Emissions and homologation cycles: will it be the end of the ICE ?

Roberto Cipollone

roberto.cipollone@univaq.it

73° Congresso Nazionale ATI, Pisa 12-14 Settembre 20181

Limiting factors of the «thermalpropulsion»

• Pollutants concern:– Relevance– Responsibility– Limits, reference homologation cycles (with RDE) and

political european «deviations»– The «shame» of the diesel european technology

• Global warming concern– Limits– Contraddictions related to CO2 emissions

• How long can NOX and CO2 decrease (according to present and “out of the door technologies”) in ICE ?

• Hints & conclusions

2

Pollution in urban areas and CO2 emissions are limiting

the future of ICE

Limiting factors of the «thermal propulsion»

3

The relevance of «pollution»

500 million people live in 75 cities; 100 million in the top 5(Shanghai, Beijing, Lagos, Tientsin, Karachi)

4

The relevance of pollution

1 EEA2016, Air quality in Europe – 2016 report, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/air-quality-in -europe-20162 WHO, Economic cost of the health impact of air pollution in Europe, 2015, http://www.euro.who.int/_data/assets/pdf_file/0004/276772/ Economimc-cost-health-impact-air-pollution--en.pdf3 JRC, Analyzing on road emissions of light duty vehicles with portable emissions measurements systems, 2011, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/ files/transport/vehicles/docs/2011_pems_jrc_62639_en.pdf

• 450,000 premature deaths each year in Europe1;• 1 t(1012)Euro as economic (and human) costs2 (1-1.5 % of the

World’s GPD)2;• 95 % of the excedances of the NO2 limits (defined by WHO)

are observed at trafic stations3;• 7% of the UE urban citizens lives in areas where NOx(2) is

damaging their health which causes 68,000 premature deathseach year3 (12 % in France, 16% in Germany, 31 % in Italy, 18%in UK, 6% in Spain, 3% in Belgium)3

• 40%-50 % of the overall NOx(2) depends by road transport butin cities this responsability grows to 75 % and over3;

5

The relevance of pollution

4 Nature, Impacts and mitigation of excess Diesel-related Nox emissions in 11 major vehicle markets, 20175 EEA, Sector split of emissions of Ozone precursors, 2014, http://www.eea/europe.eu/data-end-maps/figures/sector-split-of-emissions-of-ozone-precursors--eea-member-countries6IARC IARC: Diesel exhaust carcinogenic, 2012, http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-center/pr/2012/pdfs/pr213_E.pdf

• In urban areas peak periods of NOx(2) are associated with peaks of fine particulate matters; evidence of chroniceffects have been significantly strengthened in the past 5 years;

• 28,500 premature deaths are caused by secondary small particles from NOx(2) pollution each year in Europe4; 40 % are due to «defeat devices» and «test manipulation»;

• 45 % of the responsibility of troposferic ozone formationin urban areas5 ;

• The IARC has long classified the ICE’s exhaust as toxic, in particular diesel exhaust as «probable carcinogen»; in 2012 was reclassified as «carcinogenic» to humans6;

6

The relevance of «global warming»

CO2 concentration: 405,4 ppm7, CO2 safeguard limit: 450 ppm8

CO2 annual growth: 1.5 ppm/Y8

7MAUNA LOA Observatory data, https://www.co2.earth/co2-monitoring8 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, September 2017, https://www.ipcc.ch/

7

The relevance of «global warming»9

9 Source: NASA – Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2018 https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp8

The «precautionary principle» must be claimed

The relevance of «global warming»

10 European Commission. 2050 low-carbon economy. Climate Action, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2015_en11 Ji Geng Li, Analysis on energy demand and CO2 emissions in China following ….https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S167492781730095312 Energy policies of IEA Countries, THE United States, 2014, http://www.iea.org/Textbase/npsum/US2014SUM.pdf

Decarbonisation TargetsTotal GHG emission reduction:

EUROPE10

• 40 % by 2030 (with respect to 1990 datum)• 90 % by 2050• 60% in the transportation sector by 2050CHINA11

• 20 % of energy produced by «low carbon» sources by 2030• CO2/GDP 60 % reduction by 2030 /with resepct to 1990 data)USA12

• 26-28 % by 2030 (with respect to 2005 datum)• 83 % by 2050

9

The relevance of «pollution»

500 million people live in 75 cities; 100 million in the top 5 (Shanghai, Beijing, Lagos, Tientsin, Karachi)13

13 Elaborated from Demographic and Social Statistics, 2016, https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/index.cshtml

10

The relevance of «pollution»14

14 Statistical passenger car report, 2017, https://www.statista.com/study

11

EU Pollutant Emission targets15

Euro stage Year of

entry(*)

CO

(g/km)

HC

(g/km)

HC+NOX

(g/km)

NOx

(g/km)

PM

(g/km)

PN

Compression ignition dieselEuro 1 1992 2.72 - 0.97 - 0.14 -Euro 2 1996 1.0 - 0.7 - 0.08 -Euro 3 2000 0.64 - 0.56 0.50 0.05 -Euro 4 2005 0.50 - 0.30 0.25 0.025 -Euro 5a 2009 0.50 - 0.23 0.18 0.005 -Euro 5b 2011 0.50 - 0.23 0.18 0.005 6.0 1011

Euro 6 2014 0.50 - 0.17 0.08 0.005 6.0 1011

Positive Ignition (petrol/gasoline/LPG, CNG)Euro 1 1992 2.72 - 0.97 - -Euro 2 1996 2.2 - 0.5 - -Euro 3 2000 2.3 0.2 - 0.15 -Euro 4 2005 1.0 0.1 - 0.08 -Euro 2009 1.0 0.1 - 0.06 0.005(*) 6.0 1011

Euro 6 2014 1.0 0.1 - 0.06 0.005(**) 6.0 1011

(*) into force for new models. Modes already in production must comply typically one year later(**) applicable only to direct injection engines

15 Elaborated from EC, Emission in the automotive sector, https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/automotive/ environment-protection/emissions_en 12

• Euro 1 standards set in 1992 the same air pollution limits for diesel and gasoline cars;

• Euro 2 in 1996 set differential limits in recognition that diesel emitted significantly more particles whereas gasoline exhausts contain more carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons that needed to be tackled;

• Euro 3 in 2000 introduced separate limits for NOx and hydrocarbons for the first time but diesel engines were permitted to have much laxer limits (0.5 g/km against 0.15 g/km): this emission “unbalance” have continued for more recent Euro standards including Euro 6 (September 2014);

• Diesels have since Euro 2 had much tighter carbon monoxide limits but these have been easy to meet without any aftertreatment owing to the combustion conditions in a diesel engine;

• The regulatory bias of Euro6 emissions allows diesels to have a laxer NOx

limit by 20 mg/km, much more in practice (RDE)

Euro testing : Main issues

13

USA Pollutant Emission targets16

EMISSIONI LIMITE FLOTTA NOX + NMOG

Categoria 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025

LDV, LDT1 53 49 45 40 36 32 27 23 19 mg/km

LDT2, LDT3, LDT4, MDPV

63 57 52 46 40 35 29 24 19 mg/km

Bin NMOG+NOx PM* CO HCHOmg/km mg/km g/km mg/km

Bin 160 99.42 1.9 2.61 2.5Bin 125 77.67 1.9 1.30 2.5Bin 70 43.50 1.9 1.06 2.5Bin 50 31.07 1.9 1.06 2.5Bin 30 18.64 1.9 0.62 2.5Bin 20 12.43 1.9 0.62 2.5Bin 0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.0

Car makers can homologate vehicles independently from Bin (Bin 160, Bin 30, etc…) but

their average emissions of NOx+NMOG < 30 mg/mi on the fleet

<<

NOx+NMOG < HC+NOx

16 https://www.dieselnet.com/standards/

14

Passenger car spark ignition

Level Reference Mass CO HC NMHC HC+NOx NOx N2O PM PN(2)

Stage Vehicle Type kg g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km #/km

China III 1 – All 2,3 0,2 – – 0,15 – – –

China IV 1 – All 1 0,1 – – 0,08 – – –

China V 1 – All 1 0,1 – – 0,06 – 0,0045 –

China 6a 1 – All 0,7 0,1 0,068 – 0,06 0,02 0,0045 6.0x1011

China 6b 1 – All 0,5 0,05 0,035 – 0,035 0,02 0,003 6.0x1011

CHINA Pollutant Emission targets17

≈

PASSENGER CARS

Level Reference Mass CO HC NMHC HC+NOx NOx N2O PM PN(2)

Stage Vehicle Type kg g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km #/km

China III 1 – All 0,64 – – 0,56 0,5 – 0,05 –

China IV 1 – All 0,5 – – 0,3 0,25 – 0,025 –

China 5 1 – All 0,5 – – 0,23 0,18 – 0,0045 6.0x1011

China 6a 1 – All 0,7 0,1 0,068 – 0,06 0,02 0,0045 6.0x1011

China 6b 1 – All 0,5 0,05 0,035 – 0,035 0,02 0,003 6.0x1011

China V ≈ EURO 6China 6a and 6b technology neutraland lower than Euro 6

>

17 www.transportpolicy.net

15

Pollutants EU targets: Main issues

• Emission limits are technologically not-neutral (spark &compression ignition) in the direction of favoring the dieseltechnology; this explains why Europe is the only «diesel» island inthe Word (70 % of the diesel car are sold in Europe, 1% in USA, 2%in China)18;

• Share of new diesel registration has increased from 15% in 1990 to52% in 2015;

• 80 % of all cars and van sold in Europe (37 million) are exceedingthe NOx emissions limits for a factor of 3;

• The new RDE regulations (based on PEMS testing) are entered intoforce in September 2017 but will bring down the emissions (mainlyNOx) after 2019;

18International Comparison of Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy 2005-2015, Ten Years of Fuel economyBenchmark. https://webstore.iea.org/international-comparison-of-light-duty-vehicle-fuel-economy-2005- 2015

16

• Mean engine power: 80 kW for gasoline engines; 100 kW for diesel engine19

• Greater LHV: diesel fuel 36.9 MJ/l vs. 33.7 MJ/l; greater longevity and aging;

• Average mass and mileage: Medium car, 169000 km for petrol, 230000 for diesel,1422 kg for petrol, 1242 kg for diesel20

• Diesel taxes are currently 10-40 % per liter lower than petrol taxes (37 % & 41 %in Netherlands and Greece) UK is neutral; this increases considering the higherLHV of diesel fuel (per liter); OECD argued that there is no justification for dieselto be less heavily taxed (as the efficiency gain should be a big enough incentiveto save on fuel cost)21

• The EU’s Energy Taxation legislation, the Energy Tax Directive perpetuates theDiesel bonus: the minimum taxation fixed for Diesel is 9 % less than the one forpetrol22

19ICCT, Pocket book 2016, https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/20Ricardo AEA 2014 Update of the Handbook on External Costs of Transport,https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/themes/sustainable/studies/doc/2014-handbook-external-costs-transport. pdf;21Harding, The diesel differential: differences in the tax treatment of gasoline and diesel for road use, OECD2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz14cd7hk6b-en22T&E, Europe tax deals for Diesel, 2015, https://www.transportenvironment.org/publications/europes-tax-deals-diesel;

Pollutants EU targets: diesel vs gasoline

17

• The Cars and CO2 Regulations23 fixed CO2 limits regardless the diesel or gasoline use but:

– tail pipe for diesel engine are 15-20 % lower than for gasoline, so the increase of the share of diesel sales enables car makers to make more rapid progress toward their targets at lower cost;

– diesel vehicles are in the average 200 kg heavier than gasoline engines: selling only diesel offers a benefit by 2020 of around 20 g/km from lower CO2 emissions but also a further 5-7 g/km bonus from raising the average weight;

23 Regulation EC No. 443/2009 and 333/2014, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/IT/TXT/PDF/?uri= CELEX:32009R0443& from=EN);

CO2 EU targets: diesel vs gasoline

18

• In EU, finally, NEDC cycle for pollutants evaluation has been replacedby WLTP (September 2017) even though NEDC limits wereuniversally recognized since a decade; WLTP was approved by GTR(GTR15) in 201424;

• Differences:– Changes in the characteristics of the driving cycle including a

longer duration and a higher rate of speed;– A vehicle testing mass including optional equipment and

anticipated vhicle payloads;– A slightly lower ambient testing temperature;– CO2 emissions & fuel consumption;– Electrical energy consumption & Electrical operating range

• WLTP has been adopted by 10 more Countries: Australia, China,Japan, Norway, Korea, Moldavia, Russia, South Africa and Turkey;

EU Emission targets Obsolete and inaccurate emission tests

19

24 GTR15, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2015/wp29grpe/GRPE-72-18.pdf

• For CO2 emissions, NEDC still apply the gap between lab and real-word: in 2016 theaverage car emits 42 % more CO2 on the road than its declared type approval values25;

• In 2014, NOx emissions were typically 7-10 times higher on the road then in the test26:

this datum falled down in 2015/2016 (Euro 6) to 5.4 and more recently to 4.5;

• RDE tests were introduced in September 2017 (even though promised since 2012) usingPEMS equipment agreed at national level in 2015. It has been introduced in two stages:

– Car manufacturers will be allowed to exceed the Euro 6 limits by 210 % mandatory till to the2019 models;

– From 2019 till to January 2021 (Euro 6d) , 50 % above the limit will be allowed;

• From many studies, the RDE test protocol still not capture the real word performance ofdiesel: the testing has a lower «dynamics» compared to how the diesel are driven27,28

till to 26-40 times the Euro 6 NOX limits, outside RDE boundaries;

EU Emission targets Obsolete and inaccurate emission tests

25 ICCT, From Laboratory to road, 2016, https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_LaboratoryToRoad 2016.pdf26 ICCT 2017 Road tested: comparative overview of real word versus type approval Nox and CO2 emissions fromdiesel cars n Europe, http://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_RoadTested_201709.pdf27 T&E Press Release 2015, https://www.transportenvironment.org/press/psa-Peugeot-citro%c3%ABn-and-transport-environment-will-cooperate-publish-real-word-fuel-economy28 ICCT 2017, Real Word Emission testing on four vehicles, http://theicct.org/real-word-emission-testing-four-vehicles 20

• First decision to consider RDE: 2014• As of September 2017:

– Not-To-Exceed (NTE) emissions limit is set for RDE (Step 1 or RDE1)emissions of new car models with a Conformity Factor (i.e. NTE/Euro 6limit ratio) of 2.1 for NOx. It will apply to all registered cars inSeptember 2019 before they reach the showroom. A CF for ParticleNumber (PN) of 1.5 was also introduced;

– From January 2020, the second stage of RDE (Step 2 or RDE2, Euro 6d)enters in force; new car models have to emit 1.5 times the amount ofNox (Euro 6 limit);

– From January 2021, then all new registrations must comply the samelimits (Euro 6d).

• Duration of measurement trip: 90‒120 minutes; Route: 1/3 urban driving(up to 60 km/h), 1/3 highway (over 90 km/h), 1/3 freeway (60-90 km/h),total gradient: (<1200 m/100 km); Ambient temperatures: between -7° Cand 35°C

EU Emission targets - RDE, a long path

21

EU Emission targets Obsolete and inaccurate emission tests29

29 FEV Research and analysis, EC Commission Regulation (EU) 2915-427, 2018, http://file.vogel.com.cn/2016/1207/1734193347.pdf 22

EU Emission targets Obsolete and inaccurate emission tests29

29 FEV Research and analysis, EC Commission Regulation (EU) 2915-427, 2018, http://file.vogel.com.cn/2016/1207/1734193347.pdf

23

EU Emission targets Obsolete and inaccurate emission tests30

30 T&E, Diesel, 2017, The true dirty story, https://www.transportenvironment.org/publications/diesel-true-dirty-story

24

• In 2013 on the behalf of ICCT some VW diesel engined vehicles inUS were emitting more NOx than in lab test; results were passed toCARB and subsequantly to US-EPA which issued a notice of violationof the CAA to VW on 18 September 2015;

• VW admitted theat almost 500k vehicles were equipped with illegalemission software designed to detect the regulatory test and loweremissions accordingly (while emitting 40 times the US NOx limitswhen on the road);

• The emission scandal erupted also to Europe and to the rest of theword reaching 11 millions of vehicles (8.5 millions in Europe);

• Fiat, Renault, Opel, Daimler, Audi, Porsche, BMW were put underlegal investigations;

• Paris, Madrid, Athens, Stuttgard, Copenagen, Oslo, Romeannounced to ban diesel engines by 2025

The «shame» of the European diesel technology

25

The «shame» of the European diesel technology

Stock Exchange quotes

11,2%

12,9% -10,8% 18,0%-22,2%

-13,5%

12,3% -11,3%

-37,0%

20,2%12,1% 10,5%

11,3%

-11,1%

-12,0%-17,3%

-12,8%

-38,7% -16,5%

13,5% -16,3%

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

0

50

100

150

200

250

300ap

r-1

2

set-

12

feb

-13

lug-

13

dic

-13

mag

-14

ott

-14

mar

-15

ago

-15

gen

-16

giu

-16

no

v-1

6

apr-

17

set-

17

feb

-18

lug-

18

€

€

BMW VW DAIMLER PORSCHE AUDI26

The relevance of «global warming»

27

CO2 emissions: 32.5 Gt in 2017 (+1.4%) (+1,6 Oil demand, +3 % CH4)

31 IEA, Global Energy & CO2 Status Report 2017 https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/GECO2017.pdf

• Limits allowed for the CO2 emission;• Reference cycles;• Calculation of the instantaneous propulsive

power during reference cycles• Evaluation of the propulsive energy;• Exercise:

– Evaluation of the CO2 emitted in the case of BEV in different geografical contextes;

– Comparison with the CO2 limits;– Countries in which BEV or REEV «should not be

allowed»

The «CO2» contraddiction in the transportation sector

28

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

Limits allowed, normalized to NEDC

29

Cicli di omologazione FTP-75 + HWFET (WFs: 0.45,0.55)

FTP-75

HWFET

WFS: 0.43, 1, 0.57

Per il rating delle emissioni su strada la procedura è l’EPA 5 che prevede 5 cicli. FTP, HWFET, US06, SC03 e FTP con partenza a freddo a -7°C

The «CO2» spoiled expectation in the transportation sector

Limits allowed, USA

30

Main Reference data (normalized to NEDC):

EU, 130 gCO2/km (2014)

CHINA, 117 gCO2/km (2020)EU, 95 gCO2/km (2021)

USA, 127 gCO2/km (2020)INDIA, 113 gCO2/km (2022)

EU, 67 gCO2/km (2030), USA & CANADA, 99 gCO2/km (2025)

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

31

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

32Davide Serpa, AferOil EV, Thank to wheel efficiency, 2011 http://www.afteroilev.com/Pub/EFF_Tank_to_Wheel.pdf

31

2road front x r

dVP S C V mV f mgV

dt= + +

Power for propulsionVehicle’s data (FCA “Nuova

Bravo” 1.6l, 105 CV)

Vehicle mass 1320 kg

Rolling coeffficient, 0.013

Cx 0.32

Tires 225/45/R17

Radius 0.317 m

V & dV/dt

According to

the cycle

(NEDC)

Efficiency, EV32

Efficiency REEV (Range Extended Hybrid Electric Vehicle)32

0.67-0.81 (0.74)

0.22-0.29 (0.255)

Emission factor, [gCO2/kWh] Country dependent

32

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

CycleEnergy

[kWh/km]

Energy

[kWh_el/km]

BEV

Energy

[kWh_el/km],

REEV

NEDC 0.138 0.186 0.541

WLTC 0.174 0.235 0.682

FTP75 0.143 0.193 0.560

Artemis

Urban0.165 0.223 0.647

Artemis Road 0.165 0.223 0.647

Artemis

Motorway

130

0.234 0.316 0.917

Cycle Use Distance [km] Duration [s] Energy [kWh]

NEDC Reference 10.93 1180 1.509

WLTC Omologazione 23.26 1800 4.055

FTP75 US 17.77 1875 2.536

Artemis Urban RDE-like 4.86 990 0.800

Artemis Road RDE-like 17.22 1080 2.835

Artemis Motorway

130RDE-like 28.62 1066 6.683

33

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

NEDC

WLTC

FTP75

34

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

WLTC

35

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

FTP75

36

The «CO2» spoiled expectations in the transportation sector

Emission

factor,

gCO2/kWh

CO2

Emissions

BEV [g/km]

CO2

Emissions

REEV [g/km]

Limit

[g/km]

Europe 447 83,1 241,8 95 (2021)Italy 431 80,2 233,2 "

France 105 19,5 56,8 "

Spain 341 63,4 184,481 "

Greece 767 142,7 414,9 "

UK 623 115,9 337,0 "

Germany 615 114,4 332,7 "

Netherlands 569 105,8 307,8 "

Poland 980 182,3 530,2 "

Romania 492 91,5 266,2 "

USA 586 109,0 317,0 105 (2021)

CANADA 196 36,5 106,0 "

CHINA 1075 200,0 581,6 117 (2020)

INDIA 1800 334,8 973,8 113 (2022)

Country

37

How long can NOX & CO2 decrease33?

33 Timothy Jonhson, Ameya Joshy, Power train alternatives for low carbon transportation, Corning, ANFIAand SAE Torino 2018 6 June 2018

38

• Set of issues related to the "temperature management, low load, coldstart" including the aspects of:• variable valve timing;• exhaust turbocharger with bypass (reduce heat losses during the

heat-up phase);driving off at high load;• Oil & cooling fluid & engine masses thermal dynamics

• Increase of injection fuel pressure (2700-3000 bar, piezoelectricinjectors, etc…)

• Variable compression engines;• Model based predictive functions according to highly dynamic RDE

needs;• Rapid response air management systems• More dynamic exhaust gas recirculation (EGR-LR-CA);

• Early solutions for HCCI and LTC at specific engine regimes (CCS SSYSTEM BY VW, MAZDA);

How long can NOX and CO2 decrease in ICE?

(according to present and to “out of door” technologies)

39

• Improvement in the after-treatment devices:• NSC: NOx storage and catalysis;• SCR nearer to engine block;• Adapted catalyst chemistry; • Additional underfloor SCR calatyst during DPF regeneration;• low and hugh pressure cEGR; • less temperature dependent catalysts, etc..;

• Premium cars: reduce number of cylinders and power train line up (single cylinder 500 cc) for an overall dispacement close to 2000 cc;

• Mass market cars: smaller engines (1.6/1.8 liters) and turbochargers that will provide customers with both the requested driving experience and lower fuel consumption;

How long can NOX and CO2 decrease?

(according to present and to “out of door” technologies)

40

NOX 20-30 mg/km (Euro 6d: 80 mg/km)

CO2 80-85 gCO2/km(EU, 2021, 95 gCO2/km)

How long can NOX and CO2 decrease?

(according to present and to “out of door” technologies)

41

• Thermal propulsion has a great responsibility in urban areas for the pollution: 70-75 % depends on traffic

• ICE should comply the most of technologies aimed at reducing pollutionavoiding «tricks or cheats»: under this assumption there still room for development in spite of the stricter regulation under approval;

• Technologies under development project combustion engines toward the fulfillment of even stricter emission levels with respect to Euro 6d; combustion engines are far from being considered obsolete;

• Regulations should be improved in the direction of:– End the bias vehicle emission standars for doiesel engines and propose a technology

neutral Euro 7 emission standards;

– The inclusion of zero emission vehicle sales target to incentive industry toward innovation;

– Equalize taxation, bonuses, etc… among different fuels in ICE;

– Reinforce the real-word performances of vehicles on the road;

– Monitoring of the emissions during vehicle’s life;

in order to recover «transparency and trust» of the users;

• «Environmental issues» of engines should be «properly sold» by car manufacturers

• Electrical propulsion should consider CO2 emissions deriving from the electricity from the grid (widely Country dependent) and/or produced on board (hybrid, range extender, etc…)

Hints & Conclusions

42

Emissions and homologation cycles: will it be the end of the ICE ?

Roberto Cipollone

roberto.cipollone@univaq.it

73° Congresso Nazionale ATI, Pisa 12-14 Settembre 201843

Acronyms

• IARC: International Agency for Research on Cancer

• WHO: World Health Organization

• NMOG: Non methane Organic Gases

• GTR: Global Technical Regulation

• CARB: California Air Resources Board

• CAA: Clean Air Act

44

45

Regulations in the World

30 http://www.adlittle.com/sites/default/files/viewpoints/ADL_The_Future_of_Diesel_Engines_updated.pdf46

Euro fullfilment & costs

30 http://www.adlittle.com/sites/default/files/viewpoints/ADL_The_Future_of_Diesel_Engines_updated.pdf47

HCCI & LTC

48

HCCI & LTC

49

NOX storage and catalyst

• In the NSC, nitrous oxides are stored as they react with basic components forming nitrates.Capture NO and store it as NO2 after oxidation on a Pt catalyst;

• The storage happens on a Barium Carbonate sponge; • Periodically it needs to be regenerated by means of rich exhaust gas

(λ<1) in order to decompose the nitrates and reduce them;• Main reducing agents are carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2),

which are formed during rich combustion in the cylinder or directly on the catalyst;

• Besides its ability to reduce NOx the NSC is also an excellent oxidation catalyst that can reduce CO and HC, even at exhaust temperatures below 100°C. 50

DOC, NSC, EGR & temperature Management

• 30 A. Kufferat et al., Robert Bosh GmbH The path to a negligible NO2 immission contribution from theDiesel powertrain, http://www.autonews.com/assets/pdf/bosch-nox-report.pdf 51

DOC, NSC, EGR & temperature Management

• 30 A. Kufferat et al., Robert Bosh GmbH The path to a negligible NO2 immission contribution from theDiesel powertrain, http://www.autonews.com/assets/pdf/bosch-nox-report.pdf 52

• From Mercedes: NOX adsorption catalysts, SCR, nerarengine exhaust gas aftertreatments;

• The new test procedures inspire tecnological development:– 13 mg/km from Bosch (RDE testing) through:

• Exhaust gas treatment systems efficiency: barely infleneced by temperature

• Injections fuel pressure 2700-3000 bar with piezoelectric injectors• Variable compression engines (-27 % FC)• famed TwinPower technology. This includes the turbocharging system,

direct petrol injection, variable control of intake valve lift (VALVETRONIC) and continuously variable opening times for the intakeand exhaust valves (Double-VANOS).

• https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motoring/vws-combustion-engine-future (CCS) VW

• HCCI & LTC

53

• All premium car makers are introducing basic engines of 2000cc, as well as in the medium-upper segments, which reduces the number of cylinders of their entire powertrain line-up (from 8 to 6 or from 6 to 4, with a single cylinder volume of about 500cc) at the same time. The final effect will be engines with higher efficiency and lower fuel consumption

• Mass-market car makers are focusing on smaller engines (1.6/1.8 liters) and turbochargers that will provide customers with both the requested driving experience and lower fuel consumption due to lower displacement.

• http://www.adlittle.com/sites/default/files/viewpoints/ADL_The_Future_of_Diesel_Engines_updated.pdf

30 http://www.adlittle.com/sites/default/files/viewpoints/ADL_The_Future_of_Diesel_Engines_updated.pdf54