Educational Technology Yesterday, Today, and

Educational TechnologyEducational Technology

Yesterday,Yesterday,

Today, andToday, and

TomorrowTomorrow

Technology and Its Changing Technology and Its Changing Impact on Learning and TeachingImpact on Learning and Teaching

James D. Lehman, Educational TechnologyJames D. Lehman, Educational Technology

Educational TechnologyEducational Technology

PASTPAST PRESENTPRESENT FUTUREFUTURE

Educational TechnologyEducational TechnologyPastPast

Today’s LessonHistory

RootsRoots

Educational technology as we know it today Educational technology as we know it today has roots in at least three once-separate has roots in at least three once-separate disciplines:disciplines:– Systematic instructional designSystematic instructional design– Educational mediaEducational media– Educational computingEducational computing

Most of this presentation centers on the latter, Most of this presentation centers on the latter, although they are intertwined.although they are intertwined.

Instructional Design RootsInstructional Design Roots

Instructional design was founded on the Instructional design was founded on the pioneering work of individuals such as pioneering work of individuals such as Edward L. Thorndike (at right).Edward L. Thorndike (at right).

It has been influenced by three major It has been influenced by three major theoretical perspectives over the last theoretical perspectives over the last century:century:– BehavioralBehavioral– CognitiveCognitive– ConstructivistConstructivist

Instructional Design RootsInstructional Design Roots

The growing understanding of the process of The growing understanding of the process of human learning in the 20human learning in the 20thth century supported century supported the growing notion that instruction can be the growing notion that instruction can be systematically designed to produce learning.systematically designed to produce learning.

The training effort during World War II, and The training effort during World War II, and subsequent developments, helped to link subsequent developments, helped to link instructional design with mediated and instructional design with mediated and mechanical delivery systems.mechanical delivery systems.

Educational Media RootsEducational Media Roots

Educational media came to prominence in Educational media came to prominence in the early part of the 20the early part of the 20 thth century with an century with an emphasis on real objects and visuals, then emphasis on real objects and visuals, then films, and later radio, TV, and computers.films, and later radio, TV, and computers.

WWII training relied heavily mediated WWII training relied heavily mediated instructional materials, setting a modelinstructional materials, setting a modelfor later education.for later education.

However, until recently, all media were However, until recently, all media were separately developed and managed.separately developed and managed.

Educational Computing RootsEducational Computing Roots

Most developments in computing occurred in Most developments in computing occurred in about the last half of the 20about the last half of the 20 thth century. century.

However, precedents were set earlier.However, precedents were set earlier.– Abacus, circa 3000 B.C.Abacus, circa 3000 B.C.– Pascal’s adding machine, 1642Pascal’s adding machine, 1642– Jacquard’s loom, 1801Jacquard’s loom, 1801– Babbage’s analytical engine, Babbage’s analytical engine, 11834834– Hollerith’s electric tabulator, 1889Hollerith’s electric tabulator, 1889

Educational Computing RootsEducational Computing Roots

Early computers developed around the Early computers developed around the middle of the 20middle of the 20thth century included: century included: – ABC Computer, developed by Atanasoff and Berry ABC Computer, developed by Atanasoff and Berry

at Iowa Stateat Iowa State– IBM/Harvard Mark I and II developed by AikenIBM/Harvard Mark I and II developed by Aiken– ENIAC, developed by Mauchly and Eckert at ENIAC, developed by Mauchly and Eckert at

PennsylvaniaPennsylvania– EDVAC, developed by von Neumann also at PennEDVAC, developed by von Neumann also at Penn– Colossus, a British computer secretly built during Colossus, a British computer secretly built during

WWII to break German codes.WWII to break German codes.– UNIVAC I, the first commercial computerUNIVAC I, the first commercial computer

ENIACENIAC

Computing - pastComputing - past

First generation computers used vacuum First generation computers used vacuum tubes. tubes.

The 2The 2ndnd generation used transistors. generation used transistors. The 3The 3rdrd generation relied on integrated generation relied on integrated

circuits. circuits. Today’s 4Today’s 4thth generation models use very large- generation models use very large-

scale integrated circuitry.scale integrated circuitry.


In 1971, Ted Hoff at Intel Corporation In 1971, Ted Hoff at Intel Corporation developed the first microprocessor, a developed the first microprocessor, a computer on a single silicon chip.computer on a single silicon chip.

In 1972, handheld calculators begin to In 1972, handheld calculators begin to become popular, Pong - the first video game -become popular, Pong - the first video game -was invented, and Wang developed a word was invented, and Wang developed a word processing system.processing system.

In 1973, Xerox PARC researchers invented In 1973, Xerox PARC researchers invented the mouse and graphical user interface.the mouse and graphical user interface.


In 1975, a company called MITS began In 1975, a company called MITS began marketing the Altair personal computer marketing the Altair personal computer kit. IBM introduced the laser printer.kit. IBM introduced the laser printer.

In 1977, led by upstart Apple Computer, In 1977, led by upstart Apple Computer, the first ready-to-run personal the first ready-to-run personal computers were released. Microsoft computers were released. Microsoft was founded.was founded.

In 1979, the first spreadsheet, Visicalc, In 1979, the first spreadsheet, Visicalc, was released and became the first was released and became the first “killer app” for personal computers.“killer app” for personal computers.


In 1981, IBM made the movement In 1981, IBM made the movement “legitimate” by releasing the first IBM-PC. “legitimate” by releasing the first IBM-PC. Microsoft was chosen to provide the Microsoft was chosen to provide the operating system.operating system.

In 1982, the computer was chosen Time In 1982, the computer was chosen Time Magazine “Man of the Year.” TCP/IP became Magazine “Man of the Year.” TCP/IP became the standard for ARPANET.the standard for ARPANET.

In 1983, Apple released the Lisa. Though a In 1983, Apple released the Lisa. Though a commercial flop, it led to the subsequent commercial flop, it led to the subsequent Macintosh.Macintosh.


In 1984, Apple released the Macintosh In 1984, Apple released the Macintosh computer with the now famous Orwellian ad computer with the now famous Orwellian ad during the Super Bowl. The CD-ROM was during the Super Bowl. The CD-ROM was developed by Sony and Philips.developed by Sony and Philips.

In 1985, Microsoft released the first version of In 1985, Microsoft released the first version of Windows.Windows.

In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee at CERN In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee at CERN developed the World Wide Web.developed the World Wide Web.

In 1992, Windows 3.1 was released. It In 1992, Windows 3.1 was released. It established Windows as the dominant OS.established Windows as the dominant OS.

Computing - pastComputing - past In 1993, Apple introduced the Newton, the first In 1993, Apple introduced the Newton, the first

popular PDA. Mosaic, the first popular web popular PDA. Mosaic, the first popular web browser, was released by NCSA.browser, was released by NCSA.

In 1994, Netscape’s first browser was released.In 1994, Netscape’s first browser was released. In 1995, Windows 95 was released, completing In 1995, Windows 95 was released, completing

Microsoft’s transition to a Mac-like GUI.Microsoft’s transition to a Mac-like GUI. In 1996, the number of web host passed In 1996, the number of web host passed

10,000,00010,000,000

Hardware - pastHardware - past

In the beginning, personal computers were In the beginning, personal computers were viewed as a new and unique medium. Other viewed as a new and unique medium. Other media/industries -- video, audio, graphic arts, media/industries -- video, audio, graphic arts, publishing -- existed in separate spheres and publishing -- existed in separate spheres and didn’t work well with PCs.didn’t work well with PCs.

At first, personal computers were viewed as At first, personal computers were viewed as stand-alone devices. Little thought was given stand-alone devices. Little thought was given to networking. When it began, it was to networking. When it began, it was awkward and very slow.awkward and very slow.

Software - pastSoftware - past

Early PCs had little prepared software; most Early PCs had little prepared software; most came with the BASIC programming language came with the BASIC programming language built in. built in.

Operating systems were text-based and Operating systems were text-based and difficult to learn. difficult to learn.

Machine capabilities were limited. Media Machine capabilities were limited. Media were limited to basic text, rudimentary were limited to basic text, rudimentary graphics, and simple sound effects. graphics, and simple sound effects.

Software - pastSoftware - past

Over time, useful applications such as Over time, useful applications such as electronic spreadsheets, word processors, electronic spreadsheets, word processors, and database programs were developed and and database programs were developed and slowly refined. slowly refined.

Educational software was developed; at first Educational software was developed; at first quality was a big concern, but it improved quality was a big concern, but it improved over time.over time.

Education - pastEducation - past

The first experiments in the use of computers The first experiments in the use of computers for education date back to the late 1950s and for education date back to the late 1950s and early 1960s, well before PCs. These early early 1960s, well before PCs. These early efforts focused on the computer as a efforts focused on the computer as a “teaching machine” useful for drill and “teaching machine” useful for drill and practice and content tutorials. practice and content tutorials.

Patrick Suppes from Stanford is Patrick Suppes from Stanford is sometimes credited with being the sometimes credited with being the “father of CAI” for his early work in this field.“father of CAI” for his early work in this field.


The largest early effort was PLATO, The largest early effort was PLATO, developed by Donald Bitzer and associates at developed by Donald Bitzer and associates at the University of Illinois beginning in the early the University of Illinois beginning in the early 1960s. Authoring tools and many packages 1960s. Authoring tools and many packages developed for PLATO were ultimately ported developed for PLATO were ultimately ported to personal computers.to personal computers.

TICCIT, guided by Victor Bunderson at BYU, TICCIT, guided by Victor Bunderson at BYU, was another large-scale early project. It was was another large-scale early project. It was notable for approaching CAI from an notable for approaching CAI from an instructional design perspective.instructional design perspective.


When PCs first emerged, emphasis was When PCs first emerged, emphasis was placed on teaching children to program. This placed on teaching children to program. This was largely due to the lack of prepared was largely due to the lack of prepared software and availability of programming software and availability of programming languages. languages.

It spawned a “computer literacy” movement, a It spawned a “computer literacy” movement, a term coined by Arthur Luehrmann, which term coined by Arthur Luehrmann, which focused mainly on knowledge of focused mainly on knowledge of programming.programming.


As educational programs began to As educational programs began to appear, much emphasis shifted to appear, much emphasis shifted to computer assisted instruction and many of computer assisted instruction and many of the ideas first developed by PLATO and the ideas first developed by PLATO and TICCIT.TICCIT.

Another school of thought emphasized Another school of thought emphasized student development of understanding student development of understanding using education friendly computer using education friendly computer languages such as Logo, developed by languages such as Logo, developed by Seymour Papert and associates at MIT.Seymour Papert and associates at MIT.


In more recent years, the emphasis in In more recent years, the emphasis in educational computing has shifted to subject educational computing has shifted to subject matter integration, using the computer as a matter integration, using the computer as a tool to support teaching and learning in tool to support teaching and learning in specific disciplines. Teaching specific disciplines. Teaching aboutabout technology takes a back seat to teaching and technology takes a back seat to teaching and learning learning withwith technology. technology.

Educational Technology - PastEducational Technology - Past

InstructionalDesign

EducationalMedia

EducationalComputing

Educational TechnologyEducational TechnologyPresentPresent

Today’s LessonTrends

Educational Technology TodayEducational Technology Today

Today, instructional design, educational Today, instructional design, educational media, and educational computing are robust media, and educational computing are robust fields of endeavor.fields of endeavor.

They influence formal and informal education, They influence formal and informal education, the training sector, and segments of society.the training sector, and segments of society.

Educational Technology TodayEducational Technology Today

What are some educational technology trends What are some educational technology trends that we can see today?that we can see today?

Discipline Convergence

InstructionalDesign

EducationalMedia


InstructionalDesign

EducationalMedia



EducationalTechnology


ID Theory BaseID Theory Base

Behavioral perspectiveBehavioral perspective

Cognitive perspectiveCognitive perspective

Constructivist perspectiveConstructivist perspective









or an eclectic viewor an eclectic view

ID EmphasisID Emphasis

Pre-designed education and training Pre-designed education and training materialsmaterials

Just-in-time education and training, Just-in-time education and training, granularity, learning objects, granularity, learning objects, collaborative construction of materialscollaborative construction of materials

Media ConvergenceMedia Convergence




Computing DevelopmentsComputing Developments

Today’s PCs are a significant advance over Today’s PCs are a significant advance over the first models. the first models.

Moore’s Law, originally postulated in 1965, Moore’s Law, originally postulated in 1965, predicted that the number of transistors on a predicted that the number of transistors on a integrated circuit will double every 18 months. integrated circuit will double every 18 months. Though Moore forecast it would hold true Though Moore forecast it would hold true through 1975, it is still holding true today.through 1975, it is still holding true today.

Computer SizeComputer Size

NetworkingNetworking

In 1969, ARPANET, the forerunner of the In 1969, ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet, began with 4 hostsInternet, began with 4 hosts

By 1987, there were 10,000 hostsBy 1987, there were 10,000 hosts By 1992, there were 1,000,000By 1992, there were 1,000,000 By 1996, there were 10,000,000By 1996, there were 10,000,000 Today, there are 100,000,000+Today, there are 100,000,000+

Software - presentSoftware - present

Software has improved dramatically since the Software has improved dramatically since the introduction of the PC.introduction of the PC.

Text-based operating systems have given Text-based operating systems have given way to the GUI, that was originally invented at way to the GUI, that was originally invented at Xerox PARC, popularized by the Apple Xerox PARC, popularized by the Apple Macintosh, and is now embodied in Macintosh, and is now embodied in Windows.Windows.

Voice recognition is here but not yet Voice recognition is here but not yet widespread.widespread.

Software - presentSoftware - present

A wide array of powerful productivity tools for A wide array of powerful productivity tools for the PC (e.g., word processors, databases, the PC (e.g., word processors, databases, spreadsheets, desktop publishing software) is spreadsheets, desktop publishing software) is now available.now available.

Educational software has improved greatly in Educational software has improved greatly in quality, and a large number of titles are quality, and a large number of titles are available.available.

The Web has made huge quantities of The Web has made huge quantities of information as well as software readily information as well as software readily available.available.

Computers in SchoolsComputers in Schools

There are about 11 million computers in K-12 There are about 11 million computers in K-12 schools. schools.

The student-to-computer ratio in schools went The student-to-computer ratio in schools went from about 40:1 in 1985 to about 4:1 in 2001. from about 40:1 in 1985 to about 4:1 in 2001. The ratio of students to multimedia computers The ratio of students to multimedia computers is about 7:1.is about 7:1.

Apple Macintosh is the largest single brand in Apple Macintosh is the largest single brand in schools – 1/3 of all machines, but all Wintel schools – 1/3 of all machines, but all Wintel platform computers combined make up 2/3.platform computers combined make up 2/3.


About 97% of schools are connected to the About 97% of schools are connected to the Internet. Internet.

About 90% of teachers report using the About 90% of teachers report using the Internet as a teaching resource, and 74% of Internet as a teaching resource, and 74% of students use it at least an hour a week.students use it at least an hour a week.

Schools with higher percentages of minority Schools with higher percentages of minority students tend to lag behind other schools in students tend to lag behind other schools in access to and use of technology such as access to and use of technology such as computers and the Internet.computers and the Internet.


Nationally, K-12 technology spending for the Nationally, K-12 technology spending for the 2000-2001 school year was about $5.5 2000-2001 school year was about $5.5 billion. billion. – 67% hardware67% hardware– 20% software20% software– 13% staff development13% staff development

Horizon TechnologiesHorizon Technologies

Laptop ComputersLaptop Computers

Laptop computers offer more flexibility that Laptop computers offer more flexibility that desktops; 28% of schools are now using desktops; 28% of schools are now using laptops.laptops.

Handheld ComputingHandheld Computing

Handheld devices, like Palm Pilots and Handheld devices, like Palm Pilots and Pocket PCs, are proliferating and growing in Pocket PCs, are proliferating and growing in sophistication. About 22% of schools now sophistication. About 22% of schools now use them.use them.

Wireless ConnectivityWireless Connectivity

IEEE 802.11b – wireless LANs support fairly IEEE 802.11b – wireless LANs support fairly wide range (up to hundreds of feet) and wide range (up to hundreds of feet) and reasonably fast connections (11 Mbs). About reasonably fast connections (11 Mbs). About 10% of schools use it now.10% of schools use it now.

Bluetooth – emerging wireless standard for Bluetooth – emerging wireless standard for connectivity to a variety of devices, such as connectivity to a variety of devices, such as printers, with a more limited range and slower printers, with a more limited range and slower data transfer ratesdata transfer rates

BroadbandBroadband

DSL and cable modems, for example, provide DSL and cable modems, for example, provide much faster connectivity to network resources much faster connectivity to network resources than standard 56K telephone modems. About than standard 56K telephone modems. About 75% of schools report having fast Internet 75% of schools report having fast Internet connections.connections.

Photonic-Crystal FiberPhotonic-Crystal Fiber

Photonic-crystal fiber is a new type of fiber Photonic-crystal fiber is a new type of fiber that can transmit light much more efficiently that can transmit light much more efficiently than today’s glass fiber optic cable. It than today’s glass fiber optic cable. It promises to allow data transfer rates in the promises to allow data transfer rates in the trillions of bits per second.trillions of bits per second.

Web TechnologiesWeb Technologies

DHTMLDHTML XMLXML JavaJava C# (part of Microsoft’s .NET)C# (part of Microsoft’s .NET) Open sourceOpen source

Speech RecognitionSpeech Recognition

Current generation speech recognition Current generation speech recognition programs, Dragon’s NaturallySpeaking and programs, Dragon’s NaturallySpeaking and IBM’s ViaVoice, are pretty good when trained IBM’s ViaVoice, are pretty good when trained by an individual.by an individual.

AT&T, among others, is developing generic AT&T, among others, is developing generic speech recognition technologies that may speech recognition technologies that may function without begin trained to one person’s function without begin trained to one person’s voice.voice.

Virtual RealityVirtual Reality

Virtual reality systems give the user the Virtual reality systems give the user the illusion of operating within a three-illusion of operating within a three-dimensional environment that responds to the dimensional environment that responds to the user’s motion within it.user’s motion within it.

Distributed IntelligenceDistributed Intelligence

An increasing range of appliances and An increasing range of appliances and objects will be equipped with a computer objects will be equipped with a computer processor and so be capable of “smart” processor and so be capable of “smart” interaction with people. Some people refer to interaction with people. Some people refer to this as ubiquitous computing.this as ubiquitous computing.

Electronic Ink / Paper / BooksElectronic Ink / Paper / Books

eBooks, portable devices that can hold eBooks, portable devices that can hold downloaded books, are already available.downloaded books, are already available.

Electronic ink or paper is a developing Electronic ink or paper is a developing technology in which microcapsules, technology in which microcapsules, embedded within a thin film that can be embedded within a thin film that can be mounted in tablet or possibly even something mounted in tablet or possibly even something like normal paper, can display print in like normal paper, can display print in response to electrical signals.response to electrical signals.

Holographic StorageHolographic Storage

Holographic storage is an experimental Holographic storage is an experimental technology under development by IBM. technology under development by IBM. Scientists predict the capability for a 125 Gb Scientists predict the capability for a 125 Gb CD size storage unit by 2003. In another 10 CD size storage unit by 2003. In another 10 years, they predict terabyte storage, with 1 years, they predict terabyte storage, with 1 Gb per second transfer rates.Gb per second transfer rates.

NanotechnologyNanotechnology

Nanotechnology, involving manipulation at Nanotechnology, involving manipulation at the molecular level, is among the most highly the molecular level, is among the most highly touted of coming technologiestouted of coming technologies– Chip development (Intel predicts a 1-billion Chip development (Intel predicts a 1-billion

transistor, 20 GHz chip by 2007)transistor, 20 GHz chip by 2007)– NanotubesNanotubes– Miniature machines, such as robotsMiniature machines, such as robots– Materials assemblyMaterials assembly

Educational TechnologyEducational TechnologyThe FutureThe FutureDistributed Learning

Predicting the FuturePredicting the Future Predicting the future can be a notoriously Predicting the future can be a notoriously

tricky proposition. A few examples:tricky proposition. A few examples:– ““Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.”Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible.”

» Lord Kelvin, President, Royal Society, 1895Lord Kelvin, President, Royal Society, 1895– ““Everything that can be invented has been Everything that can be invented has been

invented.”invented.”» Charles Duell, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899Charles Duell, U.S. Office of Patents, 1899

– ““I think there is a world market for maybe five I think there is a world market for maybe five computers.”computers.”» Thomas Watson, Chairman, IBM, 1943Thomas Watson, Chairman, IBM, 1943

Source: Time magazine, July 15, 1996

Predicting the FuturePredicting the Future

Given the trends and horizon Given the trends and horizon technologies discussed, how do technologies discussed, how do you think these will affect education you think these will affect education and training in the future?and training in the future?

Education - futureEducation - future


Some experts argue that with the emergence Some experts argue that with the emergence of multimedia software and the delivery of multimedia software and the delivery vehicle of the Internet, schooling as we know vehicle of the Internet, schooling as we know it has become obsolete. They suggest we it has become obsolete. They suggest we should do away with schools as they now should do away with schools as they now exist.exist.

This is one extreme position.This is one extreme position.


Others argue that computer technology is just Others argue that computer technology is just a flash in the pan, the latest in a long line of a flash in the pan, the latest in a long line of educational technology innovations that have educational technology innovations that have promised more than they delivered. They promised more than they delivered. They suggest we should forget about technology suggest we should forget about technology and get back to schooling as usual.and get back to schooling as usual.

This is another extreme position.This is another extreme position.


It is possible to envision a more moderate It is possible to envision a more moderate future that lies between these extremes.future that lies between these extremes.

FUTURE


Computers and, increasingly, smaller Computers and, increasingly, smaller computing devices will become commonplace computing devices will become commonplace tools for teachers and students. They will tools for teachers and students. They will connect wirelessly and become an integral connect wirelessly and become an integral part of the teaching and learning process.part of the teaching and learning process.

The greatest emphasis will be given to using The greatest emphasis will be given to using technology tools for real work on authentic technology tools for real work on authentic tasks.tasks.


In a few years, increased processing and In a few years, increased processing and storage capacity along with software storage capacity along with software advances are likely to make voice interfacing advances are likely to make voice interfacing with computing devices commonplace.with computing devices commonplace.

Full multimedia capability, including routine Full multimedia capability, including routine access to and storage of video, will also be access to and storage of video, will also be possible.possible.


With access to huge stores of multimedia With access to huge stores of multimedia information, education will focus less on information, education will focus less on information delivery and more on finding, information delivery and more on finding, evaluating, and using information.evaluating, and using information.

The teacher’s role will increasingly shift from The teacher’s role will increasingly shift from the “sage on the stage” to the “guide on the the “sage on the stage” to the “guide on the side.”side.”


With improving technology and increasing With improving technology and increasing networking, education will become available networking, education will become available anytime and anywhere.anytime and anywhere.

Higher education, of necessity, will work to Higher education, of necessity, will work to reach growing non-traditional audiences.reach growing non-traditional audiences.

Life-long learning will become the norm, and Life-long learning will become the norm, and technology will be one tool that helps technology will be one tool that helps educators reach those who need continuing educators reach those who need continuing education.education.


Given the prevalence of the Internet as a Given the prevalence of the Internet as a resource and delivery system, ID is likely to resource and delivery system, ID is likely to focus increasingly on helping individuals focus increasingly on helping individuals access available resources and training, just-access available resources and training, just-in-time, and using granular modules that can in-time, and using granular modules that can be flexibly arranged to meet differing needs.be flexibly arranged to meet differing needs.


Distributed or distance education will continue Distributed or distance education will continue to grow. It is likely to be based on a number to grow. It is likely to be based on a number of delivery vehicles, especially the Internet.of delivery vehicles, especially the Internet.

As distance education expands, smaller As distance education expands, smaller institutions and weaker departments in larger institutions and weaker departments in larger schools may be forced out of business as a schools may be forced out of business as a cost-conscious public looks for greater cost-conscious public looks for greater economy. Outside organizations may become economy. Outside organizations may become prominent content providers.prominent content providers.


Computers and allied technologies are Computers and allied technologies are unlikely ever to replace traditional face-to-unlikely ever to replace traditional face-to-face teaching and learning. face teaching and learning.

But, technology probably will change the face But, technology probably will change the face of the teaching and learning landscape that of the teaching and learning landscape that we know today.we know today.


It is incumbent upon educators today to begin It is incumbent upon educators today to begin preparing for the changing education preparing for the changing education paradigms of tomorrow.paradigms of tomorrow.

The EndThe End

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Educational Technology Yesterday, Today, and