Educational Research

Chapter 15Qualitative Data Collection

Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Topics Discussed Definition and purpose of qualitative

data collection Types of sources of qualitative data Data collection techniques

Observing Interviewing Using questionnaires Examining records

Threats to the quality of observations and interviews

Qualitative Data Collection Definition and purpose

The process of collecting descriptive, narrative, non-numerical data in order to gain insight into the phenomenon of interest

Data collection is determined by the nature of the problem

The researcher must make informed decisions about what data will contribute to the study and how to best collect it

Commonly known as field work

Objectives 1.1 and 1.3

Qualitative Data Collection Types of Sources

Most common Observations Interviews

Others Questionnaires; documents (e.g., journals, files,

minutes, etc.); recordings; drawings, photos, or other artistic endeavors; or conversations (e.g., telephone calls, informal conversations, etc.)

Any source is acceptable as long as collecting it is ethical, feasible, and contributes to the understanding of the phenomenon of interest

Objectives 2.1 and 2.2

Observations

Obtaining data by watching participants in their natural setting

Two common types Participant Non-participant

Objectives 3.1 and 3.2

Observations

Participant observation The researcher is involved in the

situation while collecting data The purpose is to allow the researcher

to gain insights and develop relationships that require an active, trusting rapport with participants

Objective 3.2

Observations

Participant observation (continued) Four types based on the degree of

involvement Active participant observer Privileged observer Active observer Passive observer

Objective 3.3

Observations

Participant observation (continued) Three concerns

Loss of researcher’s objectivity Difficult for the researcher to participate

and collect data simultaneously Participation can be difficult for the

researcher and the participants

Objective 3.4

Observations Non-participant observation

The researcher observes and records behaviors but does not interact or participate in the setting

Advantages Less intrusive Less likely to become emotionally involved

Disadvantages The researcher might not have the background or

expertise to participate The researcher might not fit into a closely organized

groupObjectives 3.2 and 3.5

Observations

Field notes Notes taken during an observation to

describe all relevant aspects of the situation

Regardless of whether participant or non-participant observation is used, field notes are the “data”

Objective 3.6

Observations Field notes (continued)

Two types Written records that contain information about

the direct observations Reflections of the researcher’s reactions to the

observation Typically taken during the observation

Use of protocols A list of issues to guide the observation Provides focus Provides a common framework across field notes

Objectives 3.6 and 3.7

Observations

Field notes (continued) Guidelines

Start slowly Try to begin with no preconceptions Write up field notes as soon as possible List all pertinent information (e.g., date,

site, time, topic, participants, etc.) List key words related to your observation

and then outline what was seen and heard

Objective 3.8

Observations

Field notes (continued) Guidelines

Keep the descriptive and reflective field notes separated

Write down hunches, questions, insights, thoughts, etc., after each observation

Create an electronic file of your field notes

Number the lines or paragraphs in your field notes

See the options in most word processorsObjective 3.8

Interviews Definition

Purposeful interactions between two or more people focused on one person trying to get information from the other person

Purpose Permits the exploration and probing

of participants’ thoughts to get more in-depth information

Objectives 4.1 and 4.2

Interviews Two types

Formal structured A specific set of questions that have

been predetermined by the researcher and are formally asked of all participants

Informal unstructured A casual, informal conversation that

allows the researcher to discover where the participants are coming from and what they’ve experienced

Objective 4.3

Interviews A major concern with structured

interviews Difficulty resulting in gender and/or cultural

differences between the interviewer and the participant

Recommended practices Pilot the questions before using them Use questions that vary from convergent to

divergent Convergent – closed responses like “Yes” or “No” Divergent – open responses allowing for personal

elaboration from the participant

Objectives 4.4 and 4.5

Interviews Guidelines for conducting an interview

Listen more, talk less Follow up on what participants say and ask

questions when you don’t understand Avoid leading questions Don’t interrupt – learn how to wait Keep participants focused and ask for concrete

details Don’t be judgmental about participants’ views or

beliefs Don’t debate participants over their responses

Objective 4.6

Interviews

Three choices for collecting data Taking notes during the interview

Can be cumbersome and disruptive Writing notes after the interview

Can result in the loss of important information

Objective 4.7

Interviews Three choices for collecting data

(cont) Audiotaping or videotaping the interview

The preferred method for collecting data Can be intrusive and disruptive Transcribing tapes involves producing a

written file of what was said and done Time consuming Extremely difficult Transcripts become the field notes of an interview

Objective 4.7 and 4.8

Questionnaires A written collection of self-report

questions to be answered by a selected group of research participants

Permits the researcher to collect large amounts of data in relatively short periods of time

Objectives 5.1 and 5.2

Questionnaires Guidelines

Carefully proofread questionnaires before you send them out

Avoid a sloppy, confusing presentation Avoid lengthy questionnaires Don’t ask unnecessary questions Use structured items with a variety of

possible responses Allow for “other comments” Decide on issues of anonymity and

confidentiality

Objective 5.3

Examining Records The examination of records or documents

a qualitative researcher might collect Five major types

Archival documents Journals Maps Videotapes and audiotapes Artifacts

Objectives 5.4 and 5.5

Threats to Quality Three concerns

Observer bias Invalid observation that results when the observer

does not observe objectively and accurately Suggestions to help control observer bias

Record you personal thoughts, feelings, reactions, etc., about the process

Triangulate data – use multiple data collection methods and multiple sources to cross-check information

Objective 5.6

Threats to Quality Three concerns (continued)

Observer effect The impact of the observer participating

in the setting Suggestions to help control observer

effects Try to be unassuming and non-threatening Gradually increase participation over time

Objective 5.6

Threats to Quality Three concerns (continued)

Getting started The initial days of the study once entry has been

gained Suggestions to minimize concerns

Do not take what happens in the field personally Set up your first visit so that someone is there to

introduce you to the participants Don’t try to accomplish too much in the first few days Be relatively passive – ask general, non-controversial

questions Be friendly and polite

Objective 5.7