Emotions 1st Chapter

8/2/2019 Emotions 1st Chapter

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Emotion is a complexpsychophysiologicalexperience of an individual's state of mind as

interacting withbiochemical(internal) andenvironmental(external) influences. Inhumans,

emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressivebehaviors, andconscious

experience."[1]Emotion is associated withmood,temperament,personality,disposition,

andmotivation. Motivations direct and energize behavior, while emotions provide the affective

component to motivation, positive or negative.[2]

Emotion classificationsystem exists, though numeroustaxonomieshave been proposed.

Some categorizations include:[citation needed]

"Cognitive" versus "non-cognitive" emotions

Instinctual emotions (from theamygdala), versus cognitive emotions (from theprefrontal

cortex).

Universal emotions recognized cross-culturally based on research on identification offacial

expressions

Characteristics of Emotional IntelligenceDaniel Goleman, an American psychologist, developed a framework of five elements that define emotionalintelligence:

Self-AwarenessPeople with high emotional intelligence are usually very self-aware. Theyunderstand their emotions, and because of this, they don't let their feelings rule them. They're confident

because they trust their intuition and don't let their emotions get out of control.

They're also willing to take an honest look at themselves. They know their strengths and weaknesses,

and they work on these areas so they can perform better. Many people believe that this self-awareness

is the most important part of emotional intelligence.

Self-RegulationThis is the ability to control emotions and impulses. People who self-regulatetypically don't allow themselves to become too angry or jealous, and they don't make impulsive,

careless decisions. They think before they act. Characteristics of self-regulation are thoughtfulness,

comfort with change, integrity, and the ability to say no. MotivationPeople with a high degree of emotional intelligence are usually motivated. They're

willing to defer immediate results for long-term success. They're highly productive, love a challenge,

and are very effective in whatever they do.

EmpathyThis is perhaps the second-most important element of emotional intelligence. Empathy isthe ability to identify with and understand the wants, needs, and viewpoints of those around you.

People with empathy are good at recognizing the feelings of others, even when those feelings may not

be obvious. As a result, empathetic people are usually excellent at managing relationships, listening,

and relating to others. They avoid stereotyping and judging too quickly, and they live their lives in a

very open, honest way.

Social SkillsIt's usually easy to talk to and like people with good social skills, another sign of highemotional intelligence. Those with strong social skills are typically team players. Rather than focus on

their own success first, they help others develop and shine. They can manage disputes, are excellent

communicators, and are masters at building and maintaining relationships.

MODELS

1.THE ABILITY BASED MODEL
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1. Emotional Perception and Expression - the ability to accurately identify andexpress feelings

The ability for self-awareness; to be aware of your own feelings as they areoccurring.

The ability to become emotionally literate. The ability to learn to identify and labelspecific feelings in yourself and others and the ability to clearly and directlycommunicate and discuss these emotions.

2. Use of Emotions - the ability to use your feelings constructively

The ability to let your feelings guide you to what is important to think about The ability to use your feelings to help you decisions which are healthy for both

you and the rest of the human race

3. Emotional Understanding - the ability to understand the meanings of emotions andhow they can change

This includes the ability to understand...

The purpose of emotions; understanding their survival value to the species The relationships between emotions; how and why they can change from

one feeling to another The emotions which lead to the behavior in yourself and others The relationship between thoughts and feelings The causes of emotions and their relationship to our human psychological

needs, especially our unmet emotional needs.

4. Emotional Management - the ability to manage emotions for personal and socialgrowth

The ability to take responsibility for one's own feelings and happiness The ability to turn negative emotions into positive learning and growing

opportunities The ability to help others identify and benefit from their emotions

2 .Mixed models

The model introduced by Daniel Goleman[18]focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and

skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman's model outlines four main EI constructs:

1. Self-awareness the ability to read one's emotions and recognize their impact while

usinggut feelingsto guide decisions.
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2. Self-management involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and adapting to

changing circumstances.

3. Social awareness the ability to sense, understand, and react to others' emotions while

comprehendingsocial networks.

4. Relationship management the ability to inspire, influence, and develop otherswhilemanaging conflict.

Goleman includes a set ofemotional competencieswithin each construct of EI. Emotional

competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and

can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born

with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional

competencies.[19]Goleman's model of EI has been criticized in the research literature as mere

"pop psychology" (Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008).

[edit]Measurement of the Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model

Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:

1. The Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999, and the

Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI), which was created in 2007.

2. The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal, which was created in 2001 and which can be

taken as a self-report or 360-degree assessment.[20]

[edit]Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI)

Bar-On[2]defines emotional intelligence as being concerned with effectively understanding

oneself and others, relating well to people, and adapting to andcopingwith the immediate

surroundings to be more successful in dealing with environmental demands.[21]

Bar-On positsthat EI develops over time and that it can be improved through training, programming, and

therapy.[2]Bar-On hypothesizes that those individuals with higher than average EQs are in

general more successful in meeting environmental demands and pressures. He also notes that

a deficiency in EI can mean a lack of success and the existence of emotional problems.

Problems in coping with one's environment are thought, by Bar-On, to be especially common

among those individuals lacking in the subscales of reality testing, problem solving, stress

tolerance, and impulse control. In general, Bar-On considers emotional intelligence and

cognitive intelligence to contribute equally to a person'sgeneral intelligence, which then offers

an indication of one's potential to succeed in life.[2]However, doubts have been expressed about

this model in the research literature (in particular about the validity of self-report as an index of

emotional intelligence) and in scientific settings it is being replaced by the trait emotional

intelligence (trait EI) model discussed below.[10]

[edit]Measurement of the ESI model

The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), is a self-report measure of EI developed as a

measure of emotionally and socially competent behavior that provides an estimate of one's
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emotional and social intelligence. The EQ-i is not meant to measure personality traits or

cognitive capacity, but rather the mental ability to be successful in dealing with environmental

demands and pressures.[2]One hundred and thirty three items (questions or factors) are used to

obtain a Total EQ (Total Emotional Quotient) and to produce five composite scale scores,

corresponding to the five main components of the Bar-On model. A limitation of this model is

that it claims to measure some kind of ability through self-report items (for a discussion, see

Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2001). The EQ-i has been found to be highly susceptible to

faking (Day & Carroll, 2008; Grubb & McDaniel, 2007).

[edit]Trait EI model

Soviet-born British psychologist Konstantin Vasily Petrides ("K. V. Petrides") proposed a

conceptual distinction between the ability based model and atraitbased model of EI and has

been developing the latter over many years in numerous scientific publications.[9][22]Trait EI is "a

constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality."[22]In lay

terms, trait EI refers to an individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities. This definitionof EI encompasses behavioral dispositions and self perceived abilities and is measured byself

report, as opposed to the ability based model which refers to actual abilities, which have proven

highly resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI should be investigated within

apersonalityframework.[23]An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-

efficacy.

The trait EI model is general and subsumes the Goleman and Bar-On models discussed above.

The conceptualization of EI as a personality trait leads to a construct that lies outside

thetaxonomyof human cognitive ability. This is an important distinction in as much as it bears

directly on the operationalization of the construct and the theories and hypotheses that are

formulated about it.[9]

[edit]Measurement of the trait EI model

There are many self-report measures of EI,[24]including the EQ-i, the Swinburne University

Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT), and the Schutte EI model. None of these assess

intelligence, abilities, or skills (as their authors often claim), but rather, they are limited

measures of trait emotional intelligence.[22]One of the more comprehensive and widely

researched measures of this construct is the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire

(TEIQue), which was specifically designed to measure the construct comprehensively and is

available in many languages.

The TEIQue provides an operationalization for the model of Petrides and colleagues, that

conceptualizes EI in terms of personality.[25]The test encompasses 15 subscales organized

under four factors:Well-Being,Self-Control,Emotionality, andSociability.

Thepsychometricproperties of the TEIQue were investigated in a study on a French-speaking

population, where it was reported that TEIQue scores were globallynormally

distributedandreliable.[26]
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ional_intelligence#cite_note-pet2000-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence#cite_note-pet2000-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_traithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotional_intelligence&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence#cite_note-baron06-1


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The researchers also found TEIQue scores were unrelated to nonverbal reasoning (Raven's

matrices), which they interpreted as support for the personality trait view of EI (as opposed to a

form of intelligence). As expected, TEIQue scores were positively related to some of the Big

Five personality traits(extraversion,agreeableness,openness,conscientiousness) as well as

inversely related to others (alexithymia,neuroticism). A number of quantitative genetic studies

have been carried out within the trait EI model, which have revealed significant genetic effects

and heritabilities for all trait EI scores.[27]Two recent studies (one a meta-analysis) involving

direct comparisons of multiple EI tests yielded very favorable results for the TEIQue.[11][28]

3.The trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) model successfully integrates and extends

EIrelated ideas in a general framework that incorporates 15 specific facets.

The TEIQue assesses all of the above facets through 15 subscales. In addition, it

provides scores on four factors of broader relevance (well-being, self-control, emotionality,

and sociability). Below, you will find brief information about each of the scales and factors.

At all times, it is important to remember that scores on the trait EI facets do not reflect cognitive

abilities (e.g., IQ), but rather self-perceived abilities and behavioural dispositions.

The TEIQue is a scientific measurement instrument based exclusively on trait EI theory.

Trait EI theory is unrelated to what lay individuals understand by emotional intelligence and is

incompatible with all other models promoted in the various literatures. The TEIQue is not an

alternative to questionnaires or tests claiming to measure emotional intelligence. It is

Copyright K. V. Petrides 2001. All rights reserved.

specifically developed and updated to provide a gateway to trait EI theory. Trait EI theory is

developed in the context of the trait emotional intelligence research program.

Interpreting subscale scores

1.Emotion expression: High scores on this scale mean people are fluent in communicating

their emotions to others. They know what the best words are for expressing their feelings

accurately and unambiguously. Low scores on this scale indicate a difficulty in communicating

emotionrelated thoughts, even in situations when this is necessary. People with low scores find
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it difficult to let others know how they feel. Inability to express emotion may be indicative of a

more generalized problem of lack of self-confidence and social assertiveness.

2.Empathy: This scale measures the perspective-taking aspect of empathy: seeing the world

from someone elses point of view. In other words, it has to do with whether one can

understand other peoples needs and desires. People with high scores on this scale tend to be

skilful in conversations and negotiations because they take into account the viewpoints of those

they are dealing with. They can put themselves in somebody elses shoes and appreciate how

things seem to them. Low scorers have difficulty adopting other peoples perspectives. They

tend to be opinionated and argumentative and may often seem self-centred.

3Self-motivation: People with high scores on this scale are driven by a need to produce

highquality work. They tend to be determined and persevering. rewarded for their efforts

because they have a strong sense of achievement and are motivated from within. Low scorers

tend to need a lot of incentives and encouragement in order to get things done. They need

constant reward to keep going and they are more likely to give up in the face of adversity. They

also tend to have reduced levels of drive and persistence.

4.Emotion regulation: This scale measures short-, medium-, and long-term control of ones

own feelings and emotional states. High scorers have control over their emotions and can

change unpleasant moods or prolong pleasant moods through personal insight and effort. They

are psychologically stable and they know how to pick themselves up after emotional setbacks.

Low scorers are subject to emotional seizures and periods of prolonged anxiety or even

depression. They find it difficult to deal with their feelings and are often moody and irritable.

5.Happiness: This scale concerns pleasant emotional states, primarily directed towards the

present rather than the past (life satisfaction) or the future (optimism). High scorers are cheerful

and feel good about themselves. Low scorers often feel blue and can be overly negative about

things. More generally, people with low scores on this scale tend to be disappointed with their

life as it is at present. Along with self-esteem and optimism, this scale reflects your general

psychological state at present.

6.Social awareness: High scorers believe they have excellent social skills and are socially

sensitive, adaptable, and perceptive. They are good at negotiating, brokering deals, and


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influencing others. In addition, they tend to have control over their emotions and the manner in

which they express them, which enables them to function confidently in diverse social contexts,.

like parties or networking events. Low scorers believe they have limited social skills and often

feel anxious in unfamiliar settings because they are unsure about how to behave. They find it

difficult to express themselves clearly and have a small circle of acquaintances. They are

known for their limited interpersonal skills.

7.Low impulsiveness: This scale measures mainly dysfunctional (unhealthy) rather than

functional (healthy) impulsivity. Low impulsivity involves thinking before acting and

reflecting carefully before making decisions. High scorers on this scale weigh all the

information before they make up their mind, without, however, being overly cautious. Low

scorers tend to be impetuous and to give in to their urges. Much like children, they want

immediate gratification and have low self-control. They often speak without having thought

things through and they change their mind frequently.

8.Emotion perception: This scale measures emotion perception in ones own self as well as in

others. High scorers on this scale are clear about what they feel and able to decode other

peoples emotional expressions. In contrast, people with low scores on the emotion perception

scale are often confused about how they feel and do not pay much attention to the emotional

signals that others send out.

9.Self-esteem: The self-esteem scale measures ones overall evaluation of oneself. Highscorers have a positive view of themselves and their achievements. They are confident,

positive, and satisfied with most aspects of their life. Low scorers tend to lack self-respect and

to not value themselves very highly. Low self-esteem scores are often the result of challenges

in one or more of the other areas that the TEIQue assesses.


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10.Assertiveness: Individuals with high scores on this scale are forthright and frank. They

know how to ask for things, give and receive compliments, and confront others when necessary.

They have leadership qualities and can stand up for their rights and beliefs. Low scorers tend to

backdown even if they know they are right and have difficulty saying no, even when they feel

they must. As a result, they often end up doing things they do not want to do. In most cases,

they prefer to be part of a team rather than to lead it.

11.Emotion management: This scale concerns ones perceived ability to manage other

peoples emotional states. High scorers on the emotion management scale can influence other

peoples feelings (e.g., calm them down, console them, motivate them). They know how to

make others feel better when they need it. Low scorers can neither influence nor manage

others feelings.They become overwhelmed when they have to deal with other peoples

emotional outbursts and are less likely to enjoy socializing and networking.

12.Optimism: Like happiness, this scale is linked to well-being, albeit in a forward-looking way.

High scorers look on the bright side and expect positive things to happen in their life. Low

scorers are pessimistic and view things from a negative perspective. They are less likely to be

able to identify and pursue new opportunities and tend to be risk-averse. Along with happiness

and self-esteem, this scale reflects your general psychological state at this point in time.

13.Relationships: This scale mainly concerns ones personal relationships, including close

friends,

partners, and family. It is about starting and maintaining emotional bonds with others. High

scorers usually have fulfilling personal relationships that positively affect their productivity and

emotional well-being. They know how to listen and be responsive to the people close to them.

Low scorers find it difficult to bond well with others and tend to undervalue their personal

relationships. They often behave in ways that hurt those close to them.

Adaptability: High scorers are flexible in their approach to work and life. They are willing and

able to adapt to new environments and conditions in fact, they may even enjoy novelty and

regular change. Low scorers are change-resistant and find it difficult to modify their work- and


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life-style. They are generally inflexible and have fixed ideas and views.

Stress management: High scorers on this scale can handle pressure calmly and effectively

because they have developed successful coping mechanisms. More often than not, they are

good at regulating their emotions, which helps them tackle stress. Low scorers are less likely

to have developed stress-coping strategies. They may prefer to altogether avoid situations that

are potentially hectic, rather than deal with the associated tension. Their vulnerability to stress

is problematic, as it leads them to reject important, but time-demanding, projects.

Interpreting factor scores

Well-being: High scores on this factor reflect a generalized sense of well-being, extending from

past achievements to future expectations. Overall, individuals with high scores feel positive,

happy, and fulfilled. In contrast, individuals with low scores tend to have low self-regard and to.

be disappointed about their life as it is at present. Your well-being score largely depends on

your scores on the other three factors of the TEIQue.

Self-control: High scorers have a healthy degree of control over their urges and desires. In

addition to fending off impulses, they are good at regulating external pressures and stress.

They are neither repressed nor overly expressive. In contrast, low scorers are prone toimpulsive behaviour and seem to be incapable of managing stress. Low self-control are

associated with inflexibility.

Emotionality: Individuals with high scores on this factor believe they have a wide range of

emotion-related skills. They can perceive and express emotions and use these abilities to

develop and sustain close relationships with important others. Individuals with low scores on

this factor find it difficult to recognize their internal emotional states and to express their feelings

to others, which often leads to less rewarding personal relationships.

Sociability: The sociability factor differs from the emotionality factor above in that it

emphasises social relationships and social influence. The focus is on the individual as an agent


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in different social contexts rather than on personal relationships with family and close friends.

Individuals with high scores on the sociability factor are better at social interaction. They

believe they have good listening skills and can communicate clearly and confidently with people

from very diverse backgrounds. Those with low scores believe they are unable to affect others

emotions and are less likely to be good negotiators or networkers. They are unsure what to do

or say in social situations and, as a result, they often appear shy and reserved.

Theories

Somatic theories

Somatictheories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than judgements are essential toemotions. The first modern version of such theories comes from William James in the 1880s.

The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely

to theorists such asJohn Cacioppo,Antnio Damsio,Joseph E. LeDouxandRobert

Zajoncwho are able to appeal to neurological evidence.[citation needed]

[edit]JamesLange theory

Main article:JamesLange theory

William James, in the article "What is an Emotion?",[6]argued that emotional experience is

largely due to the experience of bodily changes. The Danish psychologistCarl Langealso

proposed a similar theory at around the same time, so this position is known as the James

Lange theory. This theory and its derivatives state that a changed situation leads to a changed

bodily state. As James says "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, isthe emotion."

James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because

we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as

the case may be."[6]

This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired

emotion is induced.[7]Such experiments also have therapeutic implications (for example,

inlaughter therapy,dance therapy). Some people may believe that emotions give rise to

emotion-specific actions: e.g. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I wasscared." The JamesLange theory, conversely, asserts that firstwe react to a situation (running

away and crying happen before the emotion), andthenwe interpret our actions into an emotional

response. In this way, emotions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us.

The JamesLange theory has until 1953 been all but abandoned by most scholars .[8]

Tim Dalgleish (2004)[9]states the following:
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The JamesLange theory has remained influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it

places on the embodiment of emotions, especially the argument that changes in the bodily

concomitants of emotions can alter their experienced intensity. Most contemporary

neuroscientists would endorse a modified JamesLange view in which bodily feedback

modulates the experience of emotion." (p. 583)

The issue with the JamesLange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and

being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emotional experience (which can be argued is

still quite prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).

[edit]Cognitive theories

Several theories argue that cognitive activityin the form of judgments, evaluations, or

thoughtsis necessary for an emotion to occur. This, argued byRichard Lazarus, is necessary

to capture the fact that emotions are about something or haveintentionality. Such cognitive

activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual

processing.

An influential theory here is that of Lazarus: emotion is a disturbance that occurs in the following

order: 1.) Cognitive appraisalThe individual assesses the event cognitively, which cues the

emotion. 2.) Physiological changesThe cognitive reaction starts biological changes such as

increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal response. 3.) ActionThe individual feels the emotion

and chooses how to react. For example: Jenny sees a snake. 1.) Jenny cognitively assesses

the snake in her presence, which triggers fear. 2.) Her heart begins to race faster. Adrenaline

pumps through her blood stream. 3.) Jenny screams and runs away. Lazarus stressed that the

quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes

underlie coping strategies that form the emotional reaction by altering the relationship betweenthe person and the environment.

George Mandlerprovided an extensive theoretical and empirical discussion of emotion as

influenced by cognition, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system in two books (Mind

and Emotion, 1975, and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984)

There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgements,

evaluations, or thoughts is necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent

philosophical exponent isRobert C. Solomon(for example, The Passions, Emotions and the

Meaning of Life, 1993). The theory proposed byNico Frijdawhere appraisal leads to action

tendencies is another example.

It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions)

are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior.[10]Theaffect infusion

model(AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that attempts

to explain how emotion and mood interact with one's ability to process information.
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[edit]Perceptual theory

A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This

theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it

emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as

is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually-basedcognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceivethe

meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In

this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which

provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A

sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactionsand

psychologist James Laird's book Feelings.

[edit]Affective events theory

This is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano

(1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience(especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by

events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also

emphasizes timein that human beings experience what they call emotion episodesa "series

of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme." This theory

has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative

lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article,

"Reflections on Affective Events Theory" published in Research on Emotion in Organizationsin

2005.

[edit]Cannon

Bard theoryIn theCannonBard theory,Walter Bradford Cannonargued against the dominance of the

JamesLange theory regarding the physiological aspects of emotions in the second edition

ofBodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Where James argued that emotional

behavior often precedes or defines the emotion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion

arises first and then stimulates typical behavior.

[edit]Two-factor theory

Another cognitive theory is theSingerSchachter theory. This is based on experiments

purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed

into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed toexpress either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation

displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and

the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This

experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.
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[edit]Component process model

A recent version of the cognitive theory regards emotions more broadly as the synchronization

of many different bodily and cognitive components. Emotions are identified with the overall

process whereby low-level cognitive appraisals, in particular the processing of relevance, trigger

bodily reactions, behaviors, feelings, and actions.

[edit]Situated perspective on emotion

A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino ,

emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of

emotion, drawing upon thesituationismapproach in psychology.[11]This theory is markedly

different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion

as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In

contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism

investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion

stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior ofother organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary)

could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated

perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since

emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino

suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well

as the emotions of infants and animals.

[edit]Evolutionary psychology

Illustration fromCharles Darwin'sThe Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

Main article:Evolution of emotion

Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated in the late 19th century

withCharles Darwin's bookThe Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[12]Darwin's

original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have cross-

culturally universal counterparts. Furthermore, animals undergo emotions comparable to our

own (seeemotion in animals). In the early 1970s,Paul Ekmanand colleagues began a line of

research that suggests that many emotions are universal.[2]He found evidence that humans

share at least five basic emotions: fear, sadness, happiness, anger, and disgust.[2]Other

research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of

animals and humans (seeaffect display). The increased potential inneuroimaginghas also

allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological

advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by, for example, Joseph E.

LeDouxandAntnio Damsio.
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Social emotions evidently evolved to motivate social behaviors that were adaptive in the

ancestral environment.[2]For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can

establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.[2]Shame and pride can motivate

behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's

estimate of one's status.[2][13]

[edit]Neurobiological theories

Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of thelimbic system,

theneurobiologicalexplanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant

mental state organized in the limbic system of themammalian brain. If distinguished from

reactive responses ofreptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of

generalvertebratearousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for

example,dopamine,noradrenaline, andserotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity

level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures.

For example, the emotion ofloveis proposed to be the expression ofpaleocircuitsof themammalian brain (specifically, modules of thecingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding,

and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured

before the advent ofcorticalcircuitsfor speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or

networks ofnerve cellsin theforebrain,brain stemandspinal cord.

The motor centers ofreptilesreact to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity,

and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-

activemammals, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of

responding arose from theolfactorysense, which is proposed to have developed

intomammalianemotion and emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heavilyinolfactionto succeed at night as reptiles sleptone explanation for why olfactory lobes in

mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually

formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain.

Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention,

motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering

work byBroca(1878),Papez(1937), andMacLean(1952) suggested that emotion is related to

a group of structures in the center of the brain called thelimbic system, which includes

thehypothalamus,cingulate cortex,hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has

shown that some of theselimbic structuresare not as directly related to emotion as others are,

while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.

In 2011, Lvheim proposed a direct relation between specific combinations of the levels of the

signal substancesdopamine,noradrenalineandserotoninand eight basic emotions. A model

was presented where the signal substances forms the axes of a coordinate system, and the

eight basic emotions according toSilvan Tomkinsare placed in the eight corners. Anger is,
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according to the model, for example produced by the combination of low serotonin, high

dopamine and high noradrenaline.[14]

Lvheim Cube of emotion

[edit]Prefrontal cortex

There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive

approach.[15]If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the

converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a

stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual

stimuli[16]and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.[17]

Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. The

Valence Model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal

cortex. The Direction Model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left

prefrontal cortex. The second model was supported.[18]

This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is

better described as moving away (Direction Model), as unmoving but with strength andresistance (Movement Model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (Action Tendency Model).

Support for the Action Tendency Model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from

research on shyness[19]and research on behavioral inhibition.[20]Research that tested the

competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the Action Tendency

Model.[21][22]
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[edit]Homeostatic/primordial emotion

Another neurological approach distinguishes two classes of emotion. "Classical" emotions

including love, anger and fear, are evoked by appraisal of scenarios fed by environmental

stimuli via distance receptors in the eyes, nose and ears.[23]"Homeostatic"[24]or

"primordial"[25]

emotions are feelings such as pain, hunger, thirst and fatigue, evoked by internalbody states, communicated to the central nervous system byinteroceptors, which motivate

behavior aimed at maintaining the body's internal milieu at its ideal state .[26]These demanding

sensations that capture conscious attention are coordinated from the lower or basal regions of

the brain and impact diverse regions of the brain, including the frontal lobes. [25]

[edit]Disciplinary approaches

Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions.Human sciencesstudy the role

of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. Inpsychiatry, emotions

are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in

humans.Nursingstudies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care

to humans.Psychologyexamines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as

mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological

processes. Inneurosciencesub-fields such associal neuroscienceandaffective neuroscience,

scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the

psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. Inlinguistics, the expression of emotion

may change to the meaning of sounds. Ineducation, the role of emotions in relation to learning

are examined.

Social sciencesoften examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social

interactions. Insociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social

patterns and interactions, and culture. Inanthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use

ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of

human activities; some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities.

In the field ofcommunication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role

of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even

customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited toArlie Russell Hochschild's

concept ofemotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet,[27]an e-mail

distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all

matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in

January 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe.

Ineconomics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of

goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to

assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a

social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences,

sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such asanomietheory
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_laborhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlie_Russell_Hochschildhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoceptorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p7-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Craig2003-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion#cite_note-Denton2006p10-22http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emotion&action=edit&section=16


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and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. Inlaw, which underpins civil

obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised

intort lawclaims for compensation and incriminal lawprosecutions against alleged lawbreakers

(as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings).

Inpolitical science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of

voter decision-making.

Inphilosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such asethics, thephilosophy of art(for

example,sensoryemotionalvalues, and matters oftasteandsentimentality), and

thephilosophy of music(see alsoMusic and emotion). Inhistory, scholars examine documents

and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of

the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. Inliteratureand film-

making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and

romance. Incommunication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the

dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals

inethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior.

Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and

evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of

unrelated animals.

[edit]Sociology

Main article:Sociology of emotions

We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on many

sometimes conflictingdemands upon us which originate from various entities studied by

sociology on a micro levelsuch as social roles and "feeling rules" the everyday socialinteractions and situations are shaped byand, on a macro level, by social institutions,

discourses, ideologies, etc. For example, (post-)modernmarriageis, on one hand, based on the

emotion of love and on the other hand the very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by it.

The sociology of emotions also focuses on generalattitude changesin a population. Emotional

appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent

examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing

the fear of terrorism.

[edit]Psychotherapy

Depending on the particular school's general emphasis either on cognitive components ofemotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression

components of emotion,[28]different schools ofpsychotherapyapproach human emotions

differently. Cognitively ori

Documents

Emotions 1st Chapter