Chemical Papers 68 (8) 1059–1065 (2014)DOI: 10.2478/s11696-014-0567-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

Effect of apple pomace powder addition on farinographic propertiesof wheat dough and biscuits quality

Zlatica Kohajdová*, Jolana Karovičová, Michal Magala, Veronika Kuchtová

Department of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Chemical and Food

Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Radlinského 9, SK-812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia

Received 15 August 2013; Revised 5 February 2014; Accepted 7 February 2014

In the present study, dietary fibre rich powders obtained from two apple cultivars (Gala, GoldenDelicious) were analysed for their chemical composition and functional properties. Apple powderscontained more than 50 mass % of total dietary fibre and showed high values of hydration propertiessuch as water holding (11.73–18.34 g g−1), water retention (11.31–11.68 g g−1) and swelling capacity(7.19–8.03 cm3 g−1). Incorporation of apple pomace powders (5 mass %, 10 mass %, and 15 mass %)to wheat dough resulted in a significant increase of water absorption (58.60–71.80 mass %), doughdevelopment time (from 3.43 min to 5.53 min) and dough stability (from 9.40 min to 10.90 min).The results also indicate that an addition of higher amounts (10 mass % and 15 mass %) of applepomace powders negatively affects the volume, thickness, width, and spread ratio of biscuits andreduces their overall acceptance. Sensory analysis also showed that no significant differences betweenthe control biscuits and biscuits containing 5 mass % of apple pomace powder from cultivar Galawere found.c© 2014 Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences

Keywords: apples, by-products, farinograph, biscuits, quality

Introduction

Recently, new sources of functional compoundssuch as dietary fibre (DF) and bioactive compoundshave been sought after, and by-products (such as peelsand pomaces) (Kim et al., 2013) from the food anddrink industry have been examined for their poten-tial to increase the nutritional value of food products(Ktenioudaki et al., 2013). Cereal based food prod-ucts are consumed in large quantities daily and theyprovide a convenient medium for delivering DF andother healthy compounds to consumers (Ktenioudaki& Gallagher, 2012).In large scale apple industry, about 75 % of apple

is utilised for juice and the remaining 25 mass % arethe by-product, apple pomace (AP) (Shalini & Gupta,2010; O’Shea et al., 2012). AP poses serious environ-mental problems due to the large amounts (millions of

tonnes in EU alone) produced every year (Reis et al.,2012). Alternatively, it is used as animal feed (Gupta,2006; Shalini & Gupta, 2010; O’Shea et al., 2012). Ef-forts have been made to utilise AP in the preparationof edible products like AP jam and sauce or to makecitric acid (Shalini & Gupta, 2010) and for the extrac-tion of pectin and alcohol and some other products(Gupta, 2006).AP is a rich source of carbohydrates (Gupta, 2006;

Shalini & Gupta, 2010, Reis et al., 2012), total di-etary fibre including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin,pectin, and galacturnic acid (Chen et al., 1988), andminerals such as calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, andcopper (O’Shea et al., 2012; Gupta, 2006; Shalini &Gupta, 2010, Reis et al., 2012). AP is also a goodsource of phytochemicals primarily phenolic acids suchas chlorogenic, protocatechuic, and caffeic acid andflavonoids, e.g. flavanols and flavonols (Reis et al.,

*Corresponding author, e-mail: zlatica.kohajdova@stuba.sk

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2012; Dineiro García et al., 2009; O’Shea et al., 2012).Phytochemicals present in apples have been associateswith many health-enhancing benefits, e.g., cancer cellproliferation, lipid oxidation decrease and cholesterollowering (O’Shea et al., 2012).Several studies on the enrichment of cereal prod-

ucts such as bread, cookies, granola bars, and muffinswith apple processing by-products are available in lit-erature (Chen et al., 1988; Gupta, 2006; Sudha et al.,2007; Kohajdová et al., 2009, 2011; Moazzezi et al.,2012).The present study introduces the incorporation of

different levels (0 mass %, 5 mass %, 10 mass %, and15 mass %) of dried AP from two apple cultivars (Galaand Golden Delicious) into biscuits as a source of di-etary fibre. Chemical parameters and functional prop-erties of the applied AP powders and their effect onthe farinographic parameters of wheat dough, phys-ical and on the sensory parameters of the preparedbiscuits were also investigated.

Experimental

Raw materials: apples (cultivars Gala, Golden De-licious), fine wheat flour type T650 and other ingre-dients for biscuit preparation were purchased from alocal market in Slovakia. Apple pomace powders (cul-tivars Gala (APPG) and Golden Delicious (APPGD))were prepared by washing of apples in tap water, re-moving of non-edible parts and pressing of juice. Theresidue (pomace) was dried at 40◦C for 8 h. A grindermill (Model 0010, Eta, Hlinsko, Czech Republic) andsieves were used to obtain powder particle of the sizeof 160–270 �m.Chemical analysis: moisture, fat, and ash content

were determined by the method presented by Chenet al. (1988) and Sowbhagya et al. (2007). Nitrogencontent was estimated by the Kjeldhal method andwas converted to protein using the factor of 5.70 (finewheat flour) and 6.25 (APPG and APPGD) (Ayadiet al., 2009). Total dietary fibre (TDF) content wasmeasured by the enzymatic/gravimetric method (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2010). Pectin content was deter-mined by the gravimetric method using calcium pec-tate (Kohajdová et al., 2012).Functional properties: hydration properties, i.e.

water holding capacity (WHC), water retention capac-ity (WRC), swelling capacity (SWC), and fat absorp-tion capacity (FAC) were determined according to themethod described by Raghavendra et al. (2006). Bulkdensity was calculated as mass of the sample per unitvolume of the sample (Ayadi et al., 2009). The leastgelation concentration (LGC) was determined by themethod introduced by Kamaljit et al. (2011) as theconcentration at which the sample did not fall downor slip from the inverted test tube.Preparation of flour blends: fine wheat flour (wet

gluten content: 32.86 ± 0.35 mass % in dry mater) was

substituted with APPG and APPGD at the levels: 0mass % (control sample), 5 mass %, 10 mass %, and15 mass %.Dough farinographic characteristics: effects of

APPG and APPGD addition on dough rheology weredetermined using a farinograph (Duisburg, Germany).Parameters measured were: water absorption capacity(WA), dough development time (DDT), and doughstability (DS) (Wang et al., 2002).Biscuits preparation: biscuits from fine wheat flour

and blend flours were prepared according to formula ofTyagi et al. (2007). The control biscuit formula basedon flour mass was: fine wheat flour (100 g), sugar(53 g), shortening (26.5 g), sodium chloride (1.1 g),sodium bicarbonate (1.1 g), and water (12 mL). Thedough was manually sheeted to the thickness of 2 mm,cut into the circular shape using a 40 mm diametermanual cutter and baked in an electrical oven (Model524, Mora, Czech Republic) at 180◦C for 8 min andcooled to ambient temperature.Physical characteristics of biscuits: volume of the

biscuits was measured using the rapeseed displace-ment method (Sudha et al., 2007). Diameter (width)(W ) and thickness (T ) of cookies were measured andthe spread ratio (W/T ) was calculated (Turksoy etal., 2011).Sensory evaluation of the biscuits was performed

using a nine-point hedonic scale method (the maxi-mum value – nine points, correspond to the excellentacceptability, while the lowest value – one point, indi-cates very poor acceptability) by eleven trained asses-sors according to the method described by Noor Aziahet al. (2012).Statistical analysis: all analyses were carried out

in triplicate and average values were calculated. Theresults were expressed as mean ± standard deviation.Duncan’s test, at the level of p = 0.05, was appliedto the data to establish the significance of the differ-ences between the samples. Statgraphic Plus, Version3.1 (Statistical Graphic Corporation, Princeton, NY,USA) was used as the statistical analysis software.

Results and discussion

Chemical composition

Main components of the investigated AP powdersare listed in Table 1. In previous studies (Grigelmo-Miguel & Martin-Belloso, 1999; Ognean et al., 2010;Reis et al., 2012; Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012; Kte-nioudaki et al., 2013) it was concluded that AP is richin dietary fibre (35–60 mass %). AP powders appliedin this study were also characterised by high TDF con-tent (51.15 mass % and 52.09 mass %). Moreover, itwas found that AP powders exhibited moisture be-low 9 mass %, low content of proteins, fats and ashand high content of pectin substances (23.00–25.04mass %).

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Table 1. Chemical composition of fine wheat flour, APPG, and APPGD

Composition/mass %Sample

Moisture Ash Proteins Fat Pectins TDF

Fine wheat flour 9.21 ± 0.18 0.57 ± 0.06 9.73 ± 0.01 1.28 ± 0.01 nd 2.21 ± 0.02APPG 8.23 ± 0.16 1.19 ± 0.04 7.30 ± 0.02 2.06 ± 0.02 23.00 ± 0.09 51.25 ± 0.04APPGD 7.42 ± 0.13 0.86 ± 0.03 5.81 ± 0.12 2.13 ± 0.03 25.04 ± 0.17 52.09 ± 0.08

nd – not detectable.

Table 2. Functional properties of wheat flour, APPG, and APPGD

SamplesParameters

Fine wheat flour APPG APPGD

Water holding capacity/(g g−1) 1.08 ± 0.02 11.73 ± 0.03 18.34 ± 0.05Water retention capacity/(g g−1) 1.34 ± 0.05 11.68 ± 0.12 11.31 ± 0.12Swelling capacity/(cm3 g−1) 2.08 ± 0.08 8.03 ± 0.14 7.19 ± 0.21Bulk density/(g cm−3) 0.77 ± 0.01 0.64 ± 0.01 0.58 ± 0.01Fat adsorption capacity/(g g−1) 0.85 ± 0.05 3.15 ± 0.05 3.36 ± 0.04Least gelation concentration/% 10.00 10.00 6.00

Functional and farinographic properties

Functional properties of DF preparations are re-lated to the chemical structure of the cell wall polysac-charides and should be considered from both tech-nological and physiological point of view (González-Centeno et al., 2010). Functional properties of APPGand APPGD are presented in Table 2.Hydration properties (WHC, WRC, and SWC) are

expected to determine the phenomena such as starchgelatinisation and gluten development, hence to affectthe rheological and pasting properties of dough (Kte-nioudaki et al., 2013).WHC represents the quantity of water bound to

the sample without the application of any externalforce (except for gravity and atmospheric pressure)(Raghavendra et al., 2004). Values of WHC obtainedin this study were higher (11.73 g g−1 for APPG and18.34 g g−1 for APPGD) than those reported by Chenet al. (1988), Grigelmo-Miguel et al. (1999), Figuerolaet al. (2005), Sudha et al. (2007), and Ktenioudakiet al. (2013) for apple processing by-products (6.34–12.10 g g−1). The higher percentage of DF, especiallyof polysaccharides, is the origin of high WHC (Bouazizet al., 2010). Higher WHC of APPG and APPGD in-dicates their potential to be used as functional ingre-dients helping to avoid syneresis and to modify theviscosity and texture of formulated products (Wachi-rasiri et al., 2009).WRC, defined by the amount of water retained in

the system after it has been subjected to stress (e.g.centrifugation), can be associated with the amount ofwater retained by the fibre (Kohajdová et al., 2013).AP preparations exhibited high WRC values (11.31–11.68 g g−1). Chantaro et al. (2008) concluded that

high WRC of DF is related to the soluble DF frac-tion. The high content of pectic compounds (see Ta-ble 1) present in APPG and APPGD might accountfor their high WRC. WRC values presented in thisstudy are similar to those described by Kohajdová etal. (2012) for carrot pomace powder (11.97 g g−1);however, higher WRC values (12.40–19.63 g g−1) wererecorded by Chantaro et al. (2008) for carrot peels.AP powders were also characterised by high SWC

values (7.19–8.03 cm3 g−1). Similar SWC values werepreviously reported by Guillon and Champ (2000),Figuerola et al. (2005), Raghavendra et al. (2006), andKtenioudaki et al. (2013) for apple DF preparations(6.20–9.90 cm3 g−1). The higher swelling capacity isthe most desirable parameter of the physiological func-tionality of DF (Kohajdová et al., 2012).FAC of APPG and APPGD represented by the re-

tention of fat in the food (Raghavendra et al., 2006)reached values of 3.15–3.36 g g−1; these values are,however, higher than those described by Figuerola etal. (2005) and Raghavendra et al. (2006) for apple DFconcentrates (0.6–1.45 g g−1) and apple DF prepara-tions (1.30 g g−1).Regarding gelation properties, LGC was used as

the index of the gelation capacity, which is an essentialproperty in the preparation and acceptability of manyfoods; low LGC is related to better gelation prop-erties (Benítez et al., 2012). APPGD showed lowerLGC than APPG and wheat flour. Variations in gela-tion properties can be ascribed to the ratios of differ-ent constituents such as proteins, carbohydrates, andlipids (Adebowale & Maliki, 2011).Farinographic properties of dough are very impor-

tant indices of the product development in terms ofproduct quality and process efficiency (Sivam et al.,

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Table 3. Farinographic properties of flour blends with APPG and APPGD

Blend level WA DDT DS

mass % min

Fine wheat flour 0 58.60 ± 0.26a 3.47 ± 0.15a 9.40 ± 0.36a

5 61.50 ± 0.46b 4.20 ± 0.17b 9.47 ± 0.21aAPPG 10 64.20 ± 0.36c 4.90 ± 0.10c 10.70 ± 0.17b

15 68.70 ± 0.53d 5.53 ± 0.06d 10.90 ± 0.36c

5 63.97 ± 0.21b 4.17 ± 0.15b 10.10 ± 0.30bAGPGD 10 67.30 ± 0.44c 4.80 ± 0.20c 10.53 ± 0.25c

15 71.80 ± 0.70d 5.30 ± 0.17d 10.80 ± 0.20d

Means superscript with different letters (a–d) are significantly different at the p = 0.05 level.

Table 4. Physical parameters of APPG and APPGD containing biscuits

Preparation level/% V/cm3 T/mm W/mm W/T ratio

Control 0 11.83 ± 0.15a 9.70 ± 0.01a 45.30 ± 0.02a 4.67 ± 0.04a

5 8.6 ± 0.01b 9.50 ± 0.02a 43.80 ± 0.01a 4.61 ± 0.09aAPPG 10 7.5 ± 0.01c 9.30 ± 0.01b 42.05 ± 0.03b 4.52 ± 0.03b

15 7.07 ± 0.12d 8.80 ± 0.15c 37.00 ± 0.10c 4.20 ± 0.05c

5 8.5 ± 0.01b 9.60 ± 0.04a 44.16 ± 0.01a 4.60 ± 0.73aAPPGD 10 8.0 ± 0.01b 9.20 ± 0.03b 40.30 ± 0.01b 4.38 ± 0.17b

15 7.6 ± 0.17d 8.90 ± 0.03c 36.94 ± 0.06c 4.15 ± 0.29c

V – volume; T – thickness; W – width; means superscript with different letters (a–d) are significantly different at the p = 0.05 level.

2010). Fibre and fibre components interact with thedough matrix, and gluten development in many ways,causing changes in the rheological properties (Kte-nioudaki et al., 2013). Results of farinographic charac-teristics of various flour-AP powder blends are givenin Table 3.The increase of AP powders in blends from 0

mass % to 15 mass % increased the WA from 58.60mass % to 68.70 mass % (APPG) and to 71.80 mass %(APPGD), respectively. This suggests a strong affin-ity between DF and water during dough mixing (Kimet al., 2013) caused by the hydrogen bonds resultingfrom the interaction of the hydroxyl groups within thestructure of the DF component with water (Sudha etal., 2007; Kohajdová et al., 2009, 2011; Turksoy et al.,2011). These observations are in agreement with thoseobtained by Chen et al. (1988), Masoodi and Chauhan(1998), Masoodi et al. (2001), Sudha et al. (2007), andKtenioudaki et al. (2013) for AP incorporated wheatdough.DDT values increased from 3.47 min to 5.30 min

and to 5.53 min with an increasing concentration ofAPPGD or APPG in the blend, respectively. The DFpotential to absorb high amounts of water can prolongDDT (Moazzezi et al., 2012). The increase of DDTcan be attributed to the fibre-gluten interaction whichprevents protein hydration (Kohajdová et al., 2012).Similar effect on DDT was reported by several authors

when the apple pomace (Masoodi et al., 2001; Sudhaet al., 2007; Kim et al., 2013) or commercial applefibre (Ognean et al., 2010; Kohajdová et al., 2011)were added to wheat dough.It was also observed that dough containing AP

powders exhibits higher DS (9.47–10.90 min) thanthe control dough (9.40 min), which can be explainedby higher interaction of DF, water and flour proteins(Kohajdová et al., 2012). Earlier, similar results werereported using apple processing by-products as thesource of DF (Masoodi et al., 2001; Kohajdová et al.,2011; Ktenioudaki et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2013).

Physical parameters and sensory evaluation ofbiscuits

Physical parameters of APPG and APPGD con-taining biscuits are presented in Table 4. It was ob-served that as the AP concentration increased from0 mass % to 15 mass %, the volume of biscuits de-creased significantly (from 11.83 cm3 to 7.07 cm3),which can be attributed to the dilution of gluten andalso to the interaction of gluten, DF components, andwater (Chen et al., 1988; Masoodi & Chauhan, 1998;Sivam et al., 2010; Kohajdová et al., 2011). Chen et al.(1988) showed that these adverse effects can be par-tially alleviated by the hydration of apple fibre beforeits addition to the wheat flour.

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Table 5. Sensory parameters of APPG and APPGD containing biscuits

Sensory parameterPreparation level/%

Odour Taste Colour Hardness OAC

Control 0 8.83 ± 0.29a 8.73 ± 0.25a 8.78 ± 0.21a 8.52 ± 0.03a 8.99 ± 0.02a

5 8.27 ± 0.12a 8.70 ± 0.17a 7.55 ± 0.19b 7.55 ± 0.13b 8.75 ± 0.03aAPPG 10 7.60 ± 0.23b 7.93 ± 0.06b 7.02 ± 0.13c 5.95 ± 0.14c 7.85 ± 0.01b

15 6.50 ± 0.10c 6.95 ± 0.15c 5.93 ± 0.09d 4.02 ± 0.25d 7.49 ± 0.02c

5 8.03 ± 0.11b 8.27 ± 0.23b 7.62 ± 0.17b 7.21 ± 0.19b 8.52 ± 0.01aAPPGD 10 6.87 ± 0.18c 7.03 ± 0.15c 7.06 ± 0.16c 4.69 ± 0.09c 6.67 ± 0.01b

15 5.87 ± 0.20d 6.17 ± 0.06d 6.12 ± 0.09d 3.84 ± 0.15d 6.49 ± 0.02c

OAC – overall acceptability; means superscript with different letters (a–d) are significantly different at the p = 0.05 level.

From the presented study also results that an ad-dition of a higher amount of AP (10 mass % and 15mass %) markedly reduces the thickness, width, andspread ratio of biscuits. Similar reduction in biscuitthickness and width were also recorded by Kohajdováet al. (2011) and Kim et al. (2013) caused by theincorporation of commercial apple fibre powder andpre-harvested dropped apple powder; also, a decreas-ing trend of the spread ratio was described after anaddition of AP (Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012) orapple powder (Kim et al., 2013). Ajila et al. (2008)concluded that the decrease in these physical param-eters can be caused by the dilution of gluten.Sensory properties of cereal products can be

greatly affected by the addition of fibre (Ktenioudaki& Gallagher, 2012). The effects of APPG and APPGDincorporation on the sensory parameters of biscuitsare shown in Table 5. From the results it can be con-cluded that an addition of 5 mass % of APPG doesnot affect the odour and taste of biscuits significantly.It was also found that increasing the level of AP inproducts resulted in significantly lower sensory scoresfor taste and odour compared to the control sample.Several authors (Sudha et al., 2007; Kohajdová et al.,2009; Dhingra et al., 2012; O’Shea et al., 2012) con-firmed that an addition of AP to biscuits providesthem with some favourable attributes such as fruitaroma and taste, thus allowing reducing the level ofsugar added and also avoiding the use of many otherflavouring ingredients.Biscuits containing AP powders showed signifi-

cantly lower sensory scores for colour than the controlsample. Similar results were presented in the earlierstudies of Gupta (2006), Kohajdová et al. (2011) andO’Shea et al. (2012) for AP incorporated bread, cook-ies and cakes. Shalini and Gupta (2010) suggested thatthe brown colour of AP restricted its use in fine bakeryproducts to a maximum of 5 mass %.Hardness of AP containing biscuits increased sig-

nificantly with the increasing level of AP in the prod-uct. These observations are in agreement with thoseobtained by Masoodi and Chauhan (1998) and Kte-nioudaki and Gallagher (2012). An increase in the

hardness of the biscuits can be caused by the dilutionof gluten and the lower amount of water available forgluten hydration (Sharma et al., 2013).No significant differences were observed in the over-

all acceptance of control biscuits and biscuits with 5mass % of AP powders. Furthermore, it was foundthat higher amounts (10 mass % and 15 mass %) of APpowders significantly reduce the overall acceptance ofbiscuits.

Conclusions

AP is considered to be the main by-products ofapple processing industry. Inclusion of AP as an in-gredient in food products could improve the nutri-tional properties of these products and perhaps alsothe health of the consumers (O’Shea et al., 2012).The suitability of AP powders obtained from two

apple cultivars (Gala, Golden Delicious) for biscuitproduction was tested in this study. AP powders werecharacterised by high TDF content (more than 50mass %) and low moisture (less than 9 mass %) aswell as by high values of hydration properties (WHC,WRC, and SWC) and a relatively high value of FAC.Inclusion of AP powders (5 mass %, 10 mass %, and15 mass %) to biscuits considerably modified rheo-logical parameters of wheat dough (increasing WA,DDT, and DS). The results also indicate that an ad-dition of AP powders, mainly of higher amounts (10mass % and 15 mass %), significantly reduces the vol-ume, thickness, width, and spread ratio of the suchprepared biscuits and negatively affects their overallacceptance. One of the reasons is the dilution of thegluten forming proteins caused by the fibre incorpora-tion. Other explanations include the restriction of theavailable water for gluten development, physical dis-ruption of the gluten matrix and piercing of the gascells (Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012).In general, it can be concluded that AP powders

are an alternative dietary fibre and they can be incor-porated into biscuits in the concentration of up to 5mass % without markedly changing the quality of thebiscuits.

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Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the SlovakGrant Agency for Science VEGA (Grant No. 1/0453/13) andthe Young Researchers Support Program No. 1321 (from theRector’s Office STU Bratislava, Division for Science and Re-search).

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