Effects of Divorce on Children as a Function of Age, Sex, and Parenting

Running head: EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN

Effects of Divorce on Children as a Function of Age, Sex, and Parenting

Randi Hovey

Utah State University

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EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN

Abstract

With rising divorce rates in recent decades, many research studies have been conducted

to determine the effects of family separation on children. Typical findings show increased

behavioral problems, decreased social abilities, and adjustment difficulties which

manifest in lower academic success, higher probability for criminal involvement, and risk

of mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression. However, when controlling for

intervening variables such as parental status, mental health, and parenting style,

differences are minimal between children from divorced and non-divorced parents.

Results suggest that the adverse effects of divorce may be minimalized when parents can

effectively cope with stress, get early help for depressive symptoms, allow children

regular time with both parents, and keep the child’s living conditions and environment as

stable as possible.

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Effects of Divorce on Children as a Function of Age, Sex, and Parenting

Current statistics show that divorce rates have increased to 50% over recent

decades resulting in more than one million children a year suffering the structural,

economic, and emotional consequences of family upheaval (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). The

possible negative effects of divorce on children have, therefore, become a focus of

concern in modern society. However, recent studies have found interaction effects

between children’s age, sex, social support, socioeconomic status, quality of parent-child

relationships, and elapsed time, with the severity of adjustment and behavior difficulties

children may face after divorce (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). Data suggests that negative effects

are not experienced by all children in divorced families (Rodgers, 1996), and a meta-

analysis conducted by Amato and Keith (1991) found no difference in measures for 75%

of cases when comparing academic achievement, behavior, psychological and social

adjustment between children of divorced and nondivorced parents. Interpretation of

recent findings by Burns, Dunlop, and Taylor (1997) suggest that the tendency to focus

on strongly significant findings in research of divorced and intact families may lead to the

impression that the direct effects of divorce are more pervasive than is warranted by the

actual data. Research indicates that the risk of adverse consequences may be avoided, or

at least decreased, if parents can maintain stability in children’s living conditions,

effectively manage their own stress, engage in strong authoritative parenting styles, and

continue to allow children regular contact with both parents (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).

Discussion

Age-Related Effects

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Adolescent vs. pre-school findings. Studies by Hodges, Tierney, and Buchsbaum

(1984) found that children whose parents divorce in their pre-school years exhibit more

adjustment difficulties. These findings were confirmed in research by Howell, Portes, and

Brown (1997), along with an indication of decreased self-esteem among children age 15-

16 who experienced parental divorce during pre-school years. Further research on the

different effects of divorce for children in pre-school vs. adolescence show that young

children show more immediate negative effects while older children tend to exhibit

adverse consequences in later stages of life (Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1978).

Developmental implications in pre-school. According to Erikson’s theory of

psychological development, pre-school age children rely on play and enrichment

activities to develop necessary social skills and build a foundation for strong self-esteem.

A lack of parental support required to give young children these experiences, and

negative effects of stress and depression experienced by a parent during a divorce may

lead to adjustment problems for the children and could also explain the decrease in self-

esteem in later years. Parents who effectively cope with stress and get immediate help

with depressive symptoms would be more likely to have the mental health to support

their young children during this developmental period, and decrease the likelihood of

adjustment difficulties.

Developmental implications for adolescents. Additionally, adolescent’s quest

for autonomy may be overly-realized in the face of a parental separation, allowing

children increasingly more time without parental supervision. While this may downplay

the negative psychological effects experienced by adolescents, the decrease in parental

involvement due to stress, depression, or longer work hours to maintain financial stability

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may lead to an increased probability of delinquent behavior and criminal activity

(Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).

Sex-Related Effects

Girls vs. boys. Many studies show more severe behavioral and adjustment

problems are experienced by boys as a result of parental divorce. However, research

analyzed by Dilek Sirvanli-Ozen (2005), contends that the effects simply reveal

differences in the way divorce impacts male and female children. According to research,

boys display more external behavior problems, while girls exhibit more internal problems

in behavior (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).

Effects on boys. Longitudinal studies have produced mixed results regarding the

long-term behavioral effects on male children. Studies presented by Dilek Sirvanli-Ozen

(2005), found at 2-year post-divorce follow up, boys continued to deteriorate in social

and emotional well-being while girls showed improvements over time. These studies

contend that divorce alone is not responsible for behavior problems in boys, but that

living in a single-mother household may lead to negative behaviors. Other research

presented found boys’ levels of anxiety was high immediately following divorce, but was

similar to boys with non-divorced families at 3 and 10 year follow ups (Burns, Dunlop, &

Taylor, 1997).

Effects on girls. Hagan, Simpson, and Gillis (1988), proposed that the difference

in behavioral effects on girls may be a result of the fact that they are more strictly

controlled in any family structure. Findings have indicated that children living with a

parent of the same sex is more likely to develop healthy social skills (Sirvanli-Ozen,

2005). With the most likely custodial parent being the mother, girls are more likely to

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identify with their full-time parent as far a gender roles. This can, however, contribute

negatively to the internal behavior problems seen in research on girls as it has been found

that the risk of depression is dependent on the mother’s degree of depression (Sirvanli-

Ozen, 2005).

Parent and Social-Related Effects

Interaction effects. Research findings generally show children of divorced

couples display poorer parental attachment styles, decreased cognitive and social

abilities, and increased levels of negative behavior (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). However,

when further interacting variables are considered (i.e., parental educational and stress

levels), differences decrease dramatically and may even disappear in some cases. Studies

on 9 to 11-year-old children suggest parental stress level is positively correlated with a

child’s happiness and further research shows when a mother’s level of education is

controlled for, no differences are observed between children of divorced and non-

divorced parents (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).

Implications of interaction effects. Studies have shown that children of divorce

situations do show a risk of developing less secure attachment styles with their parents, a

point which further endorses the parent’s mental state as the determining factor in healthy

adjustment (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). According to a meta-analysis by Burns, Dunlop, and

Taylor (1997), “If judgments about risk status are to be made on the basis of mean

differences, (that data) indicates that females, children of fathers with lower occupational

status, and individuals with poor relations with their parents are more in need of support

than the children of divorce.” The important factor in the well-being of today’s children

may be reflected in the large socioeconomic gap, the epidemic of poor mental health of

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our adult society, and not enough education on effective parenting styles, rather than the

increasing divorce rate plaguing modern society.

Conclusion

While divorce may cause many negative effects for children, data on

interpersonal, academic, and behavioral problems between children of divorced and non-

divorced families indicate adverse consequences may be a result of parent’s inability to

put children’s needs first in these situations rather than direct effects of family separation.

Parents who understand children’s developmental needs and take necessary action to

sustain their own mental well-being may avoid long-term adjustment and behavioral

problems for their children despite a divorce. Maintaining as much of the children’s

environment and economic stability as possible, along with encouraging a regular,

supportive relationship with both parents may result in shorter periods of adjustment, and

healthier self-image overall.

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References

Amato, P., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the wellbeing of children: A meta-

analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 2646.

Sirvanli-Ozen, D., PhD. (2005). Impacts of divorce on the behavior and adjustment

problems, parenting styles, and attachment styles of children, Journal of Divorce

& Remarriage, 42:3-4, 127-151, doi: 10.1300/J087v42n03_08

Hagan, J., Simpson, J., & Gillis, A. R. (1988). Feminist scholarship, relational and

instrumental control and a power-control theory of gender and delinquency. The

British Journal of Sociology, 34, 301-336.

Hodges, W. F., Tierney, C. W., & Buchsbaum, H. K. (1984). The cumulative effect of

stress on preschool children of divorced and intact families. Journal of Marriage

& the Family, 46, 611-619.

Howell, S. H., Portes, P. R., & Brown, J. H. (1997). Gender and age differences in child

adjustment to parental separation. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 27, 141-158.

Rodgers, B. (1996). Social and psychological wellbeing of children from divorced

families: Australian research findings. Australian Psychologist, 31(3), 174-182.

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Effects of Divorce on Children as a Function of Age, Sex, and Parenting