employee employer perspectives - Boston College · for which type of employee (regular or non-regular) employers allocate workplace-based resources for quality employment. The Sloan

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mind the gapjapan employerapril 2009

mind the gapjapan employer

april 2009

introduction

Organizations that want to remain employers-of-choice must periodically assess how shifts in the business environment might affect the effectiveness of their talent man-agement strategies, policies and programs. Globalization and changes in the age composition of the workforce are two important 21st century trends that can have a significant impact on the need to customize and adjust core strategies and practices. Employers around the world are challenged by the need to establish talent manage-ment policies and practices that they are globally strategic and also relevant to specific country contexts. Forward-thinking employers are considering:

How might shifts in the age composition of the workforces in different πcountries affect the next generation of human resource policies and prac-tices? And, how might these policies and practices support the sustainability of πgreat places to work?

Masa Higo and Atsuhiro Yamada

In this paper, we present informa-tion about employers’ allocation of workplace-based resources, through workplace policies, company pro-grams, and institutional practices, which affect quality of employment in the country context of Japan.

This paper will draw data from a va-riety of administrative surveys with nationally-representative samples of employers in Japan, conducted in recent years mostly by the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare, Gov-ernment of Japan.

What does “mind the gap” mean?

Train stations across England play re-corded messages to remind passengers that they should “Mind the gap.” These words of caution urge train travelers to pay attention to the space between the door of the train car and the platform in the station.

For this paper, we use the phrase, “Mind-ing the Gap” to remind employers to pay attention to any gaps that might exist between the profile of human resource policies and programs typically available in one country compared to the profiles of availability in other countries.

employee employer perspectives

JAPAN

http://www.bc.edu/agingandwork2

In Japan, typically, quality of employment in contemporary Japan differs by sector of indus-try and size of the workplace.1 Thus, we will show how Japanese employers’ allocations of workplace-based resources for each of the eight dimensions of quality employment vary by industrial sector and company size (as measured by the number of employees2). Further-more, to the country’s current concern, over the last decade a gap in quality of employment has been growing between, in OECD’s classification, regular (fulltime and presumably lifetime) and non-regular (part-time and/or fixed-term) employees.3 Relative to regular employees, the non-regular counterpart seems trapped in lower wage, job insecurity, and lack of opportunities for job skill development.4 Thus, when appropriate, we will indicate for which type of employee (regular or non-regular) employers allocate workplace-based resources for quality employment.

The Sloan Center on Aging & Work in

Boston, in collaboration with the Middle-

sex University Business School in London,

created the Mind the Gap series to provide

employers with basic employment-related in-

formation country-by-country. There are two

types of papers in the Mind the Gap series.

Employee Series: This series examines the

perspectives that adults of different ages

have about employment and the assess-

ments that they make about their employ-

ment experiences. These papers focus on

one central question:

Does age affect employees’ preferences •

for an idealized job and their assess-

ments of their employment experiences?

Employer Series: This series examines

the prevalence of human resource policies

and programs at workplaces in a selected

country. Because most talent management

strategies and programs are age-neutral, we

compare the availability of selected human

resource policies in practices in the targeted

country with the availability of similar policies

and practices in a small number of countries

with approximate economic circumstances.

These papers focus on one core question:

How does the availability of human •

resource policies and programs in the

targeted country compare with other

countries?

Although papers in both series focus on a

single country, when the information con-

tained in two or more papers are considered

in tandem, it is possible to consider whether

employees’ perceptions of their employment

experiences vary from country to country.

Table of Contents

Quality of Employment: Dimensions of a “Good Job” and a “Good Place to Work” 3

Quality of Employment in Japan Indicators of Fair, Attractive, and Competitive Compensation & Benefits 4

Indicators of Opportunities for Development, Learning & Advancement 6

Indicators of Wellness, Health & Safety Protections 8

Indicators of Opportunities for Meaningful Work 10

Indicators of Provisions for Employment Security & Predictabilities 12

Indicators of Workplace Flexibility 14

Indicators of Culture of Respect, Inclusion & Equity 16

Indicators of Promotion of Constructive Relationships at the Workplace 18

Summary: Minding The Gap 20

Conclusion: Closing The Gap 20

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Quality of Employment: Dimensions of a “Good Job” and a “Good Place to Work”

Most people would agree that “good jobs” are a “good thing.” High quality jobs offer benefits to employees and to the organizations where they work.

Benefits for Employees: The quality of employment can affect the health πand well-being of employees. Research confirms that poor quality job (such as jobs requiring extreme work hours, jobs that are very demanding – par-ticularly those where employees do not have access to the resources they need to meet those demands) are associated with negative outcomes, including high stress levels and physiological reactions such cardio-vascular problems.1

Benefits for Employers: Employers often connect the quality of employ- πment they offer to employees to their employer-of-choice strategies. There is some evidence that the adoption of policies and practices that promote the quality of employment available to employees is related to positive out-comes for organizations, such as customer satisfaction and organizational performance.2 Employer-of-choice strategies can result in enhanced employ-ee engagement which, in turn, can be linked to organizational outcomes, including financial measures. For example, higher employee engagement can reduce costs, such as those associated with unwanted turnover. One study found that 59% of highly engaged employees report that they intend to stay with their employers in comparison to the 24% of disengaged em-ployees who “intend to stay.” 3 A number of studies have linked employee job satisfaction with positive performance indicators. Fortune reports posi-tive relationships between being recognized as a “great place to work” and stock indices.4,5

The Global Institute focuses on eight important dimensions of the quality of employment:

Fair, Attractive and Competitive Compensation & Benefits •

Opportunities for Development, Learning & Advancement •

Wellness, Health & Safety Protections •

Opportunities for Meaningful Work •

Provisions for Employment Security & Predictabilities •

Workplace Flexibility •

Culture of Respect, Inclusion & Equity •

Promotion of Constructive Relationships at the Workplace •

The following sections of this paper use the quality of employment framework to discuss the availability of workplace-based policies and programs in the United States.

Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections

Culture of Respect, Inclusion & Equity

Opportunities for Development, Learning & Advancement

Opportunities for Meaningful Work

WorkplaceFlexibility

Promotion of Constructive Relationships at the Workplace

Fair, Attractive and Competitive Compensation & Benefits

Quality ofEmployment

Provisions for Employment Security

& Predictabilities


quality employment in japan:

Indicators of Fair, Attractive and Competitive Compensation & Benefits

Compensation and benefits meet most of employees’ basic economic needs, and Ωthose are distributed in a fair and equitable manner.

About 23.5% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they had increased base wages or salaries for regular employees (excluding those for employees of managerial and semi-managerial positions) since the previous year.5

By • industrial sector, such base wage increase were more likely to be made in the min-ing (46.2%), transportation (34.7%), and manufacturing (30.9%) sectors, and they occurred least in the construction (10.1%) sector.5

By • company size, employers with 5,000 and more employees (29.9%) were substan-tially more likely to report that they made such base wage increase than employers with 1,000-4,999 employees (22.3%), those with 300-999 employees (23.8%), and those with 100-299 employees (23.5%).5

About 48.4% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they provided their regular employees with financial support for their housing costs as part of their fringe benefits.6

By • industrial sector, such fringe benefits were more likely to be provided in the finance & insurance (62.5%), real estate (60.3%), and utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (56.4%) sectors than in any other industry, and they were provided least in the medi-cal & health care (34.8%) sector.6

By company size, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that •they provided such fringe benefits; for instance, about 66.0% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 62.7% of those with 300-999 employees, and 54.1% of those with 100-299 employees reported that they provided such fringe benefits.6

Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities


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Figure 1: Percent Employers Implementing Official Systems to Evaluate Employees’ (both Regular and Non-Regular) Individual Performances as a Reference for Determining Wage/Salary by Industrial Sector.5

Figure 2: Percent Employers Implementing Official Systems to Evaluate Employees’ (both Regular and Non-Regular) Individual Performances as a Reference for Determining Wage/Salary by Company Size.5

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2008 Survey on Affairs concerning Wage/Salary Increase.

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2008 Survey on Affairs concerning Wage/Salary Increase.

Some employers in Japan conduct individual job performance evalu-ation for each employee as a refer-ence for setting his or her wage (or salary) in order to increase ‘fairness’ in distributing compen-sations among employees.7

As suggested by Figure 1, about 45.6% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they imple-mented official systems to evalu-ate employees’ (both regular and non-regular) performances as a reference for determining their wages/salaries. By industrial sec-tor, such systems were more likely to be implemented in the finance & insurance (86.6%), telecommu-nication (84.0%), and real estate (61.9%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were implemented least in the transpor-tation (28.1%) sector.5

By company size, as suggested by Figure 2, it is clear that the larger the employers, the more likely they were to report that they implemented official systems to evaluate employees’ (both regular and non-regular) performance as a reference for determining their wages/salaries. About 82.5% of employers with 1,000 and more, 71.5% of those with 300-999 employees, 57.0% of those with 100-299 employees, and 38.3% of those with 30-49 employees reported that they implemented such systems.5

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average

Transportation

Medical & Health Care

Mining

Restaurant & Hotel

Construction

Service

Manufacturing

Education & Research

Wholesale & Retail

Utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.)

Real Estate

Telecommunication

Finance & Insurance 86.6

84.0

61.9

58.2

55.6

44.5

43.0

42.2

39.4

38.5

30.3

28.9

28.1

45.6

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average

30 - 99

100 - 299

300 - 999

1,000 & more 82.5

71.5

57.0

38.3

45.6


Indicators of Opportunities for Development, Learning & Advancement

Opportunities for the development and advancement of job skills and knowledge Ωare made available in an accessible manner.

About 63.4% of employers in Japan reported in 2007 that they offered financial support for their regular employees’ work-related skill training and knowledge development.8

By • industrial sector, such training-related support was more likely to be offered in the finance & insurance (86.2%), medical & health care (86.1%), and utilities (electric-ity, gas, water, etc.) (83.5%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were offered least in the restaurant and hotel (38.6%) sector.8

By • company size, generally the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that such training-related support was offered; for instance, about 91.9 % of employers with 1,000-4,999 employees, 76.1% of employers with 100-299 employees, and 56.9% of employers with 30-49 employees reported that they offered financial support.8

Only about 19.5% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they made available paid training/education leave for their employees (including regular and non-regular employees).6

By • industrial sector, such opportunities were more likely to be available in the medical & health care (44.0%), utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (34.5%), and construc-tion (26.5%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were available least in the restaurant & hotel (6.6%) sector.6

By • company size, both large and small-sized employers were more likely than those of medium size to report that they made available such opportunities; for instance, about 22.3% of employers with 1,000-4,999 employees, 16.6 % employers with 300-499 employees, and 21.4% of employers with 50-99 employees reported that they offered such opportunities.6

Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities


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Figure 3: Percent Employers Offering ‘Off-the-Job Training and Education’10 for Regular Employees by Industrial Sector8

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2007 Basic Survey on Training and Talent Development.

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average


Restaurant & Hotel

Wholesale & Retail

Real Estate

Manufacturing

Transportation

Other

Telecommunications

Construction

Finance & Insurance


Utilities (Electricity, Gas, Water, etc.) 91.4

84.9

84.7

81.4

78.2

76.5

76.1

76.1

74.1

71.0

67.2

63.0

75.0

Today, the majority of employers in Japan report that they make avail-able opportunities for the develop-ment of job skill and education.9

As suggested by Figure 3, about 75.0% of employers in Japan reported in 2007 that they offered off-the-job training and education programs10 for their regular em-ployees. By industrial sector, such programs were more likely to be available in the utility (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (91.4%), medical & health care (84.9%), and finance & insurance (84.7%) than in any other industrial sector, and they were available least in the educa-tion & research (63.0%) sector.8

By company size, as suggested by Figure 4, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they offered their regular employees off-the-job training and education programs10; 100% of employers with 5,000 & more employees, 93.1% of those with 300-499, and 69.4% of those with 30-49 employees reported that they offered such programs.8

Figure 4: Percent Employers Offering ‘Off-the-Job Training and Education’ for Regular Employees by Company Size8

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2007 Basic Survey on Train-ing and Talent Development.

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average

30 to 49

50 to 99

100 to 299

300 to 499

500 to 999

1,000 to 4,999

5,000 and More 100

97.1

97.0

93.1

87.4

75.9

69.4

75.0


Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities


Indicators of Wellness, Health & Safety Protections

Safety, health, and well-being of employees are promoted through workplace Ωpolicies, and social protections are offered in case of injury or illness.

About 80.4% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they had (newly hired or elected from among current employees) at least one safety maintenance manager 11 in their companies.12

By • industrial sector, such safety-related practices were more likely to be in place in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (99.8%), construction (93.8%), and manufactur-ing (88.1%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were offered least in the service (60.2%) sector.12

By • company size, in general, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to re-port that such safety-related practices were in place; about 90.8% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 87.5% of those with 100-299 employees, and 74.4% of those with 50-99 employees reported that they had at least one safety maintenance manager.12

In 2008, about 18.5% of employers in Japan reported that they provided support (includ-ing financial support and workplace-based services) for regular employees’ mental health care needs.6

By • industrial sector, such support was more likely to be provided in the finance & insurance (47.9%), telecommunication (41.6%), and utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (35.8%) sectors, and such support was provided least in the education & re-search (2.5%) sector.6

By • company size, in general, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they offered such mental health care services; about 57.6% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 36.5% of those with 300-999 employees, and 14.1% of those with 30-99 employees reported that they offered such services.6

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In Japan, except for a few special cases, regular risk assessments at worksite are conducted by employ-ers on a voluntary basis.

As suggested by Figure 5, about 20.4% of employers in Japan reported in 2006 that they con-ducted risk assessments at their worksites on a regular basis. By industrial sector, such safety-relat-ed practices were more likely to be conducted in the utility (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (41.2%), transpor-tation (32.8%), and construction (84.7%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were conducted least in the telecommu-nication (9.3%) sector.12

By company size, as suggested by Figure 6, generally the smaller the employer, the more likely they were to report that risk assessments were conducted at the worksites on a regular basis; for instance, 22.1% of employers with 50-99 employees, 20.6% of those with 100-299 employees, and 19.6% of those with 1,000 & more reported that they conducted such assess-ments.12

Figure 5: Percent Employers Regularly Conducting Risk Assessments at the Worksites by Industrial Sector12

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2006 Basic Survey on Workplace Safety and Health.

Figure 6: Percent Employers Regularly Conducting Risk Assessments at the Worksites by Company Size12

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2006 Basic Survey on Workplace Safety and Health.

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0%

National Average

Telecommunication

Restaurant & Hotel

Services

Wholesale & Retail

Manufacturing

Construction

Transportation

Utilities (Electricity, Gas, Water, etc.)

32.8

41.2

23.3

22.2

18.8

18.6

10.5

9.3

20.4

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0%

National Average

10 to 49

50 to 99

100 to 299

300 to 999

1,000 & More 19.6

11.5

20.6

22.1

21.9

20.4


Indicators of Opportunities for Meaningful Work

Meaningfulness and fulfilling nature in employment are promoted at workplace. Ω

Only about 8.0% of employers in Japan reported in 2007 that they offered their regular employees with career counseling services that include consultations about employees’ concerns about current and future job-matches.8

By • industrial sector, such career counseling services were more likely to be offered in the finance & insurance (30.1%), utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (15.5%), and telecommunication (11.5%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were offered least in the transportation (2.3%) sector.8

By • company size, in general, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they offered such career counseling services; about 31.7% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 10.9% of those with 300-499 employees, and 7.6% of those with 50-99 employees reported that they provided such services.8

About 12.4% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they made available paid special incentive leave,13 for regular employees, which aim to support employees’ better work-family balance and to help increase work motivation through physical and metal refreshment.6

By • industrial sector, such opportunities were more likely to be made available in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (46.6%), and finance & insurance (41.9%), and telecommunication (33.1%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were made available least in the medical & health care (2.2%) sector.6

By • company size, in general, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they made available such opportunities; about 49.2% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 32.6% of those with 300-999 employees, and 18.0% of those with 100-299 employees reported that they made such opportunities available.6

Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities


[email protected] 11


Figure 7: Percent Employers Offering Volunteer/Community Participation Leave for Regular Employees by Industrial Sector6

Figure 8: Percent Employers Offering Volunteer/Community Participation Leave for Regular Employees by Company Size6

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2008 Comprehensive Survey on Employment Conditions.


Some employers in Japan offer special paid leave with a specific aim to provide their employees with opportunities to be refreshed from routine works by engaging in community activities.

As suggested by Figure 7, only about 2.8% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they offered volunteer/community participation leave for their regular employees. By industrial sector, such opportu-nities were more likely to be made available in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (20.0%), finance & insurance (12.7%), and telecom-munication (8.0%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were offered least in the res-taurant & hotel (0.4%) sector.6

By company size, as suggested by Figure 8, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they made available volun-teer/community participation leave; about 17.7% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 6.6% of those with 300-999 employees, and only 1.8% of those with 30-99 employees reported that they made such opportunities available.6

0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0%

National Average

Restaurant & Hotel

Transportation


Wholesale & Retail

Construction


Manufacturing

Service

Real Estate

Mining

Telecommunication

Finance & Insurance

Utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) 20.0

12.7

8.0

6.3

5.7

3.6

3.2

2.7

2.4

1.6

1.0

0.8

0.4

2.8

0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0%

National Average

30 to 99

100 to 299

300 to 999

1,000 & More 17.7

6.6

3.3

1.8

2.8


Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities


Indicators of Provisions for Employment Security & Predictabilities

Job security within an organization is promoted, and terms of employment are Ωcommunicated clearly, with an emphasis on smooth transitions through jobs and careers.

About 58.3% of employers in Japan reported in 2005 that they formally involved regular em-ployees (members or non-members of trade unions14) in making decisions about firing.15

By • industrial sector, such employee involvement (regular employees only) was more likely to be practiced in the wholesale & retail (88.7%), utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (88.2%), and restaurant & hotel (87.6%) sectors than in any other industrial sec-tor, and they were practiced least in the service (61.7%) sector.15

By • company size, in general, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that such employee involvement (regular employees only) was practiced; about 84.7% of employers with 5,000 & more employees, 77.8% of those with 100-299 employees, and 70.3% of those with 50-99 employees reported that they formally involved their regular employees in making decisions about firing.15

About 37.3% of employers in Japan reported in 2005 that they organized Employee Work Condition Councils,16 company-based councils, which consist of the representatives of both employers and employees (regular employees only), to discuss and negotiate hu-man resource management conditions, company’s business performance, and prospects for employment security within organizations.15

By • industrial sector, such company-based councils were more likely to be organized in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (90.4%), finance & insurance (68.9%), and transportation (51.9%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were orga-nized least in the medical & health care (22.5%) sector.15

By • company size, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they organized such company-based councils; about 80.8% of employers with 5,000 & more employees, 47.0% of those with 300-999 employees, and 22.8% of those with 50-99 employees reported that they organized such councils.15



Figure 9: Percent Employers Regularly Announcing Company Business Performance and Prospects for Employment Security by Industrial Sector15

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2005 Comprehensive Survey on Employer-Employee Relations.

Some employers in Japan maintain frequent and close communica-tion with their employees as a way to keep employees informed about their company business performance and prospects for job security.

As suggested by Figure 9, the majority of employers in Japan (96.8%) reported in 2005 that they regularly announced their business performance and future prospects for their business and employment stabilities to their employees. By industrial sector, such practices were slightly more likely to be practiced in the finance & insur-ance (100%), restaurant & hotel (99.5%), and real estate (99.5%) sectors than in any other industrial sectors, and they were practiced least in the education & research (95.6%) sector.15

Figure 10: Percent Employers Regularly Announcing Company Business Performance and Prospects for Employment Stability by Company Size15


By company size, as suggested by Figure 10, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they regularly announced their company business performance and future prospects for their busi-ness and employment stabilities to their employees; 100% of employ-ers with 1,000-4,999 employees, 97.4% of those with 100-299 employees, and 94.2% of those with 30-49 employees reported that that they maintained such practices.15

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average


Other

Manufacturing

Wholesale & Retail

Mining

Construction


Transportation

Telecommunication

Service


Real Estate

Restaurant & Hotel


99.5

99.5

99.1

98.0

98.0

97.0

96.9

96.7

96.2

96.1

96.1

96.0

95.6

96.8

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average

30 to 49

50 to 99

100 to 299

300 to 999

1,000 to 4,999

5,000 & More 99.9

100.0

99.1

97.4

94.0

94.2

96.8


Indicators of Workplace Flexibility

Employees’ options, choices, and control over work conditions are made avail- Ωable in an accessible manner.

About 40.5% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they voluntarily made available for their regular employees extra days off for childcare17 in addition to the current legal mandate.6

By • industrial sector, such extra flexible work options were more likely to be made avail-able in the finance & insurance (57.3%), utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (52.8%), and telecommunication (50.4%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were offered least in the mining (29.9%) sector.6

By • company size, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that such extra flexible work options for childcare were offered; for instance, about 56.7% of em-ployers with 1,000 & more employees, 47.8% of those with 300-999 employees, and 37.1% of those with 30-99 employees reported that they offered such extra days off.6

About 30.9% of employers in Japan reported in 2008 that they voluntarily offered their regular employees extra days off for elderly/family care18 in addition to the current legal mandate.6

By • industrial sector, such extra flexible work options were more likely to be offered in the finance & insurance (55.3%), utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (46.8%), and real estate (41.0%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were offered least in the restaurant & hotel (18.0%) sector.6

By • company size, generally, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that such extra flexible work options were offered; for instance, about 57.4% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 44.6% of those with 300-999 employ-ees, and 26.1% of those with 30-99 employees reported that they made such options available.6

Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities




Figure 11: Percent Employers Offering Flextime Work Options for Regular Employees by Industrial Sector6


Some employers in Japan make available flextime work hour op-tions as a way to increase their employees’ control over their work hours.

As suggested by Figure 11, only 6.2% of employers in Japan report-ed in 2008 that they made avail-able flextime work options for their regular employees. By industrial sector, such options were far more likely to be made available in the telecommunication (35.3%) sector than in any other industrial sector, followed by the utilities (electric-ity, gas, water, etc.) (15.3%), and medical & health care (10.7%) sec-tors. They were offered least in the construction (1.6%) sector.6

Figure 12: Percent Employers Offering Flextime Work Options for Regular Employees by Company Size6


By company size, as clearly sug-gested by Figure 12, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they made available flextime work options for their regular employees; about 29.4% of employers with 1,000-4,999 employees, 14.3% of those with 300-999 employees, and 6.9% of those with 100-299 employees reported that that they made such options available.6

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0%

National Average

Mining

Construction

Restaurant & Hotel

Real Estate

Transportation


Wholesale & Retail

Manufacturing

Other Service

Financial & Insurance



Telecommunication 35.3

15.3

10.7

7.6

6.1

5.4

4.9

4.2

3.7

3.2

2.2

1.6

5.0

6.2

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0%

National Average

50 to 99

100 to 299

300 to 999

1,000 & More 29.4

14.3

6.9

4.4

6.2


Indicators of Culture of Respect, Inclusion & Equity

Diversity, inclusion, and equity at workplace are valued and promoted by work- Ωplace practices.

About 24.1% of employers in Japan reported in 2007 that they made available both ma-ternity and paternity leave for their regular employees.19

By • industrial sector, such gender-equity human resource managements were more likely to be practiced (only for regular employees) in the finance & insurance (55.6%), telecommunication (45.6%), and medical & health care (33.6%) sectors than in any other industrial sectors and they were practiced least in the transportation (10.2%) sector.19

By • company size, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that such gender-equity human resource managements were practiced (only for regular employees); about 94.5% of employers with 5,000 & more employees, 63.9% of those with 300-999 employees, and 13.9% of those with 30-99 employees reported that they made such opportunities available.19

About 12.8% of employers in Japan reported in 2007 that they included their non-regular employees (i.e., part-time and/or fixed-term) as part of the beneficiaries for their work-place-based resources for mental health care needs.20

By • industrial sector, such inclusive support for non-regular employees was more likely to be made available in the finance & insurance (37.1%), utilities (electricity, gas, wa-ter, etc.) (29.8%), and telecommunication (28.8%) sectors than in any other indus-trial sector, and they were offered least in the restaurant & hotel (2.5%) sector.20

By • company size, generally the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that such inclusive support was made available for non-regular employees; about 46.8% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 29.0% of those with 300-999 employees, and 15.8% of those with 100-299 employees reported that they practiced such non-regular employee inclusions.20

Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities




Figure 13: Employers that Had Increased Female Employees (Regular and Non-Regular) since the Previous Year by Industrial Sector19

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2007 Basic Survey on Female Employment Management.

By international standards, Japan’s gender gap in employment rate is large.21 Some employers in Japan increase the number of female employees at their workplaces in order to mitigate such gender inequality.

As suggested by Figure 13, about 29.9% of employers in Japan reported in 2007 that they had increased the number of female employees, including regular and non-regular employees, at their workplaces since the previous year. By industrial sector, such female employment increases were more likely to be seen particularly in the finance & insurance (44.9%), medical & health care (41.7%), and telecommunication (39.5%) sectors, and they were seen least in the mining (21.9%) sector.19

Figure 14: Percent Employers that Had Increased Female Employees (Regular and Non- Regular) since the Previous Year by Company Size19

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2007 Basic Survey on Female Employment Management.

By company size, as suggested by Figure 14, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they had increased the num-ber of female employees, including regular and non-regular employees, at their workplaces since the previ-ous year; for instance, about 61.5% of employers with 5,000 & more employees, 41.3% of those with 300-999 employees, and 27.1% of those with 30-99 employees re-ported that they had more female employees than in the previous year.19

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0%

National Average

Mining

Construction

Restaurant & Hotel



Transportation

Manufacturing

Other Service

Wholesale & Retail

Real Estate

Telecommunitcation



41.7

39.5

32.3

32.3

30.3

30.0

29.5

28.8

26.5

22.8

22.3

21.9

29.9

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0%

National Average

30 to 99

100 to 299

300 to 999

1,000 to 4,999

5,000 & More 61.5

48.5

41.3

33.3

27.1

29.9


Wellness, Health &

Safety Protections








& Predictabilities


Indicators of Promotion of Constructive Relationships at Work

Constructive relations between employers and employees are maintained, and Ωrespectful and professional interactions among co-workers are promoted by workplace practices.

The majority of employers in Japan (88.8%) reported in 2005 that they considered it “important for their company business performance” to develop or maintain positive relations between employers and employees.15

By • industrial sector, the importance of positive employer-employee relations was more likely to be reported by employers in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (98.3%), telecommunication (95.5%), and transportation (92.1%) sectors than in any other industrial sectors, and it was reported least by those in the service (83.9%) sector.15

By • company size, employers with 1,000-4,999 employees (90.0%) and those with 50-99 employees (89.6%) were more likely than those with 300-999 employees (87.0%) to report that the development and maintenance of positive employer-employee rela-tions were important for their business performance.15

About 23.2% of employers in Japan reported in 2005 that they organized Internal Com-plaints Advocacy Councils,22 which aim to facilitate effective employer-employee commu-nications when employees have complaints about work conditions and human resource management practices at the workplaces.15

By • industrial sector, such councils were more likely to be organized in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (74.9%), finance & insurance (50.1%), and transporta-tion (32.4%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were lest likely to be organized in the education & research (7.8%) sector.15

By • company size, in general, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to re-port that they organized such councils; about 31.7% of employers with 1,000 & more employees, 10.9% of those with 300-499 employees, and 7.6% of those with 50-99 employees reported that they organized such councils.15



Figure 15: Percent Employers Holding Regular Office Meetings23 with Employees (including Regular and Non-Regular) by Industrial Sector15


Some employers in Japan regularly hold office meetings as a venue through which to discuss directly with employees, share work-relat-ed concerns, and prevent frictions not only between employers and employees but also among em-ployees of different levels.

As suggested by Figure 15, about 49.8% of employers in Japan re-ported in 2005 that they held regu-lar office, face-to-face meetings23 with employees (including regular and non-regular), which aim specifically to develop or maintain constructive relationships among workers and between employers and employees at the workplace. By industrial sector, such meet-ings were more likely to be held in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) (84.6%), finance & insur-ance (73.7%), and transportation (65.7%) sectors than in any other industrial sector, and they were held least in the telecommunica-tion (38.7%) sector.15

Figure 16: Percent Employers Holding Regular Office Meetings with Employees (including Regular and Non-Regular) by Company Size15


By company size, as suggested by Figure 16, the larger the employer, the more likely they were to report that they held regular office, face-to-face meeting23 with employees (including regular and non-regular), which aim specifically to develop or maintain constructive relationships among workers and between employers and employees at the workplace; about 72.3% of employers with 5,000 & more, 52.9% of those with 300-999 em-ployees, and 39.7% of those with 50-99 employees reported that they held such meetings with their employees.15

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average

Telecommunication


Real Estate

Other

Other Service

Manufacturing

Construction

Wholesale & Retail


Restaurant & Hotel

Mining

Transportation

Finance & Insurance

Utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.) 84.6

73.7

65.7

59.5

55.4

50.0

47.4

46.7

45.6

45.5

44.4

40.0

38.7

39.2

49.8

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

National Average

30 to 49

50 to 99

100 to 299

300 to 999

1,000 to 4,999

5,000 & More 72.3

53.8

52.9

47.0

46.5

39.2

49.8


summary: minding the gap

Based on the information presented in this paper about employers’ allocations of work-place-based resources for our eight quality employment indicators, how do we character-ize employers-of-choice in Japan? Our findings may be summarized as follows:

By • industrial sector, the information presented suggests that, in general, employers in the utilities (i.e., electricity, gas, water, etc.), finance & insurance, and telecom-munication sectors provide workplace-based resources, which cover substantially more dimensions of the quality employment indicators than do those in any other industry.

By • company size, the information presented suggests that, in general, the larger the employer (as measured by the number of employees), the more likely they are to provide workplace-based resources for quality employment across the eight dimen-sions of the indicators.24

By • employment status (regular vs. non-regular employees), the information presented clearly suggests that, in general, employers allocate workplace-based resources for quality employment primarily for their regular employees. Japanese employers’ attempt to promote quality employment of non-regular employees seems marginal compared to that of the regular counterpart.

These findings altogether suggest that, in general, • for regular employees, large-sized employers in the utilities (electricity, gas, water, etc.), finance & insurance, and telecom-munication sectors of industry provide more workplace-based for quality employment than do employers in any other categories. Thus, in the country context of Japan today, employers-of-choice for regular employees may be found among employers of these categories.

conclusion: closing the gap

The information presented in this paper has delivered suggestive and general background knowledge about possible employers–of-choice in Japan today. More specific inquiries in the future may obtain more in-detailed and definitive information about what in the current country contexts have enabled the possible employers-of-choice in Japan to provide more workplace-based resources for quality employment than do any other type of employer.

In concluding this paper, we draw two major implications for employers about looming human resource challenges in the decade ahead.

1. Current economic downturn and deregulation of industries

Possible employers-of-choice in Japan today may be found in three industrial sectors - utilities (i.e., electricity, gas, water, etc.), finance & insurance, and telecommunication. Similar to some other country contexts, in Japan these sectors represent regulated indus-tries – industrial sectors in which the government (central and/or local) controls their resources, price, profits, etc. in order to protect growth and stability of their businesses.25



Since the burst of the bubble economy in the early 1990s, the Japanese government has been gradually deregulating various sectors of the country’s industry in order to increase effectiveness and competitiveness of the sectors’ business against intensifying global competition.25 Despite this ongoing trend, these three sectors have remained most pro-tected by the government and thus less exposed to the impacts of deregulation.26

However, the current global economic downturn may place the Japanese government under pressure over the next decade to further deregulate these three most-protected in-dustrial sectors. Such deregulation process may posit a severe challenge against those em-ployers’ remaining employers-of-choice. The impact of such deregulation on the employers of these three industrial sectors may not be minimal – in the decade ahead, employers of other industrial sectors might find ways to provide continuous allocate more workplace-based resources for quality of employment than do those of the three industrial sectors.

2. Non-regular employees and job skill development

In Japan, where lifetime employment is still a prevalent human resource management practice, a growing gap of quality of employment between those inside of the institu-tion – regular employees – and those outside of it - non-regular employees – has been a major public concern roughly over the last decade.

Non-regular employees have always participated in the country’s workforce as part-time and fixed-term employees. However, the share of non-regular employees within the country’s workforce has rapidly increased from 20.2% in 1990 to 33.7% in 2007.2 More problematically, non-regular employment is overrepresented typically by those in their 20s. In generalnon-regular employees are substantially less likely to receive workplace-based resources to develop or advance job skills and knowledge in a long-term and stable manner.2

A long-term concern for Japanese employers is, younger workers’ lack of sufficient op-portunities for job skill development. Such lack of opportunity could lead to a decrease of quality in a workforce employers may rely on in the decades ahead.27 Japan as a whole is characterized by cultural and linguistic homogeneity, strict immigration policy, scarce natural resources, and severe workforce shortages projected in the decade ahead.28 In order to remain competitive in the increasingly competitive global economy today and in the future, employers in Japan are called for fully engaging in expanding opportunity for job skill development for non-regular employees at large and for younger workers in particular.


about the institute

Established in 2007 by the Center on Aging & Work, the Global Perspectives Institute is an international collaboration of scholars and employers committed to the expansion of the quality of employment available to the 21st century multi-generational workforce in countries around the world.

The Global Perspectives Institute focuses on innovative and promising practices that might be adopted by employers and policy-makers.

The Institute’s research, publications, and international forums contribute to:a deeper understanding of the employment experiences and career aspira- Ωtions of employees of different ages who work in countries around the world;informed decision making by employers who want to be employers-of-choice Ωin different countries; andinnovative thinking about private-public partnerships that promote sustain- Ωable, quality employment.

Apart from the Mind the Gap series, the Global Perspectives Institute publishes a Statis-tical Profile Series highlighting workforce demographic trends in different coutries as well as a Global Policy Series focusing on selected worforce policy in certain country contexts.

For more information on our publications, please visit us online at: www.bc.edu/agingandwork

The Sloan Center on Aging & Work at Boston College promotes quality of employment as an imperative for the 21st century multi-generational workforce. We integrate evidence from research with insights from workplace experiences to inform innovative organi-zational decision-making. Collaborating with business leaders and scholars in a multi-disciplinary dialogue, the Center develops the next generation of knowledge and talent management.

The Sloan Center on Aging & Work is grateful for the continued support of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.



Masa Higo

Research Associate

The Sloan Center on Aging & Work at Boston College

Doctoral Candidate

The Department of Sociology, Boston College

Masa Higo is a research associate at the Sloan Center on Aging & Work at Boston College, and is a teaching

fellow and a doctoral candidate in the Sociology Department at Boston College. He teaches social gerontol-

ogy courses, and conducts research on cross-national comparative public policy with respect to older worker

labor force participation, retirement, and health care for the elderly with a special country focus on Japan, the

United States, and the United Kingdom.

Atsuhiro Yamada

Associate Professor, Social Policy

The Department of Economics, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan

Atsuhiro Yamada is a labor economist and is currently Associate Professor of Social Policy at Keio Univer-

sity (Tokyo, Japan). He co-authored The Economics of Older Workers in Japan (2004, Tokyo: Nihon Keizai

Shinbun-sha), and has written a large number of journal articles on the effect of various public policies

related to older workers. As a national expert (Japan) for the Organization for Economic Co-operation

and Development (Paris, France), he also researches the income distribution of older population in Japan

from cross-national comparative perspectives.


references

1 For example, see:

Barnett, R. C., & Gareis, K. C. (2002). Full-time and reduced-hours work schedules and marital quality: A study of

female physicians with young children. Work and Occupations, 29(3), 364-379.

Butler, A. B., Grzywacz, J. G., Bass, B. L., & Linney, K. D. (2005). Extending the demands-control model: A daily

diary study of job characteristics, work-family conflict and work-family facilitation. Journal of Occupational and

Organizational Psychology, 78(2), 155-169.

Karasek, R. A., Jr. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign.

Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285-308.

Kasl, S. V. (1996). The influence of the work environment on cardiovascular health: A historical, conceptual, and

methodological perspective. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1(1), 42-42.

Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-

sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health,

78(10), 1336-1342.

Lewis, S. Brookes, M., Mark, A. & Etherington, D. (2008). Work engagement, work-family enrichment and gender:

A positive approach to quality of working life. Working Paper. London: Middlesex University Business School.

Melchior, M., Niedhammer, I., Berkman, L. F., & Goldberg, M. (2003). Do psychosocial work factors and social

relations exert independent effects on sickness absence? A six year prospective study of the GAZEL cohort.

Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 57(4), 285-293. doi:10.1136/jech.57.4.285

Swanberg, J. E., & Simmon, L. A. (2008). Quality jobs in the new millennium: Incorporating flexible work options

as a strategy to assist working families. Social Service Review, 82(1), 119-147.

Wilson, M. G., Dejoy, D. M., Vandenberg, R. J., Richardson, H. A., & McGrath, A. L. (2004). Work characteristics

and employee health and well-being: Test of a model of healthy work organization. Journal of Occupational and

Organizational Psychology, 77(4), 565-588.

2 For example, see:

Allen, T. D., Eby, L. T., Poteet, M. L., Lentz, E., & Lima, L. (2004). Career benefits associated with mentoring for

protégés: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 127-136.

Barnett, R. C., & Hall, D. T. (2001). How to use reduced hours to win the war for talent. Organizational Dynam-

ics, 29(3), 192.

Edmans, A. (2008). Does the stock market fully value intangibles? Employee satisfaction and equity prices. Phila-

delphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania- The Wharton School. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=985735

3 Towers Perrin. (2005). Winning strategies for a global workforce: Attracting, retaining and engaging employees

for competitive advantage. Stamford,CT: Towers Perrin. Retrieved from http://www.towersperrin.com/tp/

getwebcachedoc?webc=HRS/USA/2006/200602/GWS.pdf

4 Great Places to Work Institute. What makes a great place to work: Financial results. Retrieved April 15, 2009, from

http://www.greatplacetowork.com/great/graphs.php

5 Unfortunately, most of the research linking employer-of-choice strategies with business outcomes tends to focus

on correlational relationships. Such studies do not definitively establish that being a “best place to work”

causes positive organizational performance; indeed, it might also be true that high profits and strong financial

growth cause higher employee engagement and foster perceptions that a particular workplace is an employer-

of-choice.

6 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2008 Comprehensive Survey on

Employment Conditions [Heisei 19 nen Shu ro Jo ken So go Cho sa]. Data obtained for this survey were drawn

from 4,178 companies (the response rate: 78.2%). Retrieved from http://wwwdbtk.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/kouhyo/

indexkr_8_9_1.html.



7 To date, employees’ wages and salaries have been determined based largely on the length of service (to the

same employer), qualifications (i.e., educational background), and the business performance of the office,

workplace, or company where the employees serve. In the context of Japan, the introduction of official systems

to evaluate employees’ individual performances as reference points for determining their wages or salaries

may be interpreted as an employer effort to increase fairness and transparency in deciding wages or salaries.

8 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2007 Basic Survey on Training and

Talent Development [Heisei 18 nen No ryoku Kaihatsu Kihon Cho sa]. Data obtained for this survey were drawn


indexkr_38_1.html.

9 Employers in Japan, those of large companies (i.e., 1,000 & more employees) in particular, have typically

practiced continuous job rotations and office relocations mostly of their regular employees throughout their

careers within the organizations. Employers maintain such internal labor market strategies as part of their

long-term strategies to formulate and develop employees’ organization-specific job skill, knowledge, and social

network. Such practices do not necessarily aim at employee career development based on employees’ own

preferences or desires. For this discussion, see:

Barnes, William (2001). “Internal labor market” Pp. 202-204 in Encyclopedia of Japanese business and manage-

ment, 1st ed. Allan Bird (ed). London: Routledge.

Okusa, Yasushi, Giorgio Brunello, & Kenn Ariga (2000). “Occupational and internal labor markets in Japan.

Industrial Relations” Journal of Economy and Society. 36(4): 446-473.

10 The term, “Off-the Job Training and Education,” refers to a form of collective education, typically including a

series of lectures, panel discussions, role-playing, etc., for training, developing, and updating workers’ work-

related skills and knowledge. As an antonym of On-the Job Training and Education, Off-the-Job Training and

Education is typically held away from regular workplaces; employers often pay to send their employees such

venues.

11 Safety Maintenance Manager (Anzen Kanrisha, in Japanese), refers to a person qualified by the Ministry of

Health, Labor and Welfare to be responsible for maintaining worksite safety and health. Since October, 2006,

the Law concerning Industrial Safety and Health (Law No. 57 of June 8, 1972) mandated that employers in

certain industrial sectors (i.e., mining, manufacturing, transportation, etc.) with 50 and more employees hire

at least one qualified safety maintenance manager.

12 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2006 Basic Survey on Workplace Safety

and Health [Heisei 17 nen Ro do Anzen Eisei Kihon Cho sa]. Data obtained for this survey were drawn from

8,543 companies (the response rate: 70.9%). Retrieved from http://wwwdbtk.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/kouhyo/in-

dexkr_13_9.html.

13 The term, Special Incentive Leave, refers to a form of leave policy aiming to provide employees with opportunities

to spend time specifically for their work-life balance and to increase work-related motivations by engaging in

non-work activities. Employers voluntarily make available this leave policy since the current labor law or public

policy does not mandate the provision of this leave program.

14 An employee union in Japan is characteristically organized and operated within each company. While nationwide

federations of unions exist, often employees organize such company-based unions operate the unions rather

as an integral part of the company. Typically, due to its close relation to the companies, company-based unions

do not wish to harm the economic wellbeing of the company and thus considerably limit their actions in

burgeoning and negotiations. For this discussion, see:

Debroux, Philippe (2003). Human resource management in Japan: Changes and uncertainties. London: Ashgate

Publishing.

Kumazawa, Makoto (1996). Portraits of the Japanese workplace: Labor Movements, Workers, and Managers.

Oxford: Westview Press.

15 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2005 Comprehensive Survey on

Employer-Employee Relations [Heisei 16 nen Ro shi Kankei So go Cho sa]. Data obtained for this survey were

drawn from 2,748 companies (the response rate: 68.7%). Retrieved from http://wwwdbtk.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/

kouhyo/indexkr_11_11.html.


16 The term, Employee Work Condition Council (Ro shi Kyo gi Kikan, in Japanese), refers to a section organized

within a company consisting both of employers and employees, which aims to facilitate employees’ negotia-

tions over company management, production processes, work conditions, and fringe benefits. Employee Work

Condition Councils operate independently of a trade union in that the former actively involves itself with the

management affairs of the company as its main activity.

17 Currently, the Labor Standard Law (Law No. 49 of April 7, 1947) in Japan mandates that employers provide their

employees of both genders in the private sector employment with up to 19 month for their childcare leave if

requested. For public sector employees, the duration of child care leave can be up to 36 months.

18 For elderly/family care leave, the Labor Standard Law (Law#: 49/1947) mandates that employers provide their

employees with up to 93 consecutive days per year if requested.

19 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2007 Basic Survey on Female Employ-

ment Management [Heisei 18 nen Josei Koyo kanri Kihon Cho sa]. Data obtained for this survey were drawn


indexkr_17_5_1.html.

20 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Government of Japan. (2009). The 2007 Survey on Working Conditions of

Part-Time Employees [Heisei 18 nen Part-Time Ro do sha Koyo kanri Kihon Cho sa]. Data obtained for this survey

were drawn from 6,653 companies (the response rate: 72.8%). Retrieved from http://wwwdbtk.mhlw.go.jp/

toukei/kouhyo/indexkr_17_5_1.html.

21 As of 2007, for the average of OECD (30) countries, the employment rate in this year was 79.0% for men and

59.4% for women; the gender gap was about 19.6%. Japan’s gender gap in employment rate was wider than

that of the OECD average – for Japan, the employment rate was 89.8% for men and 64.4% for women; the

gender gap was 25.4%. Japan’s gender gap in employment rate was substantially wider than that of the aver-

age of 15 European Union countries (15.4%), United States (12.5%), Germany (12.15), and France (9.3%).

22 The term, Internal Complaints Advocacy Council (Kujyo Shori Kikan, in Japanese), refers to a workplace-based,

voluntarily organized group consisting both of employers and employees, which aims to facilitate communica-

tion between employers and employees especially when employees have major complaints concerning their

daily work conditions and employers’ human resource management practices.

23 The term, Regular Office Meetings (Shokuba Kondan Kai, in Japanese), refers to employer-initiative, office-based

regular meetings aiming specifically to facilitate face-to-face communication between employees and office

managers. Main agenda for this type of meeting include current and future business performance of the com-

pany and workplace conditions at the worksite.

24 An exception in this context is found in employers’ practice of conducting risk assessments at the worksite as

part of the indicator of Wellness, Health, & Safety Protection.

25 Beeman, Michael L. (2002). Public policy and economic competition in Japan: Change and continuity in antimo-

nopoly policy, 1973-1995. London: Routledge.

26 Hosoe, Nobuhiro (2004). “The deregulation of Japan’s electricity industry” Japan and the World Economy 18

(2006): 230–246.

27 Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2008). Jobs for youth: Japan. Paris: OECD.

28 The Global Institute, the Sloan Center on Aging & Work at Boston College (2008). Statistical profile of Japan,

Country Profile No.1 November 2007. Retrieved from: http://agingandwork.bc.edu/documents/CP01_Work-

force_Japan.pdf



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Mind The Gap Series:

mtg01: United States, Employee mtg01: United States, Employermtg02: Japan, Employee mtg02: Japan, Employer

Documents

employee employer perspectives - Boston College · for which type of employee (regular or non-regular) employers allocate workplace-based resources for quality employment. The Sloan