FR-Project

Investigation of the Steps Needed

to Rehabilitate the Areas of East Kalimantan

Seriously Affected by Fire

BPPK

GTZ-PN: 38.3021.3 -11.000

ITTO: PD 17/87 (F)

Effects of the Forest Fire 1982/83

in East Kalimantan on Fishery

and Hydrology

Sarwono

FR-Report No. 8

1989

ITIO

DFS

DFS Deutsche Forstservice Gm bH

Investigation of the Steps Needed to Rehabilitate the Areas of East Kalimantan

Seriously Affected by Fire

GTZ-PN: 38.3021.3-11.000

ITTO: PO 17/87 (F)

Effects of the Forest Fire 1982/83 in East Kalimantan on Fishery and Hydrology

Sarwono FR-Report No. 8

1989

0-8016 Feldkirchen . Wittelsbacherstr. 11 . Telefon 089/903 8844· Telex 5213781 dfs d . Telefax 089/903 8870 GeschaftsfUhrer: Prof. Dr. Fritz Zi:ihrer . Dipl. Forstwirt Hubert Forster . Registergericht MLinchen HRB 68338

Sparkasse Wasserburg/lnn . Konto-Nr.: 4564· BLZ.: 711 52680· Deutsche Bank· Konto-Nr.: 4672101 . BLZ.: 70070010

2

Contents

Preface

1. Introduction

2. The Study Area

3. Source of Information

4. Effects of Drought and Fire on Hydrology

4.1 Drought

4.2 Fire

5. Effects of Drought and Fire on Fishery

References

List of Figures:

Fig.1:

Fig.2:

Fig.3:

Fig.4:

Fig.5:

Fig.6:

Location of the 1982/83 forest fire

Mean annual rainfall versus rainfall 1982/83 at Kota Bangun

Fluctuation of the Mahakam River at Kota Bangun

Blackfish surviving drought under tree trunks in peat swamp forest

Fish production in Middle Mahakam Area from 1952 to 1985

Production of blackfish and whitefish at central landing stage

in Samarinda for the period 1980 to 1985

List of Tables:

Page

3

4

6

9

9

9

12

15

21

5

10

11

16

17

18

Table 1: Water quality of the Mahakam River at Kota Bangun 13

Table 2: Production of various fish species at TPI Samarinda Sebarang

for the period 1980 to 1984 19

3

Preface

The present report has been compiled for the project entitled "Investigation of the

Steps Needed to Rehabilitate the Areas of East Kalimantan Seriously Affected by Fire".

This project was carried out by the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry and Balai Penelitian

Kehutanan (Forestry Research Institute) of Samarinda and financed by ITIO

(International Tropical Timber Organization) and the Government of Indonesia.

The Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, was

charged by the Indonesian Government with the implementation of the technical

assistance. On behalf of the GTZ the DFS Deutsche Forstinventur-Service GmbH

carried out the study.

The present report was revised and supplemented by W. Schindele, team leader of the

above mentioned project.

4

1. Introduction

In 1982/83 a serious drought related with the southern oscillation of El Nino, affected

the southeast Asian region. East Kalimantan, one of the four Sorneal provinces in

Indonesia, was seriously affected and extensive forest fires burned about 3.2 million ha

of which 2.7 million ha were forest lands.

The Middle Mahakam Area, which was very badly affected by fire (see Figure 1:

Location of the 1982/83 forest fire), is the most important region for freshwater fish

production in East Kalimantan. About 20 000 to 35 000 tons of fish have been landed

annually since the 1970's. Fishery is a very important source of income in this region;

out of the 240 000 inhabitants of Mahakam Tenga, Kutai District, 40000 are fishermen.

Both drought and fire influenced the hydrology of the rivers and lakes, which in turn

affected fishery. In 1983 a considerable drop in the fish catch was observed, which was

definitely related to the low water level during the drought as well as the change in

water quality through infiltration of ash and humin acids with the first rains.

The present study is an attempt to compile the informations available on the effects of

the drought and fire on hydrology and fishery.

5

82/83 forest fire Fig. 1: Location of the 19

SCALE ': 2.187.500

25 r FR-PROJECT '989

I

-LEG E NO

~ ROAO

;:;:;. RIVER WN ~ VILLAGE.TO c-_ URNT AREA ~B

6

2. The Study Area

The Middle Mahakam Area was selected as the study area for several reasons. First, it

is the main producer of fresh water fish; secondly, it was the only area where reliable

information was available; thirdly, this area was very badly affected by drought and

fire. To a limited extend the results are representative of the other areas of East

Kalimantan affected by fire.

The Middle Mahakam Area is the central partition of Kutai and has an area of about

18 000 square kilometers. Of these 1.8 million ha, about 500 000 ha are seasonally

inundated swamp forests, about 50 000 ha are permanent swamp lands, 36 000 ha are

seasonal lakes and about 13 000 ha are rivers, meaning that about one-third of the

area is either permanently or seasonally flooded. (Christensen, et ai, 1985). This is the

area that is of interest to fishery, being the maximum flooded area of the Middle

Mahakam, i.e. its floodplain.

According to Christensen, et al (1986), the following ecotypes can be distinquished:

Swamp Areas

Swamp areas are those areas which are either seasonally or permanently flooded.

Generally they have thick peat layers beneath thick stands of trees and/or swamp

grasses and are generally fairly inaccessible. The constant presence of decaying plant

matter results in high humic acid levels in the water. PH and oxygen levels are thus

generally very low. Productivity is also low, predominantly amongst air-breathing

blackfish (Welcome 1979), e.g. biawan, gabus, keli, penang, pepuyu, sepat and sepat

siam. These swampy areas can be subdivided again as follows:

- permanent swamp forest: Typically very black water with a very low nutrient load,

low pH (5-6) and a high humic acid content. The water is often stagnant, especially

in the dry season and has low oxygen levels. It is difficult to access, except during

very high flood periods.

- annually inundated swamp forest: During the first flooding, the water colour is

"white"; oxygen levels are high yet pH levels are normal. These levels change within

a short period of time (2-4 weeks), however, when blackwater conditions prevail.

During highwater periods, access is often possible by canoe, as the undergrowth is

submerged below water.

7

- permanent swamp: Typically extremely poor quality blackwater, with even lower pH

and oxygen levels than in the swamp forests, such areas being covered by various

floating grasses, water hyacinth, salvinia etc., which clog them up. Access is often

very difficult yet canals into these areas can be and are cut, to permit access to

open areas (either natural or man-made), where fish congregate as they come to the

surface to breathe.

- annually inundated swamp: The same pattern of change in water quality is

observed here as it is for the seasonally inundated forests. Access is similar to that

of the permanent swamps.

Open lakes:

There are many lakes in the area, ranging in size from the largest Lake Jempang, with

a total area of 14 600 ha, to some that only are a few hundred hectares in size. They

are seasonal in character with maximum water depths of between 7 and 8 meters at

peak flood conditions. They exhibit a variety of physical conditions, but can broadly be

classified as follows:

- blackwater lakes: Blackwater lakes have normal oxygen and slightly lower than

normal pH levels in spite of their getting their water from swampy areas. The largest

is Lake Melintang (8 900 ha). As in all lakes, salvinia and water hyacinth can become

problematic at times, choking off waterways, but this only generally occurs when the

flood season has been too long and the weeds have not been "swept out" by the

falling water as water levels recede.

- mixed water lakes: Most of the lakes belong to this category, e.g. Lake Semayang

(10.300 ha). The water quality varies between being almost pure blackwater to being

almost pure whitewater, depending on the season (white when the water level rises

and black when it falls), or on the amount of river and swamp water entering the

individual system. Almost pure blackwater and pure whitewater conditions are often

found in a Single lake, corresponding to nearby rivers/swamps. This type of lake

generally tends more and more to being blackwater as the flood season progresses,

as little or no water enters from the rivers flooding their banks. Plankton levels are

generally low, but blooms can be observed, at the interfaces between white and

black waters.

8

- oxbow lakes: These are old riverbeds or "arms" of rivers that have been cut off from

the main river. They are small, mainly whitewater to mixed-water in character in the

upper river reaches or blackwater in the lower river reaches and generally productive

with many young/larval fishes.

Rivers:

These are medium productive, dominated by whitefish, e.g. belinda, jelawat carp,

lempam carp, patin etc. and can be subdivided as follows:

- slow-flowing, large rivers: The main river Mahakam and the lower reaches of the

Belayan and Kedang Kepala rivers belong to this ecotype. Water colour is generally

"white", with a high sediment load and stable physical conditions. The water turns

"red" and oxygen/pH levels fall off during the end of the flooding conditions, when

water levels fall and the blackwater lakes and swamps are drained. Driftwood is

common and sometimes floating vegetation (water hyacinth and grass mats), when

flushed out of lakes and swamps, is Observed.

- fast-flowing large rivers: This ecotype includes the upper reaches of all main rivers.

Currents are strong, water levels rise and fall very rapidly (sometimes as much as 3

m in 36 hours) and oyxgen/pH levels are good. Riverbanks are often steeply

undercut and sandbanks are commonly observed.

- blackwater rivers: These are rivers draining catchment areas primarily composed

of swamps and, as such, have physical conditions very similar to swamps, although

fish are more common probably due to the higher oxygen levels. Floating mats of

vegetation are often observed, with large numbers of birds using these to prey on

young fish sheltering under them, e.g. Javanese swamp herons and giant egrets. As

this is usually not found under similar conditions in whitewater rivers, then it may be

that juvenile and/or small species of fish occur in this ecotype in larger numbers

than usual - preliminary catches with the fish larvae net back this up.

- small rivers: These do not play an important role, due to their small size and their

infrequency in the Middle Mahakam area. Therefore, they will not be further

considered.

9

3. Source of Information

Information was obtained from various reports as listed in the references. Additionally,

numerous interviews with fishermen, farmers, boatmen and officials of fishery were

conducted based on questionnaires (Mayer, 1989).

4. Effects of Drought and Fire on Hydrology

Drought and fire have influenced the hydrology of the Middle Mahakam Area directly

and indirectly. Drought creates fluctuations in the water table through lack of

preCipitation as well as decreased inflow of water from tributaries. Fire has completely

changed the vegetation cover and the water retention capacity of the forested areas.

Also, by exposure of the soil in burned areas, the erosion rate was considerably

increased during the initial years after the fire, thereby increasing the sedimentation

rate considerably in lakes and rivers.

4.1 Drought

Although East Kalimantan is located in the equatorial zone (its capital city, Samarinda,

is situated almost exactly under the equator) and is marked by a tropical climate, there

are seasonal changes in precipitation. Especially during the period from July to

September there is much less precipitation (see Figure 2: Mean annual rainfall versus

rainfall 1982/83 at Kota Bangun) causing fluctuations in the water table of rivers and

lakes.

In addition to these seasonal dry spells, drought occurs periodically every 3 to 5 years

in connection with the southern oscillation of the El Nino, a current of the Pacific

Ocean. These droughts, however, are not very severe and the ecosystems are very

well adapted to such changes. Yet, there is another periodicity in droughts, also

related to the El Nino Southern Oscillation which occurs every 90 to 100 years. These

droughts are very severe. During the 1982/83 drought only 33 % of the average annual

precipitation was measured at Kota Bangun (see Figure 2). Figure 3 shows the

fluctuation of the Mahakam River at Kota Bangun Station for the period 1980 to 1985.

The low water level during the 1982/83 drought is significant.

10

Fig. 2: Mean annual rainfall versus rainfall 1982/83 at Kota Bangun

RainfaU(mm) 300.---------------------------------------------------~

250

200

150

100

50

,

'--.......... /"'" ...... ----- "-........ + .................. -................. '"

" . . .

I

, . . . + ~ ~I" .. ~-.-........ ...... . ......... '-_ •. '7" .-.. '" ..... -... -........ : ...... -\ ....... .

~ /: ., . ,

J

~ .--/ :' . \, '\.W""""'-:- ... . ...... + ............... -.............. _ .. .

\

\ ' .. , , I '\ I

I \ , ,\ .

I ~~ .•• "-- ." ".~ ~- - ." ... ,._;; '"" +. .. -........ ,'-.- ...... -~ .... _ .. " .... ~~. I \, ..

I \ "... ..

: ~ \

. ...... ,. .

J A s o N D J

Monlh

, . I ,

, , /

. .

~, " . .• -. ~ .••...• ,.- ••.. :"- -.::" ..... I .•.. - ••..•• ~-.. -, "

-+

F M A M

-- Mean annual rainfall -+- Rainfall 1982/83

11

Fig. 3: Fluctuation of the Mahakam River at Kota Bangun

(m)

(m)

12

B

9 10 ,.. 1:

1980

10 1i 12

1981

B~----~--~--~------~--~----~----~~--~--------------------------------------------8 g 1011 12 3 5 8 g101112

1982 1983

(m)

11184 11185

- - - Bankfull level

12

In areas close to the Mahakam River, the fluctuations of the water table remained lower

than in the upper part and the tributaries. In many of the smaller rivers, the water table

sunk considerably, making sometimes even local transportation by Kentinting

impossible (Mayer, 1984).

Many lakes also dried out completely, such as the Jempang lake, and it is reported

that people used motorbikes to cross the river instead of boats.

The fluctuation of the lakes and rivers is related very closely with precipitation levels in

the upper regions.

The decline of the water table in the swamp areas also affected the forest vegetation. In

large areas the peat became dry and combustible and huge areas of swamp forests

burned.

4.2 Fire

Tropical rainforest ecosystems have a very high impact on the hydrology of rivers and

lakes; they retain precipitation and release it slowly and continuously. Swamp forests,

in particular, act like a sponge. During dry spells, the retained water from the forest

ecosystems helps to equalize fluctuations in the water table. Also, the soil is protected

from erosion and the rinsing away of nutrients and organic matter is prevented as

rainwater never falls directly on the bare soil.

The forest fires following the 1982/83 drought destroyed 2.7 million ha of forest land.

Especially logged over forests and peat swamp forests were very seriously affected.

The total forest cover was destroyed, while former primary forest areas were just lightly

disturbed.

After the fire, the bare forest soil was covered by ash, carbonized twigs and branches

and rotten debris. The first heavy rains eroded the exposed forest soil quite heavily.

Remaining topsoil, ash, twigs, branches and rotten debris were washed away and

drained into the river. During the first month after the fire the colour of the river

changed into a black-brown (personal communication) and water quality was affected.

13

The water in peat swamps became black, but remained clear in the burned areas

which can be explained because after the fire active carbon was formed which

absorbed dissolved organic carbon. Oxygen levels decreased and the pH value of

1983 was higher compared with 1982 or 1989 (but less than 1987). Table 1 compares

the water quality of the Mahakam River over several different years.

Table 1: Water quality of the Mahakam River at Kota Bangun

Parameter

Air temperature (cC)

Water temperature eC)

Transparency (cm)

Conductivity (cm)

pH

Oxygen (mg/ e)

May 1981

(TA D)

33

34

32

35

7.4

6.9

Febr.1982

(Sarwono)

1987

31

30

60

6.4

7.5

1983 June 1989

(Christensen) (Sarwono)

1984 1984

32.5 33

32 32

60

18

7.1 6.6

6.1 7.2

According to fishermen, the river surface was more fully covered by waste and debris

in the period from 1984 to 1986 than before, while the disturbance by Iilia was less.

The continuous erosion during the first years after the fire lead to an increase in the

sedimentation rate from the normal 10 - 12 cm per year to 13 - 17 cm per year in lakes

like Tempatung Ma'au, Sirau and Seguntur, while in lakes such as the Semayang and

Melintang the sedimentation rate remained stable. According to the opinion of local

fishermen muddy water flows out of these lakes during heavy rains, while in the other

lakes, like Jempang, this is not the case. This is due to the intensity of water

circulation. Also, vii/age people observed that the sedimentation rate increased in

lakes with shrubby shores. The water depth in smaller rivers, however increased. This

is due to the use of motorboats which increases turbidity.

Undisturbed tropical rainforests have a high water retention capacity. The multi-storey

structure of the rainforests retains most of the precipitation in the canopy, only a part

reaches the forest floor. Via evapo-transpiration much of the received precipitation is

released into the atmosphere. The rainwater which reaches the forest floor infiltrates

14

the soil and is drained off slowly into the rivers. Thus, the forest is able to act as a

buffer. During heavy rains, water is retained and during droughts water is released. The

effect of the swamp forest in particular can be compared with a sponge. The uniform,

one-storey secondary forests have much lower water retention capacity; a great share

of precipitation is washed away superficially. The buffer effect is almost lost.

After the fire, the period of low water table levels in rivers and lakes was extended to

about 5 month. Also, the fluctuations of the water table reacts more quickly on

precipitation. High and low water peaks are much more common (personnel

communication). For the lakes the infiltration rate was decreased after the fire for about

50 %. This might be due to the fact that in the burnt area the precipitation is drained off

quickly into the lower areas, thus increasing fluctuation.

15

5. Effects of Drought and Fire on Fishery

Fish populations in the Middle Mahakam Area are adapted to seasonal drought

conditions. When the water table of the lakes and small rivers declines during the

period July to September blackfish flee into the peat swamp forests. They survive in

holes under large trees, which are covered with water even during dry spells (see

Figure 4) and are easily caught when the tree is felled. This catch method has become

very popular through the advent of the chainsaw. Catches weighing 50-100 kg per tree

are very common (Christensen,et ai, 1986).

The severe drought of 1982/83 also affected the peat swamp forests. The peat dried

out down to a depth of up to 1 m and thus affected the refugium of blackfish. Forest

fires damaged 385000 ha of swamp forests and, today, 110000 ha have to be

classified as open swamps. It can be assumed that all the blackfish in the burned

areas were exterminated.

16

Fig. 4: Blackfish surviving drought under tree trunks in peat swamp forest

17

Whitefish, in contrast to blackfish, fled into large rivers when the water table become

too low. During and after the drought, fishing pressure was considerably increased as

people were forced to search for other food sources, as rice, cereal and vegetable

harvests were partly lost by the effects of the drought. As a result whitefish represented

the favoured catch during the 1982/83 drought.

The 1982/83 drought and fire, as well as the overfishing in the Middle Mahakam area

which began in 1983, created considerable changes in fish species diversity and

population structure (Christensen,et ai, 1986). Some fish species like the Notopterus

(belinda) and the Pangasius (patin) disappeared completely from the market, while

other species started to breed at much smaller sizes, like the Thynnichthys (kenida) and

the Puntius schwanefeldi (Iempam). Overfishing is mainly due to the introduction of

gillnets. Figure 5 reflects the production of fish in the Middle Mahakam area from the

early 50's to 1986. Fish catches were reduced when many fishermen entered the

timber industry during the 1960's. The marketshare of nine out of 15 fish species

declined dramatically.

While the production of blackfish declined in 1983, it has remained steady since then.

This can be explained by the fact that in inaccessible and isolated unburned parts of

the peat swamp forests, residual blackfish populations survived. The production of

whitefish however declined steadily (see Figure 6).

Fig. 5: Fish production in Middle Mahakam Area from 1952 to 1985

Fish production in tons 401~----------------------------------------------~l

I I ! I I

i ;

30 ~ ............................................. .

I

I ........................................................................................................ j

I 20 r--

10

OUL~~~~U..u .. ua.u~~~u.JU __ ua.u~~~u-.u .. ~

52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85

Year

(Source: Christensen. 1986)

18

Fig. 6: Production of blackfish and whitefish at central landing stage in Samarinda for the period 1980 to 1985

Production of blackfish

Production in tons 1000 I 1 I

80J------------ r:;:J 7;; I~~; !

1::=

600 ....................................................................................................................................... ::: .......... " ............. ::: ....................................... .. . -" ... ... ..~

e:J ::~ ::: 8 ~ m ill ~"I "'l .. ~ ..•

400 "''''''''''''''''''''''''!E!~I'''-''''''''''-''''''''''''''''''''''''''-''''''''''''''''''''mf ........ ·· ................ ·lm------d!!l-----~ ...... ~~~ .... · ::t ::1 ::: ~::: ::;

200 .......................... ~::I .............. ·-............ f:!1·· .... · .... ·· .... ·· ...... ·-· :::·· ............ ·: ............ 1::: .. · .. · .. · ...... · ...... :;01::: .. · .. ""· .... ·........ :3'''' t::: t::! ::~ ::: I ::~ ." ". :: ::1 . ::1 ::l .:::' ::~ ":-.::1

o :: ::1 ::: ::: H= ~ >~: :: 1980 1981 1982 1983

Production of whitefish

40

20

o 1980

_ BaWlS

~::::I PaUn

(Source: Christensen, 1988)

1981 1982

~ Jelawst

D Bel1da

1983

Year f· <:':1 Lempam

1984 1985

i ................................................................... 1

I --~------I

1984

! J

.................. ..1

1985

~ Pahal

19

Due to the continuous overfishing the catches per man-hour and man-year decreased

considerably.

Table 2 shows the production of various fish species at TPI Samarinda Sebarang for

the period 1980 to 1984.

Fish species Production in tons Percentage of species

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1980 1981 1982 1983

Gabus 478 210 452 660 808 49.9 19.2 36.8 56.6

Biawan 133 122 121 91 301 13.9 11.2 10.0 7.8

SepatSiam 72 84 103 72 107 7.5 7.7 8.4 6.2

Jelawat 50 79 49 28 23 5.2 7.2 4.2 2.4

Lempam 27 72 42 16 8 2.8 6.6 3.6 1.4

Puyau 6 51 24 8 13 0.6 4.7 2.2 0.7

Baung 32 67 51 77 102 3.3 6.1 4.2 6.6

Pahat 10 51 42 18 5 1.0 4.7 3.6 1.5

Patin 21 54 37 26 7 2.2 4.9 3.4 2.2

Pepuyu 35 63 58 38 137 3.7 5.8 5.0 3.3

Belida 17 50 35 9 5 1.8 4.6 3.1 0.8

Betutu 0 41 33 0.0 3.8 2.6 0.1

Keli 25 32 43 14 74 2.6 2.9 3.8 1.2

Lais 33 55 58 74 14 3.4 5.0 4.8 6.3

Others 19 61 51 35 22 2.0 5.6 4.3 3.0

Total 958 1092 1199 1167 1627 100 100 100 100

In the TPI area of Samarinda Sebarang, the production of peat swamp fishes like

Sepat Siam and Pepuyu was significantly decreased in 1983, while the production of

the lake fishes Jelawat, Lampan, Belida and Pahat were successively decreased since

1982 .

. Besides the destruction of the peat swamp forest habitat, which affected the blackfish

population solely in 1983, drought and fire affected the breeding of all fish species

through reduced water table and a change in water quality. Fish ponds, which

depended on surface water, completely dried out.

1984

49.7

18.5

6.6

1.4

0.5

0.8

6.3

0.3

0.4

8.4

0.3

0.1

4.5

0.9

1.4

100

20

In 1984, a bacterial fish disease infected all fish species except the Baung hitam. Most

heavily, however, those species were infected which were cultured in floating cages

like the Gabus, Keli, Penang and Sebat. The disease was almost certainly imported

from Java, where a similar outbreak occured in 1980/81 (Christensen, et ai, 1986). A

correlation between the outbreak of this disease and the incident of drought and fire

cannot be identified, however, the fish population had already been weakened and the

bad water quality, perhaps,led the fish population to become less resistant.

21

References

CHRISTENSEN, M.S., 1984: Interim report on floating cage culture trials. TAD, Samarinda.

CHRISTENSEN, M.S., MULU, A., AKBAR, A., 1986: Investigations into the fishery of the Middle Mahakam Area. Techn. Rep. No. 86-1, TAD, Samarinda.

CHRISTENSEN, M.S., 1987: Perubahan Struktur Jenis Ikan di Perairan Umum Wilayah Mahakam Tengah. TAD, Samarinda.

CHRISTENSEN, M.S., 1989: Techniques and economics of intensive cultivation of Jelawat and Lempam carp in floating cages. GTZ, Jakarta.

DISKAN I, PROP. KALTIM, 1989: Pemanfaatan Sumberdaya Perikanan dan Program Pengembangan Perikanan di Propinsi Kalimantan Timur. Dept. Pertanian. Jakarta.

KUSYARBANSYAH, M., 1982: Masalah Hama dan Penyakit Ikan Beserta Pananggulangannya di Kalimantan Timur. Diskan I. Prop. Kaltim. Samarinda.

LENNERTZ, R., PANZER, K.F., 1983: Preliminary assessment of the drought and forest fire damage in Kalimantan Timur. TAD, Samarinda.

MAYER, J.H., 1989: Socioeconomic aspects of the 1982/83 forest fire and the relation of local communities towards forestry and forest management in East Kalimantan. FR-Report No. 9.

RACHMADI, A., HARTONO, B., 1988: Forest fire impact on forest resource function. Dept. of Forestry, Jakarta.

SAANIN, H., 1987: Keadaan Perikanan di WMT tahun Empatpuluhan. TAD, Samarinda.

SALMANI, M.R., 1987: Keadaan Perikanan Perairan Umum di WMT Saat 1nL Diskan 11 Kab. Kutai., Tenggarong.

SARWONO, 1982: Jenis dan Kepadatan Plankton di Perairan Sekitar Kampung Pela Kecamatan Kota Bangun. Univ. Mulawarman, Samarinda.

SARWONO, 1987: Gambaran Umum Perikanan di Mahakam Tengah. TAD, Samarinda.

SARWONO, ARMEINADI, 1989: Pengembangan Perikanan Perairan Umum di Wilayah Mahakam Tengah. Deptan., Jakarta.

SCHINDELE, W., THOMA, W., PANZER, K., 1989: The forest fire 1982/83 in East Kalimantan. Part I: The fire, the effects, the damage and technical solutions. FR­Report No. 5.

22

SHIMOKAWA, E., 1988: Effects of a fire of tropical rain forest on soil erosion. In: A research on the process of earlier recovery of tropical rain forest after a large scale fire in Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia (Ed. by Tagawah, H., Wirawan, N.). Kagoshima University.

SPOTIE, S., 1979: Fish and invertebrate culture. Water management in closed systems. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.

WELCOMME, R.L., 1979: Fisheries ecology offloodplain rivers. Longman, London.

ZEHRFELD, E.H., et al., 1985: Produksi dan Pemasaran Ikan Hasil Tangkapan dan Budidaya di Daerah Mahakam Tengah dan Sekitarnya. TAD, Samarinda.