Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt

The world’s first great civilization, born on the banks of the River Nile ca. 4000 B.C. This culture flourishes for close to 3000 years. They farm, and dig sophisticated channels for irrigation.

The Egyptians believe in many gods (polytheistic) and the divinity of one leader – the pharaoh. From the time of the Old Kingdom, to Cleopatra’s ousting by the Romans, the story of the pharaohs unfolds like a soap opera – murders, marriage, mayhem, and struggles for power. But their polytheistic religion has real staying power, lasting right up until the Christian era.

The Egyptian belief in the afterlife was lucky for us, in that it preserved their world for us to study today. They constructed the pyramids for this purpose and mummified their dead, sending them into the next world with an (after) lifetime supply of goods – clay makeup jars, jewels, polished silver mirrors, papyrus sandals, fans and umbrellas.

(“Let There be Clothes” by Lynn Schnurberger)

Ancient Egypt

Is divided into kingdoms and ruled by various dynasties:

•Old Kingdom (circa 3000-2000 BC) (3rd-11th Dynasties) during this period there is a simple look to clothing & architecture

•Middle Kingdom (circa 2000-1500 BC) (11th-17th Dynasties) - now, there is a refinement of the look with more detail

•New Kingdom (circa 1500-1000 BC) (18th-20th Dynasties) lots of new styles that are heavily decorated.

*Think of it this way, in Ancient Egypt, over time, Fashion goes from Armani to Versace!

Background Info on Ancient Egypt

•Climate - arid, but Nile river valley is fertile with yearly flooding

•Papyrus, lotus flowers native to the delta area. The earliest forms of paper and sandals were made from papyrus.

•Stable society - so fashion change is slow.

•Burial practices - mummification, construction of pyramids, belief in afterlife

•Textiles - linen, cotton, wool used less, un-dyed for most part. Fabulous colors, but on jewelry not so much in fashion.

•Attention to hygiene, and use of cosmetics

•Kings as gods, in-breeding of sisters marrying brothers

•Pyramids and colossal heads of pharaoh (king) were meant to inspire awe

•A polytheistic society – there are various gods

•Hieroglyphics – was their form of writing

A couple of key characters of Ancient Egypt…

King Scorpion – he’s a tribal leader who conquers and unifies tribes.

King Narmer – a hero! - he even takes it further than King Scorpion and unifies Upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom.

This unified Egypt is the first of our three kingdoms – the Old Kingdom. In spite of these three periods, we see basic garments that reoccur for thousands of years. Once unified, we see a real stability in Egypt – unlike that other ancient civilization, Mesopotamia – there’s much less warfare. Because of this, costume changes slowly. Clothes are simple and quite plain – our “Armani period.” Over thousands of years and by the time we reach the New Kingdom period, it is much more refined and complicated.

Pyramids at Giza with the Great Sphinx (Old Kingdom). This is about the same height as the Statue of Liberty! Burial tombs inside – we have lots of information about the Egyptians because of their burial practices and dry climate.

Map of Upper and Lower Egypt – the Nile River. (Note similarity to the lotus flower, which we’ll see in a minute!). Thanks to King Narmer, Upper and Lower were unified.

Reverse logic here – Lower Egypt is at the top of the map; it is “Lower” because the Nile runs downhill – the ground is on a lower level. It branches out into what’s known as a delta.

Egyptian lotus symbol: Some scholars believe that this represents the branches of the Nile branches in Lower Egypt. The flower is the delta and the stem is the Nile? Could be….

Hieroglyphics were handy – pictures could be “read” by the illiterate.

An amulet is a small object that a person wears, carries, or offers to a deity because he or she believes that it will magically bestow a particular power or form of protection. The conviction that a symbol, form, or concept provides protection, promotes well-being, or brings good luck is common to all societies: in our own, we commonly wear religious symbols, carry a favorite penny, or a rabbit's foot. In ancient Egypt, amulets might be carried, used in necklaces, bracelets, or rings, and—especially—placed among a mummy's bandages to ensure the deceased a safe, healthy, and productive afterlife.

Egyptian amulets functioned in a number of ways. Symbols and deities generally conferred the powers they represent. Small models that represent known objects, such as headrests or arms and legs, served to make sure those items were available to the individual or that a specific need could be addressed. Magic contained in an amulet could be understood (via many things). Material, color, scarcity, the grouping of several forms, and words said or ingredients rubbed over the amulet could all be the source for magic granting the possessor's wish.

In the Old Kingdom most amulets took an animal form or were symbols (often based on hieroglyphs), although generalized human forms occurred. Amulets depicting recognizable deities begin to appear in the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom showed a further increase in the range of amulet forms. In time, there was an explosion in the quantity of amulets, and many new types, especially deities (Gods), appeared.

– Diana Craig PatchDepartment of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Citation for this pagePatch, Diana Craig. "Egyptian Amulets". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/hd_egam.htm (October 2004)

Amulets

What is an amulet? What purpose(s) is an amulet meant to serve? Describe the ways in which it can be worn. (Three to four descriptive sentences will do).

What are some of the characteristics of an amulet that might make it special? (Example, ingredients rubbed over it, or the colour - these examples are null and void, by the way and can’t be used as a response!). Provide two (2) examples of amulets, as described in your lecture/text and provide brief descriptions of what purpose they were meant to serve (or what they were meant to achieve).

Hand and Foot Amulets. Dynasty 5–8 (ca. 2465–2100 B.C.)Egyptian; Carnelian. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

“During the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period, small amulets of hands and feet were commonly included in bracelets and anklets. These amulets protected the limbs and extremities of their wearers, while possibly conferring abilities such as dexterity, creative potential, or speed. Often these amulets were made of carnelian, an orange-red stone. The color, reminiscent of blood, would bring power and energy to the amulet. “

"Hand and foot amulets [Egyptian] (10.130.2355_10.130.2358)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_10.130.2355_10.130.2358.htm (October 2006)

Sa sign, Dynasty 11, reign of Mentuhotep II, ca. 2051–2000 B.C. Egyptian; Thebes, Mentuhotep Temple; Electrum, silver.

This hieroglyph, depicting a shepherd's rolled-up shelter, means protection. It was used regularly as an amulet and carried by certain deities.

"Sa sign [Egyptian; Thebes, Mentuhotep Temple, North Triangular Court, Pit 23] (25.3.253)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_25.3.253.htm (October 2006)

Hippo's head, Egyptian; Beryl.

Hippos were common inhabitants of the Nile River. The animal's aggressive nature and large size worried the ancient Egyptians because they frequently went out in boats on the river. Hippo amulets are made from a variety of stones, and a green stone would represent vegetation and therefore bring an association of goodness and prosperity to the wearer as well as protection.

"Hippo's head [Egyptian] (10.130.2310)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_10.130.2310.htm (October 2006)

"Heart amulets [Egyptian] (10.130.1782_10.130.1804)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_10.130.1782_10.130.1804.htm (October 2006)

Heart Amulets, Egyptian. Glass’ agate.

For the ancient Egyptians, the heart was the source of intelligence, feelings, and actions. A person's memory was also housed in the heart and so at the judgment ceremony (Weighing of the Heart) in the afterlife, the heart was able to speak on behalf of the deceased, accounting to Osiris for a lifetime of deeds. Therefore, heart amulets were only used on the mummy to protect the owner's organ and to ensure that his heart gave a positive response at judgment.

The scarab beetle was one of the most popular amulets in ancient Egypt because the insect was a symbol of the sun god Re. This association evolved from the Egyptians' misunderstanding of the scarab's life cycle. An adult beetle lays its eggs inside a ball of dung, which is then buried underground. When the young beetles hatch, the only portion of this process easily visible to an observer is the beetle emerging fully developed from a dung ball, a seemingly magical event. Thus, the Egyptian word for scarab translates as "to come into being.“

The scarab forms food balls out of fresh dung using its back legs to push the oversized spheres along the ground toward its burrow. The Egyptians equated this process with the sun's daily cycle across the sky, believing that a giant scarab moved the sun from the eastern horizon to the west each day, making the amulet a potent symbol of rebirth.

Citation for this page (text and photo):"Scarab Amulets [Egyptian] (10.130.910_27.3.206)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_10.130.910_27.3.206.htm (October 2006)

The Scarab

Scarab (continued)

Left - Fish, Dynasty 12–13 (ca. 1981–1640 B.C.)

Egyptian; Gold, beryl Ancient Egyptians called fish amulets like this nekhau and gave them to young girls to wear as a charm against drowning. Some scholars suggest that such amulets functioned by aversion, that is, a reminder of a watery environment was enough to give the owner security, but it is much more likely that the amulet allowed the wearer to acquire the abilities of a fish, and therefore survival, if she happened to fall into the water.

"Fish [Egyptian; Lisht North, Tomb L847] (09.180.1182)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_09.180.1182.htm (October 2006)

Right - Sobek as a crocodile, early Ptolemaic Period (ca. 304–247 B.C.). Egyptian, Faience.

Crocodiles were dangerous animals, but Sobek, probably the divinity depicted in this amulet, was a benevolent water deity. The Nile issuing from his sweat made the valley productive, and as a fertility god he was linked to the myth surrounding rebirth in the afterlife. The fine quality of this piece suggests it was a temple offering.

"Sobek as a crocodile [Egyptian] (1989.281.96)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_1989.281.96.htm (October 2006)

Wedjet eye, Ptolemaic Period (ca. 304–30 B.C.) Egyptian, Gold

The wedjet eye amulet represents a human eye with its brow, but the two lines below the eye are often identified as the facial markings of a falcon. The wedjet eye was supposedly the eye that Seth ripped from Horus during a battle over who would lead the gods. Thoth healed the injured eye, returning it to Horus as the "sound one." The wedjet eye amulets were worn from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the pharaonic era. Whether strung on a bracelet for everyday wear or tucked among mummy wrappings, a wedjet eye amulet was very effective against the evil eye.

"Wedjet eye [Egyptian] (23.2.68)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/egam/ho_23.2.68.htm (October 2006)

Wedjet Eye(or Eye of Horus).

Uraeus: Is the poisonous cobra who protects royalty. He also sheds his skin, so he also represents rebirth and renewal.

Ankh: Represents life and immortality

Pectoral (worn on the chest – hence, “pecs”) of a Princess – Middle Kingdom

The Narmer Palette: King Narmer (the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt) is portrayed at left wearing the crown of Upper Egypt – looks like a bowling pin. At right, he wears the crown of Lower Egypt (looks like a chair).

Above left, the crown of Lower Egypt.

At right, the crown of Upper Egypt.

Pchent: top image is the Pchent, the crown of united Egypt. See also at right.

Describe one garment/accessory that reflects an important event that occurred in Egyptian society.

Clothing of the Old Kingdom

Schenti: Prince Rehotep and his consort Princess Nofret. He wears a schenti, a common garment mostly for men, but some commoners women wore it, too. She wears a sheath dress, also known as a kalasiris.

Note different skin tones – we frequently see women with lighter skin than men. Possibly more ladylike? Men were outdoors more? Egypt was a mixed race society following the unification of Upper and Lower. But it’s also believed that women painted their skins with lead oxide.

Kohl: The dark lines around the eye is kohl, probably a combination of charcoal and olive oil. Why? Seduction and utility – keeps the glare off the eyes the same as it does for football players.

Wigs: She wears a wig. Most Egyptians shaved their heads and wore a wig – more comfortable (cooler) and prevented infestation. He has a small moustache, but most are clean-shaven.

The ancient Egyptian rulers believed in conquering nature; both the environment (ditches and irrigation), but also the animalistic side of human beings. Hence, hair was eliminated from the body and the wigs that replaced them were worn of human hair or flax fibres dyed black or blue.

Klaft: A unisex headgear – a simple square of light, un-dyed linen tied on like a bandana. Inspired by utility – it kept the sun off the head. This develops into the Nemes headdress…see next slide.

Nemes headdress: This is King Menkaure. He wears headdress worn only by pharaohs – a development of the klaft. Probably stiffened with a kind of starch.

Schenti: He wears a schenti; resembles a skirt.

He also wears a divine beard; worn with a chin strap and sometimes pasted on. Worn only by pharaohs and government officials (theirs was shorter than the pharaohs, though).

Sheath dress: She wears a very sheer kalasiris, or sheath dress. These were sometimes covered by decorative netting.

The silhouette prominent in the Old Kingdom was tight-fitted, sometimes worn with other garments draped over. The principal garments were the schenti and the sheath dress. These were made of linen; royalty and the elite classes wore the finest quality linen.

Describe one garment, and what material it is made from, that starts as a very basic garment, but develops into one that is worn only by pharaohs.

A better view of the schenti – note the fab pleating!

Sheath dress depicted on ivory statuette (Louvre Museum, Paris)

Musicians and dancers at a royal party wearing schentis and sheath dresses. Note the scented grease-wax cones on head…they melted as the evening wore on. They smelled good, plus plastered the dresses against the body as the evening wore on!

Model of workers in a granary – kohl on eyes, but not wearing wigs (working class).

Woman grinding. Short wig or hair.

Girl with basket, wears a net of beads over the sheath dress. Not sure if this was a real garment or just used on this funerary ornament.

By the Middle Kingdom, the schenti was often longer, gathered, pleated or layered and held in place with a royal apron, or girdle.

Linen was woven to a transparency and was finely pleated. Woolens and leathers were rejected by royalty – considered impure!

Wool was adapted by peasants and slaves following an invasion by the Hyksos and Hittites.

Necklace with counterpoise – the counterpoise hangs down the back and keeps the necklace in place. Made with faience, or pottery beads.

Shoes made of reeds.

Grooming Tools

Above, bronze mirror and at right,Comb, pin and hair extension (middle kingdom). Hair extension is human hair, comb and pin are wood and bone.

The New Kingdom

At the end of the Middle Kingdom was the Hyksos invasion. Foreigners from the East conquered Egypt and reigned for several years, bringing a fashion influence from Mesopotamian culture and from as far away as Persia. Because of this invasion and the influence of eastern dress, clothing becomes more complicated and layered.

Statue of Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti. She wears a linen haik – a unisex garment, the result of oriental influence from other cultures. He wears the crown of lower Egypt and a dropped-waist schenti (they are worn lower now). During the New Kingdom period, cotton and silk were imported, the result of occupation by Greek and Roman peoples.

Akhenaten and family. Very long features! Inbreeding or by design?

Bust of Nefertiti; she wears a headdress only worn by her. Note uraeus at center of her crown. Her collar is a superhumeral.

Death mask from King Tutankhamen’s mummy. The blue and gold combination is very new – possibly an influence of Persia? Gold represents the flesh of the gods, and blue represents Amon, the God of the air.

Tut’s sarcophagus – he holds the crook and flail. These symbolize the pharaohs duality of power: the crook is for herding sheep and the flail is a whip, used for punishment. Therefore, it represents the gentleness and discipline required of a ruler.

He wears a nemes headdress with uraeus (snake) at center.

Depiction of flax harvesting

Egyptian linens.

Example of ancient Egyptian pleated linen.

Linen sleeves, New Kingdom.

Egyptian fashion by Galliano!

Mesopotamia

The Sumerians were a civilization that settled in a region known as Sumer, located in Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq.

Sumerian dress was quite elaborate. Before woven cloth became common knowledge, they likely wore skirts made of skins: goatskin or sheepskin, forming flounces, and knotted in the back with an actual sheep or goat tail. Later, the Greeks named these skirts kanaukes. When the Sumerians became good at weaving, they switched from pelts to wool, and made a kind of faux-fur; woven flaps of fabric that imitated the natural tufted sheepskin they used before. Wool wasn’t so much an improvement as a replacement for pelts. It took a bit longer for capes and shawls to be made of wool, but eventually this happened, too. You will frequently see floor-length capes, with flaps or ruffles, covering one shoulder only. Sometimes the fringes were just at the bottom of the garment.

Sumerians also wore another style of shawl, one that was wrapped around the hips, or just beneath the arms. This was also fringed at the border. In time, these fringes and tassels became even more elaborate.

Sumerian statue, 3rd millennium, B.C. (Ebikil, superintendent of the Ishtar temple at Mari). His skirt is likely made of sheepskin. There is modesty about the lower area of the body, but not so much the upper part!

His skirt is called a kanaukes.

Louvre Museum

Statue of a standing male worshiper. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. (2750–2600 b.c )

The fringed skirt he wears the kanaukes.

Headdress with leaf ornaments, 2500-2600 BC.Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Mesopotamia is the present-day Iraq. The word Mesopotamia is Latin for “between two rivers.” The plain between these two rivers – the Tigris and the Euphrates – would often flood. The Sumerian settlers managed to harness the floods with dikes and ditches, and the land being very fertile, it was a good place to settle and farm. There were lush crops and livestock, but overall the Sumerians were an urban society.

Wool became big business for the Sumerians; several thousand tons of woven fabric a year was produced. There were spinners, weavers and dyers – and the jobs were very specialized. Wool was often used in natural colours, but was also sometimes dyed. It was exported and in return materials that the Sumerians lacked – copper, stone, cedar and other woods. They also imported luxury items, including precious stones and pearls from the Mediterranean and elsewhere.

Sumerians were well-dressed. Below is an excerpt of a letter, written by a school boy to this mother:

“Gentlemen’s clothes improve year by year. By cheapening and scrimping my clothes you have become rich. While wool was being consumed in our house like bread, you were making my clothes cheap. The son of Adadiddinam, whose father is only an underling of my father, has received two new garments; you keep getting upset over just one for me. Whereas you gave birth to me, his mother had him by adoption, but whereas his mother loves him, you do not love me.”

Mirror, Mirror: A Social History of Fashion, by Batterberry and Batterberry. 19.

Sumerian civilization formed the center for the many empires rooted in Mesopotamia over time. Many rulers, governments and races passed through throughout the millennia. In spite of this, the basic culture – architecture, religion, written language, and even clothing – remained remarkably unchanged over a period lasting almost 3,000 years. (Batterberry) Tunics and robes formed the basic garment, in varying lengths, changing due to invading mountain tribes whose presence was to influence fashion.

It may have been in Mesopotamia that embroidery was first practiced, and in time it became more elaborate – with whole scenes with humans and animals depicted. Colour became more brilliant – clothes were red, green, blue, brown, and most notably the precious purple that the Phoenicians obtained from a cyst near the head of a mollusk. (Batterberry)

The biggest innovations in dress came about with the rise of the Assyrians, who first came into prominence around the time 1200 BC. (Batterberry) The Assyrian rules were not known for being friendly people, and they were vain, too! Lots of attention was paid to appearance, with male tyrants curling (with irons, plaiting and arranging long locks and beards – note the crazy corkscrew curls!). The kings were heavily rouged, painted and perfumed. They wore pointed helmets, or toques, into battle.

In 612 b.c., the Assyrian capital fell to Babylon.

His hat is called a toque.

Left, a winged genie (which are common mythological figures in Assyrian art). He wears fringed shawl worn over a short tunic, called a candys/kandys.

Ashurbanipal (left) was an Assyrian King– he has more fringe then the guy next to him. Greater hierarchy! Notice the strap hanging from his hat – it is called an infula. It is a streamer that counterweights, or decorates the hat.

Assyrian King Sargon II – his pointed hat is called a tiara.

A quick mention about the Persians – they were the last great empire in Mesopotamia.

The Persians adopted the trousers worn by warlike peoples, worn lose on the leg. These trousers are known as braies. They also wore the kandys, which is a cloak with a collar, perhaps of fur. On their head, they wore a soft bonnet, similar to the Phrygian bonnet and again in Revolutionary France (we’ll see that in Ancient Greece – don’t worry about it here!)

Two servants baring food – note braes on the right.

Study Questions - Egypt & MesopotamiaWe briefly discussed during this class lecture how geographical location affects how members of a given society dress, as well as what materials are used in the construction of clothing. In the case of Ancient Egypt, how is the geographical location reflected in the clothing worn? Specifically, consider the weather and temperature, consider the local plants and how they are used in matters of dress, and consider problems such as infestation, cleanliness and how Egyptians addressed these issues through dress and grooming. This response should comprise (approximately) 6-8 detailed sentences.

Provide a general description - the names alone will do, no dates are necessary - of the three kingdoms that make up Ancient Egypt.

In very general terms, in what way does fashion evolve over the course of these three kingdoms?

Please be able to provide two (2) examples - with brief (one or two sentence) descriptions of how garments reflected the change that takes place over the course of these three kingdoms.

Does fashion change quickly, or slowly over the course of the three kingdoms? In general - one sentence will do - describe why is this so.

Provide at least one reason, as seen in your lecture/text, as to why Egyptian fashion was susceptible to change. That is, what prompted change?

Provide a general description - the names will do, no dates are necessary - of the three kingdoms that make up Ancient Egypt.

In very general terms, in what way does fashion evolve over the course of these three kingdoms?Please be able to provide two (2) examples - with brief (one or two sentence) descriptions of how garments reflected the change that takes place over the course of these three kingdoms.

Does fashion change quickly, or slowly over the course of the three kingdoms? In general - one sentence will do - describe why is this so.

Provide at least one reason, as seen in your lecture/text, as to why Egyptian fashion was susceptible to change. That is, what kind of event, in general, could prompt change in dress?

Please provide two (2) examples of (higher) status in Egyptian dress - describe each example and who would wear it (a couple of descriptive sentences will do fine for each example).

Hieroglyphics - a kind of “picture language” could be read by illiterate Egyptians. besides this being an obviously handy way of communicating for those who cannot read, why would this be an important in terms of costume/dress? What kinds of messages are being communicated with these hieroglyphics and images, and how is this important to Egyptian - or any, for that matter - society?

Describe one garment/accessory that reflects an important event that occurred in Egyptian society.

In very general terms, how did Sumerian dress (worn in Mesopotamia) differ from that of the Egyptians? Think of (and briefly note) the materials used by both, and how these materials differed from the materials used by the Egyptians. How did this reflect a very different the philosophy regarding the body (hint: think of the Egyptians view of cleanliness, purity and the human body and, based on the different materials and style, how this differed from the Sumerians).

What were the earliest Sumerian garments made from? And what material were they made from later - a material that became big business for the Sumerians!

Over time, Persian peoples occupied Mesopotamia - what object of clothing did they adopt? A one sentence response will do.

End.