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Emerging Literacy and Communication in Severe Special Needs Populations
By: Melissa Nichole Gurnness
A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Master of Science Degree
In
Education
Approved: 2 Semester Credits
The Graduate School
University of Wisconsin-Stout
August 2010
The Graduate School University of Wisconsin-Stout
Menomonie, WI
Author: Gumness, Melissa N.
Title: Emerging Literacy and Communication in Severe Special Needs Populations
Graduate DegreelMajor: MS Education
Research Advisor: Amy Schlieve, Ed. D.
MonthlYear: August 2010
Number of Pages: 36
Style Manual used: American Psychological Association, 5th Edition
ABSTRACT
Ideally students of all abilities or disabilities would be able to read. This is not
always the case. This resource guide will examine available research, including peer-
reviewed and opinion papers, on emerging literacy in severe special needs populations
through the use of AAC devices and sign language. Many students with severe special
education needs are unable to read and have had few opportunities to leam. This is often
times because students are functioning at such a low level and may even be non-verbal.
The student has been moved from one grade level to the next, sometimes never having
had the opportunity to leam to read simply because the teacher or speech and language
pathologist didn't have the necessary tools, AAC devices, or training to teach them
properly.
2
The Picture Exchange Communication system (PECs) along with sign language
and AAC devices are promising strategies for teaching students with severe special needs
to learn to read. Much research has been conducted in teaching sign language to infants
allowing children to express their wants and/or needs at a much earlier age. Coupling sign
language with assistive technology may foster emerging literacy in severe special needs
populations.
3
The Graduate School University of Wisconsin-Stout
Menomonie, WI
Acknowledgements
4
I would like to thank my husband, Chuck, for his constant support and patience while I
worked towards completing my Master's Degree in Education. Chuck you have shown me
that there is nothing I can't do if I put my mind to it; you have shown me love, kindness,
patience and support. Thank you for pushing me to become the educator and woman I want
to be.
I would like to thank my parents for their constant support of my education and me.
Without you I wouldn't be where I am today! Your love, support and guidance for me
through my undergraduate degree, my cross-categorical certification and now my Master's
degree will not be forgotten. You taught me hard-work, dedication and patience pays off.
You taught me that I can push myself to limits I didn't know I was capable of achieving
and believe in what I was accomplishing. Thank you! I love you!
Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Amy Schlieve for her constant support while she watched
me grow over the last ten years in college. Amy, words will never describe the appreciation
I have for you and all you have done for me. I am forever and ever indebted to you! You
are my professor, my role-model, and most importantly a good friend. You taught me how
to be the teacher I am today. Thank you!
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
ABSTRACT.............................................................................. 2
Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chapter I: Introduction.............................................................. .... 8
Statement of Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .................................... 9
Definition of Terms and Devices.......... ...... ........... ......... ... ....... 10
Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Methodology............................................................... ...... 17
Chapter II: Literature Review......... ................................................ 18
Chapter III: Discussion................................................................. 31
Lilnitation... .... ...................... ........ ...... ............ ..... .... ... ...... 31
Conclusions..................................................................... 31
Recomlnendations............................................................. . 33
References. .......... ... . ... ... . .. ... ... ...... .............. ... ...... . . .. . .. .... ..... .. ... 34
Figure 1 (Beck, 2002, p.3)
Figure 1 .. Picture Communication Symllols
: Today is Monday.
e will: II done
6
7 Figure 2
(Beck 2002, p.3)
~
I Figure 2. Name/Symbol I Pairing I
0 I
Alyssa I I
Joanna I
Dante I I
Johnny I
Sean
I Mecca I
-I Kevin I
Shawn I I Julia 0 I Ishiah m
Benjamin I
Justin I I I ~~~~~.~ ~~~~SW1
Chapter I: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Many students with a severe cognitive disability whom can be described as non
verbal have never had the oppoliunity to enjoy reading or to communicate effectively.
The Picture Exchange Communication system (PECs) along with sign language and
AAC devices are promising strategies for engaging students with severe special needs in
reading and communication skills. However, the effectiveness of these tools for
increasing literacy and communication in severe special needs populations is yet to be
established. Therefore, there is a need to study how assistive technology coupled with
sign language can foster emerging literacy and communication with severe special needs
students.
Purpose of the Study
8
The purpose of this resource guide is to review the current research that is
available regarding literacy and communication in severe special needs populations
through the use of sign language and AAC devices. The outcome of this resource guide
will be to provide educators, reading specialists, parents and caregivers a comprehensive
understanding to emerging literacy and communication in severe special needs
populations through the exploration ofterrninology, AAC devices, sign language,
programs, curriculum, resources, lessons, strategies and activities all used to increase
literacy. "For children with physical, developmental and/or language disabilities, literacy
can become a bridge to the world, assisting them to communicate with family and friends
in the community" (Hetzroni, 2004, p.1309).
9
I became interested in this topic mainly due to professional reasons. I teach
students with severe cognitive disabilities at the high school level and prior to teaching at
the high school level I was teaching severe cognitive disabilities at the middle school
level.
Each year I was teaching students with severe cognitive disabilities, many of
whom were described as being non-verbal and used augmentative and assistive
technology to communicate their wants and or needs. The part I continued to struggle
with was that these same students were unable to read but were able to use AAC devices.
Research has shown that when literacy is taught to children with severe special needs and
who use an augmentative altemative communication (AAC) devices there are very
specific criteria that should occur, some examples Sturum and Cleendon (2004)
recommend using language and literacy, technology and AAC systems in unison. Wilkins
and Ratajczak (2009) wrote, "the use of AAC devices in the classroom enables typically
developing children to independently interact with children with disabilities, which serves to not
only foster positive peer interactions but also to enable AAC users to develop functional
communication skills"(p.168).
Having the knowledge and understanding to communicate with me through the
use of their AAC devices, told me that these same students had the potential to possibly
leam to read. I fully understood that these students would be reading at a much different
level and that it would take a great deal of repetition and maybe it really wasn't possible
but I was certainly interested in finding out what research was available, what programs
and cuniculum was available and what forms of AAC were used. I'm in search of
information regarding severe special needs students, emerging literacy and
communication.
Definition of Terms
1) Non-Verbal~ Non-verbal can be described as someone who is unable to speak
vocally. This type of impainnent can be from a cognitive disability, head injury,
stroke or other medical condition. This person has no voice to vocalize their
wants, needs or desires.
10
2) Severe Cognitive Disability (CDS)~ A severe cognitive disability is one that
greatly impacts the person's life in such ways as: physical, mental, emotional and
behaviorally. Someone with a severe cognitive disability needs constant attention
by another adult for every aspect of there daily activities to include: waking up in
the morning, bath rooming, bathing, eating, getting dressed, attending school
andlor work, transpOliation, etc. A severe cognitive disability is one that is
diagnosed by a physician and documented as such. Lastly, someone with a severe
cognitive disability for the purpose of this study will be enrolled in a severe
cognitive disabilities program.
3) Emerging Literacy~ Emerging Literacy is a term often used to describe one's
ability to read and to further their reading level. More specifically Emerging
Literacy can be seen in school districts when referring to increasing reading levels
among students school wide. For the purpose of this study I will also use it the
same way. Although, I will be referring to severe special education students with
whom are non-verbal and are enrolled in a sc:vere cognitive disabilities program.
Emerging means to move forward, increase or further one's reading ability.
Measurement will be used by student's increase in word recognition, gain in
vocabulary and a reduction in miscues.
11
4) Assistive Technology~ Equipment or devices used to assist individuals with
disabilities in increasing, improving or maintaining functional capabilities within
their enviromnent.
5) Augmentative Communication~ also referred to as Altemative Communication
(AAC) is a method of communication used by those individuals with whom can
be described as "non-verbal" or whom have a severe speech and language
disability. These individuals will often times use gestures, voice utterances, voice
out-put devices, pictures, symbols, communication boards or a variety of these.
6) Picture Communication System (PCS)~ Is a fmID of Augmentative or
Alternative Communication. PCS are a visual form of conmmnication and can be
used to teach speech and language, reading, social skills, life skills and everyday
communication as well as to be used in everyday life given that the person using
them has access to them.
12
Devices or Augmentative Assistive Communication (AAC)
Students whom are emolled in the Severe Cognitive Disabilities Program have a
vmiety cognitive disabilities, Autism and Language Disabilities. Many of these same
students use a number of different Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)
devices. Many of our students are non-verbal and depend on these devices to give them a
VOIce.
We are very fortunate in the district I work for to have a large Speech and
Language Department as well as a fantastic lending library. Many of the voice out-put
devices our students currently use the district actually owns. However, some parents have
found grants available to purchase these devices. It should be noted that the AAC devices
described in the following paragraphs range in price from about $75.00 all the up to about
$7,000.00.
Step-by-Step~ The AAC device to my left is a very simple
and easy to use voice out-put device as well as economical in price. The step-by-step is
pre-recorded and offers a 2-minute recording time. It can be easily recorded and changed
by the touch of a button. An example of a recording could be:
Touch once to say. . .. Hello, How was your night
Touch again to hear ..... Glad to hear your night was good
Touch again to hear .... I had a pretty low-key evening. Very relaxing.
This type of a conversation can be recorded prior to having a conversation with someone.
This device could also be used to order food at a restaurant or talk about someone's
weekend, etc. As well as having it programmed to say, "I have to go to the bathroom."
These are some of the many things that most of us take for granted, hmvever, when
teaching and working with special needs students this is what must be thought about all
day, everyday. Many of these students are unable to speak or explain their wants and/or
needs. This device can offer some independence and a voice.
13
The "talking symbol" is another voice out-put device that can be
pre-recorded as well as having a picture for the student to look at. This is one of my
favorite devices as it offers my non-verbal students independence and teaches them cause
and effect. An example of using this device in my classroom is: a picture of the bathroom
is placed inside the device (look above), when I record my message I say, "Can I use the
bathroom please?" The device is placed near the classroom door so when a student
activates the device the message is heard and the student is then taken to the bathroom.
Some of my most severe students are able to use this device and the growth that I see is
incredible. These can be placed all over the classroom, near the computer, near the fridge,
near a cupboard for snack, to ask for art supplies or a book. I have a number of parents
who have also purchased these for their home, it allows the student to have a voice, gain
some self-confidence and most importantly independence.
The Go Talk 4+ is another wonderful piece of assistive
technology many of my students have had the opportunity to learn to use. This piece of
technology is lightweight and easy for students to carry with them. It's pre-programmed
14 and recorded by the teacher and offers 6 spots for varying wants and lor needs.
Typically this device is introduced once the Step-by-Step and Talking Symbols have been
mastered for cause and effect. Often times the 2 smallest buttons on the very top are used
for yes and no with the bottom 4 buttons used for wants and or needs (examples include:
bathroom, snack, drink, book, computer, walk, etc.). Templates are used for the pictures
and made using Boardmaker, which I will discuss a little further on in this paper.
Templates and easily be made and changed as well as stored right inside the device so
they can be quickly changed as needed. Other opportunities to use this device may
include: reading a book (Brown Bear, Brown Bear, Counting Books or books with
repetition), selecting lunch options or during a craft/cooking activity.
The Springboard, a much, much more complex piece of
assistive technology. This voice out-put device is for students who have mastered the
previously described devices and are cognitively capable of leaming this advanced piece
of equipment. This device is very expensive and sells for about $5,000.00 dollars. Our
district has been very fOliunate to offer a number of students this device on a lending
system while they are enrolled within our district. Grants are available for parents if their
child is able to learn this device and engage in communication and socialization within
their environments. The Springboard is an actual computer that offers pictures, voice and
touch screen opportunities for students with a variety of disabilities. The Springboard
offers a huge variety of customization for the student, for example: voice recording of a
number of different voices, pictures (actual pictures of myself~ mom, dad, students, etc.),
15 different grid sizes depending 011 complexity and vocabulary It also offers room
for advancement, which is the critical piece for my students.
Erickson and Koppenhaver, 1995 provide this Table to better explain the many
fOlTIlS of both high and low AAC technology.
Table 1 A primer of technology
High technology • Adaptive Firmware Card (AFC); The AFC is used to adapt software and allow individuals to access the computer
through input devices other than the standard keyboard . .. Dedicated communication device: This is a form of high technology designed for face· to- face communication by
individuals who are unable to speak. The devices are portable. typically have speech output, and have symbol sets that can consist of pictures. icons, words, phrases, letters, or some combination. With special equipment, many of these devices can be connected to a computer for word processing or other classroom applications.
• Peripheral devices: These take a Variety of forms (e.g., touch screen mounted on monitor or enlarged keyboards). All are intended to adapt a computer in some way to meet the needs of the child.
• Scanning programs: The computer presents an item, or a fOW of items. one at a time and a single switch is activated to indicate a desired choice. This allows an individual with minimal physical control to use a computer.
• Single switch: A device such as a button or a lever completes an electronic circuit when pressed. When used with a computer, pressing or activating the device equates with a keystroke or multiple keystrokes on the standard keyboard.
• Speech synthesis or speech feedback: Typically this is produced through an external speaker plugged into a computer. Many newer computers have internal speakers that translate text and computer messages into speech to provide auditory feedback to the user.
• Unicorn Board: A large, touch-sensitive membrane that can be programmed to represent one key (about1S" x 24") or as many as 128 keys (1" Xl").
Light technology • Communication boards; Ught technology communication boards use the same type of symbols as dedicated com
munication devices. Children using communication boards point with fingers. headsticks. or eyes at words, letters. or pictures alone or in combination to represent their thoughts to listeners.
• Loop tape: A loop tape is best known for its use in answering machines. The audio tape has no end and typically holds a message between 15 and 45 seconds in length. Used in a standard tape player, the loop tapa will run continuous�y when the machine is activated.
• Talking switch: A tape recorder is used with a switch so that it can be turned on and off via a single movement. A message is recorded (e.g., "Turn the page") on an answering machine loop tape that allows it to be played repeat· edly without rewinding.
(p.678).
This table offers an example of the many different styles of assistive technology
available. The greatest difference between the high and light technology device is the
type of device and the amount of functions it offers. The high technology is often
associated with computer software whereas the light technology is typically a single
switch device or a communication board. Both types of technology offer the user a
number of great benefits but determining which will provide the most useful assistance
for the user is the key.
16 Programs
The most common program associated with severe special needs
students or with students who can be described as being non-verbal is Boardmaker.
Boardmaker as you can see is the use of pictures to express a want/need, tell a story,
write a recipe, write a grocery list, read a story, answer questions and count. Boardmaker
is often associated with the Picture Communication System or PCS for short. PCS are
used most commonly with people who can be described, as being non-verbal or Autistic,
however, there are always exceptions. Boardmaker is the program often used to make
PCS. The uses for Boardmaker are endless. I have used Boardmaker for everything from
bathroom icons, requesting more, yes/no to writing a recipe, writing a grocery list,
writing a story, playing/making a game, schedules for students and writing social stories.
Another program is News-2-You. News-2-You is a weekly online newspaper for
beginning readers and individuals with special needs. The most functional and easily
adaptable thing about this program is that it offers a printable version, an online speaking
version or a booklet version. Each version has a story to read, comprehension questions, a
recipe, a grocery list, a knock knock joke, a game, a puzzle (crossword puzzle), a spOlis
page, a vocabulary review, a review and a think it through page. It is also available for
varying disability/ability levels and otfers PCS to assist in the reading. This is a
wonderful program that offers a variety of activities to meet individual needs of students.
17 Methodology
This review of research was created for educators, reading specialists, parents and
caregivers to better understand how emerging literacy and communication in severe
special needs populations through the exploration oftenninology, AAC devices, sign
language, programs, curriculum, resources, lessons, strategies and activities are all used
to increase literacy and communication skills.
Chapter 2
Review of Literature
18
"Children who are nonverbal andJor who have physical disabilities may have
limited opportunities to learn to read, may have little interaction with others during
literacy activities, and may be given fewer opportunities to learn to read and \""rite than
their peers without disabilities" (Beck, 2002, p.44). Ideally students of all abilities or
disabilities would be able to read. Many students with severe special education needs are
unable to read and some have never been given the opportunity to learn. This is often
times because students are functioning at such a low level and may even be non-verbaL
"The ability to communicate with the people around us is fundamental to our full
pm1icipation in society. Communication is vital to having our basic needs met,
developing relationships and expressing ourselves fully as human beings. It is also
essential to our educational development and our ability to earn a living. People with
severe oral communication impainnents can thus experience extreme marginalization.
Augmentative and altemative communication (AAC) can go some way to addressing this
marginalization by providing people with techniques and equipment that can enable them
to communicate in ways other than speech" (Hodge, 2007, p.457). "AAC has enonnous
potential to enhance the lives of individuals. It can promote independence, promote the
development of social relationships, and facilitate the acquisition of skills in classroom
settings" (Johnston, Reichle, Evans 2004, p.20). There is a need to study how assistive
teclmology (step-by-steps, talking symbols, Go Talk 4 and Springboards) coupled with
sign language can foster emerging literacy and communication with severe special needs
students.
19 "Emergent literacy focuses on oral language, early experiences with print,
picture books and writing" (Beck, 2002, p.44). "Children with limited verbal speech often
have few opportunities to p31ticipate in literacy activities such as learning to read or
interacting with others during literacy activities" (Wilkins and Ratajczak, 2009, p.l68).
"Technology-based literacy activities can provide modifications and adaptations
that SUppOlt children who are nonverbal and/or who have physical disabilities to be
successful in their curriculum and instruction" (Beck, 2002, p.44). "For children with
physical, developmental and/or language disabilities, literacy can become a bridge to the
world, assisting them to communicate with family and friends in the community"
(Hetzroni, 2004, p.1309). "Augmentative and alternative communication devices are
specifically designed to help a person communicate"(Wilkins and Ratajczak 2009,
p.168).
It's not easy trying to learn to read and write if you're a child with a severe
disability in U.S. public schools today. In fact, you have at best a 30% chance of being
able to read and write as well as a child who can and talk but is otherwise just the same as
you (Koppenhaver, 1991). "In 2004, nearly 49% of speech language pathologists in
schools indicated that they served individuals who required AAC"(Wilkins and Ratajczak
2009, p.167).
Historically, reading instruction for students with significant cognitive disabilities
has been underemphasized (Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Algozzine,
2006). In fact, much of the research reviewed prior to the last 10 years or so discussed
not including reading instruction in the programming for severe special needs populations
since they were unable to speak they would be unable to read. The "science of reading"
that has developed over the last 20 years has led to new optimism that, as a nation, we
20 can do better in teaching all students to read (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). AAC
devices such as step-by-step's, talking symbols, Go Talk's and Springboards provide
these children with opportunities to pmticipate in group activities and to improve skills
needed for literacy. It is important for teachers to realize that by involving students who
use AAC in class literacy activities, literacy skills can be developed in all students
(Wilkins and Ratajczak 2009). As Barton (1994) proposed, it is necessary
to view literacy as a social practice. The activities of reading and writing m'e embedded in
pmticular social structures, and at the same time, they hclp to shape those social
structures. Students use AAC devices within pmticular social contexts, and their
communication experiences are shaped by those contexts.
News-2-You is a symbol-supported, simple text electronic newspaper
delivered weekly on the Internet. Its focus is on current events. Each issue is wrapped
around a newsworthy--and subject appropriate--event of interest to our readers in the
special education and beginning reader communities. News-2-You stands alone as the
national newspaper for special education, a role akin to that of the New Yark Times in
print journalism, We are "the paper of record" by default; only News-2-You tackles "real
world" topics and serves them up in an accessible format specifically tailored for students
with significant disabilities (The Research Foundations ofNews-2- You, 2009).
Schools that rely on newspapers to educate in the classroom benefit through:
• Sharpened student skills (communicative and participatory)
• Increased student interest and motivation by providing study
materials relevant to their lives.
• Involvement of school in the lives of the communities they serve
• Improved relations with students' families (The Research Foundations of
News-2-You, 2009).
Educators can "use the news" to achieve the following:
• Cover a wide range of subjects and connect to all areas of the curriculum
• Build language, vocabulary, reading comprehension, critical thinking,
problem solving, oral expression, and tum-taking and listening skills
• Open up communications between students and parents. Students are
often eager to emulate their parents' and siblings' reading behavior, and
talking about the news is one way for parents to engage students in adult
conversation
• Offer ideal opportunities for cooperative group instruction, classroom
21
debates and directed follow-up discussions (The Research Foundations of News-
2-You, 2009).
Research indicates that picture systems can actually accelerate speech and
language acquisition. Symbol sets do have a positive effect on the development of written
language because they become the scaf10ld for expressive communication and cognition.
They serve as a bridge between the concrete (pictures) and the abstract (print text) (The
Research Foundations of News-2-You, 2009).
Historically these students patiicipated in a curriculum that focused on functional life
skill applications with limited patiicipation in academic skills. The 1997 IDEA and 2001
NCLB legislation changed the academic landscape forever. Downing now lists five
general guidelines for literacy instruction for students with significant disabilities:
1. Recognize the link between communication and literacy
2. Maintain high expectations for students to acquire literacy
22 3. Make literacy materials accessible
4. Follow the interest of the student
5. Engage the student in direct and systematic instruction (The Research Foundations of
News-2-You, 2009).
Creating high-quality activities, experience and opportunities to promote the
acquisition of emerging literacy skills is important for all children, including children
with developmental delays or disabilities (Johnston, McDonnell & Hawken, 2008). "A
literacy-rich environment provides opportunities for children to acquire skills related
to book knowledge/print awareness, phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, and
early writing skills" (Johnston, McDonnell & Hawken, 2008, p.20). "Choice,
engagement, experimentation, risk taking, opportunity to see and use print, and hear and
use language, are all closely linked early childhood education components related to
emergent literacy development in the young child" (Margaret Genisio and Mary
Drecktrah, 1999, p.22S).
"Underlying the instructional model ofthe Early Literacy Project (ELP) were
several key principles drawn fi'om a sociocultural perspective, including a belief that
literacy instruction should (1) be embedded in meaningful, contextualized, and purposive
activities, (2) be integrated across the curriculum, (3) promote self-regulated leaming,
and (4) foster a discourse cOlllinunity where literacy performance is mutually shared,
constructed, and made public" (Mariage, Englert, Garmon, 2000, p.302).
Research has shown that when literacy is taught to children with severe special
needs and who use an augmentative alternative communication (AAC) devices there are
very specific criteria that should occur. Sturum and Cleendon (2004) recommend using
language and literacy, technology and AAC systems in unison. "Center leaming is one
23 way to offer a personally nurturing and stimulating enviromnent that scaffolds
learning, sometimes taking it beyond the classroom walls and into the home" (Margaret
Genisio and Mary Drecktrah, 1999, p.22S). Providing a number of different stimulating
. centers around the classroom can offer independence to a child, team-work, creative
thinking as well as offering free thinking. Centers can easily be changed, modified or
adapted in order to meet the needs of all students and using a thematic approach makes it
much easier for the teacher.
An integrated approach also lends itself to the use of thematic curricula in which
activities are organized around a theme. Cumlingham and Allington (2003) have
emphasized how themes promote memorable, associative leaming, as learning occurs
more effectively through association rather than by memorizing a series of disconnected
facts and skills. By incorporating thematic instruction into the cUITiculum you are able to
easily plan daily instruction around one basic idea and continue to build upon one main
foundation day after day. We have also learned repetition in teaching students with severe
special needs is a critical and key factor in every aspect of their daily routine and
functioning.
Myers (2007) designed a language and literacy program for students with
complex communication needs that included: an integrated speech approach and
curricula, constant modeling of AAC usage, family involvement, and follow up visits to
schools. Myers also included themes throughout the entire program to engage students
more effectively. The advantages of having family involvement in working towards
emerging literacy and communication in severe special needs students is very beneficial.
It not only offers the student more opportunities to explore their communication but
teaches family how to interact appropriately and encourages all types of communication.
24 Many individuals benefit from symbols for both expressive and receptive
communication. Expressively, individuals may point to symbols to communicate a
message using an augmentative communication system. Receptively, individuals who
struggle to comprehend speech alone may benefit from augmented input supported by
symbols. The pairing of speech and auditory input with a symbol serves two primary
goals. First, it provides a model for the individual on how a symbol can be used for
expressive language. Secondly, it supports succesfullanguage mapping (How can PEes
help an individual communicate, 2009).
Browder, Wakeman, Spooner, et al., 2006 discuss their findings, "consistent with
these prior publications, this review reveals strong evidence for teaching students with
significant cognitive disabilities to read sight words using systematic prompting
techniques in a repeated (massed) trial fornlat. Our review of studies on teaching picture
or symbol identification also revealed that students with severe mental retardation can
learn symbols related to literacy. This review offers that there is enough evidence and
previous studies to support that students with severe cognitive disabilities are capable of
learning sight words through systematic prompting like time delay"(pA02).
(Hetzroni, 2004, p.1307) offers that, "Research findings demonstrate that the use
of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) and assistive technology (AT)
may support the process ofliteracy learning and in the realization of their potential.
Through the use of graphic symbols they learn to COlmect between their thoughts and the
symbols presented in front of them." "Research has demonstrated repeatedly that
phonological skills are a critical factor for learning print-sound association, and the
pattern of the written form of the language. However, prelingual deaf children who sign
and do not use sound have been found to learn to read and write with little understanding
of phonemic awareness. Thus, children who were natural signers seemed to depend on
their visual skills to read with only residual dependency on phonological skills"
(Hetzroni, 2004, p.l307).
Just as new readers practice their reading, AAC users practice using their devices.
Through the learning of new sight words, answering and asking questions and interacting
in conversation among peers and others the AAC user acquires new vocabulary and in
essence is enhancing their writing experience and increasing literacy competence.
Communicating using AAC necessitates the participation of at least two parties: the user
and the reader or listener. Through this interaction, AAC users also influence the literacy
skills of other individuals participating in the communication exchange (Wilkins and
Ratajczak, 2009). Hetzroni, states, "Assistive technology can assist students facing
difficulties in learning and bring them closer to success in acquiring emergent literacy as
well as reading and writing skills" (2004, p.l306).
"AAC and assistive technology can have a strong impact on empowering
capabilities and competencies of AAC users. Research has demonstrated that those
strategies and technologies are possible. Assistive technology has an important role in the
development of such abilities with AAC users" (Hetzroni, 2004, p.l311).
Incorporating AAC into the daily lives of students with severe special education
needs becomes natural once the teacher has accepted this philosophy. Everything that is
taught includes the use of AAC. For example, during circle time or morning meeting
students have the opportunity to share about their evenings. This is the perfect
oppOliunity for students to utilize their AAC devices, sign language or PCS. This is also a
great time for students to complete their daily schedules using PCS or their AAC devices.
"The use of daily picture communication schedules, a picture symbol, and word
combined, was a visual strategy that provided students an 0ppOliunity to read. Many
children were able to receptively and expressively identify the picture. Associating the
picture symbol and word together exposed the children to print" (Beck, 2002, p.45).
26
Language and reading can easily become one when teaching special education
and more specifically severe special education. For example, modifying the book Brown
Bear, Brown Bear by: Eric Carle. Programming this book into a student's Springboard so
that when the teacher reads the book he can follow along and assist the teacher. The
teacher can say to him, "What color bird?" And this student can respond with, "a red
bird" using his AAC device. Using PECs on each page of the book also allows for a non
verbal student to identify, understand and visually read the book. Beck, 2002 add that,
"Another emergent-literacy activity that has been integrated into the curriculum is
matching vocabulary, a picture symbol with the word"(p45). For students working on
cause and effect as well as reading activities, the teacher is able to hook up a switch to the
computer and have books on the computer that are read to the student but not until the
student activates the switch by touching it to tum the page to the next set of words. This
activity strengthens cause and effect goals while integrating reading instruction and the
visual matching of words to pictures. Children using assistive technology were able to
pursue reading at their own speed and to choose computer-based books they wished
(Beck, 2002). "Adapted books can encourage children to interact with text and words"
(Beck, 2002, p.46).
PCS can be used to teach reading through the integration of symbols. How can
PCS assist with reading, 2008, writes, "Symbols can suppOli p31iicipation in reading
instruction by students with complex communication disabilities. Most literary materials
require learners to say words or letter sounds out loud. To promote successful
participation, symbols can support a student pointing to practice and demonstrate
reading skills, rather than saying the words or letter sounds. Additionally, symbols,
photographs and illustrations can benefit struggling students' reading comprehension
skills by providing additional visual reference for the key words and concepts presented
in the text. Symbols can be used to help build background knowledge and make
connections between previous and new learning.
"The multimodal nature of high-tech AAC devices makes the creation of meaning
a sophisticated task involving highly complex thought processes. Users of these devices
are likely to be educated in inclusive educational settings, which is why it is important to
explore ways in which literacy skills can be developed in these students" (Wilkins &
Ratajczak, 2009, p.168).
(Wilkins and Ratajczak 2009, p.171-172) outline literacy activities for students
who use AAC devices.
1. To develop letter-sound correspondence skills, the teacher will verbally
produce a sound and the AAC device user will type the letter that matches the
sound. The teacher can also dictate nonsense words for the student to type.
Alternately, the device user can provide a letter and students will produce the
corresponding sound.
2. To develop phonemic blending skills, the teacher will sound out a word and the
device user will select the key with a picture representing the word.
3. To develop understanding of vocabulary words, the teacher will provide words
for the device user to sort and categorize by using theme pages.
4. To develop comprehension skills, prior knowledge will be activated by giving
the student new vocabulary words to associate with known words using picture
28 keys. To check for comprehension while reading a selection, peer partners can
ask factual questions. To demonstrate U11derstanding of text meaning after reading
a selection, the student using an AAC device can produce words so that partners
can build relevant sentences regarding the readiQg.
5. To increase awareness of content area vocabulary, the teacher will write words
on the board for students to copy. The student using AAC will type the words and
then produce the words along with other students' verbal responses. In groups,
students will then create relevant sentences using the words, which the device
user will type into his or her device and produce out loud.
6. To develop meaning-making skills, students using AAC will produce words
and phrases for peers to connect into syntactically correct sentences. The student
can also work in groups with typical peers to compose stories built around words
he or she selects from the device.
"Students using AAC can compose original paragraphs by selecting words or
preprogrammed phrases to represent ideas that partners can develop into meaningful
sentences. For example, if the device user selects "fish" and "water," the partner might
connect these words to write the sentence, "Fish live in water." To develop an
understanding of how the structure and order of different parts of language work together
in sentences to provide meaning, the device user will type the sentence into his or her
device" (Wilkins & Ratajczak, 2009, p.I?1).
Students can also work in small groups to construct stories by
incorporating words selected from their devices with new words to form
sentences. One student in each group should be designated as the scribe. Students
are given a story starter, such as, "I woke up when I heard a knock at my door .. "
29 and the student using AAC will select a picture key or word on the device so
that students can build a follow-up sentence around it. For example, ifhe or she
selects the word "shoe," a student might construct the following sentence: "I
rushed toward the door and tripped over my shoes." Other students will contribute
additional sentences to connect those built around words selected by the device
user. After the story is complete, students should read their stories aloud to the
class. In this way, using an AAC can fU1iher develop students' understanding of
syntax, topic maintenance, and logical organization of ideas (Wilkins &
Ratajczak, 2009).
Erickson and Koppenhaver 1995, reviewed a literacy program implemented for
those with severe special needs and for whom use some of the following AAC devices:
step-by-steps, talking symbols, Go Talk 4 and Springboards. The following is their
conclusion and thoughts. "Teachers resolved to emphasize reading and writing activities
that were child directed and constmctive rather than teacher directed and reactive. The
result was a program made up offour basic literacy components: (a) writing during
calendar time each morning; (b) directed reading in small groups or individually with the
teacher; (c) use of computer software; and (d) group activities. The combined use of
technology and child-centered instruction in this program resulted in the active
participation of severely disabled students in reading and writing activities" (Erickson &
Koppenhaver, 1995, p.679).
Emerging literacy and communication in students with severe special needs is
entirely possible. In the review of literature provided there were many different AAC
devices (step-by-steps, talking symbols, Go Talk's and Springboards) described that are
available and how to go about using them when teaching reading and conununication.
30 With technology booming, cuniculum available and the tools at our fingeliips, the ball
so to speak is now in the teachers' hand. Educators choose what and how to teach.
31 Chapter III: Discussion
Many students with severe special education needs are unable to read and have
had few opportunities to leam. This is often times because students are functioning at
such a low level and may even be non-verbal. The student has been moved from one
grade level to the next, sometimes never having had the 0ppOliunity to leam to read
simply because the teacher or speech and language pathologist didn't have the necessary
tools, AAC devices, or training to teach them properly. The Picture Exchange
Communication system (PECs) along with sign language and AAC devices are promising
strategies for engaging students with severe special needs in reading and communication
skills.
As a special education teacher to students whom are enrolled in a severe cognitive
disabilities classroom at the high school level, I want to teach my students everything I
possibly can to make them functional members of society. With that being said, my goal
through this research study and resource guide was to try and examine ways in which I
along with other educators, parents and specialists can teach reading through adaptations,
modifications and the use of AAC devices as well as teach communication skills and
offer guidance to those who are also looking for ways to enhance and encourage reading
and communication.
My goal within my classroom and as an educator has always been and will always
be, to give my students the necessary tools through classroom instruction, communication
skills, life skills, daily living skills, and vocational skills to make them as independent
and functional in society as they possibly can be.
lt was been researched and discovered that when students with severe special
education needs are given the proper tools and devices that learning to read and
communicate is possible. This is possible through the use of the PCS, AAC devices,
sign language and proper education of the teaching staff. It can be said that, incorporating
and utilizing assistive technology or AAC (in non-verbal students or severe special needs
students) can offer a number of opportunities for increased literacy. The opportunity for
eil1erging literacy is increased when students are given the needed assistive technology to
enhance their communication and verbal out-put. A number of different teaching
strategies allows this to become possible and attainable.
Language can be taught in a number of different settings using a number of
different techniques but can still offer the same result. This is also the case when using
sign language to teach literacy skills to severe special needs students. Sign language can
be used to teach students how to read the book, "Brown Bear, Brown Bear" by: Eric
Carle. This unique opportunity is able to showcase how sign language is effective in
teaching literacy. Students can use sign language to display basic sight words, to display
wants/needs as well as to say short phrases to the teacher. Reading comprehension is
displayed when students use sign language to answer questions the teacher has asked in
regards to the book "Brown Bear, Bro\\lJ1 Bear." This is only one of many opportunities
where sign language can be used to enhance reading and communication.
Using the PCS students are offered pictures to learn basic sight words. Through
sight word identification literacy has already begun, from that point forward the student is
working on achieving higher leaming through the use ofPCS. PCS can be used in all
aspects of the students' day from: daily schedule to bathroom routine to recipes, grocery
lists, stories, comprehension questions, math problems and social stories. Although this
early stage of literacy is based on pictures the student is still able to read and understand
the material as well as comprehend what is being taught and is able to display that
knowledge through the use ofPCS.
My recommendations for further research on this topic include determining
whether or not early interventions to AAC devices make a difference for enhancing
communication skills, how parent involvement in teaching AAC devices to children
encourage communication and literacy, what teaching strategies are most effective for
teaching literacy and communication to severe special needs students and lastly, what
reading cuniculum. If further research was completed in those areas educators and
parents alike would have a better and more comprehensive understanding of how
emerging literacy and communication are entirely possible in severe special needs
populations.
References
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34
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Algozzine, Bob. (2006). Research on Reading Instruction for Individuals with
Significant Cognitive Disabilities. Council for Exceptional Children, 72(4),392-
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Cunningham, P. M., & Clel1don, S.A. (2004). AAC, Language and Literacy: Fostering
the relationship. Topics in Language Disorders, 34(1), 76-9l.
Erickson, Karen A., & Kippenhaver David, A. (1995). Developing a literacy program for
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