PSY 1: LOPEZ, MDT

EMOTION AND MOTIVATION (Santrock, J. W.)

Emotion and motivation are closely linked. These terms both come from the Latin word movere, which means “to move”.

A. EMOTIONS

Emotion is defined as feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, behavioral expression, and conscious experience.

The Biology of Emotion

Arousal

The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the body’s arousal and is responsible for a rapid reaction to a stressor, and is sometimes referred to as the fight-or-flight response. It immediately causes an increase in blood pressure, a faster heart rate, more rapid breathing for greater oxygen intake, and more efficient blood flow to the brain and major muscle groups.

Measuring Arousal

One aspect of emotional arousal is galvanic skin response (GSR), which involves an increase in the skin’s electrical conductivity when sweat gland activity increases. Another measure of emotion is the polygraph, a machine used by examiners to try to determine if someone is lying. It monitors changes in the body’s heart rate, breathing, and electrodermal responses, which are thought to be influenced emotional states. When these indicators increase substantially, the one being tested is presumed to be lying.

James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Theories

The James-Lange Theory states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment. Emotion occurs after physiological reactions. Also, each emotion has a distinct set of physiological changes. It also proposes that after the initial perception, the experience of the emotion results from the perception of one’s own physiological changes.

Critics disagreed and said that different emotions could not be associated with specific physiological changes because autonomic nervous system responses are too diffuse and slow to account for rapid and differentiated emotional responses. This theory, later called the Cannon-Bard Theory, believed that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. In this theory, the body plays a less important role than in the James-Lange Theory.

Neural Circuits and Neurotransmitters

The focus of most researchers work has been on the amygdala, the almond-shaped structure in the limbic system that houses circuits that are activated when experiencing negative emotions. For example, when the amygdala determines that danger is present, it shifts into high gear, marshalling the resources of the brain in an effort to protect the organism from harm.

The roles of neurotransmitters in the neural pathways of emotions are also now being looked at. Endorphins and dopamine might be involved in positive emotions, such as happiness, and norepinephrine might function in regulating arousal.

Cognitive Factors

Cognitive Arousal Theory

In this theory of emotion, developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. They said that we look at the external world for an explanation why we are aroused. We interpret the external cues and label the emotion.

Behavioral Factors

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The behavioral component of emotion may be verbal or non-verbal. Verbally, a person may show love by professing it verbally. Non-verbally, a person might smile on the person he or she loves. The most focus of interest in the behavioral dimension of emotion is on the non-verbal behavior of facial expressions.

The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expression can influence emotions as well as reflect them. In this view, facial muscles send signals to the brain, which help individuals to recognize the emotion they are experiencing.

Sociocultural Factors

Culture and Expression of Emotion

Charles Darwin said that the facial expressions of humans are innate, not learned; are the same in all cultures around the world; and evolved from the emotions of animals. Psychologists also believe that emotions have strong biological ties.

Just as facial expression are, some other non-verbal signals appear to be universal indicators of certain emotions. For example, when people are depressed, it shows not only in their sad facial expressions but also in their slow body movements, downturned heads, and slumped posture.

Whereas facial expressions of basic emotions appear to be universal, display rules for emotion vary. Display rules are sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed. Other non-verbal signals of emotion also vary in different cultures.

A Negative Emotion: ANGER

Anger is a powerful emotion. It has strong effects not only on social relationships but also on the person experiencing the emotion. People often get angry when they feel they are not being treated fairly or when their expectations are violated. People especially get angry when they perceived the other person’s behavior as unjustified, avoidable, and willful.

Catharsis is the release of anger or aggressive energy by directly or vicariously engaging in anger or aggression. The catharsis hypothesis states that behaving angrily or watching others behave angrily reduces subsequent anger. Psychoanalysts promote catharsis as an important way to reduce anger.

A Positive Emotion: HAPPINESS

Psychologists’ interest in happiness focuses on positive ways we experience life, including cognitive judgments of our well-being. They want to know what makes people happy and how people perceive their happiness. Some of the factors that contribute to happiness are the following:

1. psychological and personality characteristics like high levels of self-esteem, optimism, extraversion

2. a supportive network of close relationships

3. a culture that offers positive interpretations of most daily events

4. being engaged by work and leisure

5. a faith that embodies social support, purpose, hope and religious attendance.

B. MOTIVATION

Motivation is an inner state that energizes behaviour for the fulfillment of a goal (Pittman, 1998).

Types of Motivation

1. Intrinsic Motivation is based on internal factors, such as self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort.

2. Extrinsic Motivation involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments.

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Theories of Motivation

1. Incentive Theory states that behaviour is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli, called positive incentives, and avoiding undesirable stimuli called negative incentives (Balleine, 2005).

2. 3 Types of Needs (David C. McClelland)

a. Need for Achievementb. Need for Affiliationc. Need for Power

3. Evolutionary Theory

An instinct is an innate (unlearned), biological pattern of behaviour that is assumed to be universal throughout a species. The motivation for sex, aggression, achievement, and other behaviors is rooted in our evolutionary past. If a species is highly competitive, it’s because it improved the chance for survival.

4. Drive Reduction Theory

A need is a deprivation that energizes the person to eliminate or reduce the deprivation. A drive is an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need. The goal is to maintain an equilibrium or steady state to keep the body in an optimal state (homeostasis).

5. Optimal Arousal Theory

The Yerkes–Dodson Law states that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal. But, there are times when either low or high arousal produces optimal performance.

6. Opponent–Process Theory of Acquired Motives (Richard Solomon)

a. Any feeling that is experienced many times in succession loses some of its intensity.b. Every state of positive feeling is followed by a contrasting negative feeling, and vice versa.

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