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i
EIA for the Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line From Omatando to Oshivelo – Portion 2
Enviro Dynamics CC
6 August 2014
SPECIALIST STUDY: Birds
PREPARED BY: John Pallett
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for
the Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line from
Ruacana to Oshivelo via Ongwediva –
Eastern portion
Environmental Impact Assessment for the Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line from Omatando Substation to Oshivelo Substation (Portion 2) Bird Impact Assessment Report
2014
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COPYRIGHT:
PROJECT NAME Proposed 400 kV Transmission Line from Omatando to Oshivelo
via Ongwediva (Portion 2)
STAGE OF REPORT Final Report
CLIENT
NamPower
SPECIALIST CONSULTANT John Pallett
DATE OF RELEASE 6 August 2014
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE REPORT John Pallett
CONTACT +264 81 240 2528
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that I do:
(a) have knowledge of and experience in conducting specialist assessments, including
knowledge of the Environmental Management Act (Act 7 of 2007)and tge Regulations and
Guidelines that have relevance to the proposed activity;
(b) perform the work relating to the application in an objective manner, even if this results in views
and findings that are not favourable to the applicant;
(c) comply with the abovementioned Act, its Regulations, Guidelines and other applicable laws.
I also declare that there is, to my knowledge, no information in my possession that reasonably has or
may have the potential of influencing –
(i) any decision to be taken with respect to the application in terms of the Act and its
Regulations; or
(ii) the objectivity of this report, plan or document prepared in terms of the Act and its
Regulations.
John R Pallett
Bird specialist
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report addresses bird issues on the proposed power line from Omatando
Substation near Oshakati to Oshivelo. The proposed line comprises the eastern half
of the entire line which will start at Kunene Substation near Ruacana. The report
describes the entire line, but the impact assessment and suggested mitigations focus
on the eastern portion only. The western portion was assessed in a separate, earlier
phase of this project.
The original route of the proposed power line went close to Lake Oponono, which
was assessed during the scoping phase to place a significant risk on the small
population of blue cranes that occur in that area and around the eastern edge of
Etosha Pan. The route was then changed so that the line avoids Lake Oponono at a
distance of about 20 km, and runs parallel or close to the existing 132 kV line from
Omatando to Oshivelo. This routing is far less risky to birds but it is still recommended
to carry bird flight diverters to further reduce the risk of collision to large birds.
Out of a total diversity of about 200 bird species that exist in the project area, 29
species are ranked as Red Data species i.e. they are threatened because their
populations are small and/or declining. These birds comprise two critically
endangered crane species (blue and wattled) and the endangered grey crowned
crane, 11 species of raptors (vultures and eagles), 2 species of bustards, 8 species of
wetland birds such as flamingos, pelicans, storks and ducks, and a few other birds
found in savanna habitat.
Information on bird – power line conflicts in this area is very sketchy, and so is
knowledge on bird movements. This situation demands a precautionary approach
to the problems of impacts on birds. Three potential impacts are expected from the
proposed 400 kV power line. These are:
1. Collisions of birds against the wires;
2. Disturbance of breeding birds during construction;
3. Removal of nests of a few species that will build nests on the towers.
Collisions of large birds against power lines are a major problem, worldwide and in
this project. This impact is rated as High significance. To mitigate the impact of
collisions, it is recommended that bird flight diverters are installed on the power line
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during construction. From a financial perspective, it would be useful to identify
areas along the line – so-called ‘hotspots’ – where this problem is likely to be most
severe, so that only those sections would be marked. However there is virtually no
information on flight paths of cranes in this area, and movements of raptors and
bustards is determined by food availability (such as carcasses or insect abundance),
which cannot be predicted. Crane numbers are so critically low that adding any
risk to their occurrence in the area is unacceptable. These factors demand that the
whole area of vulnerability is marked with bird flight diverters. Consequently, the
eastern section where there is a relatively higher risk to cranes, totalling 120 km,
should be marked with spirals. The western section, where cranes, bustards and
large raptors are less likely due to the density of homesteads and human activity,
totalling 65 km, will not be marked. However, parts of this section which might
warrant BFDs for a short distance, such as where the line traverses open pans or a
clump of relatively tall trees, will be identified by the consultant during the
construction phase, and BFDs will be installed on those sections.
The design and interval of the spiral devices should conform with the procedures
followed by Eskom in South Africa, i.e. in contrasting colours (alternately black and
white), 5 metres apart, along the two earth wires.
The intention of this very expensive mitigation is to prevent any collisions of large
birds on the proposed power line. Unfortunately, complete prevention of all
collisions is unachievable, but with this measure in place, the significance of the
impact can be improved to Medium.
Disturbance to nesting birds and to other terrestrial wildlife is likely to occur but the
length of the route where there are species to be impacted is relatively short, only
about a third of the total length, and the population of wildlife and vulnerable birds
are both quite low. This is an impact of Low significance. Mitigation is difficult, and
should involve vigilance for any suspicious activities by on-site security staff or
‘environmental monitors’ employed by NamPower. The significance after mitigation
remains Low, because of the difficulties of effective mitigation.
A few bird species such as crows, kestrels and buffalo-weavers, none of them
threatened, will build their nests in the strutted framework of the V-shaped towers.
Routine maintenance of the power line will have to remove these nests, killing the
eggs and unfledged occupants. The affected species are widespread and their
populations will not be significantly impacted by these actions. This is an impact of
Low significance, and does not require any specific mitigation. Records of nest
clearing, noting numbers of nests, bird species and tower numbers and localities,
should be kept to inform any possible future effort to prevent or deter the birds from
nesting on towers.
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Electrocution of large birds is a common impact on power lines, but is not expected
to occur on this line as the design of the towers offers no place for birds to perch,
and the conductors are far enough apart to not allow the gap between any two
conductors to be breached.
This power line will offer little opportunity for dedicated monitoring to find out if the
suggested mitigations are effective, because any birds lying dead or dying on the
ground will be quickly scavenged by either people or dogs or natural predators.
Nevertheless, records should be kept of the condition of the installed spirals (so they
can be replaced when necessary), and of nest-building activities by birds and the
consequent nest-removing activities of staff.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. iv
TABLES AND FIGURES ............................................................................................................... x
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ xi
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................ xii
ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................................... xiii
1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 SPECIALIST STUDY LEADER ....................................................................................... 1
1.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE .............................................................................................. 1
1.4 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 2
1.4.1 Information gathering ......................................................................................... 2
1.4.2 Field work .............................................................................................................. 3
1.4.3 Assessing the threatened status of species ..................................................... 3
1.4.4 Fine-tuning in discussion with NamPower ........................................................ 4
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS ............................................................................ 4
2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION .................................................................................................... 6
2.1 ROUTE AND POWER LINE STRUCTURES ................................................................... 6
2.2 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE POWER LINE ......................................................... 2
3 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS POLICIES AND GUIDELINES ....................................................... 3
3.1 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS OR GUIDELINES ................................................. 3
3.2 NATIONAL LEGISLATION POLICIES OR GUIDELINES .............................................. 3
4 THE RECEIVING ENVIRONMENT ....................................................................................... 4
4.1 BIRD HABITATS ........................................................................................................... 4
4.2 BIRDS WITH HIGH CONSERVATION STATUS ............................................................ 8
4.2.1 Critically endangered birds ............................................................................... 9
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4.2.2 Endangered birds .............................................................................................. 13
4.2.3 Vulnerable birds ................................................................................................. 15
4.2.4 Near Threatened birds ...................................................................................... 18
4.2.5 Sections of the proposed route and occurrence of specific birds ............ 21
4.2.6 Bird - power line conflicts reported to date ................................................... 23
4.3 PROTECTED AREAS AND THE ETOSHA RAMSAR SITE .......................................... 25
4.3.1 Regional and international importance of Etosha Pan ............................... 27
5 IMPACT ASSESSMENT (PORTION 2: OMATANDO – OSHIVELO SUBSTATIONS) .......... 28
5.1 BIRD COLLISIONS .................................................................................................... 28
5.1.1 Description of impact ....................................................................................... 28
5.1.2 Mitigation ............................................................................................................ 29
5.1.3 Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 33
5.1.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 34
5.2 DISTURBANCE OF BIRDS, ESPECIALLY AT NESTS................................................... 34
5.2.1 Description of impact ....................................................................................... 34
5.2.2 Mitigation ............................................................................................................ 35
5.2.3 Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 36
5.2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 36
5.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS ON THE TOWERS ......................................................... 36
5.3.1 Description of impact ....................................................................................... 36
5.3.2 Mitigation ............................................................................................................ 38
5.3.3 Monitoring ........................................................................................................... 38
5.3.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 38
5.4 IMPACT OF ELECTROCUTIONS .............................................................................. 39
6 IDENTIFICATION OF KEY IMPACTS ................................................................................. 42
6.1 COLLISIONS ............................................................................................................. 42
6.2 DISTURBANCE OF BREEDING BIRDS ...................................................................... 42
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6.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS FROM TOWERS ........................................................... 43
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................ 44
8 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 46
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TABLES AND FIGURES
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A Birds recorded from the proposed power line route
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GLOSSARY
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ABBREVIATIONS
BFD Bird flight diverter
DLBFD Double Loop Bird Flight Diverter
EIS Environmental Information Service (www.the-eis.com)
ha Hectare
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
kV Kilovolt
MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism
NP National Park
SS Substation
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to ‘Tante Knips’ (G.Keding) for generously offering her photos for
illustrations. Important inputs to the assessment were made by Ann and Mike Scott,
Wilferd Versfeld, Holger Kohlberg and Chris Brown. Constant Hoogstat and Luke
Strugnell from the Endangered Wildlife Trust in SA also provided valuable guidance.
1 BACKGROUND
1.1 INTRODUCTION
NamPower’s Transmission Master Plan outlines Namibia’s future transmission needs
up to 2050. It includes a high capacity power line from Ruacana to Oshivelo, via the
growth centre of Oshakati-Ongwediva-Ondangwa, to meet the growing demand
for electricity in the north of Namibia, and to strengthen the northern section of the
grid to ensure security of supply.
This report considers the impacts of the proposed power line on birds, and includes a
cursory assessment of the impacts on other biodiversity.
1.2 SPECIALIST STUDY LEADER
John Pallett
1.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE
The main objective of this study is to prepare an EIA and EMP for activities
associated with the construction, operation and decommissioning of the proposed
transmission lines. The consulting team should aim at avoiding environmental
impacts by carefully considering the route of the proposed line, and recommending
mitigation strategies for those impacts which cannot be avoided.
The following main tasks must be achieved. They must be conducted to meet the
requirements of the Regulations of the Environmental Management Act of 2007
(February 2012):
Identification of guidelines to ensure compliance with relevant Namibian
legislation and regional policies and protocols;
Conduct a scoping exercise during which consultation is done with Interested
and Affected Parties (I&APs) to ensure that their needs and concerns are
taken into account. Communal land occupants should be consulted
through their traditional leadership and all government agencies should be
informed of the planned activities.
Establish a data base so that a reasonable level of confidence can be
placed on the suitability of the route.
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Establish guidelines to minimise the negative environmental impacts of the
transmission line and the supporting infrastructure, for the construction,
operation and decommissioning phases.
The overall objectives of the specialist study are to:
Conduct a cursory ecological assessment for the study area.
Identify the distribution of bird habitats and flight paths in the vicinity of the
new transmission line and explain the value and relevance of this information
in the context of sensitivities related to birds, their habitats and potential bird
impacts. Attention should be given particularly to birds that are susceptible
to strikes and electrocutions. The study may draw on available GIS data,
existing databases (e.g. Environmental Information Service (EIS), professional
experience and field work to establish the information in relative detail. The
information should then be presented with maps, indicating areas/habitats of
concern and high sensitivity.
Identify relevant national and international protocols, legal and permit
requirements;
Assess the anticipated impacts of the project on birds, with particular
emphasis on the various phases of the project (i.e. construction, operation
and maintenance phases);
Provide a Bird Impact Monitoring and Management Plan. This should
highlight the following measures to avoid or reduce negative impacts:
o Proposed monitoring measures to be implemented by NamPower
during operation of the project;
o Exact locations where bird reflectors or other mitigation options
shouldbe put up, indicated on GIS maps;
o The study should cover all areas of concern. It should furthermore
highlight all habitats that could potentially be affected by the
construction and maintenance of the new transmission line.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
1.4.1 Information gathering
Prior to any fieldwork, background information relevant to the bird fauna was
gathered. This concentrated on a few sources, namely:
Namibia avifauna database, providing the species lists for the affected
quarter degree squares;
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The EIS bird collision database, which collates information on power line –
wildlife conflicts (www.the-eis.com );
Namibia’s Red Data list of birds (Simmons & Brown, in prep.).
1.4.2 Field work
During the Scoping and Route Assessment Phase in January 2014, the suggested
route was assessed with a helicopter flight to get an idea of the wetland habitats
and birds that would be affected. This led to a change in the route, on the basis
that what was first suggested posed a risk to Critically Endangered blue cranes in the
Lake Oponono area.
The entire route of the new alternative, from Kunene via Ongwediva to Oshivelo,
was driven to check finer details of habitats and birds, especially in the area of
oshanas south and west of Oshakati. The assessment by vehicle took place over
two days (14-15 March 2014), and focused on identifying sections where particular
habitats, concentrations of birds or likely flight paths would trigger the need for bird
flight diverters on the route.
1.4.3 Assessing the threatened status of species
The standard for assessing the threat a species faces, based on the probability of
extinction, is a Red Data list. Depending on the severity of a species’ decline and its
total population size, species are categorised as:
Critically endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Near-threatened.
A Red Data list for Namibian birds is in preparation (Simmons & Brown). This
describes the Namibian situation for the relevant birds, and has been used in this
assessment. Some Namibian birds are also globally threatened, in which case they
also appear on the global Red Data classification from Birdlife International (2004).
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1.4.4 Fine-tuning in discussion with NamPower
The proposed route and design was assessed using the above information and
activities. In discussions about the practicality and cost of bird flight diverters (BFDs),
NamPower objected to a first suggestion that the whole line should be fitted with
spirals and/or flashing devices and/or flappers. As a compromise, the length of the
line requiring BFDs was reduced, and a design of BFD that would be long-lasting and
relatively maintenance-free was agreed on.
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS
The field inspection by vehicle was confined to existing roads so did not follow the
exact proposed power line route. Prior to driving through the area, the brief aerial
survey by helicopter had been used to assess the habitats around the Oshakati –
Lake Oponono that the power line would traverse. These two field visits were
considered adequate to identify the various habitats, assess their condition, and
consider the likelihood of occurrence of certain birds.
Namibia’s avifauna database was used to draw up the list of birds likely to occur
along the proposed route, and was added to on the basis of personal observations
and experience in the areas and habitats. For example, oshana areas near the
proposed route between Okahao and Oshakati will be likely to attract any of the
wetland species found on the avifauna database for this general area. Also, open
plains in Etosha NP host kori and (rarely) Ludwig’s bustards, so the plains habitats
traversed in the south-eastern section of the proposed route could also be
frequented by these birds, even though they are not recorded from the relevant
quarter-degree squares on the avifauna database.
Monitoring of power lines for bird mortalities in Namibia has been very limited overall.
Ad hoc records, only since 2008, have been compiled into a database, and the
database contains very few records from north-central Namibia. This probably
reflects less monitoring and recording of bird mortalities, rather than less mortalities
per se.
Settlements are rapidly expanding in the area south of Oshakati, especially around
the Ekuma River and Lake Oponono. Thus some literature references which call this
area ‘remote’ and ‘uninhabited’ are no longer like that. This affects the likelihood of
finding certain birds in these areas, such as cranes.
Information on movements of birds to and from Etosha Pan is extremely sketchy, and
the lines drawn in Figure 12 showing ‘possible crane movements’ are based on very
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limited data. This reduces the confidence we can place on the assessment, and
emphasises the need for a precautionary approach.
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2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 ROUTE AND POWER LINE STRUCTURES
The proposed route of the power line is shown in Figure 1 and described below.
Section 1: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 184 km, from the
Kunene SS eastward to the Makalani SS located approximately 12 km due
south of Oshakati;
Section 2: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 18 km long, from
Makalani SS north to Omatando SS located on the outskirts of Ongwediva;
Section 3: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 68 km, from
Omatando SS eastward, running along the existing 132 kV TX line to the vicinity
of Okatope SS; and
Section 4: Single circuit TX line (Figure structure) approximately 106 km, on a
new alignment (deviating from 132 kV line), from the vicinity of Okatope SS to
Oshivelo SS.
THIS REPORT FOCUSES ON SECTIONS 3 AND 4 ONLY. SECTIONS 1 and 2 WERE
ASSESSED IN THE REPORT ON THE WESTERN PORTION.
There will also be a new substation at Makalani, and the existing substation at
Omatando will be expanded, as follows:
Makalani SS – approximately 500 m x 500 m (25 ha);
Omatando SS expansion – existing substation is to be extended in a north-
westerly direction, 230 m x 330 m (7.6 ha);
Figure 1: Proposed route of the power line, showing the sections described above.
2.2 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE POWER LINE
The entire length of the proposed power line is approximately 380 km long. Sections
1, 3 and 4 (Kunene SS to Makalani SS, and Omatando to Okatope to Oshivelo SS) will
be supported on galvanised steel guyed V-structures (Figure ). Section 2 (Makalani
SS to Omatando SS, NOT INCLUDED IN THE EASTERN PORTION) will be held on self-
supporting galvanised steel monopoles Figure). The approximate height of these
structures will be 45 m.
The
servitudes will be 80m wide for sections 1, 3 and 4, which run through relatively
sparsely populated areas, and 50m for section 2, which runs through a densely
populated area. For the entire line only an estimated 12m width needs to be totally
cleared of vegetation and obstacles to create a service road, to provide access
(during construction and maintenance) to the line throughout its lifespan of 30 years.
The EIA team will however assess a corridor of 500m wide (250m on either side of the
proposed line).
Figure 2: Example of structure in sections 1, 3 and
4 of the route.
Figure 3: Example of structure in section 2.
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3 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS POLICIES AND GUIDELINES
3.1 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS OR GUIDELINES
The UN Convention on Biodiversity has been ratified by Namibia, and commits the
country to protecting all species naturally occurring in its territory.
Namibia is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance, which holds the country to protect its nominated wetlands and
associated biodiversity. Etosha Pan and the Cuvelai wetlands north of the Pan are
listed as one of four of Namibia’s Ramsar sites.
Namibia will soon become a signatory to the Bonn Convention on Migratory
Species, which holds the country to protect the areas where migratory species
spend part of their life cycle. Namibia’s responsibility relevant to this proposed
power line extends to migrant birds such as lesser flamingo and black-winged
pratincole, which visit the Etosha and Cuvelai area from other parts of Africa and
Europe, respectively.
3.2 NATIONAL LEGISLATION POLICIES OR GUIDELINES
The Nature Conservation Ordinance (1975) establishes a framework for species and
area conservation, by controlling the hunting and protection of wild animals and
plants. Important habitats and species are offered protection under national parks
or reserves.
The Parks and Wildlife Management Bill (2009) will replace the Nature Conservation
Ordinance. It is not yet in force.
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4 THE RECEIVING ENVIRONMENT
4.1 BIRD HABITATS
The western part of the proposed route (Kunene SS to the bend-point at the
southern-most point of this leg) traverses mainly western Kalahari woodland and
mopane shrubland. This habitat is quite dense, with trees of medium height (up to
about 3-4m), dominated by mopane or in patchy mosaics with other trees, and with
occasional open grassy patches (Figures 4 and 5) The important characteristics for
birds are that the vegetation is quite dense with few open patches, and few large
trees that stand taller than the bushy layer. In the very far west there are a few
elongated koppies of higher relief than the surroundings.
Figure 4. Typical vegetation in Section 1 of the
route, showing western Kalahari woodland
vegetation. The low ridges at the far western end
of the route are visible on the horizon.
Figure 5. Open patch of grasses and shrubs in the
western Kalahari woodland vegetation of Section
1.
From the southern bend-point to Omatando SS the proposed route traverses
oshanas and fields, and the urban settlements centred around Oshakati and
Ongwediva (Figures 6, 7 and 8). The shallow channels and pans making up the
oshanas contain emergent vegetation during the wet season and constitute
important wetland habitat for birds such as ducks, various waders and egrets. Fields
are cultivated with mahango in the wet season and stand fallow at other times.
Vegetation on the ground between oshanas comprises occasional tall trees (e.g.
marula, jackal berry, bird plum, makalani palms), shrubby mopanes and sandy areas
with grass or stands of the weedy shrub bitterbos (Pechuel-Loeschea leubnitziae).
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South-east of Omatando SS the proposed route traverses mainly cultivated and
settled ground, as far as Oshalongo. The terrain is a mosaic of homesteads, fields
and open grazing areas, with scattered trees (Figure 9).
Figure 6. An oshana close to
Okahao, showing emergent
vegetation in the channel and
generally open habitat.
Figure 7. The oshana running
through Ongwediva where the
proposed power line will be
routed close to the existing line
visible on the left.
Figure 8. A typical oshana scene
during the wet season.
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The final 50 km of the proposed route, as the line approaches Oshivelo running north
and east of the existing 132 kV line, traverses Kalahari woodland with quite dense,
medium-height trees.
The proposed route traverses a few conservancies that lie north of Etosha National
Park, as shown in Figure 11. These are:
Uukolonkadhi Ruacana Conservancy
Uukwaludhi Conservancy
Sheya Shuushona Conservancy
Iipumbu ya Tshilongo Conservancy
King Nehale Conservancy
Conservancies are relevant to the bird fauna and biodiversity generally because
their core wildlife areas should preferably not be traversed by power lines. This is to
limit disturbance during construction, to prevent easy access along the servitude
Figure 9. Mahango field near
Omatando. The new power line will
run parallel and close to the
existing 132 kV line visible here.
Figure 10. Mixed mopane
woodland and eastern Kalahari
woodland in the area south-east
of Okatope. Note the buffalo-
weaver nests in the framework of
the 132 kV towers.
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track during the operational phase, and to prevent any aesthetic deterioration in
the areas which might become valuable for tourism.
Figure 11. Map showing the route of the proposed power line. The central section traverses mostly settled and farmed
areas that are associated with the oshanas, and cultivated fields cover much of the landscape as far south-east as
Oshivelo. The map also shows the conservancies and Etosha National Park in the overall area.
Table 1: Feature related sensitivities
FEATURE DESCRIPTION SENSITIVITY POTENTIAL IMPACT
Western
Kalahari
woodlands
and mopane
shrublands
Medium density
woodland with open
grassy patches
Habitat for raptors, ground
hornbill, kori bustard
Potential mortalities of
these birds by collisions.
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Cuvelai
wetlands
and
surrounding
grasslands
Shallow ephemeral
pans and channels of
the oshanas, with
surrounding saline
grasslands around the
edges of Etosha Pan
and the Omadhiya
lakes.
The oshanas and grasslands
of the Cuvelai support many
birds, including a number of
Red Data species, by
providing the habitat and
conditions for their feeding,
shelter and breeding. Birds
such as cranes and flamingos
that might fly northwards are
likely to use flight paths that
follow oshanas.
Negative impact by
collisions on the numbers
and diversity of birds in
this habitat.
Cranes, saddle-blled
stork, flamingos and
pelican are Red Data
species that could be
impacted. Ludwig’s and
kori bustards may
occasionally visit the
open grasslands.
Grasslands Andoni Flats and
associated grasslands
around the
northeastern perimeter
of Etosha Pan. This
area is not traversed by
the proposed route,
but the line passes
about 10 km to the
north-east of the Flats.
These grasslands are foraging
areas for two species of
cranes, both Critically
Endangered. Also likely
habitat for bustards and other
grassland species.
This habitat is not
traversed by the
proposed route.
However it is likely to
attract birds such as
cranes and bustards,
thereby increasing the
potential for collisions in
the nearby parts of the
power line.
Eastern
Kalahari
woodlands
Medium density
woodland with open
grassy patches
Habitat for raptors, kori
bustard. This area will
probably also carry traffic of
wetland birds flying to and
from Etosha Pan.
Potential mortalities of
these birds by collisions.
4.2 BIRDS WITH HIGH CONSERVATION STATUS
Two hundred bird species have been recorded along the length of the proposed
power line route (Appendix A). This high number is a reflection of the diversity of
habitats that the line crosses or runs close to, including wetlands of the oshana
system that funnels from southern Angola towards the Etosha Pan.
The bird list includes 29 species that are conservation priorities by virtue of declining
populations or endemicity (Table 2). Notes on each of these species are provided
below, describing the threats they face and their significance to the present project.
Unless stated otherwise, information is drawn from Simmons & Brown (in prep.): ‘Birds
to watch in Namibia – Red, rare and threatened species’.
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Table 2: Red-listed and endemic birds found along the proposed power line route
Red Data listing Namibian endemics Main habitat
Blue Crane Critically Endangered Wetland
Wattled Crane Critically Endangered Wetland
Cape Vulture Critically Endangered Savanna
Grey Crowned Crane Endangered Wetland
Saddlebilled Stork Endangered Wetland
Rufousbellied Heron Endangered Wetland
Tawny Eagle Endangered Savanna
Martial Eagle Endangered Savanna
Bateleur Endangered Savanna
Ludwig’s Bustard Endangered Savanna
Violet Woodhoopoe Endangered Endemic Savanna
Southern Ground Hornbill Endangered Savanna
Yellowbilled Oxpecker Endangered Savanna
White Pelican Vulnerable Wetland
Greater Flamingo Vulnerable Wetland
Lesser Flamingo Vulnerable Wetland
Secretarybird Vulnerable Savanna
Lappetfaced Vulture Vulnerable Savanna
Whiteheaded Vulture Vulnerable Savanna
Kori Bustard Near Threatened Savanna
Blacknecked Grebe Near Threatened Wetland
Marabou Stork Near Threatened Wetland and savanna
Maccoa Duck Near Threatened Wetland
Whitebacked Vulture Near Threatened Savanna
Pallid Harrier Near Threatened Wetland
Peregrine Falcon Near Threatened Savanna
Western Redfooted Kestrel Near Threatened Savanna
Blackwinged Pratincole Near Threatened Wetland and savanna
Rueppell's Parrot Near Threatened Endemic Savanna
4.2.1 Critically endangered birds
4.2.1.1 Blue crane
The blue crane has the smallest range of all of the world's cranes, in three separated
sub-populations in South Africa and Namibia (Figure 12). The total population is
estimated at about 25,000 birds, but the Namibian component is tiny, at about 20
birds (Namibia Crane News, 2013). These birds are concentrated in the eastern parts
of Etosha National Park and in the grasslands centred on the Omadhiya lakes
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immediately north of the Park. They have been observed in a few other places in
the country, and movements of individuals are very poorly understood.
Figure 12. Distribution of blue cranes in northern Namibia. This map is based on data from when they were more
common in the 1990s (Allan 1997), with the highest density of birds centred on Etosha Pan and the Omadhiya lakes.
Orange hatched areas have recorded individuals in the past, and there may still be occasional movements between
these areas. It is possible that wattled cranes observed in south-eastern Angola, and a single blue crane found on the
Okavango River in 2012, may be birds that move to and from the Etosha Pan area.
Namibia’s blue cranes breed and rear their chicks within Etosha during the wet
season. During dry times of the year they dig up and eat the ‘uintjies’ that grow
amongst grass on the flats around Andoni and Lake Oponono, and north of King
Nehale gate. Dry season numbers are typically low in the Etosha-Oponono area,
but where they go to is not known. A blue crane recorded in Kavango in 2012 may
have been on the move to large wetlands in south-eastern Angola, the Bulozi
floodplain, where wattled cranes have been observed in large numbers (Namibia
Crane News 2013).
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The birds are in decline from habitat loss due to expanding human populations,
trapping and snaring, poisoning, and their high vulnerability to collisions with power
lines. Also, the small isolated population here is now prone to inbreeding. This
combination of factors could push the species to extinction in Namibia within a few
generations. The serious threats to this species elevate it to Critically Endangered,
while globally it is listed as Vulnerable as the South African population is larger but is
also in decline.
4.2.1.2 Wattled crane
Small numbers of wattled cranes occur at the ephemeral lakes at Oponono and
Oshituntu, north of Etosha, and in open wetland areas north of Etosha National Park
during wetter periods. The Namibian population is estimated at about 250 birds, and
these are concentrated in wetland and swamp areas of north-eastern Namibia. This
is a very slow-breeding bird which reaches sexual maturity after 8-9 years, so its
recovery from a population decline is very slow. Direct human disturbance and
degradation of wetland habitat are probably the main factors causing its decline,
and it is also vulnerable to collision with power lines.
It is listed as Critically Endangered in Namibia because of its very small population
size. It has the same listing in South Africa, and globally is considered Vulnerable
because of the relatively small global population size that is thought to be declining.
Sporadic recordings of these birds, in the face of dedicated searching by various
crane observers in Namibia, suggest that they move widely from place to place.
The Bulozi floodplains and areas of the Cuito in south-eastern Angola host possibly
hundreds of these birds (Namibia Crane News 2013), suggesting that there might be
Figure 13. Blue crane.
Photo: G.Keding
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movements from Etosha Pan in a NE direction. This is only conjecture, but raises a
concern that the proposed power line might intersect their flight paths, causing
crane mortalities.
4.2.1.3 Cape vulture
Like the other vulture species described below, Cape vultures forage over extensive
areas in and around Etosha National Park, and widely further afield. The number of
individuals in Namibia is extremely low, centred on the breeding colony at the
Waterberg, but individuals range widely over the subcontinent, as shown by the
tracking of one young individual over 5 years (Figure 14).
This species is ranked as Critically Endangered in Namibia. It is vulnerable to
poisoning, drowning in farm reservoirs, direct persecution, and power line collisions.
Figure 14. Movements of one Cape Vulture around southern Africa. Black dots represent daily fixes
on the bird over a 5-year period (Mendelsohn 2014, unpublished data).
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4.2.2 Endangered birds
4.2.2.1 Grey crowned crane
Grey crowned cranes inhabit dry grassland associated with wetlands, and in
Namibia they are confined to the grasslands north of Etosha in the Lake Oponono –
Lake Oshituntu area, and very rarely occur within Etosha itself. The Namibian
population is less than 50 birds. It is vulnerable to degradation of breeding and
feeding habitat, disturbance while breeding, poisoning and electrocutions and
collisions on power lines.
While the Namibian population of this species is very small it is not thought to be
declining and it represents less than 1% of the estimated 8,000 – 12,000 birds in
southern Africa. The global status of the entire species is Endangered as it has
suffered large-scale decreases in its strongholds in east Africa.
4.2.2.2 Saddle-billed stork
Saddle-billed storks are thinly spread in wetlands across Namibia, with their core
population in the Okavango Delta and the Zambezi-Kwando wetlands. The global
population is estimated at 10,000 birds, with Namibia holding about 200 birds. They
are found in fairly dry areas with aquatic habitat nearby, including woodlands with
pans and marshes, as well as on rivers and floodplains. They have been recorded in
the Lake Oponono area, Ekuma River and the eastern side of Etosha Pan.
This bird is classified as Endangered in Namibia because of its small population size.
Because of the difficulty in censussing this widespread species and its nomadic
Figure 15. Saddle-billed stork.
Photo: G.Keding
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movements around southern Africa's wetlands, it is not known if numbers are
declining. It is vulnerable to collisions against power lines (www.the-eis.com).
4.2.2.3 Rufous-bellied heron
This is a small, secretive heron whose core distribution is in central and southern
Africa. It is a possible vagrant to the project area as it does sometimes inhabit
temporarily flooded wetlands. It is threatened by degradation of wetland habitat,
i.e. increasing use of reedbeds and fish resources, as a result of increasing human
population density. The species is classified as Endangered in Namibia due to its
small population size (about 4% of the total population) and the increasing pressure
on its resources. Monitoring of the population is difficult because of the bird’s elusive
nature.
4.2.2.4 Eagles
There are four species of eagles classified as Endangered that are expected to
occur in the project area: martial eagle, tawny eagle and bateleur eagle.
Common to these three birds is their vulnerability to poisoning (intentionally set to kill
raptors or as a consequence of baiting against mammal predators), and a declining
availability of small wildlife prey. Drowning in farm reservoirs is also a frequent cause
of mortalities. All three species are vulnerable to collisions and electrocutions on
power lines (Birds and power lines assessment tool, www.the-eis.com).
Figure 16. Tawny eagle.
Photo: G.Keding
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4.2.2.5 Ludwig’s bustard
This is a nomadic bird of arid, open habitat and may occur in the project area as a
rare vagrant. It is classified as Endangered on account of its high mortality rate from
collisions against power lines. The quite densely vegetated nature of the western
part of the proposed route makes the habitat unattractive for Ludwig’s, while on the
eastern side, in the vicinity of Etosha Pan, its occurrence is a rare possibility (Pallett
pers. observations).
4.2.2.6 Yellow-billed oxpecker and violet woodhoopoe
Both these species are likely to occur in parts of the project area. The woodhoopoe
likes arid woodland habitat particularly along dry river beds, and requires dead
branches on large trees for foraging and breeding. Oxpeckers are closely
associated with grazing cattle and wild ungulates and also nest in holes in preferably
large riverine trees. Both species are expected at low frequency.
4.2.2.7 Southern ground hornbill
This large terrestrial hornbill has declined in abundance in north-central Namibia due
to the expansion of settlements and farming activities which leave very few large
undisturbed areas that it requires. The estimated Namibian population is about 1,000
birds, which equates to about 220-370 pairs as only one pair in a group of 3-5 birds
actually breeds. Also, they require both open grassland for foraging, and wooded
savanna with large trees for breeding, and this combination is becoming harder to
find in any one area in north-central Namibia due to expanding settlements, veld
fires and wood-cutting for fuel. The species is ranked as Endangered in Namibia
because of the small population size and its sharp decline over the last 20-30 years.
4.2.3 Vulnerable birds
4.2.3.1 Great white pelican
Great white pelicans are found across much of Namibia and across Africa into
Eurasia, with the southern African subspecies numbering about 3,000 in Namibia and
an equal number in SA. Large breeding events occurred at Lake Oponono and the
Ekuma River in the 1970s but have not been repeated since, probably due to natural
drying of ephemeral pans and lakes. Such mass breeding in this area is unlikely to
recur because of greater human presence now and the disturbance from people
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and dogs. The birds are also vulnerable to decreasing prey availability (fish) and
collisions against power lines.
4.2.3.2 Greater flamingo and lesser flamingo
Both species of flamingos breed in Etosha Pan, and the lesser flamingo also likes
more saline lakes such as in the Ekuma River. They breed in this area when it holds
water, and stay mainly at coastal pans for the rest of the year. Their movements are
mainly from the Etosha – Ekuma area to the southwest to the coast, and south-east
towards Nyae-Nyae pans and Sua Pan in Botswana. Further north than Etosha-
Ekuma, they are also known to occur in the Lake Olushandja – Ruacana area, but
this is infrequent and involves much smaller numbers than the thousands which
breed in the Etosha-Ekuma area. Thus flight movements into the project area are
likely to be infrequent and in small numbers, but there might be sporadic events
when large numbers of flamingos fly to and from Etosha Pan in extremely wet years.
Breeding events take place when rain provides adequate water in the Etosha Pan
but the recruitment of young birds into the population is relatively low, not at a high
enough level to sustain the southern African populations of both species. This justifies
the ranking of both species as Vulnerable. Flamingos are known to collide against
power lines, they are also easily disturbed while breeding (e.g. from overhead plane
flights) which reduces their breeding success, and are vulnerable to pesticides,
toxins and abstraction of water from breeding sites (e.g. at Sua Pan).
The population of flamingos at Etosha Pan in the years of maximum breeding in
Etosha Pan (early 1970s) was over one million (Berry 1972), which is higher than the
total normal southern African population. Etosha had attracted birds from very far
afield, most probably Lake Natron in Tanzania. This demonstrates an important
aspect, that breeding ‘booms’ take place very episodically, and are important
events in the long-term survival of the species. The population dwindles slowly over
decades following these events, and it requires these episodic boosts to maintain a
healthy level.
4.2.3.3 Secretary bird
The secretary bird is classified as Vulnerable and known to be a victim of power line
collisions in Namibia. This bird needs open plains for foraging and isolated tall trees
for breeding, conditions which exist in Etosha NP. Movements of this species are
poorly understood but its presence in the project area is possible, particularly in the
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area close to the open grasslands around the north-eastern perimeter of Etosha. It is
ranked as Vulnerable due to the small and declining population.
4.2.3.4 Lappet-faced vulture
Lappet-faced vultures occur at low density over most of Namibia, soaring high and
over long distances to locate ungulate carcasses, their main food item. One of their
cores of distribution is in Etosha National Park, but the birds do not breed there.
Poisons and drowning are the main threats to lappet-faced vultures in southern
Africa and Namibia, while persecution, disturbance at nesting sites, and collisions
and electrocution on power lines are also a threat.
4.2.3.5 Whiteheaded vulture
White headed vultures in Namibia are found within Etosha National Park and
eastwards to the Kavango and Zambezi Regions. Their numbers are estimated at
about 1,000 birds in Namibia, or 5 to 10% of the estimated global population. They
are ranked as Vulnerable based on declining numbers, as they are susceptible to
poisoning like all other vultures and many eagles in Namibia. The EIS power line –
bird assessment tool lists this species as vulnerable to collisions and electrocutions on
power lines.
Figure 16. Secretary bird.
Photo: G.Keding
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4.2.4 Near Threatened birds
4.2.4.1 Black-necked grebe
This small grebe breeds in inland saline pans and gathers in large numbers at coastal
pans when not breeding. Etosha Pan and the Omadiyha Lakes and Ekuma River
area are important breeding areas. Movements of the birds are most likely to be to
the southwest, south and east of Etosha.
4.2.4.2 Marabou stork
Marabou storks frequent wetlands such as inland dams and pans, and the species
has a relatively strong core of distribution in and around Etosha NP. It scavenges
from waste dumps and from carrion, and is expected as an occasional vagrant in
the project area.
4.2.4.3 Maccoa duck
Maccoa ducks occur occasionally at ephemeral pans such as Etosha, and move
nomadically between such water bodies inland and along the west coast. The
Namibian estimate of about 2,000 birds is probably about 25% of the total
population. It is a possible victim of collisions against power lines.
4.2.4.4 White backed vulture
White-backed vultures are widely distributed over the savanna areas of Africa.
Despite a relatively strong population in Namibia (roughly estimated at 10,000 birds),
they are classified as Near-Threatened because of continuing poisoning and a
Figure 17. Marabou stork.
Photo: G.Keding
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declining food base, as well as drownings, power line mortalities and killing for
traditional muti. They nest in tall trees, usually with many birds loosely congregated
in an area with such trees, such as lining a river course. No nests were seen in the
field inspection of the route.
4.2.4.5 Kori bustard
Kori bustards are large, mainly terrestrial birds which can fly strongly. The size of the
Namibian population is not known but they are thinly scattered over open and tree
savanna, with one core of the population in Etosha NP (Allan 1997, Hockey et al.
2005). They are not listed as Namibian Red Data birds but are globally considered
Near-Threatened due to the declining population, caused by power line mortalities,
hunting and habitat degradation (IUCN 2013). They are expected to occur in the
open grassland areas of the Andoni flats and surrounds, and in open patches on the
western leg of the route. Movements of koris could take place over any part of the
proposed route.
4.2.4.6 Pallid harrier
The pallid harrier probably occurs infrequently in the areas of grassland around pans
in the Etosha-Ekuma area. It is vulnerable to power line collisions (R.Simmons pers.
comm.) and degradation of wetland and grassland habitats.
Figure 18. Kori bustard.
Photo: G.Keding
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4.2.4.7 Peregrine falcon
The migratory subspecies of this bird is a possible rare visitor to the project area, while
the resident African subspecies is unlikely to occur here as it likes habitat with sheer
cliffs. The one that might occur here is widespread worldwide and is not threatened.
4.2.4.8 Black-winged pratincole
This bird is most likely to be found in the grasslands to the north-east of Etosha and in
cultivated fields in the north-central regions, where it visits for a few months in mid-
summer. Flocks move nomadically around southern Africa in search of suitable
insect swarms, especially termites and grasshoppers, before heading back to the
steppes in Eurasia for the northern summer. It is estimated that not more than 800
birds visit Namibia, out of a total global, declining, population of about 50,000. Loss
of breeding habitat and intensification of agriculture are the main causes of the
decline, and it is probably also vulnerable to power line collisions.
4.2.4.9 Rueppell’s parrot
Rueppell’s parrots may occur in the extreme north-west and south-east sections of
the project area, where there are trees for feeding and breeding. They are found
mainly in the escarpment areas of north-western Namibia, and extend into south-
western Angola, but the total Namibian population is less than 30,000 birds. The
main threat to this species is capturing of live birds for the parrot trade.
Table 2: Feature related sensitivities
FEATURE DESCRIPTION SENSITIVITY POTENTIAL IMPACT
Bird
collisions
Various species of
predominantly large birds
are prone to colliding
against power lines.
Collision mortalities are a
significant threat for many
Red Date species. In many
cases this cause of mortality
combines with other threats
such as dwindling habitat and
food resources, and greater
human disturbance.
The cumulative
impact of collisions
added on top of
other threats poses a
significant threat to
over 20 Red Data
birds in Namibia.
Electro-
cutions of
birds on
power lines
Large birds that perch, such
as eagles and vultures, can
get electrocuted on lines
when they open their wings
and breach two
It is mainly large raptors such
as martial eagles and white-
backed vultures that are
prone to electrocution in
As above, incidents of
electrocution may be
rare but in
combination with
other factors they
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conductors. The design of
towers for this line are less
prone to this problem but
electrocutions may still
occur in some rare
circumstances, when two or
more birds coincidentally
breach the gap between
conductors. Large nests on
towers can also cause this
problem.
Namibia. may threaten certain
Red Data eagles and
vultures.
Disturbance
of breeding
birds
Birds may be disturbed at
their nest sites either
intentionally or by accident.
Intentional disturbance, such
as collecting young parrots or
trapping birds for the muti
trade, makes certain species
such as parrots and vultures
vulnerable.
The birds may lose
that clutch of young,
resulting in less
recruitment into the
population. This can
be critical for birds
with small or declining
populations.
4.2.5 Sections of the proposed route and occurrence of specific birds
Different sections of the proposed power line route are likely to be frequented by
different birds. This dictates the level of risk associated with the different sections,
which in turn influences the level of mitigation required.
The various sections are shown in Figure 20, and Table 3 shows which birds are likely
to occur in which sections.
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Table 3
Section Habitat Vulnerable Red Data birds
Section a
(T – U – V)
Western Kalahari
woodland &
mopane
shrubland
Tawny eagle, martial eagle, bateleur, booted eagle,
Verreauxs’ eagle, secretary bird, Cape vulture,
lappet-faced vulture, white-headed vulture, white-
backed vulture, peregrine falcon, western red-footed
kestrel, black-winged pratincole, Ludwig’s bustard,
kori bustard, violet woodhoopoe, ground hornbill,
yellow-billed oxpecker, Rueppell’s parrot, Hartlaub’s
francolin
Section b
(V – W )
Cuvelai oshanas
and wetlands
Blue crane, wattled crane, grey crowned crane,
saddle-billed stork, rufous-bellied heron, marabou
stork, maccoa duck, pallid harrier, greater flamingo,
lesser flamingo
Section c
(W – X )
Heavily settled
and urban areas
Possibly marabou stork
Figure 20. Sections of the proposed route likely to be frequented by specific birds described in Table 3.
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with oshanas
Section d
(X – Y)
Medium-settled
areas with
scattered
homesteads,
fields and open
grazing land.
Occasional
oshanas
Tawny eagle, martial eagle, bateleur, Cape vulture,
lappet-faced vulture, white-headed vulture, white-
backed vulture, peregrine falcon, western red-footed
kestrel, black-winged pratincole, Ludwig’s bustard,
kori bustard, violet woodhoopoe, yellow-billed
oxpecker, maccoa duck
Section e
(Y – Z)
Medium- to
sparsely-settled
areas with
occasional
oshanas, grading
into eastern
Kalahari
woodland in the
south.
Blue crane, wattled crane, grey crowned crane,
saddle-billed stork, marabou stork, maccoa duck,
pallid harrier, greater flamingo, lesser flamingo.
Tawny eagle, martial eagle, bateleur, secretary bird,
Cape vulture, lappet-faced vulture, white-headed
vulture, white-backed vulture, western red-footed
kestrel, black-winged pratincole, Ludwig’s bustard,
kori bustard, violet woodhoopoe, yellow-billed
oxpecker, Rueppell’s parrot
4.2.6 Bird - power line conflicts reported to date
4.2.6.1 Collisions
The EIS power line bird assessment tool (www.the-eis.com) reports no collision
incidents in the area of the proposed power line (Figure 21). Power lines existing in
the area include many lengths of 33kV and 132kV lines running between Oshivelo
and Ruacana, and northwards from Oshakati to Oshikango, and a 66kV line running
between Oshivelo and Oshakati. However there has been no dedicated monitoring
of any power lines in the area north and west of Tsumeb. The closest records are of
a cormorant killed on an 11kV line in the Tsintsabis area, and doves and an
unidentified bird killed on a 220kV line between Tsumeb and Otavi.
4.2.6.2 Electrocutions
Birds that perch on power lines pose a risk of creating a short-circuit between
conductors, usually when they defecate in a long stream. During landing, take-off
or stretching, when the wings are extended, large birds can span some of the
distance between conductors, which might be enough to short-circuit the
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conductors. This is unlikely on large capacity lines and with the design of towers to
reduce this possibility. Nevertheless, it does still happen rarely, such as when there is
a cluster of birds and two or more coincidentally have their wings out-stretched in
the gap between conductors.
Birds reported perching on power lines in the general area of this proposed line
include black-chested and brown snake-eagles, on towers of the 132kV line NW of
Tsumeb (www.the-eis.com). Other birds that are known to cause electrocution
problems include various eagles and vultures, secretary bird, marabou stork, crows,
pale chanting goshawks, falcons and kestrels. Only the larger of these are expected
to be problematic along this proposed line.
4.2.6.3 Bird nests
Towers supporting power lines present nest-building sites that some birds favour as
they are high and out of reach of ground predators. Martial eagles frequently do
this in dry areas where tall trees are absent; other raptors are also known to do this,
and nests of red-billed buffalo weavers are very common on the existing 132kV line
between Tsumeb and Oshakati. The strutted framework of the V-shaped towers to
be erected on sections 1, 3 and 4 will attract buffalo weavers and possibly small
Figure 21. Quarter-degree squares showing relative numbers of bird species affected by, or affecting, power
lines, in the general area of the proposed route shown as a red line. Colour codes of squares: no shading – 0
species. White 1-4 species. Pale pink 5-9 species. Medium pink 10-14 species. Dark pink 15+ species. Coloured
spheres in SE corner show sites of recorded collisions or electrocutions.
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raptors for nesting. Their near-vertical shape, with a sharp apex, does not present a
suitable nesting surface for large birds that need a robust horizontal perch to land
and build on. The monopole structures to be erected on section 2 of the western
portion present possible nesting and landing sites where the horizontal arms of the
insulators meet the vertical pole.
4.3 PROTECTED AREAS AND THE ETOSHA RAMSAR SITE
Etosha Pan and its surrounds in the National Park is an official Wetland of
International Importance under the Ramsar Convention (Ramsar Site No. 745)
(http://ramsar.wetlands.org ). Although only the area inside the National Park is
demarcated (Figure 22), the description provided by Ramsar includes the Etosha
Pan, Lake Oponono and the Cuvelai drainage. This covers the area between 17º24’
and 19º15’S, and from 14º to 17º E. The citation is as follows:
“A system of ephemeral rivers, feeding pans and associated lake and delta.
Habitats include the pans, seasonally-flooded grasslands, palm tree savannah,
woodlands, and dry bush savannah. … The site supports populations of several rare
and endangered large mammals, and in good rainy seasons it serves as a breeding
ground for flamingos.”
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Figure 22. Situation of the Ramsar Wetland of International Importance at Etosha Pan.
Etosha National Park is recognised as an Important Bird Area in Namibia and
globally (Simmons et al. 1999), on account of its high diversity of birds (over 340
species) and its role as a breeding site for lesser and greater flamingos. Etosha is one
of only two regular breeding sites of these species in southern Africa, the other being
Sua Pan in the Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana. The pan and surrounding grassland
are habitat for some migrant birds from Europe and Asia (e.g. black-winged
pratincole, Caspian plover), and provide the only safe refuge in Namibia for blue
cranes. Saddle-billed stork, wattled crane, crowned crane and marabou stork are
also found in this habitat in the Park, while kori bustard and Ludwig’s bustard occur in
the grassland and open savanna. The area is recognised for its richness of raptors.
The fact that Etosha serves as a focus for so many birds also means that the birds will
also fly away from and towards this area, where they might conflict with the
proposed power line to the north and north-east.
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4.3.1 Regional and international importance of Etosha Pan
As described above, certain birds use the Etosha Pan and associated wetlands on a
seasonal or episodic basis, for breeding and feeding (Figure 23). Lesser flamingos
come in from east Africa when there has been the ideal amount of rainfall to sustain
a long breeding, feeding and fledging period. Pelicans move between Etosha,
Lake Oponono and the Kunene River for finding fish when they breed in Etosha.
Wattled cranes which breed around the Okavango Swamps move to the Etosha –
Oponono area at other times of the year. Other migrants such as black-winged
pratincole make annual migrations to Europe and Asia, combined with nomadic
movements in southern Africa depending on local conditions.
Figure 23. Wide-scale connectivity of Etosha Pan with other wetlands in Africa.
These examples show that birds move widely, and need to be allowed to do so
without restricting these movements by placing obstacles in their path.
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5 IMPACT ASSESSMENT (PORTION 2: OMATANDO – OSHIVELO
SUBSTATIONS)
5.1 BIRD COLLISIONS
5.1.1 Description of impact
The proposed power line will kill birds that collide into the conductors and earth
wires, threatening a range of wetland and savanna birds. The intensity of the threat
differs from species to species, depending on their present population and range,
and their vulnerability to collisions. Red Data species most likely to be affected are:
Tawny eagle, bateleur eagle;
Cape vulture, White-backed vulture, lappet-faced vulture, white-headed
vulture;
Secretary bird, marabou stork, saddle-billed stork;
Greater flamingo, lesser flamingo, great white pelican;
Blue crane, wattled crane;
Kori bustard, Ludwig’s bustard
5.1.1.1 Extent
The direct impact will be local, only affecting birds whose paths intersect the path of
the power line. Indirectly, the death of those birds will combine with the many other
pressures these species face, and contribute to a reduction in the population. For a
species such as a blue crane, one death could represent as much as 5% of the
population, and increase the genetic bottleneck that this species will face in
Namibia should their population pick up again. In this case, the geographic extent
of the impact is national.
5.1.1.2 Duration
The impact will last as long as the power line stands. Once installed, it is unlikely that
the lines will be taken down; if anything, the power line will be replaced in the future
with a higher capacity line. The impact is therefore definitely long term, possibly
extending to permanent.
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5.1.1.3 Probability
There is enough evidence from other power lines and in other areas of southern
Africa (Jenkins et al. 2010) and the world (e.g. Bevanger 1994) that large power lines
cause large bird collisions. The probability that collisions will occur is certain.
5.1.1.4 Intensity
The magnitude of this negative impact varies for different birds because some
species are more critically threatened than others. For the most threatened species,
the Critically Endangered cranes, the intensity of a power line mortality would be
Very High. For a more abundant species such as a secretary bird, a mortality would
be rated at a lower intensity, but it would still be ranked as high because the
population is small, in decline and threatened. This is the case with all of the Red
Data species.
It must be remembered that all of the Red Data species affected by the proposed
line are also threatened by other factors such as human disturbance, declining food
and habitat availability. The cumulative effect of the power line is thus high for all of
the Red Data birds.
5.1.1.5 Confidence
We know very little about bird movements, so cannot be sure of how many birds are
really put at risk. Interpretation of the movements of birds is also based on scattered
observations, since there is no evidence of actual flight paths taken. In this sense,
our confidence in the mortality risk is low. However, we know enough from other
comparable situations that collisions will occur, and the assessment of status of each
of the Red Data species is based on scientifically based population estimates and
ornithological expertise. We can therefore state with full confidence that collisions
will occur, and that this constitutes an added threat to the occurrence of the
specific birds mentioned. High.
5.1.1.6 Significance
The significance of this impact is rated as High, due to its potential to contribute to
the extinction of blue cranes in Namibia, and to add to the threat of at least 14
other Red Data birds.
5.1.2 Mitigation
Mitigation measures that are typically taken against bird collisions are devices that
increase the visibility of the wires. An outcome of an intensive study of bird collisions
in the Karoo in South Africa, where bustards and cranes were the main victims, was
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that all new power lines should be fitted with bird flight diverters (BFDs) (Shaw 2013).
This is all the more relevant for this 400 kV proposed line, as preliminary findings from
power line surveys in southern Namibia is that the highest capacity lines kill the
largest number of birds (Pallett unpublished data).
Justifications for any kind of bird devices on this proposed power line are:
1. We know that marking lines with bird flight diverters does help to reduce collisions
(Shaw 2013). There are enough Red Data birds in the general area of the route that
might be impacted by the line, so it is good policy to try to prevent those deaths.
2. The line is large and tall and high capacity, making it very difficult to install devices
after the line is switched on. If devices are ever going to be installed, it should be
done in the construction phase. The incremental cost of installing devices during
construction is much smaller than retrofitting. This argument is strengthened by the
fact that the proposed power line will stand for probably 50 years or more, during
which time the situation of the threatened birds is likely to deteriorate. NamPower
should not be adding to the threats against these birds, and should be attempting
to prevent collision deaths in a cost-effective manner.
3. Monitoring of the line for bird carcasses will be nearly impossible, because of the
high numbers of people and dogs which will carry carcasses away quickly, and the
route over bushy vegetation which makes finding carcasses difficult, or over water
where they might sink and decompose underwater and out of sight. Thus it is
preferable to mark the line thoroughly and know that collisions will be reduced, since
we will never know whether collisions have occurred or not. Rather prevent them
from occurring in the first place.
The questions then shift to:
4. Where will mitigation devices be most necessary?
5. What kind of devices are most likely to be effective?
6. What interval is recommended for spacing the devices, and along which wires?
4 and 5.
Despite the arguments listed above, NamPower expressed concern about the cost
of marking the whole line. From a financial perspective, it would be preferable to
identify areas along the line – so-called ‘hotspots’ – where collisions are more likely,
so that only those sections would need to be marked. However there is virtually no
information on flight paths of cranes in this area, and movements of raptors and
bustards is determined by food availability (such as carcasses or insect abundance),
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which cannot be predicted. Crane numbers are so critically low that adding any
risk to their occurrence in the area is unacceptable. These factors demand that the
whole area of vulnerability is marked with bird flight diverters.
In Figure 24, the section marked ‘d – 65 km’ carries a moderate risk of collisions with
Red Data birds such as saddle-billed stork, marabou stork and raptors, with a low
possibility of cranes due to the area being moderately settled by people, and the
fact that the power line corridor along part of its length is close to the B1 road which
carries much traffic. It was first recommended to NamPower that this section should
be marked with Double Loop Bird Flight Diverters (DLBFDs, Figure 23, also called
‘spirals’).
Subsequent revision of the recommendations, at NamPower’s request, has led to the
marking of this section being withdrawn from the recommendations. The long
distance to be marked, coupled with the relatively lower risk of collisions of
vulnerable wetland Red Data species, are the reasons that this section will now carry
no BFDs.
Figure 24. Sections of the proposed power line (red) where different levels of mitigation with bird flight diverters
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Most important, we cannot risk killing any blue cranes or wattled cranes on the
power line. Areas where there are possible crane movements are north-east of
Etosha Pan, where birds might fly on their path to the Okavango River and to
floodplains in south-eastern Angola. This section of the line, marked ‘e 120km’ in
Figure 24, should get full protection using DLBFDs i.e. spirals. In the absence of any
firm evidence of cranes flying at night, and recognising the difficulty of maintaining
devices which have lights, we do not recommend that the devices have lights.
Parts of section ‘d’ might warrant BFDs for a short distance, such as where the line
traverses oshanas or a clump of relatively tall trees. Such sections will be identified
by the consultant during the construction phase, and BFDs will be installed on those
sections.
6. Interval of bird devices. The Karoo experiment started by Shaw (2013) was based
on a 10m interval between devices on any one wire, with the devices staggered so
that an oncoming bird faced a spiral every 5 m. This is also the interval
recommended by Eskom (2009). This interval is recommended here too.
The spirals should be coloured either black or white, and the two colours should
alternate along the earth wires.
are suggested. Section d 65km – no BFDs. Section e 120km – spirals.
Figure 25. Catalogue graphic of the Double Loop Bird Flight Diverter
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5.1.2.1 Significance after mitigation
The intention of the very expensive mitigation is to prevent or at least significantly
reduce the incidence of collisions of Red Data birds on the proposed power line.
Longevity of the devices is not well known, as monitored trials have not been run for
long enough to know whether they will last for say 20 years, nor have trials been
conducted under Namibia’s harsh conditions of aridity and intense sunlight. Possible
deterioration of the devices includes:
Fading of the black colouration of spirals, and dust and grime collecting on
the white spirals, so that they lose contrast;
Perishing of the plastic, resulting in parts of the spirals breaking or whole spirals
snapping off altogether;
It is impossible to predict whether and how the devices will deteriorate, and how
their effectiveness will diminish with any gradual loss of functionality. The significance
of the impact will increase if such deterioration should occur.
Bird flight diverters rely on the birds seeing them, so that the birds can take evasive
action. But bustards, and possibly other birds, have limited forward vision when flying
(Martin & Shaw 2010), so that even lines that are made highly visible for humans are
not always detected by bustards. This reduces the effectiveness of the mitigation.
Aberrant weather conditions probably also reduce the effectiveness of bird flight
diverters. Strong winds, for instance, might make it difficult for large birds to steer
away from the lines, even if they see them.
Considering these factors, and the fact that about one third of the line is not going
to be marked, the significance of the mitigation in the long term is probably
Medium.
5.1.3 Monitoring
Monitoring for bird mortalities along this line is unlikely to yield any information
because carcasses will be cleared so quickly by people, dogs and natural
scavengers such as jackals. During standard maintenance operations, any bird
mortalities should be reported to the relevant NamPower staff member and to the
coordinators of the Environmental Information Service (www.the-eis.com) so that the
information is captured and available for future reference.
The condition of the devices should be recorded over time so that any deterioration
is noted. This information will be useful in refining the future design of the relevant
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devices, for maximum longevity. Also, it will alert NamPower staff of the need to
replace devices that lose their functionality.
5.1.4 Summary
The impact of potential collisions of large birds against the proposed power line is
rated as High significance. This is based on the fact that the area is frequented by
about 16 birds that are threatened and ranked as Red Data species, including three
Critically Endangered birds, the blue crane, wattled crane and Cape vulture.
To mitigate the impact of collisions, it is recommended that bird flight diverters are
installed during construction on about two-thirds of the total length of the line.
Section ‘e’ shown in Figure 24 should be fitted with spirals (Double Loop Bird Flight
Diverters), at 10 m intervals along each earth wire. Section ‘d’ should not be fitted
with BFDs, but this decision may be reconsidered for short sections (such as over
oshanas) where spirals will be installed for a short distance. Such sections will be
identified during a field visit by the bird specialist during the construction phase.
5.2 DISTURBANCE OF BIRDS, ESPECIALLY AT NESTS
5.2.1 Description of impact
Worker teams involved in construction and stringing the power line will stay in
construction camps along the route, and may hunt or set traps for wildlife (such as
steenbok, springbok, kudu) in the area, particularly in the eastern Kalahari woodland
close to Etosha NP. Raptors which nest in tall trees might be disturbed at their nests,
intentionally or by accident, causing breeding failure. This is not desirable for any
species, and may be a significant negative impact for Red Data species such as
tawny eagle (Endangered) and white-backed vulture (Near-Threatened).
5.2.1.1 Extent
Wildlife is likely to exist only in the far eastern sections of the proposed route, where
human settlements are sparser than in the areas close to Oshakati and Omuthiya.
Also, it is only in these quieter areas where large birds would possibly nest. Thus any
potential disturbance is confined to relatively short sections of the route, about 50
km at the eastern end.
This impact will be local, on the basis that only birds in close proximity to the
proposed route will be affected. However the impact will also extend to a wider
area because the death of individuals or disturbance at nesting sites has an impact
on the whole population. This is more significant for threatened species, whose
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populations are already low and/or declining. For the Red Data species which are
vulnerable to this impact, the impact is rated as national.
5.2.1.2 Duration
The impact will only last as long as the construction phase. Temporary.
5.2.1.3 Probability
It is likely that some level of illegal hunting will occur, and that there will be some
disturbance of nesting birds from the activities of vehicles and trucks during delivery
of materials and erection of the towers. Disturbance in these areas is a distinct
probability.
5.2.1.4 Intensity
The magnitude of this problem is probably relatively small, due to the fact that only
about one quarter of the total length of the route will be affected, and levels of
wildlife and nesting activities are probably quite low anyway. The intensity is
estimated to be low.
5.2.1.5 Significance
Low.
5.2.1.6 Confidence
Medium.
5.2.2 Mitigation
Prevention or reduction of this impact is difficult because it requires much vigilance
over the area where work teams are operating, and the staff within the relevant
authorities (viz. MET) is very limited. Active involvement of an ‘environmental
monitor’ hired by NamPower at the work sites could possibly help to keep levels of
intentional and accidental disturbance low. Any contravention of the law (e.g.
poaching) should be quickly and strictly dealt with so that it sends a deterrent
message to others.
5.2.2.1 Significance after mitigation
The difficulties in reducing this impact mean that the significance will probably not
be reduced very much. It remains a low significance impact.
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5.2.3 Monitoring
Monitoring of this impact is also difficult because detection of disturbance requires
good prior knowledge of what wildlife and nesting birds are present in the area, and
active vigilance in the area for snares or signs of illegal hunting. Such signs are
usually difficult to find because perpetrators cover their tracks and keep their
activities hidden. Nevertheless, the environmental officer(s) and any security staff
should be briefed to be alert for suspicious activities.
5.2.4 Summary
Disturbance to nesting birds and to other terrestrial wildlife is likely to occur but the
length of the route where there are species to be impacted is relatively short, only
about a quarter of the total length, and the population of wildlife and vulnerable
birds are both quite low. This is an impact of Low significance. Mitigation is difficult,
and should involve vigilance for any suspicious activities by any local security staff or
‘environmental monitors’ employed for the project or by NamPower. The
significance after mitigation remains low, because of the difficulties of effective
mitigation.
5.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS ON THE TOWERS
5.3.1 Description of impact
The strutted framework of the V-towers for the proposed power line will definitely be
used as a site for the large bulky communal nests of red-billed buffalo weavers (as in
Figure 26), and possibly also other small to medium-sized birds such as crows and
kestrels (pied crow, black crow, rock kestrel, greater kestrel). No Red Data species
are expected to build on the towers. This would not pose a problem to the birds if
the nests could stay. However they pose a risk to NamPower as if the nests catch fire
they can weaken the metal struts and cause a tower to collapse. Maintenance
therefore involves removing the nests. This causes the negative impact on birds.
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Removal of the communal nests will kill the eggs and unfledged birds inside the
individual nest chambers but fledged juveniles and adults will simply fly away from
the danger. Thus the impact causes a short, temporary breeding loss to each
colony. The total population of this species will be insignificantly impacted by such
losses, even when all the nests are removed, as the birds are widespread in southern
Africa and have robust populations.
5.3.1.1 Extent
This impact is confined to the proposed route, along all sections where the V-towers
are intended (i.e. all but the central section between Makalani and Omatando
Substations). The impact on the overall population of affected species will also be
insignificantly small. The extent is therefore local.
5.3.1.2 Duration
The impact will exist for as long as the power line stands and NamPower continues to
do their routine maintenance of nest-clearing. The duration is therefore long-term.
5.3.1.3 Probability
There is no reason to think that the birds which build nests on suitable towers in other
nearby areas will not do the same behaviour on the proposed new power line. The
impact is definite.
5.3.1.4 Intensity
The magnitude of the impact on the populations of the birds is very small. Even the
cumulative impact of nest removal for red-billed buffalo weavers, crows and
kestrels, would be small because all of these species have strong, healthy
populations in southern Africa. The intensity of the impact is low.
The
Figure 26. Red-billed buffalo weaver nests on a tower of the 132 kV power line near Okatope.
The strutted framework of the V-towers for the proposed new line will also attract these birds.
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5.3.1.5 Significance
This impact is not serious enough to require any change to the design or construction
of the proposed line. The significance is low.
5.3.1.6 Confidence
The continued survival of the populations of affected birds in other parts of Namibia
where this problem occurs, without showing signs of decline, shows that the impact is
indeed of low significance. The confidence level is high.
5.3.2 Mitigation
It is recommended that removal of nests during standard maintenance operations
continues, as usual.
5.3.2.1 Significance after mitigation
The significance remains unchanged, as low.
5.3.3 Monitoring
Records should be kept by the relevant staff on how many nests are removed from
which towers, and of what kind of birds (if they can be identified). This data should
be forwarded to the relevant Environmental Officer in NamPower, as well as to the
coordinators of the Environmental Information Service so the information becomes
accessible to the public.
This information should be collected because it is possible in future that specific
actions will be recommended to deter or prevent birds from nesting on the towers.
Hard data will then be available to show if there are ‘hot spots’ of this problem and
where to concentrate any mitigation effort.
5.3.4 Summary
A few bird species, none of them threatened, will build their nests in the strutted
framework of the V-shaped towers. Routine maintenance of the power line will
presumably remove these nests, killing the eggs and unfledged occupants. The
affected species are widespread and their populations will not be significantly
impacted by these actions. This is an impact of low significance, and does not
require any specific mitigation. Records of nest clearing, noting numbers of nests,
bird species and tower numbers and localities, should be kept to inform any possible
future effort to prevent or deter the birds from nesting on towers.
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5.4 IMPACT OF ELECTROCUTIONS
Certain species of large perching birds, such as eagles, vultures and herons are
prone to electrocution on power line towers. The open V design of the towers , with
the conductors suspended from cables rather than being supported by solid arms,
reduces the likelihood of birds being electrocuted on the towers. This impact is
considered to be highly unlikely, and is not assessed further.
Table 3: Summary of bird impact assessment of the proposed project
POTENTIAL
IMPACT
STATUS/
NATURE
EXTENT DURATION INTENSITY PROBA-
BILITY
DEGREE
OF CONFI-
DENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
PRE-
MITIGATI
ON
MITIGATION/ ENHANCEMENT POST-
MITIGATION
CONSTRUCTION PHASE
Disturbance,
poaching of
birds
Negative Local -
national
Temporary Low Distinct
probability
Medium Low Difficult to prevent. There
should be close collab-
oration with MET officials in
the area. An
‘environmental monitor’
should be employed to
monitor and prevent illegal
activities.
Low.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE PHASE
Collisions Negative Local -
national
Long-term -
permanent
High Certain High High Spiral bird flight devices to
be installed on the eastern
two-thirds of the line
(marked ‘e 120km’ in Fig
24), at 5m intervals.
As long as
the BFDs
remain
intact,
significance
of the
impact will
be improved
to Medium.
Electro- Negligible No mitigation measures
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POTENTIAL
IMPACT
STATUS/
NATURE
EXTENT DURATION INTENSITY PROBA-
BILITY
DEGREE
OF CONFI-
DENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
PRE-
MITIGATI
ON
MITIGATION/ ENHANCEMENT POST-
MITIGATION
cutions
Removal of
bird nests
from the
towers
Negative Local Long-term Low Definite High Low No mitigation measures.
Nests can continue to be
removed when and where
necessary.
Low
DECOMMISIONING PHASE
6 IDENTIFICATION OF KEY IMPACTS
Three potential impacts on birds are expected from the proposed 400 kV power line.
These are:
1. Collisions of birds against the wires;
2. Disturbance of breeding birds during construction;
3. Removal of nests of a few species that like to build nests on the towers.
6.1 COLLISIONS
Large bird collisions against power lines are a major problem, worldwide and in this
project. This impact is rated as High significance, since the area is frequented by
about 16 birds that are vulnerable to this impact and are threatened and ranked as
Red Data species, including three Critically Endangered birds, the blue crane,
wattled crane and Cape vulture.
To mitigate the impact of collisions, it is recommended that the eastern section of
about 120 km, where there is a likely higher risk to cranes, should be marked with
spirals (Double Loop Bird Flight Diverters), alternately black and white, at 10 m
intervals along each earth wire, with a 5 m offset so that they are equally spaced 5
m apart. Sections where cranes are less likely to be found, and where the risk of
collisions by any birds is lower because of the presence of the main road adjacent
to the power line, need not be marked with BFDs.
The intention of this very expensive mitigation is to reduce the risk of collisions of large
birds on the proposed power line. The significance of the impact could be reduced
to Medium.
6.2 DISTURBANCE OF BREEDING BIRDS
Disturbance to nesting birds and to other terrestrial wildlife is likely to occur but the
length of the route where there are species to be impacted is relatively short, only
about a quarter of the total length, and the population of wildlife and vulnerable
birds are both quite low. This is an impact of low significance. Mitigation is difficult,
and should involve vigilance for any suspicious activities by on-site security staff or
‘environmental monitors’ employed by NamPower. The significance after mitigation
remains low, because of the difficulties of effective mitigation.
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6.3 REMOVAL OF BIRD NESTS FROM TOWERS
A few bird species, none of them threatened, will build their nests in the strutted
framework of the V-shaped towers. Routine maintenance of the power line will
presumably remove these nests, killing the eggs and unfledged occupants. The
affected species are widespread and their populations will not be significantly
impacted by these actions. This is an impact of low significance, and does not
require any specific mitigation. Records of nest clearing, noting numbers of nests,
bird species and tower numbers and localities, should be kept to inform any possible
future effort to prevent or deter the birds from nesting on towers.
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7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The proposed power line is routed close to Etosha National Park which is rated as
one of Namibia’s Important Bird Areas and the pan area is recognised by the
Ramsar Convention as a Wetland of International Importance. The total bird
diversity in the project area comprises over 200 species, of which 28 species are
classified as Red Data birds because their populations are small and/or declining.
With the present routing, the high conservation priority of the bird fauna demands
that the power line should be fitted with mitigation measures to reduce any
negative impacts on their populations. The most critical species in this regard are
blue cranes and wattled cranes. Blue cranes in particular frequent the north-eastern
periphery of Etosha Pan and move seasonally to the Lake Oponono area, and also
make wider movements away from the Pan. Particular paths for these flights are not
known, but they are likely to follow water courses where possible, since these are
their preferred habitat, and both blue and wattled cranes have been seen in areas
to the north-east of Etosha, in Kavango Region and in wetlands in south-eastern
Angola.
The most important impact on birds is collisions of large birds against the wires. This is
a recognised problem elsewhere in the world and mitigation with bird flight diverters
is a recognised (but relatively poorly researched) solution. The recommendation
here is that in areas where there is any likelihood of cranes flying – namely the
eastern section from Okatope to Oshivelo - the power line should be marked with
spiral devices, using the designs and intervals of spacing that are prescribed by
Eskom.
The western section of the power line also carries a risk of collisions for other Red
Data birds such as large raptors, flamingos and storks. After discussion with
NamPower it was agreed that this section would not be marked because of the
relatively higher density of settlements, and the proximity of the main road, which will
make occurrence of the vulnerable birds less likely.
Electrocution of birds is a common impact on power lines but we consider this to be
highly unlikely because the design of the towers allows no opportunity for
electrocutions to occur.
Breeding birds are likely to be disturbed by the activities of the construction crews,
and a possible impact is intentional hunting or poaching. This will be difficult to
reduce or to monitor, but vigilance by MET authorities and by security staff and
appointed ‘environmental monitors’, will help to mitigate this impact.
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A few bird species like to build their nests in the strutted framework of towers,
especially red-billed buffalo weavers, crows and kestrels. Such nests get removed
during standard maintenance work on the lines. This impact is rated as low and no
solution is offered for mitigation.
This power line will offer little opportunity for dedicated monitoring to find out if the
suggested mitigations are effective, because any birds lying dead or dying on the
ground will be quickly scavenged by either people or dogs or natural predators.
Nevertheless, records should be kept of the condition of the installed spirals, and of
nest-building activities by birds and the consequent nest-removing activities of staff.
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8 REFERENCES
Allen DG (1997) Kori bustard Ardeotis kori. In: The atlas of southern
African birds. Vol 1: Non-passerines. Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG,
Herremans M, Tree AJ, Parker V & Brown CJ (eds), pp346-347. Birdlife South
Africa, Johannesburg.
Allen DG (1997) Blue crane Anthropoides paradiseus. In: The atlas of southern
African birds. Vol 1: Non-passerines. Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG,
Herremans M, Tree AJ, Parker V & Brown CJ (eds), pp314-315. Birdlife South
Africa, Johannesburg.
Berry HH. 1972. Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during1971.
Madoqua Ser 1 (5): 5-21.
Bevanger K. 1994. Bird interactions with utility structures: collisions and electrocution,
causes and mitigating measures. Ibis 136: 412-425.
Birdlife International (2004) Red Data species classification.
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone
Birdlife International (2014). Bllue crane Anthropoides paradiseus Species fact sheet.
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=2792 . Accessed
May 2014.
Brown CJ & Simmons RE (in prep.) Birds to watch in Namibia: Red, rare and endemic
species. Sections of the manuscript available from the authors.
Hockey PAR, Dean WRJ, Ryan PG (eds) 2005. Roberts – Birds of southern Africa, VII edition.
Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town
Jenkins AR, Smallie JJ & Diamond M. (2010) Avian collisions with power lines: a global
review of causes and mitigation with a South African perspective. Bird
Conservation International 20: 263-278.
Namibia Crane News (2013) Dry season 2013 crane numbers. Update on global
distribution of blue cranes. More records of wattled cranes in adjoining
countries. Newsletter No. 51 of the Namibia Crane Working Group. Available at
http://www.nnf.org.na/ CRANES/index.htm (
Ramsar 2014. Ramsar Site Database, Namibia – 1NA004. Etosha Pan, Lake Oponono and
the Cuvelai Drainage. Available at http://ramsar.wetlands.org/Database
/SearchforRamsarsites/tabid/765/Default.aspx (accessed Feb 2014).
Shaw JM (2013) Power line collisions in the Karoo: Conserving Ludwig’s Bustard.
Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Cape Town.
Simmons RE, Barnes KN, Jarvis AM and Robertson A, 1999. Important bird areas in
Namibia. Research Discussion Paper, Directorate of Environmental Affairs,
Ministry of Environment and Tourism.
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APPENDIX A: Birds recorded from the proposed power line route
NAMIBIA AVIFAUNA DATABASE RECORDS
BIRDS LISTED FOR QUARTER DEGREE SQUARES 1714CA, 1714CB, 1714CD, 1714DC, 1714DD, 1814BB, 1815AA, 1815AB, 1715CD, 1715DC, 1715DD, 1715DA, 1715DB, 1715DD, 1716CC, 1816AA, 1816AB, 1816BA, 1816BC, 1816BD, 1817AC, 1817CA
Red Data listing Namibian endemics
Ostrich Struthio camelus
Blacknecked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis Near Threatened
Dabchick Tachybaptus ruficollis
White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus Vulnerable
Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus
Grey Heron Ardea cinerea
Blackheaded Heron Ardea melanocephala
Great White Egret Egretta alba
Little Egret Egretta garzetta
Yellowbilled Egret Egretta intermedia
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis
Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides
Greenbacked Heron Butorides striatus
Rufousbellied Heron Butorides rufiventris Endangered
Dwarf Bittern Ixobrychus sturmii
White Stork Ciconia ciconia
Abdim's Stork Ciconia abdimii
Woollynecked Stork Ciconia episcopus
Openbilled Stork Anastomus lamelligerus
Saddlebilled Stork Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis Endangered
Marabou Stork Leptoptilos crumeniferus Near Threatened
Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus
African Spoonbill Platalea alba
Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Vulnerable
Lesser Flamingo Phoenicopterus minor Vulnerable
Whitefaced Duck Dendrocygna viduata
Fulvous Duck Dendrocygna bicolor
Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiacus
Cape Teal Anas capensis
Redbilled Teal Anas erythrorhyncha
Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma
Knobbilled Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos
Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa Near Threatened
Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius Vulnerable
Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus Regionally Extinct
Whitebacked Vulture Gyps africanus Endangered
Lappetfaced Vulture Torgos tracheliotus Vulnerable
Whiteheaded Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis Vulnerable
Black Kite Milvus migrans
Blackshouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus
Verreauxs' Eagle Aquila verreauxii Near Threatened
Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax Endangered
Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis
Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina
Wahlberg's Eagle Aquila wahlbergi
Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus Endangered
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African Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus spilogaster
Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus Endangered
Brown Snake Eagle Circaetus cinereus
Blackbreasted Snake Eagle Circaetus pectoralis
Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus Endangered
Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo
Ovambo Sparrowhawk Accipiter ovampensis
Little Sparrowhawk Accipiter minullus
Little Banded Goshawk Accipiter badius
Gabar Goshawk Micronisus gabar
Pale Chanting Goshawk Melierax canorus
Dark Chanting Goshawk Melierax metabates
Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus Near Threatened
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Near Threatened
Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus
Hobby Falcon Falco subbuteo
Rednecked Falcon Falco chicquera
Western Redfooted Kestrel Falco vespertinus Near Threatened
Amur Falcon Falco amurensis
Rock Kestrel Falco tinnunculus
Greater Kestrel Falco rupicoloides
Grey Kestrel Falco ardosiaceus
Crested Francolin Francolinus sephaena
Orange River Francolin Francolinus levaillantoides
Redbilled Francolin Francolinus adspersus
Hartlaub's Francolin Francolinus hartlaubi Endemic
Swainson's Francolin Francolinus swainsonii
Common Quail Coturnix coturnix
Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris
Blue Crane Anthropoides paradiseus Critically Endangered
Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum Endangered
Wattled Crane Bugeranus carunculatus Endangered
Black Crake Amaurornis flavirostris
Baillon's Crake Porzana pusilla
Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio
Moorhen Gallinula chloropus
Lesser Moorhen Gallinula angulata
Redknobbed Coot Fulica cristata
Kori Bustard Ardeotis kori Endangered
Redcrested Korhaan Eupodotis ruficrista
Whitequilled Korhaan Eupodotis afraoides
African Jacana Actophilornis africanus
Painted Snipe Rostratula benghalensis
Whitefronted Plover Charadrius marginatus
Chestnutbanded Plover Charadrius pallidus
Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius
Threebanded Plover Charadrius tricollaris
Caspian Plover Charadrius asiaticus
Crowned Plover Vanellus coronatus
Blacksmith Plover Vanellus armatus
Wattled Plover Vanellus senegallus
Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos
Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola
Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis
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Greenshank Tringa nebularia
Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea
Little Stint Calidris minuta
Sanderling Calidris alba
Ruff Philomachus pugnax
Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta
Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus
Spotted Dikkop Burhinus capensis
Water Dikkop Burhinus vermiculatus
Burchell's Courser Cursorius rufus
Temminck's Courser Cursorius temminckii
Doublebanded Courser Rhinoptilus africanus
Bronzewinged Courser Rhinoptilus chalcopterus
Blackwinged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni Near Threatened
Greyheaded Gull Larus cirrocephalus
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus
Whitewinged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus
Namaqua Sandgrouse Pterocles namaqua
Burchell's Sandgrouse Pterocles burchelli
Doublebanded Sandgrouse Pterocles bicinctus
Feral Pigeon Columba livia
Redeyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata
Mourning Dove Streptopelia decipiens
Cape Turtle Dove Streptopelia capicola
Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis
Namaqua Dove Oena capensis
Greenspotted Dove Turtur chalcospilos
Green Pigeon Treron calva
Meyer's Parrot Poicephalus meyeri
Rueppell's Parrot Poicephalus rueppellii Near Threatened Endemic
Rosyfaced Lovebird Agapornis roseicollis
Grey Lourie Corythaixoides concolor
European Cuckoo Cuculus canorus
African Cuckoo Cuculus gularis
Black Cuckoo Cuculus clamosus
Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator glandarius
Jacobin Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus
Klaas's Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas
Diederik Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius
Black Coucal Centropus bengalensis
Barn Owl Tyto alba
Marsh Owl Asio capensis
Scops Owl Otus senegalensis
Whitefaced Owl Otus leucotis
Pearlspotted Owl Glaucidium perlatum
Spotted Eagle Owl Bubo africanus
Giant Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus
Fierynecked Nightjar Caprimulgus pectoralis
Rufouscheeked Nightjar Caprimulgus rufigena
Mozambique Nightjar Caprimulgus fossii
European Swift Apus apus
Bradfield's Swift Apus bradfieldi
Whiterumped Swift Apus caffer
Little Swift Apus affinis
Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus
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Whitebacked Mousebird Colius colius
Redfaced Mousebird Urocolius indicus
Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis
Woodland Kingfisher Halcyon senegalensis
Brownhooded Kingfisher Halcyon albiventris
Greyhooded Kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala
European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster
Bluecheeked Bee-Eater Merops persicus
Little Bee-Eater Merops pusillus
Swallowtailed Bee-Eater Merops hirundineus
European Roller Coracias garrulus
Lilacbreasted Roller Coracias caudata
Purple Roller Coracias naevia
Hoopoe Upupa epops
Redbilled Woodhoopoe Phoeniculus purpureus
Violet Woodhoopoe Phoeniculus damarensis Endangered Endemic
Scimitarbilled Woodhoopoe Rhinopomastus cyanomelas
Grey Hornbill Tockus nasutus
Redbilled Hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus
Southern Yellowbilled Hornbill Tockus leucomelas
Bradfield's Hornbill Tockus bradfieldi
Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri Endangered
Blackcollared Barbet Lybius torquatus
Pied Barbet Tricholaema leucomelas
Lesser Honeyguide Indicator minor
Bennett's Woodpecker Campethera bennettii
Goldentailed Woodpecker Campethera abingoni
Cardinal Woodpecker Dendropicos fuscescens
Bearded Woodpecker Thripias namaquus
Monotonous Lark Mirafra passerina
Rufousnaped Lark Mirafra africana
Clapper Lark Mirafra apiata
Flappet Lark Mirafra rufocinnamomea
Fawncoloured Lark Mirafra africanoides
Sabota Lark Calendulauda sabota
Dusky Lark Pinarocorys nigricans
Spikeheeled Lark Chersomanes albofasciata
Redcapped Lark Calandrella cinerea
Pinkbilled Lark Spizocorys conirostris
Chestnutbacked Finchlark Eremopterix leucotis
Greybacked Finchlark Eremopterix verticalis
European Swallow Hirundo rustica
Whitethroated Swallow Hirundo albigularis
Wiretailed Swallow Hirundo smithii
Redbreasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa
Mosque Swallow Hirundo senegalensis
Greater Striped Swallow Hirundo cucullata
Lesser Striped Swallow Hirundo abyssinica
Rock Martin Hirundo fuligula
Brownthroated Martin Riparia paludicola
Banded Martin Riparia cincta
Forktailed Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis
European Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus
African Golden Oriole Oriolus auratus
Blackheaded Oriole Oriolus larvatus
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Black Crow Corvus capensis
Pied Crow Corvus albus
Ashy Tit Parus cinerascens
Carp's Black Tit Parus carpi
Cape Penduline Tit Anthoscopus minutus
Grey Penduline Tit Anthoscopus caroli
Blackfaced Babbler Turdoides melanops
Pied Babbler Turdoides bicolor
Barecheeked Babbler Turdoides gymnogenys
Redeyed Bulbul Pycnonotus nigricans
Blackeyed Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus
Groundscraper Thrush Turdus litsitsirupa
Shorttoed Rock Thrush Monticola brevipes
Capped Wheatear Oenanthe pileata
Familiar Chat Cercomela familiaris
Anteating Chat Myrmecocichla formicivora
Whitebrowed Robin Erythropygia leucophrys
Kalahari Robin Erythropygia paena
Garden Warbler Sylvia borin
Whitethroat Sylvia communis
Titbabbler Parisoma subcaeruleum
Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina
African Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus baeticatus
European Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus
Cape Reed Warbler Acrocephalus gracilirostris
Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus
Yellowbreasted Apalis Apalis flavida
Longbilled Crombec Sylvietta rufescens
Yellowbellied Eremomela Eremomela icteropygialis
Grey-backed Bleating Warbler Camaroptera brevicaudata
Barred Warbler Calamonastes fasciolatus
Fantailed Cisticola Cisticola juncidis
Desert Cisticola Cisticola aridula
Tinkling Cisticola Cisticola rufilata
Rattling Cisticola Cisticola chiniana
Blackbacked Cisticola Cisticola galactotes
Tawnyflanked Prinia Prinia subflava
Blackchested Prinia Prinia flavicans
Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata
Marico Flycatcher Melaenornis mariquensis
Chat Flycatcher Melaenornis infuscatus
Chinspot Batis Batis molitor
Pririt Batis Batis pririt
Cape Wagtail Motacilla capensis
Richard's Pipit Anthus cinnamomeus
Longbilled Pipit Anthus similis
Plainbacked Pipit Anthus leucophrys
Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor
Fiscal Shrike Lanius collaris
Redbacked Shrike Lanius collurio
Longtailed Shrike Corvinella melanoleuca
Crimsonbreasted Shrike Laniarius atrococcineus
Puffback Dryoscopus cubla
Brubru Nilaus afer
Threestreaked Tchagra Tchagra australis
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Blackcrowned Tchagra Tchagra senegala
Whitetailed Shrike Lanioturdus torquatus
White Helmetshrike Prionops plumatus
Redbilled Helmet Shrike Prionops retzii
Whitecrowned Shrike Eurocephalus anguitimens
Wattled Starling Creatophora cinerea
Plumcoloured Starling Cinnyricinclus leucogaster
Burchell's Starling Lamprotornis australis
Longtailed Starling Lamprotornis mevesii
Glossy Starling Lamprotornis nitens
Greater Blue-Eared Starling Lamprotornis chalybaeus
Palewinged Starling Onychognathus nabouroup
Yellowbilled Oxpecker Buphagus africanus Endangered
Marico Sunbird Nectarinia mariquensis
Whitebellied Sunbird Nectarinia talatala
Dusky Sunbird Cinnyris fuscus
Scarletchested Sunbird Nectarinia senegalensis
Black Sunbird Nectarinia amethystina
Redbilled Buffalo Weaver Bubalornis niger
Whitebrowed Sparrowweaver Plocepasser mahali
Sociable Weaver Philetairus socius
House Sparrow Passer domesticus
Great Sparrow Passer motitensis
Cape Sparrow Passer melanurus
Greyheaded Sparrow Passer diffusus
Scalyfeathered Finch Sporopipes squamifrons
Chestnut Weaver Ploceus rubiginosus
Masked Weaver Ploceus velatus
Lesser Masked Weaver Ploceus intermedius
Golden Weaver Ploceus xanthops
Redheaded Weaver Anaplectes rubriceps
Redbilled Quelea Quelea quelea
Red Bishop Euplectes orix
Golden Bishop Euplectes afer
Melba Finch Pytilia melba
Redbilled Firefinch Lagonosticta senegala
Blue Waxbill Uraeginthus angolensis
Violeteared Waxbill Uraeginthus granatinus
Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild
Blackcheeked Waxbill Estrilda erythronotos
Quail Finch Ortygospiza atricollis
Cutthroat Finch Amadina fasciata
Redheaded Finch Amadina erythrocephala
Shafttailed Whydah Vidua regia
Paradise Whydah Vidua paradisaea
Violet Widowfinch Vidua wilsoni
Steelblue Widowfinch Vidua chalybeata
Blackthroated Canary Serinus atrogularis
Yellow Canary Serinus flaviventris
Goldenbreasted Bunting Emberiza flaviventris
Rock Bunting Emberiza tahapisi
Larklike Bunting Emberiza impetuani