, explaining. Certainly, the students
must be given sufficient information to under
stand a particular concept or strategy, but
quite often this same information can be pro vided by the students. If, for example, the
class has been working on finding the main
idea, rather than giving another passage with
this purpose specifically stated, the teacher
may assign a passage and have the students
Empowered students; empowered teachers 577
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decide why they would read this passage, what approach they would use to read it ef
fectively, and whether finding the main idea
would be beneficial in this case. In writing, rather than "giving" students a set of criteria
for editing a piece of writing, have them gen erate a set in terms of the audience and the
purpose for writing. While students may ask
straightforward questions on occasion, teach
ers should model for them and encourage them to think of an answer to a question be
fore asking. Thus, rather than saying "What is
_?" "Why would _?" "How can
_?" the child might say "I think_.
Does that make sense_?" "I was wonder
ing _. What do you think_?"
Finally, teachers of teachers (professors) have an obligation in helping them acquire the
power over the teaching of literacy which they need to empower children. This will not be
done through providing lists of skills to be
learned, steps to be followed, or texts to be
memorized for quizzes or exams. Instead pre service teachers must have opportunities to
see reading and writing in action. This may be
done through visits to classrooms, or by invit
ing children to come to the university. If first
hand experiences are not feasible, videos of
children reading and writing may be substi
tuted.
Not only should the nature of the reading or writing act be discussed (the knowledge possessed by the children, the strategies in
volved), but the meaningfulness of the reading or writing activity in the lives of the children, the significance of the activity for the children
developing competency and concepts as read
ers and writers.
Conclusion Children often enter school with consid
erable power over literacy?knowledge of con
ventions of print, experiences of participation in reading and writing activities, concepts of
themselves as readers and writers. In order
for children to continue to develop as readers
and writers, teachers must capitalize on what
the children bring to school. Teachers who
impose a narrow view of reading or writing (word sounding, precision in spelling) may confuse children so that they begin to feel
powerless in the school context. In order for
teachers to enhance the literacy power of chil
dren, they themselves must be knowledgeable of recent research in reading and writing, of
the roles of reading and writing in the lives of
children, and of effective ways of promoting
reading and writing development.
Fagan directs the Reading and Language Center
at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. He is interested in how literacy is taught and how children think about reading and writing.
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