1

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The role of the poultry industry in improving the nutritional and economic status of Ghanaians

cannot be overemphasized. The industry has played greater roles in improving employment

opportunity and the provision of quality animal protein (Dazala et al., 2010).

Despite these potentials the industry is unable to provide adequate protein for the rapidly

increasing population due to the high cost of conventional feed resources. There is, therefore, the

need to seek out for locally available and cheaper feed ingredients that can be utilized by poultry

in Ghana.

An under-exploited plant with nutritional potentials as feedstuff is Albizia julibrissin leaves.

Albizia julibrissin is a small deciduous tree growing to 5–12 m tall, with a broad crown of level

or arching branches (Wang et al., 2006). The seeds are a source of oil and furthermore used as a

food for livestock and by wildlife, and the sweet-scented flowers are a good nectar source for

honeybees and butterflies (Wang et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2007). According to Luginbuhl et

al.(2001), the leaves of the plant gave a good result when fed to goats and had potentials as

protein and/or energy source for meat goats during the summer.

Report by Dei et al., (2012) also indicated the usefulness of the leaves as egg yolk colourant for

layer chicken. According to the report, the leaf meal of the plant has a proximate composition of

22.74% crude protein, 5.59% ether extract and 9.85% crude fibre.

There is lack of information on the nutritive value of the leaves for broiler chicken; hence the

need to determine the effect of the leaf meal on growth performance of broilers.

2

1.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To evaluate the effects of diets containing Albizia julibrissin leaf meal (AJLM) on growth

performance of broiler chicken at substitution levels of 0%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%.

2. To determine the effect on carcass characteristics of broiler chicken.

3. To assess the economics of feeding of Albizia julibrissin leaf meal to broilers.

3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Definition and examples of poultry

Poultry is defined as variety of domesticated birds which are raised for their meat and eggs

(Chiba, 2009). According to him, Poultry includes; Domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus),

Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), Rock pigeons (Columba livea), Red wattle guinea fowls (Numida

meleagris), Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata), Wild mallard (Anas boches), Turtle dove

(Streptopelia turtus), Greyleg goose (Anser anser), White footed goose(Anser albiformis), Ring

neck pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), North African ostrich (Struthio comelus) and South

African ostrich (Truthio australis) (Smith, 1990). Among these species chicken and guinea fowl

are reared in Ghana (Chiba, 2009).

Chickens are an important domestic fowl worldwide, especially for nutritious flesh as a source of

food (Taylor and Field, 1998). According to Tweneboah (2002), they are collectively the most

economic converters of locally available feed such as grains and grain by-products into high

quality sources of animal protein in the form of meat and table eggs .

2.2 Varieties of World poultry meat

Report by FAO (2010) indicated that poultry meat represents about 33% of global meat

production: in 2007, some 269 million tons of meat were produced globally, of which 88 million

tons were poultry meat. FAO (2010) added that chickens and turkeys are the most common

sources of poultry meat (87% and 6.7% of total poultry production, respectively). However, other

commercially available poultry meats include meat from ducks (4% of total poultry production)

and from geese, pigeons, quails, pheasants, ostriches and emus (combined about 2.7% of total

poultry production) (FAO, 2010).

4

In the United States and Canada, turkey meat is the second most important poultry meat

consumed after chicken; however, in countries like Ghana, guinea fowl meat is second to

chicken.

Chicken accounts for about 86% of all poultry raised worldwide. In the European Union (EU),

chicken meat accounted for only 79% of all poultry meat produced in 2007, while turkey, duck,

pigeon, geese, guinea fowl and quail meat accounted for 15%.

Table 1: World poultry meat production by region (million metric tones)

Region 2000 2005 2008 2009 2010 2011

Asia-Pacific 23.3 27.3 31 32.3 35.7 36.5

North America 17.5 19.8 21.1 20.2 20.8 21.1

Latin America 12.5 16.1 20 20 21.1 21.7

Europe 11.9 13.1 14.3 15.6 16.4 16.9

Africa 3 3.6 3.8 3.9 4 4

World 68.2 79.9 90.3 94 98 100.2

(Source: USDA 2011)

From table 1, it could be realized that the highest poultry producing region was Asia-Pacific.

According to table 1 Asia-Pacific’s poultry production increased from 23.3tonnes to 36.5tonnes

from the year 2000 to 2011. Africa was the lowest producing region whose production was raised

from 3 tonnes to 4 tonnes from year 2000 to 2010 and maintained a standstill of 4 tonnes in year

2011.

5

2.3 Benefits derived from the poultry sector

Poultry product provides food with high quality protein and low level of fat with desirable fatty

acid profiles (Costa, 2009; FAO, 2010). According to Pisulewski (2005), consumers of poultry

and fish products have no risk of cancers. Also, poultry products are highly nutritious, cheaper

and have no taboos forbidden their consumption (Farrell, 2010; Mengasha, 2011). Report by

FAO (2010) also indicated that they are good feed converters into poultry products. According to

FAO (2010), the poultry industry also is a means of foreign exchange for commercial producing

countries and higher incomes are also generated from the sales of poultry products.

2.4 Characteristics of poultry meat

Poultry or domestic birds are raised for their meat and eggs and are an important source of edible

animal protein. Poultry meat accounts for 30% of global meat consumption (FAO, 2009). The

worldwide average per capita consumption of poultry meat has nearly quadrupled since the

1960s (11 kg in 2003 compared with 3 kg in 1963). Poultry meat and eggs are highly nutritious.

The meat is rich in proteins and is a good source of phosphorus and other minerals, and of B-

complex vitamins (FAO, 2009). According to FAO (2009), poultry meat contains less fat than

most cuts of beef and pork. Poultry liver is especially rich in vitamin A (FAO, 2009). Report

from FAOSTAT (2009) also shows that poultry meat has a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty

acids than saturated fatty acids. This fatty acid ratio suggests that poultry may be a more

healthful alternative to red meat.

2.5 Challenges affecting the poultry sector

The main challenges facing the sector are partitioned into three categories which are

unfavourable environment, inadequate nutrition and diseased health conditions (Ross, 2009).

6

Among these pressing challenges affecting the poultry production sector, feed availability

remains an important challenge in most developing countries such that there is a continued

scarcity and consequently high prices of the conventional protein and energy sources for

livestock in the tropics (Girma et al., 2011). This has stimulated a lot of interest in the search for

alternative sources of feeds called non-conventional feedstuff, particularly for non-ruminants like

poultry (Udedibie and Opara, 1998). 20

05 2008 2

2.4 Non-conventional feed resources (NCFR’S) in poultry

Non-conventional feed resources are those feeds that have not been traditionally used in animal

feeding and/or are not normally used in commercially produced rations for animals (Devendra,

1987). A large number of agro-industrial by-products, forest waste, aquatic herbages and animal

wastes which have been identified, processed and used for feeding of farm animals are

designated as a group of unconventional or non-conventional feeds. Examples include discarded

biscuits, bakery waste, rice bran, blood meal, corn cob, maize bran, cassava peel, cassava chips

and copra cake. Others are cocoa pod husk, coffee pulp, oil palm slurry, groundnut skins, pito-

mash, brewer’s spent grains, bone meal, molasses, sugar beet pulp, citrus pulp, yeast, wheat bran

and distillers solubles. Shrub leaves (Leaucaena spp, Caltiandra spp, Sesbinia spp, Albizia

julibrissin, etc), aquatic plants, fruits (palm oil fruit, papaya, guava, etc) and small animals

(snails, earthworms), etc can also be used in poultry feed formulations (Sonaiya, 1990). Table 2

shows chemical composition of some of the non-conventional feedstuffs.

7

Table 2: Composition of some non-conventional feedstuffs

Feed stuff CP % EE

%

CF

%

Calculated Metabolizable

Energy (Kcal/kg dry matter)

Neem leaves

17.5 4.2 12.3 752

Amarath seeds 16.0 0.2 5.5 922

Soybean testa 16.6 4.0 25.4 2096

Cowpea testa 17.0 2.6 20.3 1005

Melon pulp 8.6 43 31.1 1148

Cassava fermented chaff 1.4 1.1 10.2 3436

Cassava peal meal 2.2 1.1 4.3 2460

Cassava meal sieving 0.8 1.5 9.0 1787

Maize cob and bloodmeal 28.9 ----- 19.5 ------

Yam meal sieving 3.5 1.0 5.0 2115

Yam peel meal 6.4 5.0 7.3 136

Plantain pulp 4.1 0.6 0.1 1004

Rice bran and blood meal 25.6 21.3 ------

Fish by-products 44.3 29.1 5055

Albizia julibrissin leaf meal* 22.74 5.59 9.85 -------

Source: Sonaiya (1990); *Dei et al.,(2012)

8

2.5. LIMITATIONS OF NON-CONVENSIONAL FEED RESOURCES

2.5.1 Anti-nutritional factors (ANF’s)

These are substances generated in natural feedstuffs by the normal metabolism of species and by

different mechanisms which exert effect contrary to optimum nutrition (Cheeke and Shull, 1985).

Being an anti-nutritional factor is not an intrinsic characteristic of a compound but depends upon

the digestive process of the ingesting animal (Kumar, 1992).

According to Cheeke and Shull (1988), trypsin inhibitors are ANFs for monogastric animals but

do not exert adverse effects in ruminants because they are degraded in the rumen. ANFs limit the

utility of leaves, pods and edible twigs of shrubs. Report by Harborne(1989) clarifies that ANFs

seems to be a way of storing nutrients or means of defending their structure and reproductive

elements. ANFs which have been implicated in limiting the utilization of shrubs and tree forages

include non-protein amino acids, glycosides, phytohemagglutinins, polyphenolics, alkaloids,

triterpenoids and oxalic acids. Effects of some common anti-nutritional factors in feeds are

shown in table 3.

Table 3: Anti-nutritional factors in non-conventional feed materials and their effect.

Antinutritional factor Effect Plant species

Mimosine Poor growth, Alopaecia, Eye

cataracts and reproductive problems

Mimosa(Albizia julibrissin),

Leucena spp., etc.

Cyanogens Stops ATP formation, damage tissue

and causes death

Acacia spp, Manihot

esculenta, Bambusa bambos,

etc.

Saponins Growth retardation, reduce feed

intake, listlessness aneroxia, weight

Albizia stipulata, Albizia

julibrissin, Bassia lattifolia,

9

loss, gastroenteritis etc.

Phytohemagglutinins Anorexia, lassitude and weakness Ricinus communis, Robinia

pseudoacacia, bauhinia

purpurea, etc.

Tannins Inhibits digestion, Poor nitrogen

retention, low apparent

metabolisable energy value

All vascular plants

Source: Kumar (1992); D’Mello and Acamovic (1989)

2.6 Albizia julibrissin

Plate 1: Albizia jullibrissin leaves

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Albizia julibrissin (Persian silk tree, pink silk tree, mimosa) is a species of tree in the family

Fabaceae, native to southwestern and eastern Asia. The tree is also widely distributed in Africa

including Ghana, tropical and subtropical America (Lee et al., 2007).These researchers received

literature on the plant as follows.

The genus is named after the Italian nobleman Filippo degli Albizzi, who introduced it to Europe

in the mid-18th century, and it is sometimes incorrectly spelled Albizzia. The specific epithet

julibrissin is a corruption of the Persian word gul-i abrisham which means "silk flower" a small

deciduous tree growing to 5–12 m tall, with a broad crown of level or arching branches. The bark

is dark greenish grey in colour and striped vertically as it gets older. The leaves are bipinnate,

20–45 cm long and 12–25 cm broad, divided into 6–12 pairs of pinnae, each with 20–30 pairs of

leaflets; the leaflets are oblong, 1–1.5 cm long and 2–4 mm broad. The flowers are produced

throughout the summer in dense inflorescences, the individual flowers with no petals but a tight

cluster of stamens 2–3 cm long, white or pink with a white base, looking like silky threads. They

have been observed to be attractive to bees, butterflies and hummingbirds. The fruit is a flat

brown pod 10–20 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad, containing several seeds inside (Lee et al., 2007;

Kim et al., 2007). Report by Wang et al. (2006), indicated that the seeds are a source of oil and

furthermore they are used as food for livestock and wildlife. Similarly, the seeds of the tree

Albizia julibrissin have been shown to possess proteolytic enzymes which clotted milk readily,

without developing any bitterness in cheese after 3 months of ripening (Otani et al., 1991).

2.6.1 Medicinal uses of Albizia julibrissin

The bark and flowers of the Albizia julibrissin tree are used in China as medicine (Lau et al.,

2007). Bark extract is a sedative drug and an anti-inflammatory for treating swelling and pain of

the lungs, skin ulcers, wounds, bruises, abscesses, boils, hemorrhoids and fractures, and has

11

displayed cytotoxic activity (Higuchi et al., 1992; Ikeda et al., 1997; Pharmacopoeia, 2005).

Asians administered Albizia julibrissin bark extract to patients to treat insomnia, diuresis, and

confusion (Zhu, 1998). The flowers have been commonly used to treat anxiety, depression and

insomnia (Kang et al., 2007). Report by ZOU et al.(2000) also indicated that a Cytotoxic

Saponin with Two Monoterpenoids has been extracted from the dried powdered stem bark of the

plant.

2.6.2 Chemical composition of Albizia julibrissin leaf meal

Dei et al.(2012) reported that the leaf meal of Albizia Julibrissin contain high gross energy and

crude protein. According to them the leaves contain high fibre and high carotenoids as shown in

table 4.

Table 4: Proximate composition of Albizia julibrissin leaf meal

Components Amounts (%)

Moisture

Crude protein

Ether extract

Crude fibre

Ash

Total carotenoids

Gross energy (MJ/kg ME

10.40

22.74

5.59

9.85

7.50

0.09

18.6

Source: Dei et al., (2012)

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2.7 Effects of leaf meals on performance of poultry

2.7.1 Cassava (CLM) and leucena(LLM) leaf meals

Onibi et al.(1999) in their report showed that 30% soybean meal when replaced by cassava leaf

meal (CLM) in the diet of broiler chicken at the finisher stage resulted in higher final live weight,

average weight gain, average feed intake and lower feed conversion efficiency than birds fed

LLM-based diets. According to him birds fed control (SBM) performed better than both birds fed

CLM and LLM based diets. The depressed performance of birds fed leaf meal based diets was as

a result of adverse effect of amino acid imbalance in the LLM-based diets (Agbade and Olator,

2003). Depressed performance of bird fed leaf meal based diets could also be as a result of high

fibre in the diet of leaf meal based diets (Nwokolo et al., 2000). Antinutrition factors in leaf meal

based diets could also birth depressed performance in broiler chicken. According to Onibi et

al.(1999), yellow pigmentation of skin, beak and shank was high for birds fed leaf meal based

diet than those fed control diets. Agbede and Aletor (2003) reported increased yellow

pigmentation (due to $-carotene, precursor of vitamin A) of shanks of broiler chicks by dietary

incorporation of leaf meal protein concentrates. It is likely that meat from chickens fed the leaf

meals would contain more vitamin A since chickens are able to incorporate dietary components

into their muscles (Onibi et al., 1999).

2.7.2 Moringa oleifera leaf meal

Report by Bello et al.(2010) indicated that it is economical to include moringa leaf meal (MLM)

in the diets of indigenous chicken at the inclusion levels of 8 and 16% without causing any

adverse condition to the birds. According to them, MLM had no negative impact on live body

weight, average daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio, carcass and organ characteristics.

13

Moreover, they also reported that it is also economically profitable to use MLM at the inclusion

levels of 8 and 16%.

2.8 Inference from literature review

Many developing countries including Ghana are making conscious effort to reduce the

importation of poultry feed ingredients due to their high cost and scarcity. The high cost and

scarcity of poultry feed stuff has prompted the evaluation and use of some shrubs such as Albizia

julibrissin leaf meal as broiler feed ingredient. Several writers have accepted the nutritional

values of different non-conventional feed sources that are used in some developing countries

including Ghana. Many of these leaves have been found to contain high protein (Odunsi et

al.,1996). Leucena leaf meal has been used successfully at an inclusion level of up to 5% in

poultry diets providing both protein and yellow colouration of the egg yolks as well as body fat

but the antinutritional factor ‘mimosine’ appears to be a potential restraining factor at the

inclusion level higher than 5% (Togun et al.,2006). Report by Dei et al., (2012) indicated that 2%

inclusion of Albizia julibrissin leaf meal in the diet of layers enhanced their yolk colour and

layimg performance. The 4% inclusion level has been found to be detrimental to the laying

performance of the birds (Dei et al., 2012).

Albizia julibrissin is a small deciduous tree growing to 5-12m tall, with a broad crown of level of

arching branches (Wang et al., 2000). Dei et al., (2012) reported that the leaf meal of the plant is

made up of crude protein 24.74, ether extract of 5.59 and crude fibre of 9.85 on dry matter basis.

The seeds of the plant are a source of oil and furthermore used as food for livestock and wild life

(Lee et al., 2007). Wang et al., 2007 also reported that the sweet scented flowers are a good

nectar source for honey bees and butter flies. A feeding trial conducted by Dei et al., (2012)

indicates that it can be included in the diet of laying chicken. However, there is lack of

14

information on the use of Albizia julibrissin as feed for broiler chicken. Hence the need for this

feeding trial.

15

CHAPTER THREE

3.0. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Site and duration of Experiment

The experimental work of the current study was carried out at the Poultry Unit of the Animal

Science Department of the University for Development Studies, Nyankpala campus.

Nyankpala is within the Guinea Savanna zone and located on latitude 9.5°N. The zone is

characterized by a wide diurnal temperature variation during the dry season (November - April)

(SARI, 2011). The annual mean temperature is 28.8°C with average minimum and maximum

temperatures of 15°C and 35°C respectively during the coolest months (December-January). The

temperature rises to a minimum of 23°C and a maximum of 42°C in the hottest months

(February-May). The average annual rainfall is about 1060 mm (SARI, 2001). The project began

on the 24th December, 2012 and ended on the 28

th January, 2013. The experiment lasted for five

weeks (i.e. 3-8 weeks of age of broiler chickens).

3.2 Source and processing of Albizia julibrssin leaves for feeding

Albizia julibrssin leaves were harvested with their branches from the environs of Nyankpala

campus of the University for Development Studies. The branches with leaves were dried under

shade for five days while the leaves still retained their green colour. The dried leaves were then

separated from the branches by manual beating and the dried leaves were then milled into coarse

powder by use of corn mill to obtain the leaf meal (AJLM).

3.3 Experimental diet formulation

Table 5 and 6 shows the composition of the experimental diets. The Albizia julibrissin leaf meal

was not analyzed at the time of diet formulation due to lack of facilities. Hence the experimental

16

diets were not formulated to be isocaloric or isonitrogenous. However the Albizia julibrissin leaf

meal was substituted for the control diet on weight by weight basis that nutrient composition of

the diet would vary greatly. The control(0%AJLM), 5%AJLM, 7.5%AJLM and 10%AJLM

represent the diets containing 0%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% Albizia julibrissin leaf meal respectively.

Table 5 Percentage composition of grower broiler diet (Control diet)

Ingredients Composition (%)

Maize

Wheat bran

Soybean meal

Fish meal

Oyster shell

Dicalcium (PO4)

Vitamin/Mineral premix*

Salt

60

10

15.9

11.4

1.3

0.8

0.4

0.2

Total 100

Calculated nutrient composition ------

Metabolisable energy (MJ/kg) 12.4

Crude protein 21.0

Calcium 1.2

Phosphorus 0.8

*Composition of vitamin/trace mineral/kg: vitamin A 8000000 IU, vitamin D3 1500000 IU,

vitamin E2500mg, vitamin K3 1000mg, vitamin B2 2000mg, vitamin B12 5mg, Folic acid

500mg, nicotinic acid 8000mg, Calcium pantholenate 2000mg, choline chloride 50000mg,

17

magnesium 50000mg, Zinc 40000mg, copper 4500mg, Cobalt 100mg, Iodine 1000mg and

Selenium 100mg. Antioxidant: Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 1000mg.

Table 6 Percentage composition of experimental diets

3.4 Experimental birds and housing

Five hundred day-old chicks (Cobb broilers from Israel) were purchased through a hatchery in

Kumasi. The chicks were brooded for three weeks before transferred to the experimental house

where they spent five weeks. Chicks at the brooder house were fed on starter mash compounded

using 25% concentrates, 55% maize (white maize), and 20% wheat bran all purchased from

Agricare Ltd Tamale-Ghana. Feeding and watering was done ad-libitum. The starter diet had a

crude protein (CP) level of 23.8kg and metabolisable energy ME of 12.6MJ/kg. The initial

temperature was 33°C and gradually reduced to 29°C at the end of the brooding. At the end of

the third week of brooding, one hundred and twenty birds were selected and randomly divided

into twelve (12) groups of ten (10) birds with male to female ratio of 1:1 in each pen. The mean

initial live weight of a bird per replicate was 420g. Anti-biotic(Doxycol) at 5g/10L of water (2-4

days old), Gumboro vaccine 5ml/500 birds (7 days old), Coccidiostats at 5d/10L of water (2-4

days and 18-20 days old) and HBI vaccine at 5ml/500 birds (14days old) were administered

Dietary treatments

(0%AJLM) 5%AJLM 7.5%AJLM 10%AJLM

100kg of

control diet

95kg of control diet

+

5kg of AJLM

92.5kg of control diet

+

7.5kg of AJLM

90kg of control diet

+

10kg of AJLM

18

orally during brooding. Four dietary treatments (0, 5, 7.5 and 10%AJLM) were tested and each

treatment replicated three times in a completely randomized design with each replicate group

assigned to one dietary treatment.

3.4. Design of experiment

One hundred and twenty birds were selected and randomly divided into twelve (12) groups of ten

(10) birds with male to female ratio of 5:5 in each pen

One hundred and twenty broiler chickens (Cobb) at three (3) weeks of age were selected and

randomly divided into twelve (12) groups with ten (10) birds with male to female ratio of 5:5 in

each deep litter pen. The birds were given feed and water ad libitum. Light was also provided for

24 hours using the energy saving bulb of 18watt.

3.5 Data collection

Parameters measured were feed intake, live weight gain, final live weight, gain/feed ratio,

mortality, carcass dressed weight, dressing percentage and feed cost/kg gain.

3.5.1 Feed Intake

There was a weekly measurement of feed consumption. A digital scale (JADEVER JSP-1050)

was used in taking the weight of feed. Feed intake was estimated by subtracting the feed left in

the feeding trough at the end of the week from the total feed provided for the week. The feed

intake of birds in each pen was divided by the number of birds in a replicate and the number of

days in a week to obtain the mean feed intake per bird per day.

19

3.5.2 Weight gain

With the assistance of JADEVER JSP-1050 weighing scale, the birds in the experimental pen

were weighed at the beginning of the experiment and subsequently at the end of every week. Ten

birds were weighed in a batch and the weight divided by the number of birds in each replicate to

get the mean live weight per bird. The initial mean live weight per bird was subtracted from the

mean live weight per bird at the end of the week and the weight divided by the number of days in

the week to obtain the mean live weight per bird per day.

3.5.3 Feed conversion efficiency

Feed conversion efficiency (quantity of feed required for one kilogram of gain) was calculated as

weight gain in kilograms divided by the weight of feed consumed in kilograms during the

experimental period.

3.5.4 Final live weight

This is the weight of bird before slaughter.

3.5.5 Mortality

This was done by recording deaths that occur in any of the replicates in the course of the

experiment.

3.5.6 Carcass Characteristics

This was done by choosing two birds (male and female) at random from each replicate for

carcass evaluation. The parameter measured were live weight, dressed carcass weight and carcass

dressing percentage (this were measured in kilogram (kg) using the top loading electronic digital

Jadever scale.

3.5.6.1 Carcass dressed weight

This was the weight of carcass after the head and viscera had been removed.

20

3.5.6.2 Carcass dressed percentage

This was calculated as = Eviscerated carcass x 100

Live weight

3.5.7 Total feed cost

The quantity of each ingredient used to formulate a 100kg diet was multiplied by their unit prices

to give the cost of 100kg diet. The result was the divided 100 to get the unit cost of each

ingredient. The feed cost per bird was also gotten by multiplying the unit cost of the diet by the

total feed consumed per bird.

3.5.8 Statistical analysis

Data collected were analyzed by means of analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat (4th

edition).

21

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. PERFORMANCE OF BROILER CHICKEN

Table 7 shows the effects of AJLM on the growth performance of broiler chicken.

Table 7: Effect of AJLM on growth performance of broiler chicken (3-8 weeks of age)

Parameters Control 5%AJLM 7.5%AJLM 10%AJLM ±SED P-Value

Mean Feed

intake(g/b/d)

119.1a 107.7

b 103.8

b 102.7

b 3.97 0.012

Mean Weight

gain (g/b/d)

44.7a

40.7ab

34.2b 27.4

b 4.43 0.021

Mean Gain/feed

ratio

0.38a

0.38a 0.33

ab 0.27

b 0.036 0.048

Mean Final live

weight (Kg/b)

1.98a

1.85ab

1.62b 1.38

b 0.156 0.021

Mortality (%) 0.00 0.7 1.3 0.7 0.408 0.067

SED – Standard Error of Difference P- Probability

Means with different superscript letters are significantly different (P<0.05)

4.1.1 MEAN FEED INTAKE

There was significant (P<0.05) difference in feed intake between birds fed control and those fed

AJLM-based diets (Table 7). However, there was no significant (P<0.05) difference in feed

intake among birds fed AJLM-based diets (Table 7). Result in table 7 showed that, feed intake

generally decreased at increased inclusion level of AJLM in the diets.

22

Generally, there were no difference in feed intake at week four (4) and Five (5) between birds fed

control diets and those fed AJLM-based diets (fig. 1). According to fig. 1, there were differences

in feed intake between birds fed control diet and those fed AJLM-base diets. There were no

differences in feed intake among bird fed AJLM-based diets. There were also no differences in

feed intake between birds fed control and those fed 5%AJLM-based diets (fig.1).

Report by fig. 1 also indicated that there were no differences between birds fed control and those

fed AJLM-based diets at week 7 and 8. There were also no differences in feed intake among

birds fed AJLM-based diets (fig.1).

Based on table 7, the decreased in feed intake might be attributed to the odour of the AJLM-

based diets. It could also be as a result of high fibre nature of AJLM-based diets. According to

Teguia and Beynen (2005), high fibre levels in poultry diets leads to poor digestibility of the

diets which also leads to decreased feed intake. Igwebuike et al.(2010) in a report confirms that

anti-nutritional factors may inhibit utilization of certain essential nutrients and also decrease feed

intake of the birds consequently affecting growth. According to Fleury(2004), anti-nutritional

factors are known to bind to nutrients and enzymes of digestion thus reducing the release of

nutrients and consequently reducing efficiency which intends results in decreased feed intake.

This also agrees with the report by Ash et al. (1992) who observed that leaf meals from Sesbania

sesban and Sesbania grandiflora depressed feed utilization efficiency in chickens.

23

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Week4 Week5 Week6 Week7 Week8

Mea

n F

eed

inta

ke(g

/b/d

)

Age(Week)

Control

5AJLM

7.5AJLM

10AJLM

Fig. 1 Effect of albizia julibrissin leaf meal on mean feed intake of broiler chicken (3-8

weeks of age)

24

4.1.2 MEAN WEIGHT GAIN

There was significant (P<0.05) difference in weight gain between birds fed control and those fed

AJLM-based diets (table 7). There was also significant (P<0.05) difference in weight gain among

birds fed AJLM-based diets. However, there was no significant (P>0.05) in weight gain between

birds fed control and those fed 5%AJLM-based diets. Generally, there were differences in weight

gain between birds fed control diets and those fed AJLM-based diets (fig.2).

The decreased weight gain at higher inclusion levels of AJLM in the diets could be as a result of

mimosine and high crude fibre in diets containing AJLM. Fleury (2004) reported that anti-

nutritional factors are known to bind nutrients and enzymes of digestion thus reducing the release

of nutrients which adversely affects weight gain. High fibre of the diets also leads to poor

digestibility of the diets which adversely affects weight gain (Teguia and Beynen, 2005).

Nwokolo et al. (1985) also reported that increased level of dietary fibres could impair dietary

nutrient utilization and might adversely affect weight gain.

25

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

W4 W5 W6 W7 W8

Mea

n w

eigh

t ga

in(g

/b/d

)

Age(weeks)

Control

5.0%

7.5%

10%

Fig. 2 Effect of Albizia julibrissin leaf meal on mean weight gain of broiler chicken (3-8

weeks of age)

26

4.1.3 GAIN/FEED RATIO

There was significant (P<0.05) difference in gain/feed ratio between birds fed control and those

fed AJLM-based diets (Table 7). There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in gain/feed ratio

between birds fed control and those fed 5%AJLM based diets. However, there was significant

(P<0.05) difference in gain/feed ratio among birds fed AJLM-based diets. There was no

significant (P>0.05) difference between birds fed 7.5% and 10% AJLM-based diets.

There were differences in gain/feed ratio between birds fed control and those fed AJLM-based

diets at week 4, 6 and 8 (fig.3). There was no difference in gain/feed ratio between birds fed

control diets and those fed AJLM-based diets at week 5 and 7. Gain/feed ratio generally

decreased at higher inclusion levels of AJLM in the diets above 5%. The decreased in gain feed

ratio at higher inclusion levels could be attributed to the presence of mimosime in the diets.

According to Dazala et al.(2010), concentration of anti-nutritional factors like mimosine

increased at higher levels of dietary inclusion of leaf meal hence the adverse effect on gain/feed

ratio. According to Fleury(2004) anti-nutritional factors are known to bind to nutrients and

enzymes of digestion thus reducing the release of nutrients and adversely affecting gain/feed

ratio.

27

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8

Gai

n/F

eed

rati

o

Age

Control

5AJLM

7.5AJLM

10AJLM

Fig. 3 Effect of Albizia julibrissin leaf meal on mean gain/feed ratio of broiler chicken (3-8

weeks of age)

28

4.1.4 MEAN FINAL LIVE WEIGHT

There was significant (P<0.05) difference in final live weight between birds fed control and those

fed AJLM-based diets (table 7). There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in final live weight

between birds fed control and those fed 5%AJLM-based diets. However, there was no significant

(P>0.05) difference in final live weight among birds fed AJLM-based diets. Generally, final live

weight decreased as inclusion level of AJLM increased in the diets. The decreased in final live

weight at increased inclusion level of AJLM in the diets could be due to the adverse effect of

mimosine which increased in concentration at higher inclusion levels and results in decreased

weight gain and final live weight (Fleury, 2004).

4.1.5 MORTALITY

Result from table 7 shows that there was no significant (P>0.05) difference in deaths between

birds that fed on control diets and those fed AJLM-based diets. There were eight deaths recorded.

Post-mortem examination of the dead birds during the experiment showed bacterial infection.

This was rectified by administering antibiotics to all birds for 3 days.

4.2 CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS

Table 8 shows the carcass parameters of broiler chicken (3-8 weeks) fed AJLM-based diets..

Table: 8 Effect of AJLM on carcass characteristics of broiler chicken (3-8 weeks of age)

Parameters Control 5%AJLM 7.5%AJLM 10%AJLM ±SED P-Value

Dressed weight

(kg/b)

1.76a

1.40ab

1.26b

1.27b

0.158 0.042

Dressing (%) 77.4 75.8 69.9 76.8 6.99 0.697

29

SED – Standard Error of Difference P- Probability

Means with different superscript letters are significantly different (P<0.05)

4.2.1 CARCASS DRESSING WEIGHT

There was significant (P<0.05) difference in carcass dressing weight between birds fed the

control diet and those fed with the AJLM-diets (table 8). However, there was no significant

(P>0.05) difference between birds fed the control diets and 5%AJLM group. There was also no

significant (P>0.05) in carcass dressing weight among birds fed AJLM-based diets.

The decreased dressed weight at increased inclusion level could be as a result of mimosine which

increased in the diets at higher inclusion levels of AJLM in the diets. Report by Dazala et

al.(2010) indicates that the concentration of anti-nutritional factors increased at higher inclusion

levels of non-conventional feedstuffs in the diet which resulted in decreased weight gain and

final live weight and might also lead to decreased carcass dressing weight.

4.2.2 CARCASS DRESSING PERCENTAGE

There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in carcass dressing percentage between birds fed

the control diet and their counterparts fed the AJLM-based diets (table 8). However, the highest

carcass dressing percentage was recorded in birds that fed control diet followed by 10%AJLM,

5%AJLM and 7.5%AJLM. The decrease in dressing percentage at an increased inclusion level of

AJLM in the diets from control to 7.5%AJLM could be due to the effect of fibre and mimosine

which increased in the diets at higher levels of AJLM in the diets. According to Teguia and

Beynen (2005), high fibre leads to poor digestibility of the diets which adversely affects weight

gain and might also affect carcass dressing percentage. Reports by Fleury(2004) indicated that

anti-nutritional factors are known to bind to nutrients and enzymes of digestion thus reducing the

30

release of nutrients and adversely affecting weight gain and might also affect carcass dressing

percentage.

4.3 ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION (COST ANALYSIS)

Table 7 shows the effects of AJLM on the economic parameters of broiler chicken.

Table: 9 Effect of AJLM on economics of production of broiler chicken (3-8 weeks of age)

Parameters Control 5%AJL

M

7.5%AJLM 10%AJL

M

±SED P-Value

Total feed

intake(kg/b)

4.17a

3.77b

3.63b 3.60

b 0.139 0.012

Feed cost/kg

diet(Gh¢.)

1.11 1.06 1.04 1.01 ------ ------

Total feed cost/bird

(Gh¢.)

4.63a

4.00b

3.78b

3.64b

0.149 < 0.001

Feed cost/kg gain

(Gh¢.)

2.98 2.87 3.21 3.79 0.305 0.064

SED – Standard Error of Difference P- Probability

Means with different superscript letters are significantly different (P<0.05)

The cost analysis of control diets and AJLM-based diets in broiler chicken production is

presented in table 9.

The results in table 9 indicates that there was no significant (P>0.05) difference in total feed

intake/bird between birds fed control and those fed AJLM-based diets. However, there was

31

significant(P<0.05) difference between birds fed control and those fed AJLM-based diets for

cost analysis such as total feed intake(kg/b) and total feed cost(Gh¢.).There was no significant

(P>0.05) in total feed cost/bird among birds fed AJLM-based diets. Feed intake/bird decreased as

inclusion level increased in the diets (table 9). There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in

feed cost/kg gain between birds fed control and those fed AJLM –based diets (table 9).

The high cost of feed/bird recorded in the control was due to non-inclusion of AJLM while

subsequent treatments with increasing levels of AJLM decreased in cost. The cost analysis

indicated that the use of AJLM was cost effective and profitable at 5% inclusion of AJLM in the

diets. This was in agreement with the report by Rhule et al., (2007), that non-conventional

feedstuffs often reduced feed cost. This confirms that there is better economic gain by feeding

AJLM to broilers since it has the potential of reducing the feeding cost of broilers.

4.4 OTHER OBSERVATION(S)

Plate 2. Yellow skin pigmentation of birds fed AJLM-based diets

32

The yellow colouration of the shank, beak and skin observed on birds that fed on AJLM-diets in

the course of experimentation is a confirmation to Dei et al.(2012) report that AJLM has a high

content of carotenoids.

The yellow colouration of the skin in birds that fed on AJLM-based diets would tend to meet all

the vitamin A dietary requirements of it consumers than birds having pale skin (Onibi et al.,

1999). According to Dei et al.(2012), the yellow pigment of egg yolk increased as AJLM

increased in the diet of layer chicken. While the AJLM-diets results in yellow colouration of the

shank, beak and skin of birds that fed on it, that of the control diet was pale. The pale colour of

the shank, beak and skin of birds that fed on the control diet was as a result carotenoids

deficiency in control diets. The lack of trend in skin pigmentation in relation to dietary treatments

is a pointer to the fact that shank, beak and skin pigmentation are a better indicator of intensity of

pigmentation in chickens (Onibi et al., 1999). It is likely that meat from chickens that fed the leaf

meals would contain more vitamin A since chickens are able to incorporate dietary components

into their muscles (Onibi et al., 1999). Birds with yellow skin pigments tended to be more

attractive and will therefore be more preferred by consumers than those with pale skin.

Attractiveness and high preference of birds by consumers will also result in high marketability.

33

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1. Conclusion

It was clear from the result obtained that AJLM can be used in broiler chicken ration up to 5%

level without adverse effect on performance. AJLM should not be used above 5% inclusion level.

It also has the potential of reducing the feeding cost of broilers.

5.2. Recommendation

Farmers should use AJLM for broiler birds.

It is economical to use 5%AJLM in broiler diet formulation.

34

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