COMM 4841

Thesis Proposal

Effects of a Brand’s Country of Origin & Longevity on

Perceived Brand Authenticity in the Post-Colonial World

Kelly Halter November 27, 2015

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INTRODUCTION

One of the most iconic brands of all time is Levi Strauss & Co, which in 1873 produced

the first pair of blue jeans in San Francisco, California. Levi Jeans invokes its powerful brand

roots in many of its marketing advertisements by stressing its American heritage along with its

long history. With the commercialization and modernization of society, consumers prefer brands

that they perceive as authentic (Arnould & Price, 2000; Beverland, 2005) and this has led iconic

brands to emphasize their heritage and virtues to continue their success. For example, Coca Cola

reminds their customers that it began in 1888 in Atlanta, Georgia, and similarly Hershey often

reminds their customers that its famous brand and chocolate originated in 1894 in Hershey,

Pennsylvania. Currently, brand authenticity research indicates that a communication style

emphasizing a brand’s roots positively impacts perceived brand authenticity, which leads to

positive word of mouth and emotional brand attachment (Morhart et al., 2014). Both of these

elements have been shown to increase consumers’ likelihood to purchase the brands’ products.

A common notion is that consumers’ prominent purchasing criterion has shifted to

valuing authenticity more than quality, which mirrors the shifts over history from cost to quality

and from availability (Gilmore & Pine, 2007). This shift makes it imperative for companies to

understand exactly what impacts perceived brand authenticity to ensure they can maintain or

develop it for their brand. Research in this topic, however, is limited and fragmented due to

contrasting definitions of authenticity. Research on brand authenticity is often split based on

definitions that focus on objective facts, consumer subjective perceptions, and physiological uses

for self-identity.

Due to the limited research focusing on brand authenticity, there are many gaps within

the research, which limits brand’s ability to understand consumers’ perceptions of brand

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authenticity. The study proposed in this paper aims to fill some of those gaps. Currently brand

authenticity research demonstrates that companies that emphasize a brand’s roots in their

advertisements are perceived as more authentic (Morhart et al., 2014). In brand roots, however,

country of origin/locality and longevity of brand are often grouped together. This research aims

to determine the distinct impact of each of these elements on brand perceived authenticity.

Currently branding literature implies that both positively impact a brand’s success. For example,

Holt suggests that local brands are more emotionally appealing (2004) and Morhart et al. imply

that longevity helps consumers to perceive brands as timeless (2014). Country of origin literature

also suggests implications of country of origin/locality by showing both positive and negative

perceptions of quality based on foreign versus local country of origin (Verlegh, 2007; Kumar et.

al, 2009). This study compares the strength of each of these factors for South African consumers

through the proxy of a fried chicken fast food company utilizing a validated perceived brand

authenticity framework and measurement scale (Morhart et al., 2014).

South Africa is an ideal case study for this research because it provides insight to

understanding a previously colonized nation. The complicated sense of nationality associated

with brands over time due to the nation’s shift from a colony to an independent country poses an

interesting dynamic to this study. In a business context, this is also important to study because

through globalization, many brands have been attempting to grow by capitalizing on growth in

emerging markets, which are often previously colonized. For example, after saturating the

United States market, Kentucky Fried Chicken like many other fast food companies expanded

internationally to continue to prosper as a brand. This has been extremely successful for

Kentucky Fried Chicken who now has 40% of revenue associated with international sales

including a majority China, India, and South Africa that all have a previous history of

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colonization by Western countries. Utilizing South Africa as a proxy for previously colonized

nations, I hypothesize that country of origin/locality will impact perceived brand authenticity less

than when the brand was formed prior to independence due to a contradictory national identity.

This hypothesis will be mirrored in perceived brand authenticity’s positive impact on brand

attachment and word of mouth.

LITERATURE REVIEW

With the expansion of commercialization in the economy, consumers have begun to gravitate

toward authentic brands to gain sources of meaning in consumption and self-identity (Arnould &

Price, 2000; Beverland, 2005). This has major implications on brand success because perceived

brand authenticity has been shown to positively affect consumer emotional brand attachment and

word of mouth, which in turn increase likelihood to purchase a brand’s products (Morhart et al.,

2014). This field of research, however, is fragmented and lacks organization due to different

definition and perceived origins of authenticity.

The current research for brand authenticity focuses around three main concepts: objectivist,

constructivist, and existentialist (Morhart et al., 2014). The objectivist dimension focuses on

facts or quality inherent in an object and verifiable (Grayson & Marinec, 2004). This includes

labels such as origin, age, ingredients, or performance. This is often used to develop external

consistency meaning that the brand is what is appears to be and not a counterfeit (Brown et al.,

2003). The wine industry demonstrates the objectivist dimension because fine wine is validated

by focusing on its quality of taste and age to demonstrate authenticity of its value. The

constructivist dimension focuses on the personal constructed perception of brands (Grayson &

Marinec, 2004) based on the projection of ones own perspectives, beliefs, and expectations

(Wang 1999), which is sometimes swayed by commercially created products (Stern, 1994;

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Brown, 2003). For this dimension, a brand that is able to create a systematic fit with consumers’

expectations is perceived as more authentic. For example, McDonald’s ability to provide a

standardized product around the world authenticates the brand by meeting consumers’

expectations. Lastly, existentialist dimension relates to the physiological nature of consumers to

relate brands authenticity to their own identity and find consumption of a brand as a portrayal of

themselves (Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). This dimension categorizes a brand that serves as an

identity related source to be more authentic than others.

More recent research has examined brand authenticity within the context of location of

origin, although this research did not examine country of origin specifically. For example,

Newman and Dhar (2014) asked consumers to react to differences in Levi Jeans’ manufacturing

location to determine the effect of a change in manufacturing location on consumers’ perception

of products and brands. This study showed that consumers perceived Levi Jeans made at the

original factory as more authentic than a newer factory. Further, when consumers perceived the

product to be from the original factory, they were willing to pay more, perceived that the jeans

were truly the brand, and that the jeans were of higher quality.

Brand authenticity has also been examined with regard to brand extensions (Spiggle, 2012).

Brand expansion is often imperative for brands to adapt to changing business environment but

difficult for managers to often accomplish while maintaining consumers’ perception of

authenticity (Beverland, 2005). Spiggle created and validated a framework to determine parent

brands’ ability to maintain brand authenticity by looking at consumer perception of uniqueness,

originality, heritage, values, and essence of the extension. This brand extension authenticity

construct is important because consumers’ perception of brand extension authenticity helps

predict brand extension success. An example of a product that could utilize this construct to

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determine areas of concern regarding brand extension authenticity is Starbuck with its Via

instant coffee extension; this construct shows consumers may not perceive this expansion as

authentic due to the lack of the cosmopolitan experience of Starbucks, which Starbucks is iconic

for (Spiggle 2012).

Recently, Morhart et al. (2014) developed an integrative framework and measurement

system to better account for perceived brand authenticity (PBA). In their framework, the

researchers suggest that PBA has multiple dimensions - continuity, creditability, integrity, and

symbolism. The continuity dimension “reflects brand’s timelessness, historicity, and its ability to

transcend trends”. An example of a brand with continuity is Quaker oatmeal because its oatmeal

and logo of Mr. Quaker’s face has not changed over time and many consumers forecast this diet

staple will survive overtime. The credibility dimension demonstrates a brand’s willing and

ability to deliver on their promises. For example, Walmart’s ability to provide “the lowest prices

every time” demonstrates its ability to fulfill its promise to consumers. The integrity dimension

identifies the intentions and moral values that a brand communicates to its customers. The last

dimension is symbolism, which is defined as the ability to a brand to support consumers in being

true to themselves. A demonstration of this dimension would be consumers defining authentic

“as brands that reflect values that they consider important and thus help construct who they are”.

For example, the use of the John Deere brand as an illustration of a past in construction and

forestry demonstrates this dimension.

After defining these four dimensions of perceived brand authenticity, Morhart et al.

demonstrates that indexical, existential, and iconic cues impact each dimension of the

framework. For example, indexical cues of brand scandals and brand congruent employee

behaviors influence the integrity dimension and the credibility dimension of PBA. Meanwhile,

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existential cues such as brand anthropomorphism impacts the symbolism dimensions. Finally, he

sows that communication style emphasizing brand’s roots and virtue, relate to the continuity and

integrity dimension respectively.

I utilized this integrative framework in my research. More specifically, I expand the

catalyst of communication emphasizing brand roots to find the difference in effects between the

current elements of brand roots: locality, country of origin and longevity of history. As

demonstrated in the following quotations, these are often used in conjunction for major iconic

brands. For example, the Hershey advertisement “Hershey, Pa. is where it all started more than

100 years ago, and its still where the famous Hershey’s Kisses are made” emphasizes both an

American country of origin of Hershey, Pennsylvania and longevity of the brand heritage

(Newman & Dhar, 2014). This can be also seen in the Thames advertisement, “Our brewery’s

stood in London beside the Thames, since 1845” (Newman & Dhar, 2014). Though both country

of origin/locality and longevity of brands are currently studied in conjunction as a demonstration

of brand roots, this research aims to separate the two dimensions to determine each dimension’s

impact on brand authenticity within the context of a colonized nation.

SOUTH AFRICA CASE STUDY

South Africa poses an appealing case study due to its history of colonization and its

unique history of colonization. Colonization poses an interest lens to study perceived brand

authenticity because colonized countries’ history creates contradicting country of origin

implications of locality due the change in nationality. Forexample,SouthAfricawasacolony

ofUnitedKingdomfor155yearsandbecameindependentin1961.It would be interesting to

see if South Africans perceive a British brand created prior to independence as authentic due to

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this historical national connection. The existence of colonizer country of origin also may

positively or negatively impact the implications of the country of origin dimension of brand

authenticity, which depends greatly on the relationship of consumers with the colonizer country.

This has been studied within country of origin literature but not explicitly in brand authenticity

research. Country of origin literature demonstrates through studies in India that individuals who

are ethnocentric prefer local products but the majority of Indians show a preference for nonlocal

products in regards to higher quality and the status symbol value of American goods (Verlegh,

2007; Kumar et. al, 2009). Branding research also shows that local brand have more emotional

appeal and attachment, which is likely to impact perceived brand authenticity (Holt, 2004),

South Africa is also unique because of thecontinuationofwhitesupremacythrough

apartheid.Thischaracteristicalsocandemonstrateaninterestingperspectiveon

perceivedbrandauthenticitybyshowingdifferencesinqualificationbyracewithinSouth

Africa,whichmarketingteamscanadjustfor.Finally,South Africa also poses an attractive

country to research because it lacks research within perceived brand authenticity literature and

the direct positive relationship between perceived brand authenticity and positive word of mouth

and brand awareness has not been proven as it has in Europe and North America (Morhart et al.

2014).

HYPOTHESES

Communication style emphasizing a brand’s roots is shown to impact perceived brand

authenticity (Morhart, et al., 2014). Brand’s roots, however, has not been developed to

differentiate the impact of a brand’s longevity and country of origin independently. The goal of

this study is to research this in the context of a colonized nation because consumers’ perceptions

of country of origin can be swayed due to their history of a changing national identity. This

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research aims to study this utilizing a 2 (country of origin: South Africa vs. Great Britain) X 3

(longevity: 50 years vs. 100 years vs. not provided) between-subjects design, as indicated in

Exhibit 1. More specifically, I will be comparing the effects of country of origin of Britain and

South Africa in relation to the effects of brand’s longevity of 100 years (pre-independence) and

50 years (post-independence). I expect a main effect of country of origin and a main effect of

longevity on perceived brand authenticity. More specifically, I hypothesize the following:

H1: An ad that emphasizes a brand’s longevity will affect perceived brand authenticity

such that a brand with a history of 100 years is perceived to be more authentic than a

brand with a history of 50 years.

H2: An ad that emphasizes country of origin will affect perceived brand authenticity such

that a brand with a local country of origin (South Africa) is perceived to be more

authentic than a brand with a foreign country of origin (Great Britain).

These hypotheses are based on previous research dealing with brand authenticity and

country of origin. Our hypothesis regarding longevity mirrors the framework created by Morhart

et al. (2014), which measures the continuity dimension of perceived brand authenticity based on

historical heritage. This can be seen with the two measures of the continuity dimension: a brand

is timeless and a brand that can survives times. However, country of origin and locality of a

brand have not yet been studied as an effect of perceived brand authenticity independently. It has

only been studied in the context of original factory versus new factory production locations, but

not in the context of the actual brand origination (Newman & Dhar, 2014).

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Country of origin research has shown differing implications of foreign country of origin

of products and brands on consumer perceptions of quality and willingness to consume (Verlegh,

2007; Kumar et. al, 2009). This research, however, does not look at perceived brand authenticity

and the implications of these metrics on consumers’ actions. Building on the claim in Holt

(2004) that local brands are more emotionally appealing, we hypothesize that local brands will

be perceived as more authentic than foreign brands. The expectations for each of first two

hypotheses are indicated in Exhibit 4.

We also expect an interaction between a brand’s longevity and country of origin on

perceived brand authenticity. This interactive effect is possible due to consumers contradicting

perception of nationality. Pre-independence, South Africans were part of the British Empire

making the consumers technically British. This confusion of brand heritage and consumers

nationality at this time in history will result in British country of origin being seen as more

authentic than an South African country of origin due to the nationality of consumers at the time

of brand origination. We anticipate that this will be seen in post-independence time period as

well. Yet, we expect that brands with formation times that occur post-independence will be

perceived as more authentic when the brand has an South African country of origin than a brand

with a British country of origin due to the similarity in consumers’ nationality and country of

origin. Thus, we predict that

H3a: Brand longevity and country of origin will interact to affect perceived brand

authenticity such that a brand’s history that corresponds with a formation time pre-

independence (100 years) versus post-independence (50 years) will be perceived as more

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authentic when the brand has a British country of origin versus an South African country

of origin.

H3b: Brand longevity and country of origin will interact to affect perceived brand

authenticity such that a brand’s history that corresponds with a formation time post-

independence (50 years) versus pre-independence (100 years) will be perceived as more

authentic when the brand has an South African country of origin versus a British country

of origin.

These interactive effects have not yet been studied within the context of brand authenticity

literature but can pose major implications on companies planning to expand and create marketing

plans in emerging markets, because many emerging markets were previously colonies.

Finally, consistent with past work on brand authenticity, we anticipate that higher brand

authenticity will result in more word of mouth and greater brand attachment. That is, perceived

brand authenticity should have a positive correlation with favorable word of mouth and brand

attachment for all presented hypotheses. Formally, we predict that

H4: As brand authenticity increases, consumers will exhibit (a) more positive WOM and

(b) greater brand attachment.

STUDY DESIGN

We will test these hypotheses using a 2 (country of origin: South Africa vs. Great Britain)

x 3 (longevity: 50 years vs. 100 years vs. no information provided) between-subjects design.

Thus, we will utilize six distinct groups of participants. Participants will be exposed to one of six

advertisements that differ based on longevity and country of origin categories to mirror the six

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categories within the 2 X 3 subject design. A proposed advertisement sample can be seen in

Exhibit 5, which utilized existing advertisements for international fast food companies as

inspiration. This ad along with survey questions will be translated into Afrikaans for participants

who do not speak English fluently. To provide accurate data, this study aims to have 900

participants or 150 participants per category.

MEASURES

To measure perceived brand authenticity effects, we will utilize metrics validated in

country of origin research and by Morhart et al. (2014) who studied perceived brand authenticity

on dimensions of continuity, credibility, integrity, and symbolism. The dependent measures will

be positive word of mouth and brand attachment along with measures of perceived brand

authenticity. We will also measure national identity, consumer ethnocentrism, perceived brand

origin, and consumer demographics, consistent with past work on country of origin. All

measures are further explained in Exhibit 6. These variables, excluding demographic variables,

will be measured by Likert scales (anchored at 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree).

DATA COLLECTION METHODOLOGY

To collect data, we plan to utilize Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to administrate

surveys to South African consumers. Amazon Mechanical Turk is “an online labor system run by

Amazon.com” which provides quick and inexpensive online research (Goodman et al., 2012).

Amazon Mechanical Turk has more than 500,000 workers from 190 countries (Amazon).

Professor Cheema of the University of Virginia validates that South Africans have a large

presence in relation to most other countries on MTurk. This high usage of MTurk by South

African consumers improves the feasibility of gaining a large sample of responses for this study

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to draw significant conclusions. MTurk samples are validated to be accurate (Rand, 2011) and

to replicate classic findings in behavioral economics (Horton, et al., 2011). According to Ipeirotis

research (2010), mTurk workers are also dispersed by age, education, household income, and

family size.

If data collection of South African consumers becomes a problem, a feasible alternative

would be to utilize Indian consumers for our study of the implications of country of

origin/locality and longevity on perceived brand authenticity because it is also a previously

colonized nation. This is supplemented by the high presence of Indian consumers on MTurk

with 34% of workers being from India (Paolacci et al., 2010). Though this is a feasible

alternative, South Africa provides a more attractive case study because of its unique history of

colonization and apartheid, its less diverse population, and the prominence of the English

language. Therefore, Mechanical Turk is a valuable resource for research because it allows us to

access responses quickly and cheaply from South African consumers to study the implications of

country of origin/locality and longevity on perceived brand authenticity.

METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYSIS

The study design for this experiment is a 2x3 design between subjects that looks at the

constructs of country of origin and longevity on different levels. Country of origin is analyzed on

two levels of longevity: 50 years and 100 years, while longevity is analyzed on three levels of

country of origin: Great Britain, South Africa, and none. For our analysis, participants are

randomized into the six independent categories indicated in the design study. This eliminates

many variables as factors to skew the data. To analyze our study, we must perform multiple

linear regressions to determine main and interactive effects proposed in our hypotheses. In

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practice, we will utilize SPSS software to run ANOVA analysis to observe contrasts to compare

effects of independent variables, longevity and country of origin, on the dependent variables of

perceived brand authenticity, positive word of mouth, and emotional brand attachment. We will

also look at the moderating effects of national identity (Verlegh, 2007), consumer ethnocentrism

(Batra et al., 2000), and self-authenticity (Morhart et al., 2014) along with running a

manipulation check to ensure participants perceive the brand to be from the correct origin (Batra

et al., 2000).

Our regression analyses, which are practiced in the ANOVA statistical generation, help

us draw conclusions on main and interactive effects. This is possible by separating data into five

distinct categories: longevity, South Africa, Great Britain, interaction between longevity and

Great Britain, and interaction between longevity and South Africa. The first column, longevity,

distinguishes the two levels of longevity, 50 years and 100 years, using a dummy variable. 50

years would be labeled as 0 while 100 years would be labeled as 1. The second and third column

distinguishes country of origin levels. It is necessary to have two columns because there are

three levels, Great Britain, South Africa, and none, in our study design. The second column,

Great Britain, labels Great Britain as 1 and labels South Africa and none as 0 while the third

column, South Africa, labels South Africa as 1 and labels Great Britain and none as 0. The

fourth and fifth column look at the interactive effects between each country of origin and

longevity. These are looked at in comparison to the baseline, which is the impact on longevity

without a country of origin (none level of country of origin).

After distinguishing these five columns, we look at the effect of all five on the dependent

measures of perceived brand authenticity, positive word of mouth, and emotional brand

attachment. This creates a regression equations based on the model below:

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𝑌 = 𝐵! 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝐵! 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝐵! 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎

+ 𝐵! 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝐵! 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎 + 𝐵!

From the regression analysis, we look at these five factors shown as 𝐵! to 𝐵! to determine if the

factors are significant. Based on factors’ significance, we can draw conclusions about the main

and interactive effects of longevity and country of origin. 𝐵! indicates the main effect of

longevity; we expect 𝐵! to be positive for all dependent variables indicating that 100 years is

perceived as more authentic and enjoys higher positive word of mouth and more emotional brand

attachment. 𝐵! indicates the main effect of having a British country of origin compared to no

country of origin; we expect this factor to not to be significant. 𝐵! indicates the main effect of

having a South African country of origin compared to no country of origin; we expect this factor

to be positive for all dependent variables indicating that brands with a South African country of

origin are perceived as more authentic and enjoy higher positive word of mouth and more

emotional brand attachment. 𝐵! and 𝐵! look at the interactive effect between country of origin

and longevity compared to the baseline of no country of origin. If these factors are significant,

there is a difference in the pattern of longevity on the dependent variables. For example, if 100

years is seen as more authentic, a significant factor will show that 50 years is seen as more

authentic with the specific country of origin. We hypothesize that there will be no significant

factor for 𝐵!, which indicates that a brand with a British country of origin is perceived to be

more authentic and enjoy more positive word of mouth and emotional brand attachment with a

100 year history versus a 50 year history. Conversely, we hypothesize that 𝐵! factor will be

significant indicating that a brand with South African country of origin will exhibit a different

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pattern in relation to the baseline. This means that we hypothesize a brand with a South African

country of origin will be seen as more authentic and enjoy more positive word of mouth and

emotional brand attachment with a longevity of 50 years versus 100 years.

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CountryofOrigin

Exhibit 1: Experiment Framework Longevity

Pre Colonization

100 Years

Post Colonization

50 Years

Great Britain Anticipated Number of

Responses: 150

Anticipated Number of Responses: 150

South Africa

Anticipated Number of Responses: 150

Anticipated Number of Responses: 150

None

Anticipated Number of Responses: 150

Anticipated Number of Responses: 150

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Exhibit 2: Conceptual Framework

BrandScandals

Brand-congruentemployeebehaviors

Communicationstyleemphasizingabrand’sroots

Communicationstyleemphasizingabrand’svirtue

BrandAnthropomorphism

IndexicalCues

IconicCues

ExistentialCues

PerceivedBrandAuthenticityContinuityIntegrityCredibilitySymbolism

Positive

WordofMouth

EmotionalBrandAttachment

Longevity(Age)

CountryofOrigin

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Exhibit 3: Consolidated Conceptual Framework

Positive

WordofMouth

EmotionalBrandAttachment

IconicCues

emphasizingbrand’sroots

PerceivedBrand

Authenticity

Longevity(Age)

CountryofOrigin

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Exhibit 4: Expected Interactive Effect of Longevity & Country of Origin

SouthAfrica GreatBritain None

LevelofPerceivedBrandAuthenticity

CountryofOrigin

50Year

100Year

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Exhibit 5: Proposed Ad

The history of The Chicken Shop all began in 1966 on one faithful afternoon in London when a

pair of brothers opened their first restaurant and sold their first chicken sandwich. From this

modest start, The Chicken Shop has revolutionized the chicken industry within the fast food

sphere through its delicious Chicken Sauce and signature crunchy chicken sandwiches. The

Chicken Shop has since expanded to over 100 countries and strives everyday to support its

customers in their busy lifestyles through its delicious food.

Since opening our doors to our first shop in London,

we have been happy to serve the world quality chicken for 50 years

The Chicken Shop

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Exhibit 6: Elements to Manipulate in Proposed Advertisement Longevity 100/1916 50/1966

Country of Origin London Johannesburg None

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Exhibit 7: Survey Questions

Construct Item

Dependent Measures Word of Mouth (Price & Arnould, 1999)

I would recommend this brand to someone who seeks my advice. I would recommend this brand to others.

Emotional Brand Attachment (Thomson et al., 2005)

Affection: affectionate, friendly, loved, peaceful Passion: passionate, delighted, captivated Connection: connected, bonded, attached

Continuity (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand with a history. A brand that survives times. A brand that survives trends.

Credibility (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand that will not betray you. A brand that accomplishes its value promise. An honest brand.

Integrity (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand that gives back to its consumers. A brand with moral principles. A brand true to a set of moral values. A brand that cares about its consumers.

Symbolism (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand that adds meaning to people’s lives. A brand that reflects important values people care about. A brand that connects people with their real selves. A brand that connects people with what is really important.

National Identity (Verlegh, 2007)

Being South African means a lot to me. I am proud to be South African. I don’t feel any ties with South Africa.

Consumers Ethnocentrism (Batra et al., 2000)

It’s not right to purchase foreign brand. South Africans should not buy foreign brands, because this hurts South African businesses and causes unemployment. I always prefer South African brands over foreign brands.

Perceived Brand Origin (Batra et al., 2000)

I consider this brand to be a South African brand.

Self Authenticity (Morhart et al., 2014)

I think it is better to be yourself, than be popular. I always stand by what I believe in. I am true to myself in most situations.

Consumer Demographics (Verlegh, 2007)

Age Education level (4 levels) Gender (Male/Female) Marital Status Job Status (5 levels)

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