Education and Training in Kenya Strengthening the ...documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/... · Report No. 28064-KE Kenya Strengthening the Foundation of Education and Training in

March 3, 2004

Document of the World Bank

Report No. 28064-KE

KenyaStrengthening the Foundation ofEducation and Training in Kenya

Human Development ICountry Department: AFC05Africa Region

This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipientsonly in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwisebe disclosed without World Bank authorization.

Report N

o. 28064- KE

Kenya Strengthening the Foundation of Education and Training in Kenya

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Opportunities and Challenges in Primary and General Secondary Education

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

Pub

lic D

iscl

osur

e A

utho

rized

GOVERNMENT FISCAL YEAR

July 1 -June 30

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

ASAL CBE CBS CHE DEO EMIS ERAP FPE GDP GER GoK HELB HIViAIDS

KCPE KCSE KIE KNEC

Currency Unit: Kenya Shillings (KSh) Official Rate: US$ 1.00 = 75 KSh. (July 29,2003)

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Curriculum-Based Establishment Central Bureau of Statistics Commission for Higher Education District Education Officer Education Management Information System Economic Recovery Action Plan Free Primary Education Gross Domestic Product Gross Enrollment Ratio Government of Kenya Higher Education Loans Board Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

Kenya Certificate of Primary Education Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education Kenya Institute of Education Kenya National Examination Council

Ksh MDGs MoEST MTEF NFE NGO OC PDE PE PER PRSP PTA PTR SACMEQ

TAC TIMSS TVEC TSC

Kenyan Shilling Millennium Development Goals Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology Medium-Tern Expenditure Framework Nonfonnal Education Nongovernmental Organizations Other Charges Provincial Director of Education Personal Emolument Public Expenditure Review Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Parent Teacher Association Pupil-Teacher Ratio Southem Africa Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality Teacher Advisory Center Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study Technical and Vocational Education and Training Teachers Service Commission

This report was prepared by a team comprising Dandan Chen (Economist, AFTHI, Task Team Leader), Donald Hamilton (Senior Education Planner, AFTHl), and James Kamunge (Education Specialist, Consultant). The team worked closely with the Technical Working Group (TWG) of Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST), and participated the TWG’s retreats for the technical discussions during 2002. The report benefited from comments by its peer reviewers Manny Jimenez (Sector Director, EASHD), Peter Moock (Consultant, AFTHl), and Harry Patrinos (Senior Education Economist, LCSHE), and all the participants of the review meeting. All the education colleagues at AFTHl have also provided comments on an early draft. Technical guidance from Birger Fredriksen (Senior Education Advisor, AFTHD) is much appreciated. Makhtar Diop (Country Director), Dzingai Mutumbuka (Sector Manager), and Paud Murphy (Lead Education Specialist, AFTHI) provided overall guidance. Financial assistance from Norwegian Education Trust Fund is gratefully acknowledged.

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Table of Contents Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................... i

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... i Main Sector Issues and Critical Challenges ............................................................................................................. ii Policy Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................... vi11 Sector Planning: Projections o f Costs and Financing ............................................................................................. x i i

Macroeconomic Context and Demographic Trends ........................................................... 1 Evolution o f Gross Domestic Products ..................................................................................................................... 1 Fiscal Resources and Performance ........................................................................................................................... 2 Population and Labor Force ..................................................................................................................................... 4

...

Chapter 1

Evolution of the Population ...... Labor force and employment

Impact ofHIV/AIDS ................. Economic Development Perspectives ....................................................................................................................... 6

Macroeconomic Prospects ................................................................................................................................... 7 Education Sector Development ............................................................................................................................ 7

Conclusions .............................................................................................................................................................. 8

Education Coverage and Attainment .................................................................................. 9 Historical Overview .................................................................................................................................................. 9 Preprimary Education ............................................................................................................................................. 10 Primary Education .................................................................................................................................................. 11 General Secondary Education ................................................................................................................................ 13 Determinants for Low Enrollment at Primary and Secondary Level ...................................................................... 15 Postsecondary Education and Training .................................................................................................................. 16

....................................... 17 ..................... 17

Chapter 2

University ................................................................. ................................................ 16 Tertiary-Level Technical Education . Teacher Education and Training

Other Education and Training ............. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Nonformal Education (NFE) Adult Education ......................... 19

............................ 20

Conclusions ........ ................................ Chapter 3 Internal Efficiency and Student Flows .............................................................................. 24

Late School Entry ................................................................................................................................................... 24 Dropout Rate at Primary Level ............................................................................................................................... 25 Grade Repetition at Primary Level ......................................................................................................................... 26

............................................. .................................... 27 Dropout at Secondary Level ................................................................................................................................... 28 Repetition Rate at Secondary Level ....................................................................................................................... 28 Completion Rate and Cohort Flow at Secondary Level ......................................................................................... 29 Primary to Secondary Transition Rates .......................................................................................... : ....................... 30

...................................................................................................................................................... 31

Education Quality ................................................................................................................ 32 Educational Inputs .................................................................................................................................................. 32

Curriculum ......................................................................................................................................................... 32 Teachers ........................................................... .............................................................................. 33

ing materials .............. .............................................................. 41 ........................... ........................ 43 rmance ............................................................................... ..................... 44

Cohort Flows and Completion at Primary Level ......

Chapter 4

lThis document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in lthe performance of their official duties . I t s contents may not be otherwise disclosed 1 lwithout W o r l d Bank authorization . I

Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) ............................ Kenya Certijicate of Secondary Education (KCSE) ..................................... 45

Conclusions ................................................................. Chapter 5 Education Cost and Finance ............................................................................................... 48

Overall Public Finance ........................................................................................................................................... 48 Recurrent Government Expenditure on Education ................................................................................................ -49

Development Expenditure and Donor Finance .................... Efficiency o f Public Spending ................................................................................................................................ 59 Equity o f Public Spending: Benefit Incidence ........................................................................................................ 61 Household Expenditure on Education .................................................................................................................... 61 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................ 64

Institutional Arrangement and Management o f Education Service Delivery ................ 65 Overall Institutional Arrangement for Service Delivery ........................................................................................ 65 Management and Capacity o f MoEST ................................................................................................................... 69

Allocation across subsectors ................................................................ Allocation across functions and Unit Cost Composition

Chapter 6

Funds Flow .... ...................................................................... 74

Decentralization of Educational Management ......................... Provincial Level Management ..................... District Level Management

Management o f Inspection o f Services ................................................................................................................... 80 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................ 81

Chapter 7 Policy Directions and Sector Development Projections ................................................... 82 Critical Challenges ................................................................................................................................................. 82

Equitable Expansion of Enrollment

Quality of Education .......................................................... 83

........................................................................................ 82 Internal efjciency .............................................................................................................................................. 83

Costs and Financing .................... 84 Sector Strategies ..................................................................................................................................................... 84

Expand Enrollment ..................................................................................................................................... 84 Improve Quality .......................................... Enhance Eflciency of Resource A Strengthen Institutional Arrange ............................. 91

Secondary Level ............................. Issues of Special Attention for Further Sector Planning .................................................................................. 107

Additional Tables ............................................................................................................... 110 Kenya at A Glance ............................................................................................................. 124

Sector Development Projections ..... Primary Level ............................

Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................................... 108

Annex I Annex I1 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................ 126

11

List of Tables Table 1.1: Real GDP Growth 1980-2001 ..................................................................................................................... 1 Table 1.2: Current GDP Per Capita and Population ...................................................................................................... 1 Table 1.3: Government Revenue and Expenditure As Percentage o f GDP, 199711998 - 200212003 ............................ 2 Table 1.4: Expenditure Category and As Percentage o f GDP, 199711998 - 2002l2003 ............................................... 2 Table 1.5: Share of Public Expenditures By Sector ...................................................................................................... 3 Table 1.6: Population by Gender and Age Structure in 1999 (in 1000s) ....................................................................... 4

Table 1.8: Total Employment And Shares by Sector 1997 - 2001 (in 1000s) ............................................................... 5

Table 2.2: Primary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989 - 2000 ................................................................... 12

Table 2.4: Enrollment Increase by Region between 2000 and 2003 ........................................................................... 13 Table 2.5: Secondary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989-2000 ................................................................. 14 Table 2.6: Secondary School Gross Enrollment by Sex and Province, 2000 ............................................................ 14 Table 2.7: Reasons for Non-School Attendance (by percentage) ................................................................................ 15 Table 2.8: Enrollment in Universities 1995-2001 ....................................................................................................... 16 Table 2.9: Enrollment in Technical Education 2000-2001 .......................................................................................... 17 Table 2.10: Enrollment in Public Primary Teacher Training Colleges 1991-2001 ..................................................... 18 Table 2.1 1: Enrollment in Adult Literacy Programs ................................................................................................... 19 Table 2.12: Enrollment in Special Education at Primary Leve l by Sex 1986-99 ........................................................ 20

Table 1.7: School Age Population Estimates ................................................................................................................ 5

Table 2.1 : Evolution o f Gross Enrollment Ratio o f Preprimary Education (in Percentage) ........................................ 11

Table 2.3: Primary Schools Gross Enrollment Rate by Province and Sex, 2000 ........................................................ 12

Table 2.13: Enrolment in Special Schools at Secondary Level by Sex 1990-99 ......................................................... 20 Table 3.1: Primary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999 ............................................................. 25 Table 3.2: Primary School Drop-out Rates by Sex and Grade .................................................................................... 25 Table 3.3: Primary School Repetition Rates by Province and Sex, 1999 .................................................................... 26

Table 3.6: Cohort Flow at Primary Level .................................................................................................................... 27 Table 3.7: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999 ......................................................... 28 Table 3.8: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Sex and Grade ................................................................................. 28

Table 3.4: Primary School Repetition Rate by Sex and Grade, 1999 ............ - ........................................................... 26 Table 3.5: Primary School Enrollment Size by Sex in Grade 1 and Grade 8 during Eight Year Cycle, 1989 - 200027

Table 3.9: Secondary School Repetition Rates by Province and Sex, 1999 ............................................................... 29 Table 3.10: Secondary Repetition Rates by Grade and Sex ....................................................................................... 29 Table 3.11: Secondary School Enrollment Size by Sex in Form I and Form IV during Four Year Cycle, 1989 - 2000

............................................................................................................................................................................ 29

Table 3.13: Primary to Secondary School Transition Rates by Sex, 1991-2000 ......................................................... 30

Table 4.1: 2001 KCPE Candidates by Subject ........................................................................................................... 32 Table 4.2: Numbers o f Primary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2003 ....................................................................... 34

Table 3.12: Secondary School Cohort Flow ................................................................................................................ 30

Table 3.14: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and Province, 2000 ...................................................... 31

Table 4.3: Pupil-Teacher Ratio by District and Province 2003 ................................................................................... 35 Table 4.4: Number o f Secondary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2001 ......................... : ......................................... 38

Table 4.6: Reasons for Teachers Leaving Service (%) ............................................................................................... 40 Table 4.7: Availability o f Textbooks ........................................................................................................................... 41 Table 4.8: Availability o f Classroom and School Libraries ........................................................................................ 42 Table 4.9: Availability o f Other Learning Materials ................................................................................................... 42 Table 4.10: Availability o f Classroom Furniture ......................................................................................................... 43 Table 4.1 1: Indicators o f Other School Facility Status ................................................................................................ 43

Table 4.13: Performance by Gender, 2001 .................................................................................................................. 45

Table 4.5: Distribution o f Secondary School Teachers across Provinces and Districts, 2000 .................................... 38

Table 4.12: Examination Performance in English, Maths, Physics, Biology and Chemistry at KCSE 1992-2001 ..... 45

Table 5.1 : Share o f Government Revenue and Expenditure as Percentage o f GDP .................................................... 48 Table 5.2: Government Expenditure on Social Services and Education (by percentage) ............................................ 49 Table 5.3: MoEST Recurrent Expenditure by level, 1996197-2002 in Ksh Mil l ions .................................................. 50 Table 5.4: Proportion o f Subsector Public Recurrent Expenditure .............................................................................. 50

... 111

Table 5.5: Unit Cost Evolution (Kshs. Per pupil. Per year): 1996197 -2002103 ......................................................... 52 Table 5.6: Number o f Teachers and Pupils at Primary Level 1993-2003 .................................................................... 53 Table 5.7: Numbers o f Primary and Secondary School Teachers by Category ........................................................... 55 Table 5.8: Average Annual Salary o f Teachers by Category (Kshs) ........................................................................... 56 Table 5.9: Average Monthly Earnings in Public Sector by Function .......................................................................... 57 Table 5.10: Development Expenditure Per Subsector, 1997-2002 (million Ksh) ....................................................... 59 Table 5.1 1 : Public spending on education and indicators o f education achievement in selected African countries ... 60 Table 5.12: Benefit Incidence o f Public Expenditure .................................................................................................. 61 Table 5.13: Components o f Household Education Expenditures (Ksh, per child annually) ....................................... 62 Table 5.14: Household Education Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education ............................................... 63 Table 6.1 : Functional Assignments for Education Services in Kenya ......................................................................... 65 Table 7.1: Primary Level Enrollment Projection ......................................................................................................... 95

Table 7.3: Projection o f Development Costs for Classroom Construction at Primary Level: Lower-Bound .............. 97

Table 7.5: Projection o f Development Costs for Classroom Construction at Primary Level: Upper-Bound .............. 99 Table 7.6: Summary o f Recurrent Costs (USD million) ............................................................................................. 99 Table 7.7: Baseline Case Enrollment Projection at Secondary Level ........................................................................ 102 Table 7.8: Recurrent Costs with Base Case Secondary Enrollment and N o Efficiency Improvement : Baseline

Scenario ............................................................................................................................................................ 103 Table 7.9: Constant Transition Rate with Efficient Utilization o f Teachers: Scenario 1 .......................................... 104 Table 7.10: Enrollment Expansion at Secondary Level ............................................................................................ 105 Table 7.1 1: Recurrent Costs wi th Secondary Enrollment Expansion and Efficiency Improvement : Scenario 2 ..... 106

Table 7.2: Projection o f Recurrent Costs for Teachers Compensation and School Grants at Primary Level: Lower- Bound ................................................................................................................................................................. 96

Table 7.4: Projection o f Recurrent Costs for Teachers Compensation and School Grants at Primary Level: Upper- Bound ................................................................................................................................................................. 98

Table A . 1: Primary GER by District. 2003 .............................................................................................................. 110 Table A . 2: Classroom-Pupil Ratio at Primary Level by District. 2003 .................................................................... 112 Table A . 3: Public Finance: Recurrent Expenditure for MoEST, 2001102-2003/04 ................................................. 114 Table A . 4: Public Finance: Teacher Salaries: 2002103-2003104 .............................................................................. 116 Table A . 5 : Public Finance: Development Expenditure: 2001lO2-2003/04 ............................................................... 117 Table A . 6: Public Finance: Summary 2001/02-2003104 .......................................................................................... 117

Table A . 8: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and District, 2000 ....................................................... 120 Table A . 9: Composition o f Standard Instructional Materials ................................................................................... 122 Table A . 10: Estimation o f Unit Cost o f Instructional Materials ............................................................................... 123

........................................................................ Table A . 7: Secondary School Enrollment by Sex and District, 2000 118

List of Figures Figure 1.1 : Fiscal Deficit as Percent o f GDP ................................................................................................................ 3 Figure 2.1: Structure o f Education and Training in Kenya .......................................................................................... 10 Figure 2.2: Grade Attainment Profile by RuralNrban ................................................................................................ 21

Figure 2.4: Grade Attainment Profile by Gender ........................................................................................................ 22 Figure 2.5: Grade Attainment Profile by Household Wealth ...................................................................................... 23

Figure 3.1: Girl’s Age Composition in Standard 1 ...................................................................................................... 24 Figure 3.2: Boy’s Age Composition in Standard 1 ...................................................................................................... 24

Figure 4.2: Comparison o f Candidates Mean Performance in the Year 2001 and 2000 KCPE Examinations ........... 44 Figure 4.3: SACMEQ Reading Scores, 2000 .............................................................................................................. 46 Figure 4.4: SACMEQ Maths Scores, 2000 ................................................................................................................. 46

Figure 5.2: Primary School KCPE Ranking and PTR ................................................................................................. 55

Figure 5.4: Public Sector Monthly Eamings by Industry: 1996-2000 ........................................................................ 58

Figure 2.3: Grade Attainment Profile by Province ...................................................................................................... 21

Figure 2.6: Grade Attainment Profile by Household Wealth (Age 10-14 cohort) ....................................................... 23

Figure 4.1 : School Level Teacher Distribution In Relation to Number o f Pupils at Primary Level ............................ 37

Figure 5.1 : Growth of Pupils and Teachers at Primary Level, 1993-2003 .................................................................. 54

Figure 5.3: Civ i l Servant’s Salary Increase ................................................................................................................. 57

i v

Figure 5.5: Public Sector Average Salary Growth Rate. 1996-2000 (1996=100) ....................................................... 58 Figure 5.6: Education Spending as Percentage o f GDP vs . GDP Per Capita .............................................................. 60 Figure 5.7: Household Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education ................................................................ 62 Figure 5.8: Primary and Secondary Education Expenditure as Percentage o f Household Total and Non-Food

Expenditure ......................................................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 5.9: Public vs . Household (Private) Spending Per Pupil .................................................................................. 64 Figure 6.1 : Institutional Arrangement o f Education Service Delivery ........................................................................ 66 Figure 6.2: Organization Chart o f Ministry o f Education, Science, and Technology ................................................. 70 Figure 7.1: Upper- and Lower-Bound o f Recurrent Costs at Primary Level ............................................................. 100 Figure 7.2: Upper- and Lower-Bound o f Classroom Construction Costs at Primary Level ...................................... 100 Figure 7.3: Recurrent Cost Projections at Secondary Level ...................................................................................... 107

V

Executive Summary

Introduction 1. Kenya i s currently going through an important political and economic transition period. On December 27, 2002, Kenyan voters elected their f irst new president in 24 years, ending the political domination o f the party that has ruled Kenya since independence. Facing the tremendous challenge o f revitalizing economic performance, the new Govemment i s quickly moving forward to strengthen its poverty reduction efforts, and to address the governance and economic management issues. The Govemment has put the highest priority on education, recognizing the close links between poverty alleviation, economic growth, and human development.

2. The new Govemment has instituted immediate policy changes in the education sector to jump- start the system. Under the “Free Primary Education (FPE)” policy started this year, school fees and levies are abolished at primary level, thereby greatly relieving the household burden o f financing primary education. Households immediately responded. Including both public and non-public schools, the primary education gross enrollment rate jumped to over 100 percent, with close to 1 mil l ion enrollment increase from the previous year. Enrollment in primary schools has reached 7.2 mil l ion this year from 6.3 mil l ion in 2002. Quality improvement measures have also taken place at this level, with nationwide provision o f funding directly to primary schools through a capitation grant o f 1,020 Kenyan Shillings per pupil to finance the purchase o f textbooks and other teaching and leaming materials, as well as to support other school operation activities.

3. The expansion of school enrollment and the improvement o f education quality at primary level will continue during the subsequent years. The development at this level has increased pressure on as well as provided opportunities to the other subsectors. A wider sector reform agenda needs to be put in place immediately. The Kenya National Education Conference held in November 2003 provided an opportunity for the discussions o f a sector strategic plan with al l the stakeholders. A sector-wide program with wider coverage will be developed based on the sector strategic plan.

4. The World Bank i s providing a great deal o f support to the education and training sector in Kenya. The “Free Primary Education Support Project” became effective in July, 2003, providing US$50 mil l ion grant to finance the provision of instructional materials to the primary schools nationwide, together with essential capacity building activities in the sector for better service delivery. This sector review has also been a result o f the close collaboration between the technical working group in the Ministry o f Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST), and the Bank education team. The review provides an analytical base with identified sector issues, and focused sector development directions, which will form a solid foundation for the sector strategic planning and preparation o f the sector reform program. The Bank i s also envisaged to play an important role in supporting the sector-wide program.

5. This sector review has emphasized the primary and secondary subsectors, although the postsecondary levels are covered in the discussions o f the system coverage, management, and resource allocation. This i s mainly owing to the fact that a labor market study i s planned to be conducted jointly by the Bank and the Govemment. The information from that study will be crucial to the analysis o f the extemal efficiency o f the sector, particularly with close linkages with postsecondary level education and training.

i

Main Sector Issues and Critical Challenges Enrollment 6. Kenya has made great strides in expanding the total number o f students enrolled in primary and secondary education. Since Independence in 1963, the total enrollment at primary level has grown from a mere 891,533 to over 7 mill ion in 2003, and from 30,000 to over 800,000 at the secondary level currently. However, during the 90s the enrollment increase slowed down significantly and did not keep pace with the school-age population growth. After peaking at 105 and 30 percent respectively, both the primary and secondary gross enrollment ratios have declined through the 1990s. At the beginning o f 2000, including both public and registered private schools, the GER at both the primary and secondary level has fallen to 88 and 22 percent respectively (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).

7. In 2003, following the implementation o f “Free Primary Education” policy, a massive increase in primary enrollment took place. Including both public and non-public primary schools, the enrollment at the primary level has exceeded 7 million, representing a GER of nearly 104 percent, which i s much higher than the average o f 79 percent among al l Sub- Sahara African (SSA) countries (African Development Indicators, 2003).

8. At the secondary level, about 660,000 students were enrolled in 2000. Current enrollment i s estimated at 700,000. Given an 8-year primary cycle, the secondary education in Kenya i s largely equivalent to upper secondary level in other SSA countries. Although the gross enrollment ratio at this level i s comparable with the regional average, its lag behind the primary GER i s more distinctive now (Fig. 2).

9. Regional disparities in enrollment s t i l l exist at both primary and secondary level. The magnitude o f the responses to the FPE policy also varies across the regions. Currently, the

Fig. 1: Primary and Secondary Enrollment

0 8 6,000

8 4,000 E

v - - - g 2,000 W

0

7 1 Source Ministry of Educunon, Sciency and Technology (MoEST)

Fig. 2: Primary and Secondary GER

30

10 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003

+primary -secondary

Source: MoEST.

Fig. 3: Regional Disparities in Primary and Secondary GER (%)

1 Ourimarv Msecondarv 1

Source: MoEST 2000. 2003.

_ . Northeastern Province has the lowest primary and secondary gross enrollment’ratios (at 23.2 and 4.5 percent respectively), with Nairobi the next lowest (Fig. 3).

11

Internal Efficiency 10. The education system in Kenya has also been characterized by l o w internal efficiency, as indicated by the high grade repetition and dropout rate.

11. At the primary level, although the dropout rate in each grade averages 5 percent, the cumulative effect i s quite large. By the end o f the gth year, only an average o f 63 percent o f the entrants are s t i l l in the system. In the meantime, the grade repetition rate i s alarmingly high, and averages about 14 percent annually between Standards 1 and 7. I t i s estimated that among the 63 percent.who are s t i l l in the system by the 8" year, only about a third o f them are in grade eight. The rest are s t i l l in the lower grades owing to grade repetition at some point. Out o f an average o f 52 percent o f the entrants who eventually complete the 8" grade, only 40 percent exit the primary cycle o n time (Fig. 4).

100 -

80 --

60 --

40 --

20 --

0

12. The survival at the secondary level i s relatively better. By the end o f the 4th year, an average o f 84 percent o f the entry cohort i s st i l l in the system. On average, 81 percent o f the entry cohort complete the secondary cycle eventually, with over 90 percent o f the graduates graduating o n time (Fig. 5).

--

Quality 13. The national examinations to obtain the Kenya Certificate o f Primary Education (KCPE) at the end o f primary cycle and the Kenya Certificate o f Secondary Education (KCSE) at the end o f secondary cycle are designed to evaluate the extent to which the primary and secondary graduates master the curriculum content. The results f rom the KCPE examinations in 2001 show that the overall score i s low. English, Kiswahil i, and mathematics subjects are among those with the lowest scores. Test scores from the KCSE examination results are even worse, with the scores below 40 percent in a l l the subjects tested in 2001. In addition, the trend does not seem to have improved over the years. In the K C S E examination, girls do better than boys

Fig. 4: Cohort Survival During Primary Cycle

Source: MoES7: 2000

standard 8

"standard 7

standard 6 .----I

-standard 5

-standard 4

'standard3

-standard 2

-standard I -

Fig. 5: Cohort Survival During Secondary Cycle

i -Form I V

L_I Form 111

-Form I1

-Form I

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

year

Source: MoEST, 2000.

Fig. 6: 2001 KCPE Examination Results (%)

Source: Kenyu Nurionul Exuminution Council. (KNEC), 2001.

in English, Swahili, and chemistry, but boys-are far better in mathematics and other science subjects (Fig 6. and Fig. 7).

... 111

14. Although the KCPE and KCSE examination outcomes are not satisfactory, Kenyan students seem to do well in standard competency tests. For example, the SACMEQ results show that Kenyan 6th-graders performed well on reading and mathematics tests, with both scores ranking second after Seychelles and Mauritius for reading and mathematics, respectively (Fig. 8).

15. The differentials o f the results o f the public examinations such as KCPE and KCSE, and the standard learning assessment such as SACMEQ are arguably due to the bias o f public examinations in measuring learning outcome as they also serve the purpose o f selecting students for the next cycle o f education. The selection requires certain degree o f difficulty o f the testing items so as to differentiate the top students. In the meantime, to emphasize the accountability o f schools and teachers in the quality o f education service delivery, the public examinations also bear the objective o f differentiating schools wi th various performance. This also requires certain level o f difficulty o f the examinations.

16. Although Kenyan students are doing relatively better than other SACMEQ countries, there i s general concerns among education officers, teachers and parents that the education quality i s not satisfactory by international standards. For example, although Kenya has not participated in the

Fig. 7: 2001 K C S E Examination Results

English Maths Physics Biology Chemistry

Source: KNEC, 2001

Fig. 8: SACMEQ Scores, 2001 I I

Source Southern Africu Consortiumfor Monitoring Educution Quulity (SACMEQJ, 2001

I

“Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)”, the participating South Africa could provide a useful benchmark. The low performance o f South African students i s particularly alarming as South Africa i s generally considered the highest performer in Sub-Sahara Africa.

17. Due to the introduction o f the diversified and costly curriculum in the 80s, public resources could basically only finance teachers’ salaries, leaving other teaching and learning inputs to be financed by parents, who were also under tight financial constraint during the same period o f time due to declining economy and increased poverty. I t i s arguable that shortage and inappropriateness o f educational inputs has shown negative impacts on the learning outcomes. The most important inputs include teachers, curriculum, instructional materials, and learning environment.

18. Overall teacher availability i s adequate at the primary level. However, there are huge variations in the pupil-teacher ratio across individual schools, zones, and districts. The nationwide pupil-teacher ratio i s estimated at 39: 1 at this level, with variations from 21: 1 (Baringo District in Rift Valley Province) to 57:l (Mandera District in North Eastern Province). The overall pupil-teacher ratio at the secondary level i s 16:1, which i s quite low by regional standards. As teachers teach by subject at this level, the demand for teachers i s mainly determined by the curriculum. Therefore many factors, such as the number

iv

o f subjects offered and the school size all affect the level o f pupil-teacher ratio at secondary level. However, the current low secondary pupil-teacher ratio i s a good indicator showing the low efficiency levels o f teacher utilization in secondary schools.

19. The diversified curriculum was introduced together with the 8-4-4 system (8 years o f primary education, 4 years o f secondary education, and at least 4 years o f university education) which started in the mid-1 980s. This diversified curriculum includes 13 teaching subjects and seven examinable subjects for KCPE at primary level, and 32 teaching subjects and eight examinable subjects for KCSE at secondary level. Although many o f the elective courses are taken by very few students, supporting the system requires a large amount o f resources to provide specialized teachers, school facilities, and equipment, and extra teaching and learning materials. In the meantime, whether such a curriculum i s relevant with regard to the objectives o f general education i s arguable. After detailed evaluation by MoEST and other agencies in Kenya, the curriculum reform has already started with the reduction o f the number o f subjects examined in KCPE from seven to five, and KCSE from eight to seven. Broad guidelines have also been developed to encourage the adaptation o f the curricula to the local environment, with strengthened support for effective teaching-learning to ensure that learners gain relevant knowledge and skills. The reformed curriculum i s being implemented in phases: Standard 1 and 5 at primary level, Form I at secondary level in 2003; Standard 2 and 6, and Form I1 in 2004; Standard 3 and 7, and Form I11 in 2005, and Standard 4 and 8, and Form IV in 2006.

20. Lack o f teaching and learning materials has also been identified as an issue negatively affecting education quality. In 2001, more than three quarters o f the students surveyed by SACMEQ study reported lack o f textbooks. The study also found that the availability o f exercise books and notebooks was only 25 and 18 percent o f what i s required. The Government i s fully aware o f the importance o f the instructional materials in education quality. Following the implementation o f the FPE policy in 2003, primary schools have received capitation grants from MoEST for teaching and learning materials including textbooks, teaching guides, supplementary reading materials, as well as exercise books and stationary packages. The textbook-pupil ratio i s expected to reach 1:3 at lower primary, and 1:2 at upper primary level. The impact on learning outcome o f the great improvement in the availability o f textbooks and other instructional materials at primary level will be seen in the coming years.

21. The learning environment including classrooms and other school facilities also has an impact on learning outcomes. Based on the school level information collected in 2003, the total number o f classrooms nationwide i s quite adequate at primary level, with an average pupil-classroom ratio o f 36: 1. However, the classroom distribution i s quite uneven in relation to the enrollments in the districts, with pupil-classroom ratio ranging from 7 1: 1 (Kisumu Municipality), to as low as 22: 1 (Turkana District in Rift Valley Province). The findings o f the SACMEQ 2001 survey shows that school sitting and writing places are adequate. However, much o f the school furniture i s not in good condition. Schools also tend to be overcrowded with regard to small average classroom space per pupil and extremely crowded sanitary facilities shared by too many pupils.

22. Although educational inputs are closely linked to learning outcome, the other crucial factor i s the process that mobilizes inputs to produce the results. It explains why schools wi th comparable inputs produce different results. The process factors include effective school management, leadership, and culture; classroom time and successful students’ grouping with special attention to some individual students; effective utilization o f teaching resources including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, peer support on pedagogy; and close monitoring student achievement and sharing with parents and staff for further development. These are all the areas that need further investigation.

V

23. Total education spending as a

for many years in Kenya. However, Kenya percentage of GDP has reached Over 6 percent

does not get the value o f these allocated public resources as compared to other Sub-Sahara African countries (Fig. 9). With similar levels o f overall Education Index (a composite index reflecting both a country’s adult literacy and i t s primary and secondary school enrollments), some other SSA countries spend far less on the education sector as percent o f their GDP.

Fig. 9: Public Education Spending vS. Education Index

I 0.9

0 8

8 0.7 c .- 0.6

0.5

0.4

0 3

x

A I Y

achievement factors, the widely recognized unsatisfactory students’ academic

......................................... ..*.... 4

1 I

Source: Humon Development Report, UNDP, m i .

............................. .. *........‘rt ....................

............... ~ ........ L . ?...*..@ ...............

....... ............................................ *- - - - - - - - -

0 2 4 6 8

Education Spending as % of GDP Although the Education- Index does not take into account the aualitv or leamina

24. This inefficiency o f public spending on education i s mainly owing to the inappropriate resource allocation and utilization within the sector. A large proportion o f spending i s on personal emoluments, leaving l i t t le resources to support educational inputs, such as teaching and learning materials, school equipment, and other operational activities at school level. Before 2002, teacher salaries had constituted as much as 99 percent o f recurrent expenditure at the primary level, and over 95 percent at the secondary level. The allocation between personal emoluments and other operational costs reached a reasonable level at the primary level following the implementation o f the “Free Primary Education” policy in 2003. The current personal emolument (PE)/other charges (OC) ratio at primary level i s 81:19 in 2003. However, to make this level o f allocation sustainable at primary level, and further adjust the PE/OC allocation at secondary level, there are two areas in which policy changes could make a difference.

25. The f i rs t area i s teacher’s salary level. The average annual eamings o f primary and secondary school teachers are reasonable compared with Kenya’s GDP per capita, with the average primary school teacher’s salary about 3.5 times, and secondary school teacher’s salary 5.5 times the per capita GDP. Teachers’ eamings are also comparable with the civil servants in other sectors. Although the levels o f teacher’s salaries are adequate, the total cost o f employing teachers i s quite high since benefits constitute a large proportion o f teacher’s overall compensation package. Including all the benefits, the average teacher’s compensation would be six to nine times the GDP per capita at the primary and secondary levels, respectively. In addition, in some cases, teacher’s qualifications do not match their positions. Teachers are paid according to their qualifications, but do not necessarily reflect the jobs they are actually doing. For example, although usually only P1 teachers are needed at the primary level, there are s t i l l graduate teachers teaching at this level, with a graduate teacher’s salary. The utilization o f “over- qualified” teachers also pushed the average PE cost higher.

26. The second area concems the overall teacher supply. Before the enrollment increase in 2003, Kenya had one o f the lowest pupil-teacher ratios in Africa at the primary level. Further, this ratio declined steadily over time - from 39 in 1963 to 33 in 2000. Following the primary enrollment jump in 2003, the current PTR has come back to an adequate level o f 39:l. At the secondary level, the PTR dropped from 26 in 1983 to a mere 16 now. The decline in the pupil-teacher ratio in recent years has been a result o f declining enrollment together with the supply-driven teacher employment. Although the

vi

practice o f supply-driven teacher employment has been replaced by a demand-driven approach in recent years, the deployment o f teachers over the years under the supply-driven approach has resulted in wide variations in the pupil-teacher ratio across schools and communities. Curriculum-related overstaffing has also been a distinctive phenomenon at the secondary level. Owing to the broad curriculum and low student registration for many selective courses, many teachers do not have a sufficient teaching load.

Equity

27. Most o f the public spending on education that benefits the poor i s delivered through primary education; however, this pro-poor effect i s marl other hand, i s pro-rich. The poorest 20 percent o f the households received only 10 percent o f the government subsidies that went to secondary schools. In contrast, the richest 20 percent received 24 percent (Fig.10). The degree o f inequality i s even more severe if one looks at the distribution o f public spending across al l school-age children instead o f across households, due to the fact that poor households have more out-of-school children o f the relevant age range. In addition, even some o f the children from poor households do go to school, these schools in poor communities tend to receive less public resources such as teachers from the government.

28. The ineff icient and inequitable public spending on education has put much o f the financing burden on poor households.

la1 in Kenva. SDending on secondarv education. on the

Fig. 10: Equity of Public Spending: Concentration Curve

0 20 40 60 80 100

--t primary --E#-- secondary

Household expenditures include tuition, school uniform, textbooks, transportation, meals and boarding, and “Harambee” contribution. At primary level, before the FPE policy was implemented, it cost a household 1,210 Kshs (US $16) annually on average to send a child to the primary school. Household expenditure on secondary education i s much higher than at primary level. The average annual expenditure i s close to 10,000 Kshs (US $130 equivalent) annually per secondary school pupil. Given the fact that public expenditure on education i s already high in the country, this indicates that the overall unit cost i s alarmingly high at the primary and secondary levels in Kenya.

Institutional Arrangement and Capacity for Service Delivery 29. Adequate institutional arrangements and capacity are necessary conditions for effective service delivery. A t the central level, weaknesses are found in the areas o f sector analysis, policy and planning, and overall system monitoring. Coordination i s also lacking between the MoEST and other central technical agencies, including Teachers Service Commission, Kenya Examination Council, and Kenya Institute o f Education, which i s reflected by irregular information flows and communication across and within the agencies. The management o f human resources, including both education officers and teachers, and the management o f financial resources are also weak at central level.

30. Kenya’s education system i s highly centralized. Decentralization i s justifiable given the vast coverage o f the education sector in terms o f the number o f students, institutions, teachers, and other service providers. Weak district-level and school-level capacity, however, i s a barrier to the effective decentralization o f education service delivery. These weak areas include limited local authorities’

vii

involvement, district- and school-level planning and reporting, school inspection, and teacher support as well as financial management and other day-to-day functions for service delivery.

Policy Recommendations 3 1. Further development o f the education system in Kenya requires a major investment in all the critical areas including school access, retention and completion, and education quality. Furthermore, the shift o f some o f the household burden o f education costs to the public sector will also put much pressure on the public resource allocation to the sector. The implementation o f the “Free Primary Education” policy has pushed the education recurrent expenditure up to 39 percent o f the total government discretionary spending in 2002-2003. Given the extremely high public spending on the education sector, improvement o f efficiency will be the key for the overall sector strategy. The efficiency improvement would benefit all the areas o f sector development including expanding enrollment, improving quality, and lowering the unit cost as well as strengthening the management o f the system. The efficiency improvement in the allocation and utilization o f resources i s particularly vital to the sustainability o f the overall sector development.

32. The other crucial factor for sustained sector development i s the balance between the sub-sectors. The enrollment bulge at primary level, together with quality improvement at this level will ripple through the system and lead to the increased pressure on the expansion o f general secondary, technical and vocational education and training, as well as tertiary education. Overall planning i s needed well ahead to prepare for the most effective sector-wide development strategies with close relation to Kenya’s poverty reduction and economic recovery efforts.

33. The recommended policy directions are summarized in the table below. Further operationalizing these policy directions with sequencing and the design o f investment mechanisms would require wide discussions among stakeholders under the development o f a comprehensive sector strategic plan.

viii

Table 1: Summary of Policy Directions

Targeting disadvantaged areas and population groups through both supply-side and demand-side financing

Other imoortant measures: Efficient utilization o f classrooms and other school facilities

view the staffing norm and redeployment o f teachers to ensure adequate availability teachers in each school

Other imoortant measures: Continuation and supervision o f the curriculum reform Strengthening in-service teacher training and other teacher professional support Continuation and supervision o f the provision o f teaching and learning materials at primary level, targeted provision o f teaching and learning materials at secondary level

Studies on school and classroom effectiveness including students’ time on task, pedagogy, and assessment

efficienc ;of public performance-based teacher incentive schemes resource allocation and utilization

Rationalize teacher compensation package, in relation to the establishment o f

Evaluate and adjust teacher resource requirement under the streamlined curriculum, together with alternative teaching methods such as multi-grade teaching in small schools Establish a planning mechanism for adequate resource allocation between primary, general secondary and other sub-sectors

institutional arrangements monitoring and capacity for service delivery

Strengthening central function o f sector analysis, policy and planning, and system

Strengthening management capacity at the school level, including the capacity o f School Management Committee at primary level and that o f Board o f Governors at the secondary level

Other important measures: Strengthening district-level capacity o f local system management, including school inspection, teacher development, monitoring and reporting Decentralization and greater involvement o f local authorities in education service

Equitable Expansion o f Enrollment

Targeting

34. Spending additional public resources on poor and underserved districts and fewer resources on better-off and well-served districts would not only be more equitable but also increase the effectiveness o f public spending on education. Demand-side financing targeting the lowest-income households will also achieve greater education participation. Although every primary school-age child has benefited from the

ix

“Free Primary Education” policy, there i s a need to put in place clear and transparent mechanisms for exempting the poorest students from user fees in secondary schools and make available to them bursaries and scholarships that help their families pay for the other costs o f schooling.

Efficient utilization of classrooms and other school facilities

35. Expansion o f the system also calls for increased classroom capacity. Although double-shifting use o f classrooms i s not common in Kenya, after the primary enrollment increase this year, many schools have successfully practiced double-shifting, particularly for lower grades with shorter learning hours. This practice has the potential to save substantial resources that would have otherwise gone into new building.

Public-private partnership in education provision

36. Greater private sector participation in the education sector i s inevitable for the future expansion o f education, particularly at the secondary level, since a very large proportion o f public resources has already been allocated to the education sector. Furthermore, gains from efficiency improvement and lowered unit cost will not be sufficient for further expansion o f coverage given the currently extremely low secondary education enrollment. Greater private sector participation will also introduce competition into the sector, which i s a crucial internal mechanism for efficiency enhancement. This would require review and necessary revisions o f the regulatory framework with regard to private school registration as well as quality assurance and supervision. The policy focus should also be on relieving the constraints o f private participation in education, for example, in areas o f school financing and credit market access, and land acquisition together with tax exemption and other incentives to make private education more attractive to investors.

Quality and Internal Efficiency Impro vement

Efficient deployment of teachers to ensure adequate teacher supply in schools

37. Pupil-teacher ratio at primary level has increased to 39:l from 33:l after the implementation o f FPE in 2003. However, teacher resources need to be more evenly distributed across schools based on school enrollment. The staffing norm o f 1.025 teachers for one class need be reviewed and better articulated so as to link the number o f pupils directly to staffing needs. Deployment o f teachers according to need wil l be crucial to improve efficiency and education quality. Furthermore, there are large PTR differences among zones within districts, and among districts within provinces. Therefore, redeployment o f teachers i s not infeasible given that within-district and within-province redeployments are relatively low-cost and put less stress on redeployed teachers.

38. At the secondary level, although the overall teacher supply i s high related to the secondary enrollment, attention should be given to certain core subjects such as maths and science where teacher deficiency s t i l l exists. Long-term teacher needs should also be evaluated for the expansion at this level, particularly with regard to the “rippling effect” from the great expansion o f primary education following FPE.

Implementation and supervision of curriculum reform

39. The curriculum reform currently underway at each level i s aimed at re-aligning the curriculum design and learning objectives at each level. The examined subjects at the primary level have been reduced from seven to five at secondary level from eight to seven. The curriculum content has been revised to focus on teaching and learning essential core ski l ls. Further monitoring and supervision will be needed to examine the effects o f curriculum reform on core course learning achievement as well as on lowering the overall cost.

X

In-sewice teacher training and other teacher professional support

40. The ongoing curriculum reform also requires a great deal o f in-service training o f teachers and extensive teacher professional support to let the teachers adapt to the new curriculum. This i s particularly crucial at the secondary level as many teachers may have to be re-trained to teach core courses within a streamlined curriculum with fewer subjects. The roles o f Teacher Advisory Centres will have be reevaluated and strengthened to provide needed professional support to teachers.

Provision of teaching and learning materials

41. Until 2002, teacher salaries accounted for over 95 percent o f the recurrent expenditure at the primary and secondary levels. As a result, there were almost no public resources remaining for other school inputs, such as learning materials and textbooks. In 2003, the spending on school materials has increased to close to 20 percent o f the total primary-level recurrent expenditure, mainly through the implementation o f the primary school grants for textbooks and other teaching and leaming materials. At the secondary level, to raise the effectiveness o f public spending on education, the government will have to continue increasing the total resources on instructional materials or reallocate resources from teacher salaries to other recurrent inputs. To make the most o f limited resources, the provision o f textbooks and other leaming materials may have to be targeted to poor students at the secondary level. Better-off students and communities who are able to pay for textbooks and learning materials may have to continue to finance these inputs themselves.

Improvement of school facilities

42. Improving the condition o f school facilities will include new constructions and also emphasis on the maintenance o f school facilities, which i s in general more cost-effective, particularly under double- shifting use o f classrooms. Furthermore, since the distribution o f classrooms relative to enrollment i s uneven across districts, targeted provision o f development funds for classroom construction and maintenance should be considered. In the meantime, more populated areas also face the constraint o f the availability o f land. Efficient utilization o f classrooms i s particularly crucial to ensure education quality in these areas.

Improvement of classroom effectiveness

43. There has not been much information so far in Kenya regarding the process that educational inputs produce learning outcome. The research findings in other developing countries have shown that it i s one the most important determinants o f effective learning and teaching. Further monitoring and analysis i s needed in the areas o f classroom learning such as time on task, students’ grouping, attention to individual students; and effective teaching including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, and peer support on pedagogy.

Efficiency Enhancement o f Resource Allocation and Utilization

Rationalization of teacher compensation with linkages to performance-based incentive schemes

44. There i s need to further review and rationalize teachers’ overall compensation package, particularly with regard to the pending teachers salary award granted in 1997198, i t s sustainability and fiscal impact. More importantly, an incentive scheme, in replace o f the uniform benefit package, should be considered to link certain award directly to teacher’s performance.

Evaluate and adjust teacher resource requirement

45. New staff norms need to be established based on the enrollment at school level, so as to optimize teacher utilization with enough teaching loads for each teaching position. Alternative teaching modes, such as multi-grade teaching, should also be experimented to increase the cost-effectiveness o f teaching

x i

and learning. This i s particularly relevant to schools o f small sizes and located in sparsely-populated areas.

46. Curriculum-related overstaffing has been a distinctive phenomenon at the secondary level. This situation should improve with the ongoing implementation o f curriculum reform. However, this may also require re-training o f many teachers because the training they received to teach certain subjects may not be useful for teaching core courses.

Resource allocation between sub-sectors

47. The effect o f nearly one mill ion increase o f primary enrollment in 2003 on the demand for secondary education and other levels o f education and training will be seen in a few years. There i s immediate need to plan ahead.for the expected expansion. Given an improved economic perspective, i t i s envisaged that there will be increased resource demand at secondary and higher levels. However, decisions on how much publicly-financed upper general secondary education a country such as Kenya should provide at i t s present stage o f economic development i s not an easy one. Labor market considerations should play an important role in determining the priorities for public financing. H o w to efficiently allocate public resources among sub-sectors will be a major challenge ahead for a balance growth o f the education sector to meet the needs o f poverty reduction and economic recovery.

Strengthen Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Service Delivery 48. The f i rst area i s the management and planning functions at the central level. The second area i s the implementation capacity at the school and district levels. At the central level, there i s need for (1) better coordination o f central agencies including KIE, TSC, and KNEC for overall sector policy and standards with (2) clear accountabilities and communication mechanisms across various agencies. There i s also need for (3) enhanced capacity o f monitoring and evaluation function at the central level, which would firther require (4) an improved EMIS and (5) better Research and Development (R&D) functions at this level.

Strengthening institutional capacity should focus on two major areas.

49. In accordance with GoK reforms o f the public sector, particularly within the context o f the “Free Primary Education” policy in the education sector, major administrative and resource management functions have been devolved to district and school levels. Therefore, a need exists to strengthen the capacity at this level for the management o f service delivery and financial accountability. The range of management issues at this level not only covers student flow management, but may also include hiring teachers, school-based teacher development, curriculum implementation, school level financial management, and monitoring and reporting.

50. Another important area i s to strengthen the role o f Local Authorities in education service delivery. Local Authorities are mostly held accountable for the development o f local communities. They have the ultimate incentives to support the local primary and secondary schools. Local authorities have also the most direct contact with the local communities to communicate on public policies. They also in general have better knowledge on local conditions, thus have comparative advantage in ensuring the efficiency o f resource allocation on the ground, including the allocation o f teacher resources, as well as targeted demand-side financing resources.

Sector Development Projections 5 1. between primary and secondary levels can be shown using a projection model o f sector planning.

The extent o f the efficiency gains in the sector, and the need for a balanced resource allocation

xii

Enrollment projections 52. The enrollment projection at primary level uses the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as the target, with primary cycle completion rate reaching 100 percent by 20 15. This requires that a universal intake rate together with zero dropout should start at the latest in 2007. The projection shows that the "FPE bulge" works i t s way through the system. By 2012, the last cohort o f "FPE bulge" will reach the last grade o f the primary cycle. The system reaches a steady-state in 2013, with 100 percent Ne t Enrollment Ratio (NER), and 103 percent GER. Due to the slow-down o f school age population growth, as projected by the Kenya Central Bureau o f Statistics (CBS), the size o f the enrollment grows slowly over time. Total primary enrollment i s estimated at between 7.5 to 8 mil l ion during most o f the subsequent years. Secondary level enrollment i s determined by the Standard 8 enrollment o f the year before in the primary cycle, together with the transition rate from the primary to secondary cycle. We provide two cases o f enrollment projections (Fig. 11).

53. The f i rs t i s the baseline case, with the transition rate constant at the current level o f 40 percent. I t should be noted that even without increasing the transition rate, the gross enrollment ratio will increase from 23 percent to 38 percent by 2015. This i s mainly due to the expansion o f the primary education, producing more graduates from the primary cycle. The second case has vast expansion o f secondary school enrollment, with a transition rate o f 80 percent starting in 2004, together with a gradual increase in GER from 23 percent in 2003 to 76 percent in 2015.

Cost projections 54. Cost projections focus on the policy options for efficiency gains. A t the primary level, the lower-bound scenario with maximal efficiency gains assumes that the uneven distribution across districts and schools can be solved via complete redeployment o f teachers. Classroom utilization can be intensified though double-shift in areas where there are more than 40 pupils in one classroom on

Fig. 11: Enrollment Projections

8,050,000

7,050,000

6,050,000

1 5'050,000 'e 4,050,000

3,050,000

2,050,000

1,050,000

50,000

1.10

1 0 0

0.90

0.80

0.70 5 0 6 0 0

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

'"*""'pnw enrollment ISSSSSsecondaty enmllmt -Secondary enmllmcnf

--+- P n w GER -See GER baseline Sm GER w/expansioi baseline wl expansion

,

Fig. 12: Recurrent Cost and Financing of Primary schooling

...............

...................... ............................

450.0 4 , , ~ , , , , , , , , ,

--C Recurrent cost (lower bound) 4- Recurrent cost (upper bound)

--t domestic recurrent resources

Fig. 13: Development Cost of Primary Education

70.0 ............................................................

.........................................................

.......................................

10.04 , ~ , , , , , , , , ~ ,

-Development cost (lower bound) *Development cost (upper bound)

... Xll l

average. Under this scenario, the national average wil l determine the total cost at this level. In comparison, the upper bound estimation assumes n o efficiency gains with complete rigidity o f teacher redeployment and classroom utilization. I t i s estimated that, between 2003 and 2015, the savings f rom efficiency improvement can reach US$600 mi l l ion in recurrent spending, and U S $ l 5 0 m i l l i on in development spending (Fig. 12 and 13).

55. At secondary level, three scenarios are presented for the comparison o f efficiency gains f rom better teacher utilization. The baseline scenario i s based o n the constant primary to secondary transition rate without

Fig. 14: Recurrent Cost and Financing of Secondary Education

...............................................................

8ooo T - - - - 700.0 4 ...................................................................

efficiency improvement in teacher utilization. The projected domestic resources would not be sufficient to sustain the system. In contrast, Scenario 1 shows that under the same circumstances, but increasing pupil-teacher ratio gradually to 35: 1, this system can largely self-sustained. Scenario 2 further shows that, with more efficient utilization o f teachers, about the same amount o f financial resources required under the baseline scenario can largely finance a much expanded secondary enrollment with 80 transition rate starting in year 2004 (Fig. 14).

Resource projections and allocation across subsectors 56. The FY03104 recurrent budget for MoEST has reached the level o f 39 percent o f GoK's total discretionary budget. This share i s unlikely to increase significantly in the future. The increase o f the domestic resource to the sector will largely rely on the economic and total budget envelope growth. If the resource allocation across subsectors stays constant, and assuming a 3 percent growth rate in the subsequent years, there i s n o financing gap at primary level. Indeed, there i s significant surplus that could be reallocated for further measures o f quality improvement. In the meantime, the efficiency improvement o f teacher utilization i s critical at secondary level to ensure the sustainability o f the development at this level. The sub-sector balance o f public financing would also require to map out the directions o f the development o f general secondary education in relation to technical and vocational education and training, and tertiary education, to meet the needs o f education and skills for economic recovery and growth. In addition, mobil izing resources from the private sector will be necessary to ensure continuous sector expansion.

xiv

Chapter 1 Macroeconomic Context and Demographic Trends

1.1 A country’s macroeconomic and demographic conditions are important determinants o f many features o f the education and training sector in that country. The main indicators o f these conditions that will be discussed in this Chapter include national income and growth potential, population growth and structure, and public sector structure and performance. These factors contribute to the potential o f as well as impose constraints upon the sector development. In the meantime, the performance o f the education and training sector also contributes to the overall economic development by increasing productivity, reducing poverty, and improving human welfare.

1.2 Kenya i s currently going through an important political and economic transition period. On December 27, 2002, Kenyan voters elected their first new president in 24 years, effectively ending the political domination o f the party that has ruled Kenya since independence. Faced with the tremendous challenge o f revitalizing economic performance, the new Government i s quickly moving forward to address govemance and economic management issues, and to strengthen poverty reduction efforts. With i t s close links to economic development, the education and training sector i s given great priority in the overall economic recovery strategy.

Evolution of Gross Domestic Products 1.3 The f i rst decade after independence witnessed a pattem o f high and sustained economic growth followed by a period o f decline, and eventually low cycles o f growth, especially in the 1990s (Table 1.1). Between 1963-1972, the economy recorded the highest growth rates, averaging 6.6 percent per annum. During 1990 to 2001, Kenya’s real GDP grew at only an annual average rate o f 2.2 percent. The growth rate in the 1990s was well below the neighboring countries o f Uganda (6.8 percent) and Tanzania (3.1 percent).

1.4 Kenya’s weak economic performance coupled with a population growth rate averaging 2.7 percent during the 1990s, leading to a contraction in real per capita income by an average o f 0.5 percent per year. The peak o f current GDP per capita reached U S $450 in 1980, compared with U S $365 in 2001 and US$399 in 2002 (Table 1.2).

Table 1.1: Real GDP Growth 1980-2001

80-89 90-93 94-97 98-01 90-01 GDP 4.3 1.3 3.3 1 .o 2.2

Agriculture 3.5 -1.0 3.4 0.5 1 .o Industry 4.0 1.8 2.7 0.5 1.7

Services 5.0 3.3 4.3 1.5 3 .O Real GDP per capita 0.7 -1.5 1.6 1 .o -0.5

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics.

Table 1.2: Current GDP Per Capita and Population

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Current GDP Percapita 370 340 330 250 240 260 320 379 399 359 346 365 399 (US$)

23.4 24 24.7 25.3 26 26.7 27.4 28.0 28.8 29.5 30.2 30.8 31.5 Population (million) Source:1990-1996 from World Bank; 1997-2002 from Public Expenditure Review (Republic of Kenya, 2003).

1

Fiscal Resources and Performance 1.5 Table 1.3 shows that Government revenue collection peaked at 28.7 percent o f GDP in 1997/98 before falling gradually to 2 1.4 percent o f GDP by the end o f the financial year 2000/0 1, partly due to the slowdown in economic activity and an increase in tax evasion, and paoly to the decline in tax rates. Meanwhile, the share o f extemal grants has fallen steadily from 1.2 percent o f GDP in 1995/96 to 0.5 percent o f GDP in 1999/2000; before improving to 2.8 percent o f GDP in the year ending 2000/0 1.

Table 1.3: Government Revenue and Expenditure As Percentage of GDP, 1997/1998 - 200212003

1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 Domestic revenue and grants 29.5 27.2 23.5 25.6 22.1 23.9

Domestic revenue 28.7 26.5 22.9 22.7 21.4 22.2 Grants 0.8 0.7 0.5 2.8 0.7 1.6 Expenditure and net lending 31.1 26.6 22.5 27.5 24.5 27.0 GDP at Market prices (Kshs. Million) 623,235 694,029 743,479 796,343 882,725 969,354

Exchange rate: Kshs per US $ 58.0 61.8 70.4 76.3 78.6 75.0

Source: PER 2003.

1.6 Adequate fiscal discipline has characterized the second half o f the 1990s. In 1999/2000, the fiscal deficits tumed into surplus. However, due to the slow expansion &at characterized the economy over the last decade, expenditure has continued to exceed budgeted targets. Although the deficit increased in 2001 due to drought-related expenditures (Figure 1. l), in general the poor expenditure and enforcement controls put much pressure on domestic financing and the accumulation o f domestic arrears. Conversely, where expenditure items as a percentage of total public spending are concemed, recurrent expenditures have grown whereas the fiscal adjustment fell on capital investment. The spending proportions o f both wage and non-wage items have increased during 1995-2000.

Table 1.4: Expenditure Category and As Percentage o f GDP, 1997/1998 - 2002/2003 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03*

KSh million Recurrent 160,279 165,33 1 156,535 198,941 200,807 227,055 Development and net Lending 34,686 32,010 18,584 33,980 24,953 38,795 Total 194,965 197,341 175,119 232,921 225,760 265,850

Recurrent 25.6 22.3 20.1 23.5 21.8 23.1

Total 31.1 26.6 22.5 27.5 24.5 27.0 Source: PER 2003. *provisional.

% o f GDP

Development and net Lending 5.5 4.3 2.4 4.0 2.7 3.9

2

Figure 1.1: Fiscal Deficit as Percent of GDP

..................................................................................... I 1.5 I

1 0.5

0 -0.5

-1

$ -1.5 -2

’ -2.5 -3

.................

.................

................

..........

.........

.........

................. i ........

-3.5 1 .....................................................................................

1.7 In recent years, the government has sought to restructure expenditure allocations across sectors to meet the requirements o f basic functions (Table 1.5). In 2000, the government adopted a medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF), a three-year program aligned with the Govemment’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) aimed at making spending more effective and more oriented to expenditure categories with the highest potential to affect growth and improve social sector performance. Human resource development, including education and health, has been identified as one o f the priorities areas for public spending in l ine with overall poverty reduction strategies. Currently, the education sector has the largest share in social spending with an allocation o f a quarter o f the Govemment’s available resources. This represents around 6 percent o f Kenya GDP, compared with an average o f 3.5 percent for Sub-Sahara African countries. Details o f education sector financing will be discussed in Chapter 5.

Table 1.5: Share of Public Expenditures By Sector

Defense & Public Administration 22.3 21.2 31.6 17.8 26.4 28.8 33.3 36.6 General Administration 7.9 9.6 16.1 8.8 13.7 14.3 18.8 18.9 Extemal Affairs 1.3 1.6 1.8 1 .o 1.4 1.7 1.4 2 .o Public Order and Safety 4.9 4.7 6.5 4.3 5.9 7.0 6.9 8.5 Defense 8.2 5.3 7.1 3.7 5.4 5.8 6.1 7.1

Social Services 27.1 24.7 32.5 23.1 31.3 33.5 29.2 33.7 Education 18.5 17.6 22.8 16.9 24.4 26.4 21.4 24.9 Health 5.0 4.8 7.2 4.7 5.3 5.6 6.7 7.2 Housing and Community Welfare 0.5 1.3 2.4 1.2 1.5 1.5 1 .o 1.5 Social Welfare 3.0 0.9 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Economic Services 21.9 15.9 18.0 9.4 13.9 15.4 17.0 21.1 General Administration 3.7 1.9 1.9 1.1 1.7 2.8 6.1 6.2

Industry 12 2.4 1.3 1.6 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.6 Energy 13 2.7 1.7 2.2 1.1 1 .o 0.8 1.1 1.3 Road 3.1 3.2 5.4 2.8 4.1 4.9 4.1 5.2 Other Transport & Communications 0.6 1 .o 1.5 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.4 Other 2.1 1.4 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.9 Other Services 28.8 38.2 17.9 49.7 28.4 22.3 20.6 8.7 Debt Service 12.3 25.2 17.2 48.9 31.5 27.7 23.9 27.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: ”Economic Survey” various editions. * Provisional; * * Preliminaly

Agriculture 7.4 5.5 4.7 2.8 4.8 4.3 3.6 4.5

3

Population and Labor Force Evolution o f the Population 1.8 Kenya experienced a fast population growth since independence. During the 1970s and 1980s Kenya had one o f the fastest-growing populations in the world. The 1979 census revealed an astonishing annual growth rate o f 4.1 percent. Ten years later the census estimated that the rate had slowed to a st i l l - rapid 3.3 percent. The results o f the 1999 population census put Kenya's population at 28.7 million, representing an annual average o f 2.5 percent o f the growth rate. The adult HIV/AIDS prevalence rate i s high in Kenya. After peaking at 14 percent in 1998, it i s estimated at 10 percent currently. The increased mortality rate o f adults has also contributed to the slowing growth and increasing dependency ratio o f Kenyan population.

1.9 Some o f the factors that explain the key issues and challenges facing the education sector can be seen in the country's basic demographic indicators. Changes in the demographic profile can dictate the trend o f investments made in the provision o f education. For example, the growth o f the school-age population and the variation in the population density i s critical in determining the cost-effectiveness o f the distribution o f resources for education service provisions. Where the population density i s low, the per capita cost o f service provisions can be relatively high and vice versa. However, efficiency i s not the only concern for public investment, in many cases, social equity i s vital to ensuring the overall sustainability o f economic development. As poor economic conditions are often observed in sparsely- populated areas, the trade-off between efficiency and equity will be faced by many public policies.

1.10 Table 1.6 below illustrates the age composition o f the population according to the 1999 population census. The country's population distribution i s highly skewed towards the youth with the population between 0-19 years accounting for about 57 percent o f the total population. The interpretation suggests a high dependency ratio that will increasingly demand a corresponding r ise in the provision o f social services and employment opportunities.

Table 1.6: Population by Gender and Age Structure in 1999 (in 1000s)

Age group Male Female Total YO o f Total 0-4 2,573,752 2,444,924 5,018,676 17.5

5-9 1,988,609 1,951,935 3,940,544 13.7

10-14 2,014,745 1,986,036 4,000,781 13.9

15-19 1,655,872 1,699,894 3,355,766 11.7

20-24 1,301,094 1,487,950 2,789,044 9.7

25-29 1,069,877 1,151,212 2,222,089 7.7

30-34 820,661 833,973 1,654,634 5.8

35-39 680,892 716,297 1,397,189 4.9

40-44 505,237 511,158 1,016,395 3.5

45-49 412,677 415,821 828,498 2.9

50-54 338,472 336,897 675,459 2.4

55-59 220,771 235,034 455,805 1.6

60+ 622,930 709,887 1,332,817 4.6

Total 14,205,589 14,481,018 28,686,607 100

Source: 1999 Population Census Report Vol. II.

4

1.11 Between 1989 and 1999, the population growth rate in Kenya was estimated at 2.7 percent. However, the effect o f reduced fertility i s fe l t f i r s t on the size o f the younger age cohorts. The Central Bureau o f Statistics (CBS) projections show that population growth in the younger age groups i s falling rapidly. For example, the preschool age group shows an average o f annual growth rate o f 0.5 percent. The growth rate i s also slowly declining. The primary age group grows at 1.33 percent annually declining to 0.80 percent by 2006. The secondary age group grows at around 2.0 percent annually and i s also declining. An implication o f these trends i s that Kenya will not be faced with rapidly growing school age populations in the coming years. Preliminary population projections are shown in Table 1.7'.

Table 1.7: School Age Population Estimates 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Preschool (ages 3-5) 2,786,410 2,800,338 2,812,842 2,822,983 2,830,705

Primary (ages 6-13) 6,592,000 6,681,445 6,770,406 6,856,230 6,938,760

Secondary (ages 14-17) 2,865,000 2,910,322 2,968,263 3,025,6 10 3,082,292

Growth rate previous year preprimary (%)

Growth rate previous year primary (%)

Growth rate previous year secondary (%)

0.50 0.43 0.36 0.27

1.36 1.33 1.27 1.20

1.58 1.99 1.93 1.87

Source: CBS.

Labor force and employment 1.12 In the past decade, the formal sector has failed to meet the challenges o f employment creation and income generation. This i s largely due to the slow economic growth and declining levels o f investment. While the labor force i s increasing rapidly at 3.5 percent annually during the period 1997-2001, formal sector employment grew by only 1.8 percent. Although the performance o f the informal sector was better, recording an average growth o f 10 percent annually, the productivity in the sector has been low partly due to inadequate technological sk i l ls resulting from the declining levels o f sk i l ls involved. Table 1.8 below provides a summary o f the structure o f employment by sector in Kenya.

Table 1.8: Total Employment And Shares by Sector 1997 - 2001 (in 1000s)

Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001*

Formal Sector : 1,708.0 1,743.2 1,753.6 1,760.7 1,742.3

Public sector Private Sector Self-employed**

697.1 711.2 698.8 692.5 658.4 946.8 967.2 989.9 1,002.9 1,018.7 64.1 64.8 64.9 65.3 65.3

Informal Sector 2,986.9 3,353.5 3,738.8 4,150.9 4,624.40

Total 4,694.9 5,096.7 5,492.4 5,911.6 6,366.7 Shares (YO): Formal Sector :

Public sector

36.4 34.2 31.9 29.8 27.4 14.8 14.0 12.7 11.7 10.3

' The 2000-2003 projections are f rom CBS (Analytical Report on Population Projections, February 2003). The 1999 data are preliminary World Bank PER team calculations.

5

Private Sector 20.2 19.0 18.0 17.0 16.0

Self-employed&** 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 .o Informal Sector 63.6 65.8 68.1 70.2 72.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * Provisional **Includes unpaid family workers Source: Economic Survey, various issues

1.13 Table 1.8 shows that the total share o f employment in the informal sector has increased from 65 percent in 1997 to 72 percent in 2001. In the public sector, wage employment declined by 4.9 percent from a total o f 697,100 persons in 1997 to 658,400 persons in 2001. I t i s also noticeable that although the employment share o f the overall formal sector i s shrinking, the proportion o f private sector wage employment in the formal sector i s increasing; at the same time, there i s a decline in employment in the public sector, attributable to continued restructuring initiatives.

Impact o f HIV/AIDS 1.14 HIV/AIDS has the potential to create a severe economic impact in the country. I t causes a reduction in the size of the experienced labor force, increases health care expenditures, raises the cost o f labor, and reduces savings and investment. I t i s different from most other diseases that i t strikes people in the most productive age groups and the mortality rate i s extremely high. The economic effect o f A I D S i s fe l t f i rst by individuals and their families, then ripples outwards to f i rms, businesses and ultimately, the whole economy.

1.15 In year 2000, the HIV/AIDS national adult (15-49 years) prevalence in Kenya was 13.3 percent, representing an estimated 1.9 mill ion people living with HIV/AIDS. Urban adult prevalence was 17.7 percent compared to a rural adult prevalence o f 12.4 percent. More than 700 Kenyans die every day from AIDS-related diseases. There has been a steady r ise in HIV prevalence rates from 5 percent in 1993 to about 13.3 per cent in 2000. The current prevalence rates pose serious challenges to economic growth and development prospects. The Kenya National HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan (2000-2005) estimates that the impact o f AIDS may reduce Kenya's GDP by 14.5 percent over the period while per capita income will fall by 10 per cent over the same period.

1.16 The HIV/AIDS epidemic affects the demographic profile by reducing population growth and l i fe expectancy, and increasing infant and child mortality and dependency ratios. Projections indicate that by the year 2005, the population will be smaller by 3.6 mil l ion due to AIDS. L i f e expectancy will be reduced to 46 years by 2010. Both the infant mortality rate and the child mortality rate have increased by 20 percent in the period 1989-1998 as a result o f the rise in prevalence rates.

1.17 The education sector i s one o f those expected to be severely affected by AIDS in many ways. Children infected with HIV at birth do not l ive to enroll in school. In addition, many children have to drop out o f school when they become orphans or stay at home to care for the sick family members. Worse still, many teachers are also dying from AIDS, and are too sick to work for a long time, thus denying the sector a vital and skilled human resource. In the education sector generally, the HIV/AIDS epidemic threatens to undermine achievements in literacy, increase the number o f poorly-educated children, and reduce the education quality.

Economic Development Perspectives 1.18 Currently, an Economic Recovery Action Plan ( E M ) i s being developed at an advanced stage by the new Government, focusing on the main strategy for reviving the economy and creating jobs during

6

2003-2007. There are four pillars for ERAP: economic growth, governance, infrastructure, and human capital.

Macroeconomic Prospects 1.19 The Government i s committed to the maintenance o f a stable macroeconomic framework within the context o f structural reforms that wil l lead to employment creation and poverty reduction. The key macroeconomic objectives for the period 2003-2007 include:

0

0

Creating 500,000 quality jobs annually Reducing poverty levels by at least 5 percentage points from the current 56.8 percent

Achieving a higher real GDP growth rate rising from an estimated 1.1 percent increase in

Keep average annual inflation rates to below 5 percent Increase official foreign exchange reserves from 2.8 months o f import cover in 2002 to

Containing the current account o f the balance o f payments to an average o f 6.2 percent o f

level

2002 to 2.3 percent in 2003 and 6.5 percent in 2006 0

0

0

3.5 months o f import cover in 2007

GDP. 0

1.20 To achieve the desired growth and employment creation targets, Kenya will require an increase in gross fixed capital formation from 16.8 percent o f GDP in 2002 to about 23 percent in 2007. Investment, particularly by the private sector, i s envisaged to recover if assisted mainly by the stable macroeconomic conditions and envisaged improvement in governance following implementation o f proposed far-reaching reforms in this area. Much o f the investment recovery will be financed with domestic savings, which are projected to r ise from 10.7 percent o f GDP in 2002 to 15.8 percent in 2007. I t i s estimated that to finance the remaining resource gap, external resources o f at least US$2.2 bil l ion will be needed by the public sector and US$1.1 bil l ion by the private sector over the next 5 years.

1.21 The sector expected to lead in reviving the economy will be building and construction, which i s projected to grow annually by 16.7 percent on average. Consequently, the building and construction share o f the GDP will r ise from 2.3 percent in 2002 to 4.2 percent in 2007 driven primarily by increased public investments in infrastructure. The other major source o f growth i s manufacturing, which i s projected to grow at 8.6 percent annually during the following five years, compared with only 1.2 percent in 2002. I t s share o f GDP wil l rise from 13 to 15.7 percent during the same period. The driving force o f the growth in manufacturing i s envisaged to be efficiency improvement, including an improved business environment and reduced cost o f production, improved governance, and public sector efficiency as well as better security situation.

1.22 The agriculture sector, which has been faced with myriad structural problems, i s expected to grow by an average o f 3.1 percent annually during the recovery period as investment in rural infrastructure, agricultural research, and extension services begin to yield desired results. Tourism i s also expected to make a significant contribution to the economic recovery, growing by an annual average o f 5.4 percent over the period. The main direction o f the development of agricultural sector i s towards less agricultural- dependency through diversifying while recognizing the strategic position o f agriculture in fighting poverty.

Education Sector Development 1.23 The Government has recognized the strategic importance o f raising the overall education level o f Kenyans within the context of poverty reduction and economic growth. Education i s not only a welfare indicator per se, i t i s also a key determinant o f earnings and, therefore, an important exit route from

7

poverty. As a result, human capital investment, including health and education, i s identified as one o f the four pillars o f the Government’s overall economic recovery strategy.

1.24 To contribute to the country’s overall economic recovery and further development, a consistent and effective sector strategy will be needed. The objective o f this sector report i s to provide an analytical base o f the status o f major aspects o f Kenya’s education sector for the development o f such a strategy. Policy directions will be discussed together with i t s cost implications in relation to public resources required based on a projection model o f sector financing. The report i s envisaged to provide policy makers and stakeholders with rich information and analytical results to design effective and efficient public interventions in the sector.

Conclusions 1.25 This i s a transition period for Kenya both politically and economically. Not only will the development o f the education sector contribute to the continuous economic growth and social transformation, but also there will be increased demand for more equitable education attainment, which i s an important human welfare indicator per se. The challenges the sector i s facing are as well the opportunities the sector can seize to improve access and quality, and eventually to meet the needs o f poverty alleviation, economic recovery and sustainable social development.

8

Chapter 2 Education Coverage and Attainment

Historical Overview 2.1 Kenya has achieved impressive increases in adult literacy since independence. I t grew from a mere 20 percent in 1960 to 83 percent todaf. This reflects continuous government and community efforts on the expansion o f education access. Total number o f primary schools has r isen from 6,058 at independence to around 18,000 currently. The total number o f secondary schools has increased from 15 1 to over 3,600 over the same period. This effort led to a substantial increase in school enrollment. At the primary level, student enrollment rose f iom a total o f 891,000 in 1963 to close to 6.3 mil l ion in 2002, and further to 7.2 mil l ion in 2003. In the meantime, the enrollment at secondary level rose from 30,000 in 1963 to 660,000 in 2002, and i s estimated at over 700,000 in 2003.

2.2 Overall, enrollment increase at the primary and secondary education level i s faster than the school-age population growth through more than two decades since independence, bringing a consistent increase in primary and secondary Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) up to the late 1980s. However, the gains appear to start eroding after 1989. Since it peaked at 105 percent in 1989, the primary gross enrollment fe l l to 88 percent in 1993, and remained stagnant at this level throughout the 1990s and up to year 2002 before the implementation of. the “Free Primary Education” Policy. Secondary school gross enrollment shows a similar trend. I t fe l l from 30 percent in 1990 to only 22 percent in 2000. It i s evident that the dramatic growth Kenya had experienced during the early decades stalled.

2.3 The slowing down o f the sector expansion i s often seen as closely related to the overall economic condition. A deteriorated economy and increased poverty put tight constraints on the public and private resources to be invested in education. In the meantime, shrinking demand for slulled labor with a smaller modern sector also curbed the incentives for investment in education.

2.4 Currently, Kenya i s experiencing a historical moment. In December 2002, a new Govemment was formed after a democratic election, ending the 24 years o f political domination by the party that has ruled Kenya since independence. The new Government has already made a clear break from the past in i t s policy actions. In education, a “Free Primary Education” policy was announced and implemented in the 2003 school year. Expansion o f primary education has now jump-started with close to 1 mil l ion enrollment increase between the 2002-2003 school years.

2.5 The large-scale demand-side response to the abolition o f primary school fees i s evidence that one o f the main hurdles to education access i s the cost burden on households for basic education. Improving access at both primary and secondary levels requires immediate alleviation o f this cost burden. In the meantime, capacity constraint in school places needs to be further investigated and address. More importantly, to retain the outcome o f FPE, improving school retention and completion also needs resources to improve education quality, strengthening every aspect o f education - inputs as well as management. Shift o f some o f the household burden o f education cost to the public sector, and increase in investment in education quality will require significantly increased public resource allocation to the sector. Given the current high public spending on the education sector, improvement o f public spending efficiency will be key for the overall sector strategy.

2.6 Currently, the education and training sector contains the following main subsector programs:

0

0 Primary Education Early Childhood Development and Preschool Education

Unless otherwise indicated, data in the following chapters are from MoEST.

0

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

2.7

Secondary Education University Education Technical and Vocational Education and Training Teacher Education and Training Nonfonnal Education and Adult Education Special Education.

The structure o f the sector i s illustrated in Figure 2.1 below.

Figure 2.1: Structure of Education and Training in Kenya

I ............................. I ~ ....................................................... i : . . i Re- j I PritnaryEducation

i P r i v i* dyears r) : ; age6-13 ................................

...................................... ............................................... ............................. .................................................. university degree (4-6 POSt-graduate Y M S ) Degree ..................................................

I age1417 1

, .......... Vocational mining: Crab apprentice (Up to 5

, Years)

; Artisan(3years)

! Nming(3years)

I Agriculture and vet. (3 i years)

KCPE: Kenya Certificate of Primary Education KCSE: Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education

Preprimary Education

1 Trade ... .-)

....................................................................... Polytechnics (up to 5 years)

Teacher diploma (3 years)

Teacher certificate (2 years)

Vocational diplomas (Agriculture, Vet, Medicine, &.,up to 4 Y m )

.......................................................................

................................................... 4 Advanced i professional ; courses

2.8 Preschool education has significant coverage in Kenya: over 1 mil l ion children aged 3 to 5 are in preschool classes, representing a GER o f over 30 percent. The program has grown tremendously over the past 20 years. The number o f children attending preprimary units in 1990 was 822,796 while the number o f preschool teachers was about 20,000. In 2000, there were 1,107,276 children enrolled. However, the expansion has generally following the population growth for the relevant age range. The GER o f preprimary education has more or less remained stable during the most recent decade (Table 2.1). However, it i s observed that following the FPE implementation in 2003, the enrollment in ECD programs

10

has decreased slightly, arguably due to parents’ perception o f i ts benefit relative to i t s cost compared with that o f primary education. The causal factors need to be further investigated.

2.9 Before 1980, preprimary education was exclusively the responsibility o f local communities and nongovernmental organizations such as churches, voluntary organizations, local authorities and individual investors. During the same period, there were only six preschool training centers, which were managed by the Ministry o f Culture and Social Services.

Table 2.1 : Evolution of Gross Enrollment Ratio of Preprimary Education (in Percentage)

Year Boys Girls Total 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

35.8 35.3 34.0 35.5 35.4 35.8 36.1 35.7 35.4 33.7 33.5

35.0 34.7 33.4 34.8 34.8 34.8 35.3 35.5 34.3 35.1 34.3

34.4 35.0 33.7 35.2 35.1 35.3 35.7 35.6 34.9 33.4 33.9

Source: MoEST.

2.10 The Government assumed responsibility for preschool education in 1980 and has since streamlined the preschool program. The training o f preschool teachers and the preparation o f teaching materials are now undertaken by the Government. The development o f preschool un i ts and the cost o f teachers’ services has, on the other hand, continued to be met by the communities and other nongovernmental agencies.

2.1 1 To enhance the development o f preschool education, the Government, in collaboration with donors, established the National Centre for Early Childhood Education and 14 Distr ict Centres for Early Childhood Education (DICECE) to train ECD teacher trainers and ECD teachers.

2.12 There has been much discussion regarding the objectives, management structure, and financing o f preprimary education in Kenya. A central issue i s the role o f the government in this sub-sector. Currently, preprimary education has faced pressure to provide academic education so that children entering primary school can already read. This i s often used by some primary schools, particularly those with good quality but limited seats, to select children for admission. Following the large expansion o f primary education and changes o f the dynamics between subsectors, re-evaluating the role o f preprimary education in the system i s imperative.

Primary Education 2.13 Primary education is, in essence, the f i rs t phase o f Kenya’s formal education system. I t officially starts at 6 years o f age and runs for 8 years. Prior to independence, primary education was almost exclusively the responsibility o f the communities or nongovernmental agencies such as local church groups. Since independence the Government gradually took over the administration o f primary education from local authorities and has now assumed a greater share o f the financial cost in line with the political commitment to provide equal educational opportunities to al l through the provision o f free primary education.

11

2.14 Kenya’s primary education has expanded drastically since independence. However, the most recent decade has seen a gradual decline in the gross enrollment rate. According to the data collected by the Ministry o f Education, Science and Technology (MoEST), primary GER peaked at 105 percent in 1989 but has gradually declined to only 88 percent in 20003 before coming back to over 100 percent in 2003 as the result o f the “Free Primary Education” policy (Table 2.2).

Year

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Table 2.2: Primary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989 - 2000

Enrollment (in 1000s)

Male Female Total

2,797.1 2,659.0 5,456.1

2,806.8 2,723.4 5,530.2

2,761.1 2,667.5 5,428.6

2,814.8 2,742.2 5,557.0

2,802.3 2,734.1 5,536.4

2,843.4 2,754.3 5,597.7

2,934.0 2,830.9 5,764.9

2,994.6 2,925.2 5,919.7

2,993.1 2,874.6 5,867.7 2,978.1 2,904.5 5,882.6

2002~ 2003

6,314.6 7,198.5

Population age 6-13 (in 1000s)

Male Female Total

2,996.0 2,971.0 5,967.0 3,052.0 3,025.0 6,077.0

3,106.0 3,075.0 6,181.0

3,158.0 3,123.0 6,281.0

3,207.0 3,168.0 6,375.0

3,258.0 3,220.0 6,478.0

3,306.0 3,270.0 6,576.0

3,352.0 3,316.0 6,668.0

3,367.5 3,322.3 6,689.8 3,379.3 3,333.8 6,7 13.1

6,856.2 6,938.8

Gross enrollment rate (YO)

Male Female Total

93.4 89.5 91.4

92.0 90.0 91.0 88.9 86.7 87.8 89.1 87.8 88.5 87.4 86.3 86.8

87.3 85.5 86.4

88.7 86.6 87.7

89.3 88.2 88.8

88.9 86.5 87.7 88.1 87.1 87.6

92.1 103.7

Table 2.3: Primary Schools Gross Enrollment Rate by Province and Sex, 2000

Gross enrollment Population age 6-13 Gross enrollment rate (YO)

Coast Central Eastem Nairobi Rift Valley Westem Nyanza Northeastem Total

Boys 212,420 430,203 545,402

79,342 776,118 380,299 521,740 32,574

2,978,098

Girls Total 1 176,650 435,691 555,811

79,269 726,223 414,080 501,542

15,262 2,904,528

389,070 865,894

1,101,213 158,611

1,502,341 794,379

1,023,282 47,836

Boys 274,002 269,173 410,494 406,135 573,238 563,703 147,798 157,377 856,964 845,354 425,166 426,272 546,843 541,687 144,769 124,058

3,379,214 3,333,759

816,629 1,136,941

305,175 1,702,3 18

851,438 1,088,530

2 6 8,8 2 7 6,713,033

Boys Girls Total 77.5 65.6 71.6

104.8 107.3 106.0 95.1 98.6 96.9 53.7 50.4 52.0 90.6 85.9 88.3 89.4 97.1 93.3 95.4 92.6 94.0 22.5 12.3 17.8 88.1 87.1 87.5

Formal primary school enrollment i s predominantly in public schools. There are only 385 registered private schools including religious and for-profit schools, out o f a total of around 18,000 schools. However, many unregistered non-formal schools are not included in the regular school census.

Data for 2001 was not processed by MoEST. 4

12

Table 2.4: Enrollment Increase by Region between 2000 and 2003 GER Enrollment Enrollment Enrollment GER 2000 2000 2003 increase (YO) 2003

Coast 71.6 389,070 469,514 20.7 82.1 Central 106.0 865,894 891,681 3 .O 100.9 Eastem 96.9 1,101,213 1,331,605 20.9 109.8 Nairobi 52.0 158,611 234,890 48.1 61.5 Rift Valley 88.3 1,502,341 1,799,950 19.8 98.1 Westem 93.3 794,379 1,070,223 34.7 119.1 Nyanza 94.0 1,023,282 1,336,690 30.6 114.0 North Eastem 17.8 47,836 63,898 33.6 23.2 Total 87.5 5,882,626 7,198,450 20.7 103.0

2.15 In addition, as shown in Table 2.3, large regional disparities in gross enrollment rate are also a predominant issue. For example, the Central Province boasts a 106 percent o f GER, compared with Northeastem’s lowest, 17.8 percent. There i s no significant gender disparity in GER at the national level. However, gender disparities are pronounced in Northeastem and Coastal Provinces, where proportionally more boys are enrolled in primary schools.

2.16 After the implementation o f FPE policy started in 2003, the enrollment at the primary level increased dramatically in school year 2003. Table 2.4 presents the increase o f total enrollment by province, using 2000 as the base year. The enrollment data collected in early 2003 shows that the total enrollment increased 21 percent between 2000 and 2003. At the same time, the eight provinces have various enrollment growth rates in response to the FPE policy. In general, enrollment grew faster in provinces with historically l ow GERs, since the better-off provinces do not have many children out o f school to absorb since the coverage i s nearly saturated already. For example, the enrollment in Northeastem Province and Nairobi increased 48 percent and 34 percent respectively, compared with the Central region’s 3 percent. However, i t i s not the case if we compare the Rift Valley and Nyanza Province. The enrollment increase in the Ri f t Valley i s not as great as in the Westem region even though the enrollment rate in the Valley was lower. In addition, the Northeastem region does not have an unusually fast growth given i t s extremely low enrollment rate before the FPE policy. Therefore, it i s not only the monetary cost o f education, but also other factors that determine the school enrollment.

2.17 One distinctive issue that calls for immediate public policy intervention i s the basic education coverage in urban slum areas. For example, the urban slum areas cover over 60 percent o f the population in Nairobi. Public school coverage i s in general low, and leads to the low GER in these areas. In addition, the existing public schools in these areas tend to be over-crowded. Although many community schools exist, they usually are not covered under school census, thus have limited support as well as supervision from the Govemment.

General Secondary Education 2.18 Secondary education caters to students between 14 and 17 years from Form I to Form IV. There are approximately 3,600 secondary schools currently, including national secondary schools, provincial and district public secondary schools, and privately-owned secondary schools. The enrollment in 2000 was about 660,915, o f which 47 percent were girls. The rapid expansion at the secondary level has been the result o f the vigorous harambee movement that led to the establishment o f many secondary schools that were later taken up by the Government.

13

2.19 Table 2.5 and Table 2.6 below show the gender-specific secondary level GER trend and the recent gender-specific enrollment patterns by province. GER at the secondary level has a similar time trend compared to that at primary level. The gross enrollment rate o f secondary education dropped f rom 29 percent in 1990 to 22 percent in 2000.

Enrollment (in 1000s) Year

Male Female Total

Table 2.5: Secondary School Gross Enrollment Rates by Sex 1989-2000

Population age 14-17 (in 1000s) Gross enrollment rate (YO)

Male Female Total Male Female Total

1991 1992

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

345.8 353.4 295.2

336.4 341.8 352.9 363.9 373.4 348.1 350.3

268.4 275.7

236.1 283.4 290.6 305.3 323.6 327.1 313.7 310,6

614.2 629.1

531.3 619.8 632.4 658.3 687.5 700.5 661.8 660.9

1,156.0 1,221 .o 1,288.0 1,356.0 1,426.0 1,457.0 1,488.0 1,518.0 1,438.5 1,487.7

1,157.0 1,221.0 1,286.0

1,352.0 1,420.0 1,449.0 1,478.0 1,505.0 1,434.0 1,483.6

Year

Coast

Central

Eastem

Nairobi

Rift Valley

Westem

Nyanza

North Eastem

Total

2,3 13.0 2,442 .O

2,574.0 2,708.0

2,846.0 2,906.0 2,966.0 3,023 .O

2,872.4 2,971.2

29.9 23.2 28.9 22.6 22.9 18.4

24.8 21.0

24.0 20.5 24.2 21.1 24.5 21.9 24.6 21.7 24.2 21.9 23.5 20.9

26.6

25.8 20.6 22.9

22.2 22.7 23.2 23.2 23.0 22.2

Table 2.6: Secondary School Gross Enrollment by Sex and Province, 2000

Enrollment (in 1000s)

Male Female Total

17,876

71,866

59,066

9,745

72,438

47,824

67,855

3,647

350,317

15,206

75,020

58,179

8,281

57,914

43,856

50,627

1,455

3 10,598

33,082

146,886

1 17,245

18,026

130,412

91,680

118,482

5,102

660,915

Population age 14-17 (in 1000s)

Male Female Total

114,549

196,143

254,252

64,441

359,200

182,372

254,067

62,627

1,487,651

115,593

193,370

249,036

88,191

353,522

183,411

250,173

50,297

1,483,593

230,142

389,513

503,288

152,632

712,722

365,783

504,240

112,924

2,971,244

Gross enrollment rate (YO)

Male Female Total

15.6 13.2 14.4

36.6

23.2

15.1

20.2

26.2

26.7

5.8

23.5

38.8 37.7

23.4 23.3

9.4 11.8

16.4 18.3

23.9 25.1

20.2 23.5

2.9 4.5

20.9 22.2

2.20 The secondary gross enrollment rate also shows large regional gaps. The Central region has the highest GER at 38 percent, compared with Northeastern’s lowest 4.5 percent. There are also large gaps within provinces across different districts. For example, within the Eastern Province, the Embu District has over 34 percent o f secondary GER, whi le Moyale District has only 2.9 p e r ~ e n t . ~ Gender gap i s also larger than that o f primary education. However, the gender gap i s smaller than the gap among different regions and districts.

Detailed district-specific GER i s included in Annex I, Table A. 1.

14

2.21 The proportion o f private schools at the secondary level i s higher than that at the primary level, although it i s s t i l l much fewer than in public schools. It i s estimated that only about 10 percent o f secondary schools are private6.

Determinants for Low Enrollment at Primary and Secondary Level 2.22 According to the Second Report on Poverty in Kenya based on Welfare Monitoring Survey (WMS) in 1997, children who have attained primary and secondary school-age do not attend school for various reasons. For both poor and non-poor households, the four main reasons are the inability to afford it, early marriage, failure in examinations, and school being uninteresting. For the poor rural households, non-affordability accounted for 30 percent followed by early marriage (1 1.9 percent), school being uninteresting (1 1.8 percent), and failed exams (10.4 percent). The poor urban households are more affected by lack o f affordability (34.2 percent) and early marriage (17.3 percent). Failed exams accounted for 5.0 percent for urban poor. Overall, and as reflected in Table 2.7, lack o f affordability accounted for 30.7 percent o f all children who are out o f school.

Table 2.7: Reasons for Non-School Attendance (by percentage)

Central Rural 1.0 5.0 0.0 23.2 1.0 3.5 0.2 19.2 0.0 0.9 4.6 11.4 28.0 2.0

Coast Rural 2.4 10.4 0.9 36.6 2.3 1.1 5.2 12.0 0.5 5.7 2.4 12.6 5.0 2.9

Eastem Rural 6.0 6.9 0.9 33.3 0.3 1.4 6.1 13.2 0.3 2.1 7.3 7.2 10.1 4.8

Nyanza Rural 2.3 20.3 1.3 25.6 2.0 2.2 1.8 4.7 0.3 3.9 6.6 17.0 8.8 3.2

Rift Valley Rural 5.5 14.9 0.8 28.0 3.1 0.9 2.9 13.9 1.9 2.8 4.9 9.1 7.3 5.8

Westem Rural 1.5 10.9 1.2 33.3 0.0 0.6 0.8 9.5 0.2 2.4 2.8 6.6 23.2 7.1

Total Rural 3.1 11.9 0.9 29.5 1.5 1.6 2.9 11.8 0.6 2.8 5.2 10.4 13.2 4.5

Total Urban 7.9 17.3 0.4 34.2 6.3 1.3 0.5 4.1 0.1 0.7 1.9 5.0 19.0 1.2

Nairobi 9.2 18.6 0.0 31.9 6.7 1.1 0.6 2.9 0.0 0.4 O S 4.4 22.9 0.8

Mombasa 2.2 7.5 3.0 50.6 0.0 0.7 0.0 2.4 0.0 2.5 1.7 9.3 18.7 1.4

Kisumu 17.5 11.6 0.9 45.5 8.3 0.6 0.0 4.0 0.0 2.8 3.9 O S 3.7 0.9

Nakuru 7.0 14.6 0.0 26.2 6.5 3.0 0.0 10.8 0.0 0.0 5.3 10.0 12.1 4.2

Other Urban 4.3 20.4 0.1 31.3 7.6 1.9 0.8 6.7 0.4 0.2 4.2 5.2 15.0 1.8

Nation 4.3 13.3 0.7 30.7 2.7 1.5 2.3 9.9 0.5 2.3 4.4 9.1 14.6 3.7 Source: Ministry Of Finance and Planning Second Report on Poverty In Kenya: Volume IL 2000, based on WMSII (1997).

2.23 These results are not surprising particularly with regard to the extent o f household burden o f education expenditures. According to the WMS I1 (1994) and I11 (1997), school expenditure items for households include tuition fees, uniforms, books, other supplies, transport, room and board, private tutoring and "harambee" contributions. The average cost at the primary level for al l these items amounts to Kshs 843 per annum in 1994, and rises to over Kshs 1,200 in 1997. At the secondary school level, the average cost i s a lot higher -- Kshs 9,898. I t i s estimated that household expenditure on primary and education constitutes over 20 percent o f non-food consumptions (See Chapter 5 for details).

2.24 Using WMS-11, Deolikar (1999) analyzed the determinants o f the probability that a child i s enrolled in school. H i s findings include the following: (1) The economic background o f a child i s one o f

Enrollment comparison between public and private schools i s not available.

15

the strongest determinants o f both primary and secondary enrollment; (2) the mother’s education level has significant effect on household decision o f whether send children to school; (3) caring for younger siblings i s a chore that keeps girls from attending school; (4) the availability o f schools per school-age child i s a significant determinant o f school enrollment. These analytical results have shown that both demand-side and supply-side factors contribute to the household decision on children’s school enrollment.

Postsecondary Education and Training 2.25 Further postsecondary school education and training i s also provided by middle-level colleges such as National Polytechnics, Teacher Training Colleges, Institutes o f Technology and the more specialized institutions run by relevant technical ministries.

University education forms the apex o f Kenya’s formal education and training.

University 2.26 In addition to preparing high-level manpower for national development, university education i s charged with undertaking research, development, and dissemination o f knowledge. In 2001, there were six public universities and about 15 private universities o f which six are officially accredited. Undergraduate education follows four-year courses. Supervision o f university education i s assured by the Commission for Higher Education (CHE). The enrollment in public and private universities totals about 57,000 students. Annual intake into public universities i s about 10,000; private intake i s about 6,000. In addition, public universities annually take in about 4,000 “self-sponsored’’ students, mainly as evening students, who are entirely self-financed.

2.27 Enrollment in the universities has been steadily increasing since the establishment o f the University o f Nairobi (former Royal College) in 1970. By 1980, the University o f Nairobi could not cope with the pressure for university admissions, hence the establishment o f other public universities such as M o i Eldoret, Kenyatta University College and Jomo Kenyatta College o f Agriculture and Technology. The country has also experienced the quick establishment o f private universities in response to the increasing demand for university education. The total enrollment in public universities grew from 3,443 in 1970 to 9,044 in 1984, and to 43,038 in 1994.’ Table 2.8 shows the trend in enrollment from 1995 to 2001.

Table 2.8: Enrollment in Universities 1995-2001

Year

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

Public I Private Female

10,590

11,381

10,940

12,339

12,770

13,481

15,884

Male

293 12

28,047

27,586

28,231

28,498

29,027

32,552

Total

39,902

39,428

38,526

40,570

41,268

42,508

48,436

Female

2,288

2,872

2,328

3,382

4,122

4,101

4,486

Male

2,496

3,092

2,642

3,609

3,963

4,111

4,401

Total

4,784

5,964

4,970

6,991

8,085

8,212

8,887

Foreign University Female

984

1,568

1,853

2,109

2,042

2,054

N.A.

Male

1,919

2,750

2,982

3,228

3,066

3,069

N.A.

Total

2,903

4,318

4,835

5,337

5,108

5,123

N.A.

Total Female

13,862

15,821

15,121

17,830

18,934

19,636

20,370

Male

33,727

33,889

33,210

35,068

35,527

36,207

36,953

Total

47,589

49,710

48,331

52,898

54,461

55,843

57,323

Source: MoEST and Commission For Higher Education (CHE).

2.28 Total enrollment at university level has been growing steadily over the years. However, gender disparity in university admission i s quite distinctive, particularly in public universities. In 200 1, only one-third o f the total public university enrollment were females. Gender disparity exists to a lesser extent

Comprehensive Education Sector Analysis Report 1994.

16

in private universities. However, due to the low proportion o f private university enrollment - about 15 percent o f the total enrollment, overall gender disparity in university enrollment needs much attention for public interventions.

Tertiary-Level Technical Education 2.29 Tertiary-level technical education covers the technical training institutes (TTIs), institutes o f technology (IT), and the national polytechnics, including Kisumu Polytechnic and Kenya Polytechnic in Nairobi, Mombasa, and Eldoret. Technical education was integrated into the Ministry o f Education only four years ago.

2.30 Enrollment in technical institutes in general has been on the rise (Table 2.9). Enrollment in the national polytechnics increased by 15.8 percent from 9,042 in 2000 to 10,472 in 2001. Enrollment in technical training institutes and institutes o f technology rose from 15,155 in 2000 to 17,801 in 2001, an increase o f 17.5 percent. Female student enrollment constituted 44 percent o f total student enrollment. The Kenya Polytechnic recorded the highest enrollment at 4,562, or 5 1.7 percent o f the total polytechnic enrollment in 2000. The Kisumu Polytechnic registered the lowest enrollment at only 0.3 percent o f the total. The overall increase in enrolment i s due to the diversification o f courses offered in the institutions.

Table 2.9: Enrollment in Technical Education 2000-2001

2000 2001 Increase Technical Training Institutes and Institutes o f Technology 15, 155 17,801 17.5 Polytechnics (Kenya, Mombasa, Eldoret, and Kimusu) 9,042 10,472 15.8 Total 24,197 28,273 16.8

Teacher Education and Training 2.31 29 public and 8 private colleges give pre-service education and training to primary teachers, in two-year residential courses. In 2001, 15,700 students were enrolled in the public colleges (about 47 percent o f which were female, Table 2.10), and about 4,500 in the private training colleges. Annual output o f qualified teachers i s about 10,000. The public colleges operate below their capacity of approximately 18,000. The public colleges also provide a three-year in-service upgrading programme, both residential and distance learning, catering to teachers in-service.

2.32 There i s a regional quota system to provide for regional balance. Entry requires a “C” grade (compared with C+ for university entrance), although some students from disadvantaged areas are admitted with lower qualifications. Recruitment criteria have no special emphasis on subject grades, resulting in poor output in science subjects especially.

17

Table 2.10: Enrollment in Public Primary Teacher Training Colleges 1991-2001

Year Women Men Total

1990 1991

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

7,643 7,696 8,823 7,843 8,021 8,227 8,977 9,343 4,549 3,194 6,990

9,430 9,808 10,169 8,578

8,440 8,651 9,134 9,064 4,380 3,484 7,326

17,073 17,504 18,992 16,421

16,461 16,878 18,111 18,407 8,929 6,678 14,316 15,700

2.33 At the secondary level, teachers are trained in two public diploma colleges for 3 years. In the meantime, the faculties o f education in four public and one private university offer 4-year Bachelor o f Education (B. Ed) programmes. Teacher-Training diploma colleges recorded an enrollment o f 2,125 students in 2001, an increase from 1,366 in 2000. Among over 2,000 trainees, 42.9 percent were female.

2.34 There are also training programs for preprimary school teachers. In principle, the minimum entry requirement i s a graduate certificate in primary education. However, the majority o f trainees currently admitted in the DICECE centers have a secondary education certificate. DICECE centers conduct a two- year training program for trainees who have already assigned to existing preschools. Total enrollment in pre-service training course in DICECE i s not readily available. However, there i s indication that the coverage i s limited since less than half of the over 40,000 preschool teachers in service are currently trained, according to MoEST.

Other Education and Training Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TWTf 2.35 and apprentice programmes. alternatives to the general education or as after-school training.

Besides general programmes, the education and training system offers a wide range o f vocational This i s a vital subsector that provides parallel opportunities either as

2.36 The general structure of TVET starts with youth polytechnics under the Ministry o f Labour and Human Resource Development (MLHRD). These youth polytechnics are mainly funded by the communities with some subsidy from MLHRD. They offer courses o f artisan and crafts. They target mainly primary and secondary education dropouts. In parallel, there are also a number o f industrial training centers and institutes providing vocational education and training.

2.37 While the number of TVET institutions i s more than 700, the enrollment levels and output quality vary widely. Including private sector training institutions, which provide for about half o f the total intake, over 300,000 students annually enter some form o f TVET training, according to MLHRD.

Here we refer to only the TVET programs below tertiary level. 8

18

2.38 The successful development o f TVET would require a re-evaluation o f the strategic position o f this subsector in the overall human capital development strategy. It has often been argued that public-run TVET units tend to be costly and sluggish in response to changes in labor market conditions. In addition, the TVET sector in Kenya also faces problems similar to those found in many countries: outdated and non-functioning equipment, lack o f trained staff, outdated curricula, lack o f operating expenses and training materials, and in many institutions low enrollment linked to the perception that they cannot give good value for the fees they charge.

Nonformal Education (NFE) 2.39 Nonformal Education has been defined as any organized, systematic learning activity outside the formal school system. It provides selected types o f learning for particular subgroups in the population. The objective o f nonformal education i s to provide alternative learning opportunities to the youth and adults not participating in the formal education system, with programs tailored to equip the learners with basic sk i l ls as well as help them jo in the formal education system. In 2003, MoEST started to coordinate the Adult and Continuing Education (ACE) program within the fi-amework o f Board o f Adult Education and the Department o f Adult, providing adult and continuing education. In addition, various government departments, NGOs, religious organizations, and other donor agencies are involved in the provision o f NFE and alternative basic education programs. The four main categories o f institutions providing NFE are: Centres for Religious Education, Nonformal Primary Schools, Adult Education Centres, and Ski l ls Training Centres. The type and quality o f learning varies from center to center; and the target groups are mainly out-of-school youths between age 6-17. Due to the diverse sources o f provisions for NFE in Kenya, there i s no accurate account o f enrollment.

Adult Education 2.40 Enrollment in adult literacy programs has been characterized by sharp decline over the years. The total enrollment in 1979, when the literacy program was launched, was 415,074, o f whom 321,208, or 77 percent were women. Twenty years later in 1999, the total enrollment had dropped to 101,261, o f whom 71,061 were women. The total enrollment for the year 2001 i s even lower at 93,052, o f whom 66,573 are women.

2.41 Table 2.11 below illustrates the changes in enrollment for Adult Education over the past decade. The decline o f enrollment in adult literacy program may reflect the improved coverage o f formal education system. However, the decline during the most recent decade needs much attention as GER at primary and secondary levels has also shown a declining trend during the same period o f time.

Table 2.11: Enrollment in Adult Literacy Programs

YEAR Male Female Total 1990 37,092 110,847 147,939

1995 26,168 82,739 108,907

1996 26,180 74,081 100,261

1997 27,734 75,540 103,274

1998 26,639 90,476 117,115

1999 30,200 71,061 101,261

2000 25,802 68,101 93,903

2001 26,479 66,573 93,052

Source: Department of Adult Education

19

Special Education 2.42 Current estimates suggest that there may be as many as 800,000 handicapped children up to 16 years old, out o f which an estimated 90,000 have been identified and assessed. However, only 14,614 are enrolled in educational programs for children with disabilities, while an equivalent number are integrated in regular schools. Table 2.12 and Table 2.13 illustrate the levels o f enrollment for children with disabilities at primary and secondary school levels, respectively. u

2.43 The provision o f education and training for this target group through special programs and special schools i s s t i l l far from adequate. A t the secondary level there are three schools for the physically handicapped, one each for the blind and the deaf as well as four integrated units for the blind. The TVET provision consists o f three vocational training centers and one technical training institute. Furthermore, budgetary provisions for the subsector have remained low and have actually diminished in real terms in the last decade.

Table 2.12: Enrollment in Special Education at Primary Level by Sex 1986-99 YEAR No. of schools/units Boys Girls Total

1986 287 2,783 2,319 5,102 1987 350 3,631 2,594 6,225 1990 423 4,390 3,135 7,525 1998 761 7,397 5,536 12,933 1999 823 8,420 6,194 14,614

Source: MOESTstatistics (Special Education Section 2001)

Table 2.13: Enrolment in Special Schools at Secondary Level by Sex 1990-99

YEAR No. of schools/units Boys Girls Total

1990 5 338 316 654

1998 7 565 528 1,063

1999 7 605 565 1,170 Source: MOEST statistics (Special Education Section 2001).

School Access and Education Attainment: Evidence from Demography and Health Survey Data 2.44 Most o f the school enrollment information above i s derived from school census data. This section will show results from tabulating household level data. Household level data i s usually advantageous in providing individual’s schooling status in relation to each individual’s and household’s socio-economic status. The data we use here i s the 1998 Kenya Demography and Health Survey (DHS).

2.45 A major advantage o f using household-level data i s that i t provides insights into the determinants o f the enrollment pattern. Overall, low enrollment could result from lack o f area schools, which denies student access, or from a high dropout rates having nothing to do with access. DHS data shows that over 95 percent o f young adults in Kenya age 15 to 19 have started school at some point. However, only 69 percent reach Standard 8, and only 49 percent reach Form 4 nationwide. This may suggest that demand- side factors are more important than the availability o f schools as the cause o f declining enrollment rates. However, other supply-side issues such as the existing low quality o f education could also contribute to it.

2.46 Figure 2.2 shows that the gap between urban and rural areas i s quite small, although the aggregation by only rural and urban may hide the regional disparities. We used 15- to 19-year-old young adult sample to reflect the most current status with enough information. Over 95 percent o f the sample

20

has access to school. However, rural children drop out o f school faster than urban children in the primary cycle (up to grade 8), but have a better survival rate during the secondary cycle. As a result, 50 percent o f rural children reach 12 years o f education, compared with 44 percent in urban areas.'

Figure 2.2: Grade Attainment Profile by RuralKJrban

120.0

100.0 m F .s 80.0

E 60.0

o 40.0 s

20.0

0.0

2 L

.... 1 B urban 1 .......................................................

Years of schooliig

2.47 Figure 2.4 shows the education attainment profile by gender. Girls and boys have equal chance to start school. I t shows that over 95 percent o f boys and girls started schooling at some point before they reached 19 years old. However, girls are more likely to drop out o f school than boys, particularly during the secondary cycle. For example, over 71 percent o f the boys finish the primary cycle, compared with 66 percent o f girls. Over 55 percent o f the boys finish the secondary cycle, compared with the 44 percent o f girls.

Figure 2.3: Grade Attainment Profile by Province

........................

...................

.........................................

40.0 ........................................................... 3 0 0 m r a 8 . 8 r r a r

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

Years ofschooling

--Central

Eastern

- - - X - - - N y a n z a - bft-valley

----t-- Western

The grade-attainment rate is used here for the analysis for historical data, as opposed to the cross-sectional information captured b y the gross enrollment rate. The deviation f rom each other could be substantial depending on the age composition o f school enrollment. The fact that around 50 percent o f the observations in the sample reach 12'h grade compared with only 22 percent o f the GER at secondary level could be the result o f the older- age o f children in the secondary system (beyond the normal age range o f 14-17). For example, if al l 18 years olds and only them, are in secondary school, and the population is uniformly distributed, the GER would be 20 percent compared with a secondary attainment rate o f 100 percent.

21

Figure 2.4: Grade Attainment Profile by Gender

120.0 -

100 0 2 '$ , 0 80 0

$ 60.0 (r % 40.0 s

20.0

o . o , ,

.......................................................

..............................................................

.......................... ...................

........................................ - - m - . - . - .

..............................................................

..............................................................

, i , I , , I I I , , I

2.48 Household wealth does not affect children starting schooling. However, the education attainment gap i s very large at the end o f primary cycle (Figure 2.5); 60 percent o f children f rom households o f the lowest two quintiles reach Standard 8, compared with over 75 percent o f the children f rom the richest quintile. The gap remains through the secondary cycle.

22

0 . 0 1 , I , , , , , , I , , I I

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 Years ofschwling

2.49 An interesting result comes out using the sample o f younger cohorts age 10-14 (Figure 2.6). Only 66 percent o f children from poor households start school before 14, compared with close to 99 percent o f the children from the r ich households. This suggests that although over 95 percent o f poor children start school at some point in their lives, they tend to start school at a much older age than children from rich households.

Figure 2.6: Grade Attainment Profile by Household Wealth (Age 10-14 cohort)

--@E-- ddlel0-14

---fi"chlO-l4

Conclusions 2.50 The development o f the primary and secondary education in Kenya has been accentuated by the implementation o f the "Free Primary Education" policy in 2003, with primary gross enrollment rate reaching over 100 percent this year. However, there are s t i l l large disparities o f education participation among regions and population groups o f different socio-economic background. Secondary education s t i l l has very narrow coverage. The strategic linkage between primary education and the development o f other sub-sectors has yet to be established.

23

Chapter 3 Internal Efficiency and Student Flows

3.1 The efficiency o f an education system i s reflected by (1) how many graduates are produced out o f those who enter the system, (2) how much resources it takes to produce a graduate, and eventually (3) how many graduates can proceed to the next cycle o f schooling. Therefore, the characteristics o f the entry cohort, along with rates o f retention, completion, repetition, and transition are all the major indicators o f system efficiency.

Late School Entry 3.2 Late school entry i s quite common in Kenya. Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 show the proportions o f each age group enrolled in Standard 1 for girls and boys in 2000. Only a third o f boys and less than a third o f girls enter grade 1 at the official age o f 6 years old. A majority o f grade 1 enrollees are 7 years old and above. Girls tend to enroll in school later than boys. The average age for a girl enrolled in grade 1 i s 7.2 years old, while a boy i s 6.4 years old. Late school entry i s arguably related to poor physical status or poor preparedness for schooling at younger age. Late school entry often results in early dropout since older ages at higher grades i s related to higher opportunity cost o f schooling in the form o f forgone labor. For girls, the pressure o f early marriage i s also an important determinant for older girls to drop out at a higher grade.

Figure 3.1: Girl's Age Composition in Standard 1

1 I

Figure 3.2: Boy's Age Composition in Standard 1

24

3.3 going school census data collection will provide useful information in this area.

Due to FPE policy in 2003, many children entered school at earlier ages than in the past. The on-

Coast Central Eastem Nairobi Ri f t Valley Westem Nyanza Northeastem

Total

Dropout Rate at Primary Level 3.4 Dropout rate at the primary level remains very high. Table 3.1 shows the number o f dropouts during school year 1999. Eastem and Northeastem region have the highest dropout rates, compared with Nairobi’s low dropout rate at 1.5 percent. Girls are more likely to drop out in Nyanza and Northeastern Province.

Table 3.1: Primary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999

209,090 170,639 379,729 430,842 434,047 864,889 578,391 556,3 16 1 ,I 34,707 76,085 74,767 150,852

730,313 702,529 1,432,842 415,483 423,108 838,591 519,839 498,025 1,017,864 33,011 15,123 48,134

2,993,054 2,874,554 5,867,608

Enrollment

BOYS Girls Total Province

STD 1 STD 2 STD 3 S T D 4 S T D 5 S T D 6 S T D 7 S T D 8 TOTAL

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

488,882 456,768 945,650 23,352 20,938 44,290 4.8 4.6 4.7 485,392 428,520 913,912 20,522 17,707 38,229 4.2 4.1 4.2 418,997 396,668 815,665 20,093 17,245 37,338 4.8 4.3 4.6 399,413 385,377 784,790 22,303 18,580 40,883 5.6 4.8 5.2 348,764 347,448 696,212 19,435 17,302 36,737 5.6 5.0 5.3 313,236 321,785 635,021 19,192 18,847 38,039 6.1 5.9 6.0 309,731 321,383 631,114 21,162 22,741 43,903 6.8 7.1 7.0 228,639 216,605 445,244 4,445 5,600 10,045 1.9 2.6 2.3

2,993,054 2,874,554 5,867,608 150,504 138,960 289,464 5.0 4.8 4.9

Dropouts

Boys 10,852 13,379 37,184 1,247

35,549 21,353 28,846 1,832

150,242

Girls 8,520 1 1,470 3 1,776

984 32,845 21,271 30,685 1,048

138,599

Total 19,372 24,849 68,960 2,231

68,394 42,624 59,531 2,880

288,841

Dropout rates (YO) Boys Girls Total 5.2 5.0 5.1 3.1 2.6 2.9 6.4 5.7 6.1 1.6 1.3 1.5 4.9 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.0 5.1 5.5 6.2 5.8 5.5 6.9 6.0

5.0 4.8 4.9

3.5 Table 3.2 below shows the nationwide dropout rates by sex and grade during school year 1999. Dropout rates get higher from grade 4 and onwards, which represents the upper primary level. The dropout rate i s highest in grade 7, which i s argued to be related to the challenge o f facing the primary completion examination during grade 8 (This also causes high repetition rates o f grade 7 that will be illustrated later in this chapter). For example, schools are graded and headmasters are evaluated on overall school performance at KPCE. Therefore, there are incentives for schools to let drop out or repeat grade for those who are not expected to perform well in the examinations.

Table 3.2: Primary School Drop-out Rates by Sex and Grade

I- Enrollment I Drooouts I Drooout rates (%)

3.6 Several reasons account for children dropping out o f school. The 1998 Primary School Census (MoEST, 1998), gives the most common reason for dropping out o f primary school (19 percent o f the cases) as lack o f interest in schooling. In the same census, poverty i s cited as an important factor (13 percent). Among the girls, marriage and pregnancy are important reasons for dropping out (13.5 percent

25

o f the cases). These main reasons cited here are also consistent with the poverty survey result that shows cost o f schooling, “school uninteresting,” and early marriage among girls as the major reasons that children are not in school during the survey year. In addition, the census also shows that poor academic performance accounts for 6.5 percent o f the dropout cases.

Province Gross enrollment

Bovs Girls Total

Grade Repetition at Primary Level 3.7 Table 3.3 shows the number o f repeaters at the end o f the 1999 school year. Nationwide, grade repetition rate i s very high. I t does not significantly vary across the provinces except for Nairobi, where the repetition i s well below the national average. There i s no marked difference between boys and girls.

Repeaters Repetition rates (%)

Bovs Girls Total Bovs Girls Total

Coast

Central Eastem

Nairobi

Rift Valley

Westem

Nyanza

Northeas tem

Total

209,090

430,842

578,391 76,085

730,313

4 15,483

519,839

33,011

2,993,054

170,639

434,047 556,316

74,767

702,529

423,108

498,025

15,123

2,874,554

379,729

864,889 1,134,707

150,852

1,432,842

838,591

1,017,864

48,134

5,867,608

30,721

49,896 76,106

2,290

113,620

63,984

66,201

2,148

404,966

25,819

45,654 73,126

1,820

104,674

58,516

60,588

1,406

371,603

56,540

95,550 149,232

4,110

218,294

122,500

126,789

3,554

776,569

14.7 15.1 14.9

11.6 10.5 11.0 13.2 13.1 13.2

3.0 2.4 2.7

15.6 14.9 15.2

15.4 13.8 14.6

12.7 12.2 12.5

6.5 9.3 7.4

13.5 12.9 13.2

3.8 Table 3.4 shows the repetition rates by grade at the end o f school year 1999. I t i s notable that repetition rates are higher at grade 1. This may be due to the low preparedness o f many children. High repetition rates in grade 7 are arguably due to forced repetition in pre-examination and examination classes in order to improve their performance in KCPE exams, and get into better secondary school. These grade-specific repetition patterns are not differentiated between boys and girls.

3.9 High repetition rate in many developing countries has drawn much attention in recent years. Research findings indicate that grade repetition per se has little effect on the improvement o f learning outcome. Special classroom attention i s more effective to allow the low performance students to catch up. Automatic grade promotion combined with special programs has proven to be a cost-effective way to tackle quality-related repetition issues.

Table 3.4: Pr imary School Repetition Rate by Sex and Grade, 1999

Std 1

Std2 Std3

Std4

Std5

Std6

Std7 Std8

Total

Enrollment

Boys Girls Total

4 8 8,8 8 2 456,768 945,650

485,392 428,520 913,912

418,997 396,668 8 15,665

399,413 385,377 784,790

348,764 347,448 696,212

313,236 321,785 635,021

309,731 321,383 631,114 228,639 216,605 445,244

2,993,054 2,874,554 5,867,608

Repeaters

Boys Girls Total

87,780 75,238 163,018

64,224 54,833 119,057

55,514 47,307 102,821

54,569 49,940 104,509

42,125 41,273 83,398 38,568 40,273 78,841

52,577 54,507 107,084 9,892 8,539 18,431

405,249 371,910 777,159

Repetition Rate

Boys Girls Total

18.0 16.5 17.2

13.2 12.8 13.0

13.2 11.9 12.6

13.7 13.0 13.3

12.1 11.9 12.0

12.3 12.5 12.4

17.0 17.0 17.0 4.3 3.9 4.1

13.5 12.9 13.2

26

Cohort Flows and Completion at Primary Level 3.10 Table 3.5 shows the comparison between enrollment in Standard 1 and Standard 8 during an 8- year cycle. I t shows that Standard 8 enrollment i s only less than ha l f o f the size o f Standard 1 eight years before. T o some extent this reflects the l o w completion rate. However, this method does not tease out the survival o f each cohort. For example, the enrollees in Standard 8 could include both those in Standard 1 eight years before, and those in grade 2 eight years before who repeated and take one more year to reach Standard 8, thus jo in ing the f i rst group in the same year at grade 8. The other caveat o f the enrollment size comparison i s that it does not consider those students who get enrolled in the f i rst year, but have not yet reached grade 8 in eight years due to repetition. Although in a steady state, and these two effects would offset, i t i s s t i l l clearer to show the cohort f l ow as in Table 3.6.

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Grade 1 100 17 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 3.5: Pr imary School Enrollment Size by Sex in Grade 1 and Grade 8 during Eight Year Cycle, 1989 -

Total

2000

2

3 4

5 6

7

8

Year in Year in Std 1 Std 8

78 24 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 65 28 8 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

54 30 11 3 1 0 0 0 0 0

44 30 12 4 1 0 0 0 0 36 27 12 4 1 0 0 0

29 24 11 4 1 0 0

22 19 9 3 1 0

1982 1989

1983 1990

1984 1991 1985 1992

1986 1993

1987 1994

1988 1995

1989 1996

1990 1997

1991 1998

1992 1999

1993 2000*

Graduate

Enrollment in Std 1 (in 1000s)

21 18 9 3 1 0

Bow Girls Total

467.8 440.9 908.8 460.6 429.4 890.0

447.2 417.4 864.6 436.5 412.1 848.6

473.0 439.0 912.0

476.0 442.3 918.3

491.6 461.2 952.8

482.2 457.3 939.5 484.6 457.2 941.8 476.2 447.8 924.0 479.6 453.2 932.8 472.5 446.1 918.6

Source: CBS, Economic Survey, Various Issues


Boys Girls Total

224.1 190.5 414.6

210.4 174.1 384.5

207.3 173.7 381.0

195.0 198.8 393.8

210.4 185.3 395.7

212.5 190.3 402.8

211.6 194.0 405.6

217.3 199.0 416.3

224.6 209.3 433.8

221.0 215.3 436.3

228.6 216.6 445.2

228.4 220.8 449.2

Yo Std 8IStd 1

Boys Girls Total

47.9 43.2 45.6

45.7 40.5 43.2 46.4 41.6 44.1 44.7 48.2 46.4

44.5 42.2 43.4

44.6 43.0 43.9

43.0 42.1 42.6

45.1 43.5 44.3

46.3 45.8 46.1

46.4 48.1 47.2

47.7 47.8 47.7

48.3 49.5 48.9

52

3.1 1 Using current grade-specific repetition and dropout rates, Table 3.6 constructed the dynamics of cohort flow. It shows that o n the overall completion rate i s 52 percent. However, o n average only 21 percent complete the primary cycle o n time; 18 percent complete the cycle in 9 years, followed by 9

27

percent in 10 years, 3 percent in 11 years, and 1 percent in 12 years. Therefore, the average number o f years it takes for those who complete the cycle i s about 9 years.

Dropout at Secondary Level 3.12 Table 3.7 shows that the Northeastern Province has the highest dropout rate at the secondary level, with Nairobi following. Dropout rates in other provinces are quite close to each other. Table 3.8 presents the dropout rate by grade. Dropout rates are higher in Form 2 and Form 3, with girls more l ikely to drop out than boys during this cycle.

Table 3.7: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Province and Gender in 1999

Form I

Province

Enrollment Dropouts Dropout Rates Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

89,626 84,283 173,909 3,505 3,626 7,131 3.9 4.3 4.1

Coast Central Eastem Nairobi Rift Valley Westem Nyanza Northeastem

Total

Form I1

Form I11

Form IV

Total

Enrollment

95,030 86,894 181,924 5,925 5,774 11,699 6.2 6.6 6.4 85,530 75,716 161,246 4,676 4,523 9,199 5.5 6.0 5.7 77,947 66,798 144,745 2,036 1,924 3,960 2.6 2.9 2.7

348,133 313,691 661,824 16,142 15,847 31,989 4.6 5.1 4.8

Boys 17,722 67,294 62,393 1 1,882 71,730 48,622 64,791 3,699

348,133

Girls 15,092 76,754 59,946 8,525

56,839 45,768 49,443 1,324

313,691

Total 32,814 144,048 122,339 20,407 128,569 94,390 114,234 5,023

661,824

Dropouts

Boys 1,018 2,984 3,143 817

3,208 2,028 2,655 289

16,142

Girls Total 751 1,769

2,755 5,739 3,267 6,410 633 1,450

3,395 6,603 2,359 4,387 2,593 5,248

94 3 83

15,847 31,989

Table 3.8: Secondary School Dropout Rates by Sex and Grade

Dropour Rates (YO)

Boys Girls Total 5.7 5.0 5.4 4.4 3.6 4.0 5.0 5.4 5.2 6.9 7.4 7.1 4.5 6.0 5.1 4.2 5.2 4.6 4.1 5.2 4.6 7.8 7.1 7.6

4.6 5.1 4.8

Repetition Rate at Secondary Level 3.13 At the secondary level, Nairobi has the highest repetition rate o f 4.8 percent mostly due to a distinctively high girl’s repletion rate, which i s 8.9 percent as compared with national average of 1.6 percent (Table 3.9). The reasons behind this need to be further investigated. There are more children repeating Form IV than in other grades, facing the pressure o f secondary education certificate examination at the end o f the cycle.

28

Table 3.9: Secondary School Repetition Rates by Province and Sex, 1999

Enrollment

Province

Repeaters Repetition Rates

Coast Central Eastem Nairobi Rift Valley Westem Nyanza Northeastem Total

Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4

Total

Gross enrollment

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 89,626 84,283 173,909 694 723 1,417 0.8 0.9 0.8 95,030 86,894 181,924 1,039 956 1,995 1.1 1.1 1.1 85,530 75,716 161,246 1,455 1,265 2,720 1.7 1.7 1.7 77,947 66,798 144,745 2,604 1,685 4,289 3.3 2.5 3 .O

348,133 313,691 661,824 5,791 4,626 10,417 1.7 1.5 1.6

Bovs

year in year in Form1 Form8

1987 1990

Girls

Enrollment in Form 1 (in 1000s) Enrollment in Form IV (in 1000s)

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

95,528 69,719 165,247 82,800 59,987 142,787

Total

99,822 73,783 173,605 97,725 69,023 166,748 96,079 74,992 171,071 95,511 76,126 171,637 97,267 78,081 175,348 81,543 69,560 151,103 90,774 78,140 168,914 96,360 83,650 180,010 97,394 85,917 183,311 98,487 88,614 187,101

17,722 67,294 62,393 11,882 7 1,730 48,622 64,791 3,699

348,133

78,347 57,457 135,804 80,467 58,646 139,113 67,881 49,961 117,842 78,605 62,383 140,988 74,087 61,094 135,181 78,104 66,042 144,146 80,457 68,659 149,116 82,632 69,492 152,124

77,947 66,798 144,745

79,717 68,012 147,729

15,092 76,754 59,946 8,525 56,839 45,768 49,443 1,324

313,691

32,814 144,048 122,339 20,407 128,569 94,390 114,234 5,023

661,824

Repeaters

Bovs Girls Total 263 859 832 226

1,028 905

1,626 52

5,791

159 513 549 761 741 922 974 7

4,626

422 1,372 1,381 987

1,769 1,827 2,600

59 10,417

Repetition rates (YO)

Boys Girls Total 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.3 0.7 1.0 1.3 0.9 1.1 1.9 8.9 4.8 1.4 1.3 1.4 1.9 2.0 1.9 2.5 2.0 2.3 1.4 0.5 1.2 1.7 1.5 1.6

Completion Rate and Cohort Flow at Secondary Level 3.14 The grade retention at the secondary level i s much better than that at primary level (Table 3.1 1 and Table 3.12). Given that the transition rate i s l o w (see next section), therefore a highly selective process, this i s not a surprising result.

Table 3.11: Secondary School Enrollment Size by Sex in F o r m I and F o r m I V during Four Year Cycle, 1989 - 2000

1988 1991 1989 1992 1990 1993 1991 1994 1992 1995 1993 ' 1996 1994 1997 1995 1998 1996 1999

1997 2000

YO completing Form I V

Boys Girls Total

86.7 86.0 86.4 78.5 77.9 78.2 82.3 85.0 83.4 70.7 66.6 68.9 82.3 81.9 82.1 76.2 78.2 77.1 95.8 94.9 95.4 88.6 87.9 88.3 85.8 83.1 84.5 80.0 77.7 79.0

80.9 76.8 79.0

29

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6

Form I 100 1 0 0 0 0 Form I1 95 2 0 0 0

Form I11 88 3 0 0

Form IV 81 4 0

Graduate 77 4 0

3.15 The cohort f low chart constructed by using grade-specific dropout rate and repetition rate shows that on average 77 percent o f a cohort can complete the secondary cycle on time, another 4 percent take 5 years to graduate. The total dropout rate o f the secondary cycle i s 19 percent.

Primary to Secondary Transition Rates 3.16 The transition rate indicates the educational level progression and retention o f children in the educational system. Table 3.13 and Table 3.14 below indicate that the overall transition rate from primary to secondary schools i s low, with only less than 50 percent o f primary graduates entering secondary cycle. In addition, it dropped from 46 percent in 1991 to 40 percent in 1999. In the meantime, girls have a lower transition rate than boys.

Table 3.13: Primary to Secondary School Transition Rates by Sex, 1991-2000

Total

81

Year in Year in Std 8 Form I


Boys Girls Total

210.4 174.1 384.5 207.3 173.7 381.0 195.0 198.8 393.8 210.4 185.3 395.7 212.5 190.3 402.8 211.6 194.0 405.6 217.3 199.0 416.3 224.6 209.3 433.9 221.0 215.3 436.3 228.6 216.6 445.2

1990 1991

1991 1992

1992 1993

1993 1994

1994 1995

1995 1996

1996 1997

1997 1998

1998 1999 1999 2000

Enrollment in Form I (in 1000s)

Boys Girls Total

95.5 76.1 171.6

97.3 78.1 175.4

81.5 69.6 151.1

90.8 78.1 168.9

96.4 83.6 180.0

97.4 85.9 183.3

98.5 88.6 187.1

102.4 92.8 195.3

89.6 84.3 173.9 93.6 84.8 178.4

% Transit to Form I

Boys Girls Total

45.4 43.7 44.6

46.9 45.0 46.0 41.8 35.0 38.4

43.2 42.1 42.7

45.4 43.9 44.1

46.0 44.3 45.2

45.3 44.5 44.9

45.6 44.3 45.0

40.5 39.1 39.9

40.9 39.2 40.1

3.17 The low transition rates from the primary to the secondary level are arguably due to several factors including the limited number of places at the secondary level, low quality o f some of the existing secondary schools, much higher cost at the secondary level, and lack o f perceived incentives to continue education with unpromising employment opportunities.

3.18 The transition rate also varies across provinces and across districts within regions. The Westem Province has nearly a 50 percent transition rate, while in Nairobi, less than 30 percent o f Standard 8 students progress to the secondary level. There are large disparities across districts within provinces. For example, in the Western Province, Kakamega District has a 75 percent transition rate, while Buteremumias District has only 33 percent.

30

Table 3.14: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and Province, 2000

16,629 11,907 28,536

38,907 42,134 81,041

41,433 44,208 85,641

7,733 7,994 15,727

54,270 50,253 104,523

25,279 25,444 50,723

42,233 33,838 76,071

2,155 827 2,982

228,639 216,605 445,244

Province

4,779 4,053 8,832

19,024 20,349 39,373

16,037 15,073 31,110

2,472 2,191 4,663

19,331 16,459 35,790

12,892 12,171 25,063

18,104 14,123 32,227

979 406 1,385

93,618 84,825 178,443

Coast

Central

Eastem

Nairobi

Rift Valley

Westem

Nyanza

North Eastem

Total

STD 8 ( 1999) I F o r m 1 (2000)

Boys Girls Total I Boys Girls Total

Transition rate (YO)

Boys Girls Total

28.7 34.0 31.0

48.9 48.3 48.6

38.7 34.1 36.3

32.0 27.4 29.6

35.6 32.8 34.2

51.0 47.8 49.4

42.9 41.7 42.4

45.4 49.1 46.4

40.9 39.2 40.1

3.19 In summary, the internal efficiency o f primary and secondary education in Kenya i s low. This i s reflected in high dropouts and repetitions, and l o w transition rates between cycles. These efficiency issues are closely related to many aspects o f education quality, which will be further analyzed in the next chapter.

Conclusions 3.20 The education system in Kenya has been characterized by l o w internal efficiency, as indicated by the high grade repetition and dropout rate. At the primary level, although the dropout rate in each grade averages 5 percent, the cumulative effect i s quite large. This i s arguably related to the late school entry particularly for the children from the poorest households. The grade repetition rate i s alarmingly high at primary level, and averages about 14 percent annually between Standards 1 and 7. Although the transition rate f rom primary to secondary education i s l o w at 40 percent, the internal efficiency at secondary level i s relatively better. Eventually 81 percent o f the entry cohort complete the secondary cycle, with over 90 percent o f the graduates graduating on time.

31

Chapter 4 Education Quality

Subject Code & Name No. %

4.1 In this chapter, we look into two aspects o f education quality. The first aspect is the adequacy o f educational inputs, including curriculum, teaching and learning materials, educational equipment and physical facilities, and most importantly, teaching force. The other aspect i s the quality o f educational output, which i s commonly used in reference to the learning achievement o f students and measured by standard test results.

Subject Code & Name No. %

Educational Inputs Curriculum 4.2 Prior to 1984, Kenya had a 7-4-2-3 education system with 7 years o f primary school, 4 years o f lower secondary, 2 years o f upper secondary, and minimal 3 years o f university. A new education structure, the 8-4-4 system, was introduced in 1984. This new system includes 8 years o f primary school, 4 years o f secondary school, and minimum o f 4 years o f university education.

4.3 A diversified curriculum was introduced together with the 8-4-4 system. Besides the core courses o f English and Mathematics, the diversified curriculum at the primary level emphasizes Kiswahili, pre- vocational skills including agriculture, craft, home science, and business education; and development o f values and attitudes through courses o f religious education, art, and music. There are 13 teaching subjects, and 7 examinable subjects at the primary level t o earn the Kenya Certificate o f Primary Education (KCPE).

4.4 At secondary level, the curriculum has a total o f 32 courses, with compulsory courses in English, Kiswahili, and mathematics. During Form I and Form 11, students are required to study 12 subjects. In preparation for Kenya Certificate o f Secondary Education (KCSE), students in Form I11 and I V take a maximum o f 8 subjects, 7 o f which must be (a) the three compulsory courses, (b) two science subjects, (c) one humanities subject among geography, history and government, religious education, and social education and ethics, (d) one subject selected from among agriculture, home science, art and design, music, three foreign languages, seven industrial disciplines, and four business education disciplines. The eighth subject could be either a third science or a subject f rom the electives in (c) or (d).

4.5 The broad curriculum and extensive selection of subjects require a large amount o f resources to support the system. Training teachers for every subject demands increased financial resources. Offering these courses at school also requires added facilities and equipment, and teaching and learning materials. T o make the case worse, many subjects are rarely selected by students, which results in wasted materials. Table 4.1 below shows the number o f students by the selection o f courses examined. It shows that many courses are chosen by only below 1 percent o f examination takers.

101 English

102 Kiswahili

121 Mathematics

231 Biology

232 Physics

233 Chemistry

235 Biological Science

31 1 History and Government

193,823

193,825

193,815

177,024

54,650

181,396

28

8 1,950

100.00

100.00

99.99

91.33

28.20

93.59

0.01

42.28

444 Woodwork

445 Metalwork

446 Building Construction

447 Power Mechanics

448 Electricity

449 Drawing and Design

450 Aviation Technology

451 Computer Studies

1,301

368

867

322

497

1,867

43

1,113

0.67

0.19

0.45

0.17

0.26

0.96

0.02

0.57

32

~~

Subject Code & Name N O . % ~ lSubjectCode&Name ~ No. %

312 Geography

3 13 Christian Religious Education

3 14 Islamic Religious Education

3 15 Hindu Religious Education

316 Social Ethics & Education

441 Home Science

442 Art and Science

443 Agriculture

109,470

65,300

4,304

17

49,343

10,891

1,193

97,490

56.48

33.69

2.22

0.01

25.46

5.62

0.62

50.30

501 French

502 German

503 Arabic

511 Music

561 Accounting

562 Commerce

563 Economics

564 Typing with office Practice

1,857

334

524

2,054

10,108

93,994

1,171

1,012

0.96

0.17

0.27

1.06

5.22

48.49

0.60

0.52

Source: KNEC.

4.6 This broad curriculum caused a thin spread o f limited resources and left little time and effort for students to study and master the core subjects to gain essential basic s h l l s . In many cases this i s shown by the poor performance on national examinations.

4.7 In addition, the broadened curriculum requires added resources. Given that the allocation o f public resources to the sector i s already high, cost-sharing i s introduced in the late 1980s to call for household contributions and to alleviate government budget constraints. However, with stagnant and even decreasing economic growth and widespread poverty, cost-sharing had made basic education hardly affordable. The negative impact o f cost-sharing on school enrollment was gradually becoming evident through the 1990s.

4.8 Setting aside the high cost and waste incurred by a broadened curriculum, whether such curriculum i s relevant with regard to the objectives o f primary education i s also arguable. In many countries where general and vocational secondary education coexist, the employer puts more value on general education level with sufficient literacy and numeracy skil ls, reasoning, problem-solving oriented personal traits, and, more importantly, sufficient flexibility to adapt to the changing worlung environment and self-leaming capability. These s h l l s , traits, and flexibility are also always needed for successful self- employment.

4.9 The current curriculum has been under evaluation through the Inspectorate Department and Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC). It has been recognized that there i s need to consolidate and reduce the curriculum to fewer, more manageable subjects that allow for effective development o f ski l ls. The curriculum reform has already started with the reduction o f the number o f subjects examined in KCPE from 7 to 5, and KCSE from 8 to 7. Broad guidelines have also been developed to encourage the adaptation o f the curricula to the local environment with strengthened support to effective teaching- learning to ensure that leamers gain relevant knowledge and ski l ls. The reformed curriculum at primary level i s being implemented in phases: Standard 1 and 5, and Form I in 2003; Standard 2 and 6, and Form I1 in 2004; Standard 3 and 7, and Form I11 in 2005, and Standard 4 and 8, and Form IV in 2006.

Teachers 4.10 Teaching resources are one o f the most important inputs into the education system. The teacher i s the locus o f classroom instructional activity and curriculum delivery. Therefore, he or she i s an important determinant o f education quality.

Availability and distribution of teachers

4.1 1 Table 4.2 shows the number o f primary school teachers by qualification. In 2000, the primary school enrollment was 5,867,426, with the pupil-teacher ratio (PTR) at a national average o f 33:l. After the implementation o f the FPE policy in 2003, the enrollment surge has pushed the PTR to close to 39: 1

33

in public primary schools. Although the utilization o f teachers at the aggregated level seems to be more efficient under this circumstance, the allocation o f teachers across schools, districts, and regions i s another important issue that needs much attention.

4.12 Before 1997, all teachers who graduated from various colleges were immediately employed by the Teacher Service Commission (TSC). On the resumption o f teacher employment in 2001, teacher employment was decentralized so teachers were employed on demand by a particular district and school. One o f the conditions i s that the teacher remains in that district and school for a minimum o f five years before being considered for a transfer. This new approach was designed to regulate the employment o f teachers on the basis o f teacher demand and position vacancies, and help solve the perennial problem o f understaffing and overstaffing coexistence in certain areas.

In 1997, teacher employment was suspended.

4.13 Therefore, theoretically, current staffing i s based on the needs o f the approved establishment. Official staffing criteria i s based on 1.025 teachers per class, and each one handling all thirteen subjects. Given the normal class size o f 40 students, the past PTR o f 33: 1 may reflect an increased need in teachers due to the broad curriculum. Therefore, the current reduction o f the number o f subjects at this level would ensure that the gradual increase o f PTR, which would have minimal negative impact on education quality.

Table 4.2: Numbers o f Primary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2003 ~ ~~

Qualifications 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2003 Graduate

Approved

SVDiploma

P I

P2

P3

P4

Total trained

Total untrained

31

2,159

15,385

120,238

30,917

7,270

34

176,034

10,556

1,651

19,744

127,610

29,085

6,532

1,114

185,736

6,570

164

2,594

18,942

125,490

27,673

5,301

180,164

6,448

193

2,635

17,970

121,002

26,262

4,946

173,008

5,894

176

19,223

69 1

127,538

25,696

4,428

171,752

3,108 Grand total 186,590 192,306 186,612 178,902 180,860 178,037''

Source: Teacher Service Commission (TSC).

4.14 There i s a wide variation of the number o f teachers relative to the number o f pupils across districts; however, the variation i s largely hidden at the provincial level (Table 4.3). For example, in Rift Valley Province's Baringo District, every 21 pupils have one teacher on average. In the same province, Eldoret Municipality has a PTR o f 47: 1. Similarly, in Eastem Province, the PTR varies between 24: 1 in South Meru and 50: 1 in Moyale." This uneven distribution may reflect that in practice the deployment o f teachers does not strictly follow need. It i s often noted that in areas with arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL), and other hardship areas where understaffing occurs, teachers are unwilling to be posted there in spite o f additional hardship allowances.

lo Figure from 2003 primary school census, not TSC payroll. T h i s may be an underestimate since school returns are not 100 percent.

We are still using 2000 data. Enrollment by district i s available for school year 2003. However teacher data i s still under processing.

34

Table 4.3: Pupil-Teacher Ratio by District and Province 200312 DISTRICT NAME ENROLLMENT GROSS NO. OF PUPIL

ENROLLEM TEACHERS TEACHER ENT RATIO RATIO (PTR)

("/.I

1 Coast MALINDI 63,978 95.80 1,185 54 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

29

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Coast KILIFI Coast MOMBASA Coast KWALE Coast TAITA TAVETA Coast LAMU Coast TANA RIVER Coast Total Central Central Central Central Central Central Central Central Central Total Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastern Eastern Eastem

MARAGUA KIAMBU THIKA DISTRICT NYANDARUA THIKA MUN. KIRINY AGA MLJRANGA NYERI

MOYALE* MERU N. (NYAMBENE) MWINGI MACHAKOS KIWI MAKUENI MARSABIT THARAKA MBEERE* EMBU ISIOLO MERU CENTRAL MERU S (NITHI)

Eastern Total Nairobi NAIROBI Nairobi Total Rift Valley ELDORET MUN, Rift Valley TRANS-NZOIA Rift Valley BOMET Rift Valley NAKURU MUN. Rift Valley TRANS-MARA Rift Valley WEST-POKOT Rift Valley KITALE MUN. Rift Valley NAROK Rift Valley BURET1 Rift Valley NAKURU Rift Valley KERICHO

124,660 62,131 107,538 62,736 16,249 23,877 461,169 1 1 1,93 1 137,196 120,888 13 1,702 13,128 95,957 93,997 146,585 851,384

12,249 159,585 103,727 272,635 163,107 249,528 16,047 31,589 51,211 6 1,750 16,097

102,483 50,021

1,290,029 194,013 194,013 28,155 156,993 113,129 40,885 43,127 72,784 13,090 80,193 93,634

244,9 15 134,787

89.40 57.70 85.90 107.30 93.60 5 1.20 82.10 113.50 89.90 95.50 105.70 95.50 100.50 108.20 100.70 100.90

80.90 102.60 123.30 118.90 1 17.40 117.90 5 1.40 125.50 114.80 102.20 63.70 97.40 102.80 109.80 61.50 61.50 100.20 113.60 106.40 102.50 89.40 88.40 113.60 82.10 116.00 102.50 115.00

2,533 1,422 2,48 1 1,78 1 518 809

10,729 2,865 3,536 3,146 3,577 382

2,934 2,881 4,596 23,917

247 3,381 2,733 7,209 4,476 6,85 1 444

1,029 1,734 2,155 622

4,040 2,087 37,008 4,030 4,030 598

3,474 2,589 940

1,000 1,707 308

1,965 2,364 6,197 3,487

49.2 43.7 43.3 35.2 31.4 29.5 43

39.1 38.8 38.4 36.8 34.4 32.7 32.6 31.9 35.6

49.6 47.2 38

37.8 36.4 36.4 36.1 30.7 29.5 28.7 25.9 25.4 24

34.9 48.1 48.1 47.1 45.2 43.7 43.5 43.1 42.6 42.5 40.8 39.6 39.5 38.7

Only public schools are included, with total enrollment of 6.9 million. 12

35

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

72

73

74

75

Rift Valley TURKANA Rift Valley KAJIADO Rift Valley SAMBURU Rift Valley UASIN GISHU Rift Valley NAND1 Rift Valley MARAKWET Rift Valley LAIKIPIA Rift Valley KEIYO Rift Valley KOIBATEK Rift Valley BARING0 Rift Valley Total Western BUTEREiMUMIAS Western BUNGOMA Western MT ELGON Western TESO Western BUSIA Western KAKAMEGA Western LUGARI Western VIHIGA Western Total Nyanza KISUMU MUN. Nyanza KURIA Nyanza MIGORI Nyanza RACHUONYO Nyanza SIAYA Nyanza NYANDO Nyanza HOMABAY Nyanza SUBA Nyanza KISII Nyanza BOND0 Nyanza KISUMU DISTRICT Nyanza GUCHA Nyanza NYAMIRA Nyanza Total North MANDERA Eastern North IJARA Eastern North GAR1 S SA Eastern North WAJIR Eastern

36,594 66,775 24,05 1 118,812 169,962 47,809 73,425 49,488 43,103 73,670

1,725,381 134,389 292,524 48,335 53,046 108,869 18 1,430 70,601 159,028

1,048,222 64,229 46,803 157,855 116,195 149,25 1 94,912 93,580 45,057 130,062 7 1,990 55,460 125,686 13 1,807

1,282,887 24,771

4,299

16,654

18,724

64.448

32.60 69.10 61.70 100.20 116.60 129.20 93.90 137.50 126.20 100.90 98.10 108.80 128.10 132.00 113.40 11 1.70 117.00 122.00 1 18.40 119.10 101.90 1 17.20 123.90 141.60 118.80 127.40 127.70 116.20 101.20 119.70 101.90 101.90 98.30 114.00 33.00

19.60

19.60

19.50

23.20

949 1,762 682

3,390 5,049 1,452 2,326 1,629 1,803 3,499 47,170 2,744 6,049 1,017 1,134 2,338 4,05 1 1,627 3,939

22,899 1,266 969

3,370 2,495 3,322 2,259 2,247 1,144 3,303 1,849 1,436 3,261 4,062 30,983

439

79

342

44 1

38.6 37.9 35.3 35

33.7 32.9 31.6 30.4 23.9 21.1 36.6 49

48.4 47.5 46.8 46.6 44.8 43.4 40.4 45.8 50.7 48.3 46.8 46.6 44.9 42

41.6 39.4 39.4 38.9 38.6 38.5 32.4 41.4 56.4

54.4

48.7

42.5

49.5 North Eastern Total - 7 ~ 1,301 TOTAL 6,917,533 99.70 178.037 38.9 , ,

Source: TSC.

4.15 School level teacher distribution also shows that distribution o f teachers i s not strictly according to the school size. On the average, schools have about 400 pupils and the numbers o f teachers range from 5 to 16. Figure 4.1 i s a scatter plot o f the number o f teachers versus the number o f students o f each school covered in school census 2000. The dispersion o f the number o f teachers for schools with the same enrollment size i s quite wide. This does not only reflect the system management issue, which will be covered in detail in Chapter 6, but also shows that although teacher availability i s not an issue at the aggregate level, and lack o f teaching staff i s s t i l l a prevalent threat to educ2ion quality in many schools.

36

Figure 4.1: School Level Teacher Distribution I n Relation to Number of Pupils at Pr imary Level

63 i 0

0

I

0 0 0

0

0

0 0 00

0

I I I I 7 1859

Studentno

4.16 The total number o f teachers by qualification at the secondary level is shown in Table 4.4. Mos t o f the secondary school teachers are trained graduate teachers. The number o f teachers relative to pupils o n the secondary level i s listed in Table 4.5. The overall pupil teacher ratio i s around 16:l in 2000. Therefore, aggregated teacher resources at the secondary level are adequate. Compared to the primary level, there i s also less variation in the pupil teacher ratio across the provinces as w e l l as the districts.

4.17 The number o f teachers required in public secondary schools i s basically determined by the total number o f periods per week o f learning time, teacher’s required class contact time, and the class size. The general formula i s (class size X teacher’s class contact time)/learning time. For Anglophone Afr ican countries, with and average class size o f 40 to 45 students, learning time 30 periods a week, and teachers’ contact time o f 24-27 o n average per week, the PTR norm i s between 30: l to 40:l. Kenya has comparable levels o f teachers class contact time and class size. However, under the broad curriculum, the total number o f required learning periods per week i s as many as 45. Another factor that brings the PTR even lower i s that there are many practical courses under the curriculum, which further requires much smaller class size for teaching and learning.

4.18 Although the aggregated teacher number does not reflect the scarcity o f teacher resources at this level, critical teacher shortages exist in subjects such as English, mathematics, Kiswahil i, physics, chemistry, biology, commerce and agriculture. Mos t o f these shortages are in Eastern, Nyanza, the Rift Valley, and Western Provinces. A thorough study would be required to project for a balanced teacher supply in the future.

37

Table 4.4: Number of Secondary Teachers by Qualification 1997-2001 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Trained: Graduate 23,265 29,388 24,419 24,153 28,628

Approved Teachers 3,103 5,222 5,161 12,408 SYDiploma 11,031 10,134 8,667 8,579 1,696

Technical 870 778 1,115 1,104 270 P1 158 137 88

Total trained 38,427 40,437 39,423 38,997 43,090 Total untrained 5,951 3,257 1,359 1,093 1,853

Grand total 44.378 43,694 40,782 40,090 44,943 Source: TSC.

Table 4.5: Distribution of Secondary School Teachers across Provinces and Districts, 2000 Pupil Trained Pupil Teacher

Ratio Untrained Total Teachers Teacher Ratio Teachers Trained Enrollment Teachers

KIAMBU KIRMYAGA MARAGUA MURANGA NYANDARUA NYERI THIKA DISTRICT Total Central

KILIFI KWALE LAMU MALINDI MOMBASA TAITA TAVETA TANA RIVER Total Coast

EMBU ISIOLO KITUI MACHAKOS MAKUENI MARSABIT MBEERE MERU CENTRAL MERU NORTH MERU SOUTH MOYALE MWMGI THARAKA Total Eastern Nairobi

30,501 15,443 16,347 17,526 16,139 33,283 17,647

146,886

7,273 5,851 1,010 2,159 5,827 8,843 2,119 33,082

10,526 1,081

13,275 28,545 25,094

8 90 4,478 14,501 6,272 7,791 177

3,190 1,425

117,245 18,026

1,960 996 836 968

1,078 1,986 1,058 8,882

433 309 67 120 438 538 125

2,030

662 94

768 1,573 1,438

39 278

1,045 424 486 10

21 1 67

7,095 1,569

48 27 13 29 28 39 29 213

12 19 3 8 16 14 6 78

12 4

21 53 50 1

10 18 17 17 1

12 3

219 18

2,008 1,023 849 997

1,106 2,025 1,087 9,095

445 328 70 128 454 552 131

2,108

674 98

789 1,626 1,488

40 288

1,063 44 1 503 11

223 70

7,314 1,587

15.6 15.5 19.6 18.1 15.0 16.8 16.7 16.5

16.8 18.9 15.1 18.0 13.3 16.4 17.0 16.3

15.9 11.5 17.3 18.1 17.5 22.8 16.1 13.9 14.8 16.0 17.7 15.1 21.3 16.5 11.5

15.2 15.1 19.3 17.6 14.6 16.4 16.2 16.2

16.3 17.8 14.4 16.9 12.8 16.0 16.2 15.7

15.6 11.0 16.8 17.6 16.9 22.3 15.5 13.6 14.2 15.5 16.1 14.3 20.4 16.0 11.4

38

GARISSA MANDERA WAJIR Total North Eastern

BOND0 GUCHA HOMABAY KISII KISUMU DISTRICT KURIA MIGORI NYAMIRA NYANDO RACHUONYO SIAYA SUBA Total Nyanza

BARINGO BOMET BURET KAJIADO KEIYO KERICHO KOIBATEK LAIKIPIA MARAKWET NAKURU DISTRICT NAND1 NAROK SAMBURU TRANS-MARA TRANS-NZOIA TURKANA UASINGISHU WEST-POKOT Total Rift Valley

BUNGOMA BUSIA BUTEREMUMIAS KAKAMEGA LUGARVMALAVA MT ELGON TESO VIHIGA Total Western

1,920 1,359 1,823 5,102

4,448 16,806 5,102 18,578 10,412 2,242 8,908

24,941 7,421 6,196 11,593 1,835

118,482

5,743 7,700 9,577 3,857 8,052 10,305 4,324 7,640 3,674

23,743 12,896 3,592 1,450 1,668 9,237 2,367 11,185 3,402

130,412

26,310 6,665 6,939 13,533 9,251 2,926 3,742

22,3 14 91,680

100 76 67 243

284 780 275 969 738 130 553

1,126 478 322 669 162

6,486

329 385 409 239 420 589 256 461 189

1,539 752 176 88 78 521 154 694 240

1,519

1,527 383 387 787 543 138 230

1,178 5,113

16 3 2 21

4 13 4

28 24 2 10 31 9 11 22 3

161

9 7 12 10 19 15 9 7 12 28 31 10 3 5 13 5 15 5

215

62 18 15 23 12 7 5

26 168

116 79 69 264

288 793 279 997 762 132 563

1,157 487 333 69 1 165

6,647

338 392 42 1 249 439 604 265 468 201

1,567 783 186 91 83 534 159 709 245

7,134

1,589 40 1 402 810 555 145 235

1,204 5,341

19.2 17.9 27.2 21.0

15.7 21.5 18.6 19.2 14.1 17.2 16.1 22.2 15.5 19.2 17.3 11.3 18.3

17.5 20.0 23.4 16.1 19.2 17.5 16.9 16.6 19.4 15.4 17.1 20.4 16.5 21.4 17.7 15.4 16.1 14.2 11.3

17.2 17.4 17.9 17.2 17.0 21.2 16.3 18.9 11.1

16.6 17.2 26.4 19.3

15.4 21.2 18.3 18.6 13.7 17.0 15.8 21.6 15.2 18.6 16.8 11.1 17.8

17.0 19.6 22.7 15.5 18.3 17.1 16.3 16.3 18.3 15.2 16.5 19.3 15.9 20.1 17.3 14.9 15.8 13.9 16.9

16.6 16.6 17.3 16.7 16.7 20.2 15.9 18.5 17.2

Grand Total 660,915 38,997 1,093 40,090 16.9 16.5 Source: TSC.

39

Teacher Attrition

4.19 Comparing the teacher attrition rate and the total number o f trained teachers recently out o f training colleges and universities will determine the dynamics o f teacher supply. Attrition in teaching consists o f voluntary and compulsory retrenchment resignations, dismissal, transfer o f services to the central Government, medical reasons, or death. Attrition due to compulsory retirement i s the f i rs t reason for staff reduction followed by death, which accounted for 27.1 percent. The current teacher attrition rate i s estimated at 3.3 percent per year. With the emergence o f the HIV/AIDS pandemic, death among the teaching force has become an significant phenomenon, and addressing the potential understaffing due to attrition i s important. Table 4.6 below indicates the reasons for teachers leaving the profession according to reason and sex.

Table 4.6: Reasons for Teachers Leaving Service (YO) Reasons Compulsory retirement Death Other resignations Dismissal on disciplinary grounds Voluntary retirement Transfer o f service to central govemment Release to private institutions Resignation due to marriage Retirement on medical grounds

Total M a l e Female 27.1 17.3 16.3 11.6 10.1 9.8 4.9 1.6 1.3

31.0 17.4 13.2 11.0 10.3 11.7 3.9

1.4

17.0 17.0 24.5 13.2 9.4 4.7 7.5 5.7 0.9

Total 100 100 100 Source: MoEST (1995).

Teacher Training and QualiJication

4.20 As shown in Table 4.2 and Table 4.4, the majority o f primary and secondary schools have trained teachers compared to schools with only 1.7 percent and 4.1 percent o f untrained teachers, respectively. The introduction o f parallel degree programs has also contributed to the increase in teachers with upgraded qualifications.

4.21 There are 29 public and 8 private colleges that give pre-service education and training to primary teachers in two-year residential courses. The annual output o f qualified teachers i s about 10,000. The public colleges also provide a three-year in-service upgrading program, both residential and distance learning, catering to teachers in-service.

4.22 A t the secondary level, teachers are trained in two public diploma colleges for 3 years. In the meantime, the faculties o f education in four public and one private university offer 4-year Bachelor o f Education programs , The output o f secondary schoolteachers i s estimated at 700 per year. The majority o f teacher trainers have been trained in general methods but not in special methods for the various levels. Many teacher trainers, especially in the primary teachers training colleges have been redeployed from administrative positions. T h i s i s often argued as negatively affecting the quality o f the teachers trained at these teacher training colleges.

4.23 Although a majority o f primary and secondary schoolteachers are formally trained, attention should also be paid to teaching quality in practice. Qualifications and quality are correlated, but not equivalent. Further study may be needed in this area to evaluate any improvements needed in overall teacher quality in relation to the improvement o f overall student learning outcome.

40

Teaching and learning materials 4.24 The availability o f educational materials has a major bearing on educational outcomes. According to “National Policy on Textbooks Publication, Procurement, and Supply for Primary Schools”, MoEST specifies that the book-pupil ratio should reach 3:l in grades 1-5, and 2 : l in grades 6-8. However, surveys carried out in Kenya (SAQMEC13 2001) showed that there was a critical shortage o f textbooks. For example, more than three-quarters o f the graded 6 students surveyed reported a lack o f textbooks (See Table 4.7). In addition, there were rarely any class or school libraries that would provide access to more textbooks (Table 4.8).

Coast Central Eastem Nairobi North Eastem Nyanza Rift Valley Westem Total

Table 4.7: Availability of Textbooks

M e a n (St. D.) 76.2 5.3 76.1 4.33 79.0 4.62 42.9 5.92 77.5 4.48 73.7 5.12 72.8 5.57 84.6 4.29 75.7 2.04

YO report lack o f textbook Standard Deviation

4.25 The availability o f textbooks and learning materials was perhaps the most constraining resource to educational quality, particularly in rural schools in Kenya. Textbooks, whether designed for use in activities led by the teacher or independently by the students, offer the most explicit instructional design formats. Thus, the availability o f these materials has implications for immediate quality improvements in the educational system. Regarding the availability o f textbooks, two major cost issues exist: the f i rst relates to the production and distribution o f the books, and the second relates to textbook financing. Textbook costs are determined by the publishing capacity o f the country, the transportation, infiastructure, and administrative capacity for the management o f distribution activities. Obtaining textbooks in Kenya used to be the sole responsibility o f the parents where the burden was even higher, considering that they have to meet the extra distribution cost o f delivering books to remote or rural areas.

l3 “ The Quality o f Education: Some Policy Suggestions Based on a Survey o f Schools”. (SACMEQ policy research report no. 6, Nzomo, Kariuki, and Guantai.) The survey randomly selected 185 schools to examine different aspects o f the teaching and learning process. The standard 6 classes are included in the survey.

41

Table 4.8: Availability of Classroom and School Libraries


YO o f Classrooms w/ Class Library YO School wAchool Library Mean St. D. mean St. D. 13.4 7.18 10.1 7.15 36.6 9.68 38 10.31 24.8 7.82 26.6 8.42 42.2 9.61 68.1 11.67 41.3 13.32 52.3 15.13 35.7 11.31 65.2 11.59 44.9 10.73 41.4 10.7 30.7 10.79 41.9 11.97 34 4.14 41.5 4.33

4.26 was also prevalent, according to the same SACMEQ study (Table 4.9).

Together with lack o f textbooks, lack o f exercise books, notebooks, and other learning materials

Rulers as YO needed

1 pp Mean St.D.

77.6 3.84 87.5 2.69 75.8 4.81 87 2.78

76.9 8.48 73.4 4.98 79.5 5.1 71.7 4.13 78 1.85

Table 4.9: Availability of Other Learning Materials Erasers

as YO needed

l p p Mean St.D.

59.7 4.03 70.8 4.99 65.2 4.87 78.9 3.95 60.1 8.86 70.8 6.01 73.5 5.23 59.8 4.97 68.3 2.15

Coast

Central

Eastem

Nairobi

North Eastem Nyanza

Rift Valley

Westem

Total

Exercise book As % needed

13 pp

Mean St.D.

25.7 5.98 30.7 4.83 25.4 4.99 55 6.38

13.9 3.18 22.3 4.62 24.9 6.76 15.6 6.17 25 2.29

Notebook as YO needed

7 pp

Hean St.D.

8.2 3.34 16.9 3.63 18.6 3.76 14.2 3.04 13.8 4.71 10.8 4.45 22:7 4.29 24.1 5.95 17.8 1.8

Pencils as YO needed

1 pp

Mean St.D.

86.4 3.13 94.1 2.19 87.6 4.72 95.7 1.76 93.6 2.07 88.1 4.59 90.2 5.44 91.5 1.37 90.1 1.76

3allpoint pen as YO needed

l p p

Mean St.D.

87.5 2.89 90.8 3.09 85.8 4.67 91.3 3.16 89.5 4.61 91.6 4.4 90.8 5.4 88.7 2.44 89.5 1.81

Source: SACMEQ (2001) Report no. 6.

4.27 To improve the availability o f textbooks and other instructional materials, and lower the high cost involved, the government has started a primary school textbook project with donor support. Over the last 3 years, the program has introduced major reforms in the textbook procurement and distribution systems. The current DFID education support program supports the implementation o f the new textbook policy: Textbook preparation and publication have been liberalized; the principle o f the shared use o f textbooks has been accepted; approved l is ts o f textbooks are now available; and there has been full financial decentralization o f textbook procurement to school committees. DFID support has matched governmental allocations for primary textbook funding; and both government and DFID funds are transferred directly to schools to purchase textbooks.

4.28 Most recently, in response to the request for support by the Kenyan Government to implement the FPE policy, The World Bank has approved US$40 mil l ion grants to meet the increased demand for textbooks and other learning materials following the primary enrollment surge in the 2003 school year. The bulk o f the grant will be used for the scaling-up o f the GoKDFID textbook program, which i s aimed at reaching 1:3 and 1:2 book-pupil ratio nationwide at lower and upper primary education, respectively.

42

The fund will also support the provision o f instructional materials, including exercise books, pencils, registration books, teacher guides, dictionaries, maps, etc., to meet the minimum standard specified by MoEST for the essential support needed for quality education.


Physical Facilities 4.29 SACMEQ survey has provided an overview o f the current situation in Kenya..

School physical facilities provide the basic teaching and learning environment. The same

Sitting places as YO needed Writing places as YO needed Chalkboard as YO needed Mean St. D. Mean St. D. Mean St. D. 100.0 0.00 91.4 3.10 97.3 2.63 99.2 0.48 79.1 5.85 90.5 5.61 98.7 0.50 82.5 3.69 99.6 1.46 100 0.00 84.6 7.75 96.0 3.99 86.2 11.33 59.3 12.99 100 0.00 100 0.00 89.5 2.72 100 0.00 99.7 0.52 90.9 1.99 89.7 8.1 99.6 0.37 90.1 2.48 100 0.00 99.4 0.20 86.6 1.45 95.1 2.07

4.30 Table 4.10 and Table 4.11 present the availability o f basic school and classroom facilities. The benchmark for classroom furniture included sitting and writing places, one per pupil; and a chalkboard, one per class. The findings o f the survey show that school sitting and writing places are quite adequate. However, much furniture needs to be repaired. Schools also tend to be overcrowded with regard to small to average classroom space per pupil with extremely crowded sanitary facilities shared by pupils.

YO of major repairs needed

Mean St. D. 34.6 11.09 25.4 9.75 35.4 9.02 31.6 10.62 64.9 13.87 80.5 8.64 45.5 10.66 73.6 10.74 49.5 4.15

Table 4.10: Availability of Classroom Furniture

classroom space per pupil (mz/pupil)

Mean St. D. 2.1 0.7 1 1.5 0.15 1.7 0.18 2.2 0.69 0.7 0.15 1 .o 0.13 1 .o 0.14 1.8 0.69 1.4 0.12

Coast Central Eastem Nairobi North Eastem Nyanza Rift Valley Westem Total Source: SACMEQ (2001) Report no. 6.

# o f students per toilet

Mean St. D. 73.8 9.03 30.5 1.89 37.6 4.29 36.2 5.49 91.7 17.48 66.8 5.08 45.5 4.74 57.9 7.52 55.0 6.94

4.31 However, these results from the SACMEQ survey only reflected the conditions in 2001. Following the enrollment increase in 2003 at primary level, there have been many reported cases o f classroom shortage in schools, particularly in urban areas. Based on the school-level information collected early this year, the total number o f classrooms nationwide i s quite adequate, with an average

43

pupil-classroom ratio o f 36:l. However, the classroom distribution i s quite uneven in relation to enrollment in the districts. For example, the pupil-classroom ratio i s as high as 66:l in the Malindi district in Coastal Province, and 71:l in Kisumu Municipality (See Annex, Table A. 2).

Measuring Academic Performance 4.32 Kenya Certificate o f Primary Education (KCPE) and Kenya Certificate o f Secondary Education (KCSE) are national standard tests that evaluate student achievement as related to curriculum objectives. Both examinations also serve the purpose o f certification and selection for progression to higher education levels.

Kenya Certificate o f Primary Education (KCPE) 4.33 The scope o f the examinations i s very wide. Under 8-4-4 system, KCPE has been expanded to seven areas: English, Kiswahili, mathematics, science and agriculture, geography, history, civics (GHC), and religious education; art, crafts and music, and home science and business education. The KCPE raw scores are standardized with a mean o f 50 and a standard deviation o f 15. Compared with raw scores, standardized scores are easy to use for a certain school or district to compare i t s ranking in performance from year to year. However, raw scores are more useful in evaluating the percentage o f the curriculum students actually grasp. Absolute performance (vs. ranlung) comparisons across subjects or over time will have to use raw scores. The Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) issues both rankings o f schools based on standardized scores, and KCPE Newsletter with raw scores to help schools identify weak subjects and encourage them to improve teaching and learning results.

Figure 4.2: Comparison of Candidates Mean Performance in the Year 2001 and 2000 KCPE Examinations

i 80% I I . . . . . . .

English English kswahil i ffiswahili Maths Science GHCRE Objective Comp Objective Insha

Subjects

Source: KNEC Comp.: Composition Insha: Comosition GHCRE : “Geography, History & Civics &Religious Education”

4.34 Figure 4.2 shows the mean percentage (raw) scores in the 2000-2001 school year. The overall score i s below 70 percent. Among core courses, such as Kiswahili, the objective i s better than in English and mathematics, with English composition having the lowest score, around 35 percent.

4.35 KNEC data from 2001 also shows that, in general, private schools perform better than public schools. The top 30 KCPE performance schools include 27 private schools, with only 3 public schools ranking 4th out o f 25.

44

4.36 School ranking also changes from year to year. Although the available data i s not sufficient to draw the determinants o f district level ranking, it i s often argued that household soci0-economic background, availability o f learning materials, and the experience and qualifications o f teachers all contribute to the pattern. It i s also found that repeaters do better in KCPE (Appleton 1995).

Kenya Certificate o f Secondary Education (KCSE) 4.37 KCSE requires that student take 8 subjects, 7 o f which must include: (a) the three compulsory courses--English, Kiswahili, and mathematics; (b) two science subjects; (c) one humanities subject from amonggeography, history and government, religious education, social education, and ethics; (d) one subject selected from among agriculture, home science, art and design, music, three foreign languages, seven industrial disciplines, and four business education disciplines. The eighth subject could be either a third science or a subject from the electives in (c) or (d).

4.38 Table 4.12 shows the scores o f five core subjects between 1992-2001. According the KNEC data, the majority of KCSE participants absorb less than 30 percent o f the KCSE syllabus content. In addition, over the past ten years, there i s no significant improvement in the core course results. The extremely low score in mathematics i s particularly worrisome.

Table 4.12: Examination Performance in English, Maths, Physics, Biology and Chemistry at K C S E 1992-2001 Subject 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 English 32.6 33.0 28.4 28.0 32.1 34.9 31.8 31.4 34.8 34.6 Maths 12.0 14.3 11.0 12.9 17.9 16.2 17.3 12.1 16.0 18.5 Physics 23.0 28.1 27.4 33.7 23.6 26.4 29.5 29.9 31.1 24.5 Biology 18.2 27.4 31.8 29.8 32.3 30.8 30.0 31.0 31.9 32.0 Chemistry 32.4 30.8 31.8 30.5 25.1 26.6 25.7 28.6 29.7 26.4 Source: KNEC Records.

4.39 Table 4.13 shows performance by gender in English, math and science in 2001. Girls did better than boys in English, Swahili, and chemistry, but boys performed much better in maths and other science subjects.

Table 4.13: Performance by Gender, 2001

Subject Code & Name Female Male # o f students Mean % # o f student Mean %

101 English 89,484 34.71 102 Kiswahili 89,486 44.72 121 Mathematics 89,481 15.83 231 Biology 85,499 29.52 232 Physics 16,225 22.22

Source: KNEC Statistics.

104,339 34.44 104,339 43.34 104,334 2 1.20 91,525 34.48 38,425 26.84 96,862 23.41

4.40 KCPE and KCSE are designed to measure learning outcomes in relation to curriculum objectives. Although the outcomes are not satisfactory, Kenyan students seem to do well in standard competency tests. For example, the SACMEQ results shows that Kenyan 6*-graders perform well on both reading and maths tests, with both scores ranking second after Seychelles and Mauritius for reading and maths, respectively (Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4). Although Kenyan students are doing relatively better than other SACMEQ countries, there i s general concerns among education officers, teachers and parents that the education quality i s not satisfactory by international standards. For example, although Kenya has not participated the “Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)”, the participating

45

South Africa could provide a useful benchmark. The low performance o f South African students i s particularly alarming as South Africa i s generally considered the highest performer in Sub-Sahara Africa

Figure 4.3: SACMEQ Reading Scores, 2000

Seychelles Kenya

Tanzania Mauritius Swaziland Batswana

Mozambique Uganda

Lesotho Namibia

400 450 5 00 550 600

Figure 4.4: SACMEQ Maths Scores, 2000

Mauritius 568 Kenya

Seychelles Mozambique

Tanzania Swaziland Batswana

Uganda Lesotho Namibia

400 450 500 550 600

4.41 The differentials o f the results o f the public examinations such as KCPE and KCSE, and the standard learning assessment such as SACMEQ are arguably due to the biasness o f public examinations in measuring learning outcome as they also serve the purpose o f selecting students for the next cycle o f education. The selection requires certain degree o f difficulty o f the testing items so as to differentiate the top students. In the meantime, to emphasize the accountability o f schools and teachers in the quality o f education service delivery, the public examinations also bear the objective o f differentiating schools with various performance. This also requires certain level o f difficulty o f the examinations.

4.42 In summary, there are several areas o f education quality that need special attention at both the primary and secondary levels. The provision o f textbooks and other critical teaching and learning materials, and curriculum revision are two o f the key areas that have received crucial investment recently. Further evaluation o f learning outcomes in relation to the educational inputs will require an improved education information system which links data o f these assessment results with school, classroom conditions, family background, and individual student learning effort. In particular, the effectiveness o f the teaching and learning process needs much attention since the research findings in other developing

46

countries have shown that many “process” factors are important determinants o f effective learning and teaching. Further monitoring and analysis i s needed in the areas o f classroom learning process such as time on task, students’ grouping, attention to individual students; and effective teaching including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, and peer support on pedagogy.

Conclusions 4.43 Although the KCPE and KCSE examination outcomes are not satisfactory, Kenyan students do well in standard competency tests. For example, the SACMEQ results show that Kenyan G*-graders performed well on reading and mathematics tests, with both scores ranking second after Seychelles and Mauritius for reading and mathematics, respectively. The differentials are arguably due to the biasness o f public examinations in measuring learning outcome as they also serve the purpose o f selecting students for the next cycle o f education, and differentiating schools’ performance for accountability purposes. Attentions should also be given to the educational inputs such as teachers, textbooks and instructional materials, curriculum, and learning environment, as they may also contribute directly to the classroom learning effectiveness.

47

Chapter 5 Education Cost and Finance

5.1 Education financing in Kenya encompasses all financial outlays made by central and local governments, the private sector (including NGOs), households, communities and other stakeholders in services and investments in the education sector. This includes public sector financial disbursements to educational institutions to meet personnel emoluments, operations and maintenance expenses, and development expenditures. I t also includes financing by parents, families, and communities for items such as fees and other levies, development funds, books, stationery, transportation, etc. Private provision o f education, which currently covers only a small proportion, has also contributed to the sector. In addition, many international development partners also provide support to the education sector in Kenya.

5.2 Despite the large amount o f resources allocated to the education sector by the government, access to primary and secondary education had been declining before the implementation o f the FPE policy in 2003. Education quality was also going down. This i s due partly to the relatively high unit cost o f education in the context o f poor economic performance, and increasing poverty level in the country.

5.3 This chapter will analyze the issues o f costs and financing the education sector; the level and composition o f the unit cost at each level; the efficiency and equity o f the use o f resources; and financing sources o f education.

Overall Public Finance 5.4 Kenya’s public expenditure as percentage o f the GDP declined from 25.6 percent in 199711998 to 23.1 percent in 2002/2003, whereas recurrent expenditure as a percentage o f the GDP declined from 20.1 percent to 19.2 percent, and development expenditure declined from 5.5 percent to 3.9 percent during the same period. Table 5.1 below summarizes government revenue and expenditure as percentage o f the GDP over the years.

Table 5.1: Share of Government Revenue and Expenditure as Percentage of GDP 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/2002 2002/03

Domestic Revenue 28.7 26.5 22.9 22.7 21.4 22.2

Grants

Total expenditure

0.8 0.7 0.5 2.8 0.7 1.6

25.6 22.3 20.1 23.5 21.8 23.1

Dev. Expenditures 5.5 4.3 2.4 4.0 2.7 3.9

GDP Market prices (Ksh. million) 623,235 694,029 743,479 796,343 882,725 969,354

Source: PER (2003).

5.5 Public expenditure on social services as a proportion o f the total government budget has ranged between 24.8 percent to 34.8 percent between 1991-2001. Significant and consistent budgetary allocation towards education has existed since independence. It translates to as high as over 6 percent o f GDP during recent years (Table 5.2). Significant investment has been made particularly towards the provision o f basic education. As a consequence, notable achievements have been recorded since independence in the education sector in terms o f infrastructure, teachers, and student enrollments. Drastic expansion of enrollment, especially at the primary level has partly vindicated the high level o f public investment in the sector.

48

Table 5.2: Government Expenditure on Social Services and Education (by percentage) Education Education Total Social

service as Yo of Year of total GoK expenditure as expenditure as YO

expenditure GoK expenditure Yo o f GDP

199 1/92

1992193

1993194

1994195

1995196

1996197

1997198

1998199

1999100

200010 1

2001/02

2002103

24.8

20.3

20.5

24.9

26.0

29.4

30.9

32.6

34.8

28.4

18.8

15.3

15.1

19.2

19.4

20.4

22.6

22.7

26.6

19.8

19.2

22.0

5.5

5.3

5.4

6.1

6.1

5.7

6.9

6.1

6.1

5.7

Source: QBR, Treasury, June 2001 Edition

Recurrent Government Expenditure on Education Allocation across subsectors 5.6 The commitment o f the Government to provide for education i s reflected in the large and consistent resource allocations and expenditures in the sector since independence. Even with the country’s economic downturn and tight resource constraints, education remains one o f the country’s highest budgetary priority. Table 5.3 and Table 5.4 show the trend of Government expenditure o n education during the most recent years. Since 2000/01, the MoEST voted recurrent budget has constituted over 35 percent o f the total Government discretionary budget. Furthermore, there was also significant increase in year 2002/03 fol lowing the implementation o f FPE policy. This increase not only includes primary school grants to support the provision o f instructional materials, but also reflects extra resources needed for system management at district as we l l as central level.

49

Table 5.3: MoEST Recurrent Expenditure by level, 1996/97-2002 in Ksh Millions

Subsector 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 approved estimates Approved Estimates

General Administration and Planning Early childhood Education Primary Education Secondary Education Teacher Education Special Education Technical Education University Education Miscellaneous Services Total

1,482.57 1,471.26 2,071.94 3,479.60

5.94 5.94 7.15 1.43

26,245.46 13,433.84

129.63 103.19 750.92

5,849.69 264.92

48,266,168,982

26,443.45 13,566.87

138.90 103.78 716.11

5,907.1 1 229.67

48,583,741,620

34,611.41 16,355.47

155.91 121.39 889.55

6,795.74 261.13

61,269,683,015

40,788.38 18,371.93

215.94 187.39

1,108.32 1,470.07

251.11 71,880,179,400

0.36 0.35 0.38 0.39 % of GoK discretionary expenditu re14 Source: GoK budget estimates 2000/01-2002/03

Table 5.4: Proportion of Subsector Public Recurrent Expenditure 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04

approved estimates Approved Estimates Subsector

General Administration and Planning Early childhood Education Primary Education Secondary Education Teacher Education Special Education Technical Education University Education

Miscellaneous Services

0.031 0.000 0.544 0.278 0.003 0.002 0.016 0.121 0.005

0.030 0.000 0.544 0.279 0.003 0.002 0.01s 0.122 0.005

0.034 0.000 0.565 0.267 0.003 0.002 0.015 0.111 0.004

0.048 0.000 0.567 0.256 0.003 0.003 0.015 0.104 0.003

Total 1.00 1.00 1 .oo 1 .oo

5.7 The primary subsector has continued to consume the largest share o f the overall recurrent expenditure o f Ksh 35 billion, followed by secondary education recurrent expenditures o f Ksh 16 bil l ion in 2002/03. The estimates for 2003/04 wil l reach Ksh 41 and 18 bil l ion in these two subsectors. They represent 57 percent and 26 percent o f total education recurrent expenditure, re~pectively’~. Although these expenditures have already reflected Government emphasis on basic education, it i s expected that the allocation will further increase to fulfill the Government’s commitment towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) o f poverty reduction, and economic recovery during the next decade.

Allocation across functions and Unit Cost Composition 5.8 Table 5.5 presents the pattern o f unit cost evolution in recent years. I t also shows the unit cost growth at a constant (1982) price. In real terms, both primary and secondary unit costs increased 27

l4 Discretionary expenditure i s recurrent expenditure excluding interest payment, pension and gratuities, and other obligations. l5 According to the categories in GoK budget book under Vote 3 1. TSC expenditure i s subtracted from “general administration, and distributed to primary and secondary subsectors, according to estimated proportions for teacher salaries at either level.

50

percent f rom 1996/97 to 1997/98. T o a large extent, this reflects the teacher salary increase between the two years. However, the simultaneous teacher hiring freeze has also had an impact o n reducing the salary component o f the unit cost in the fol lowing years. In 2000/01, the unit cost at primary level was about US$60, and US$200 at the secondary level. Given US$360 o f current per capita GDP in Kenya, the unit costs are quite high on both levels.

5.9 The recurrent expenditure at the primary and secondary levels are predominantly personal emoluments in the form o f teacher’s salaries and other benefits. As a result o f the 1997 teacher salary review, the expenditure o n these two subsectors rose by 49.4 per cent f rom Ksh 23.5 b i l l ion in 1996/97 to Ksh 35.1 b i l l ion in 1997/98 and continued to rise gradually up to Ksh 40.8 b i l l ion in 2000/2001. At the primary level, nearly 98 percent o f the total budget goes to teacher salaries and allowances over the 5 years before 2001, leaving less than 2 percent for operation and maintenance, including spending o n programs such as bursaries, school feeding, etc. At the secondary level, 96 percent o f the budget goes to personnel emolument, leaving less than 4 percent for operation and maintenance, including program such as scholarships.

51

E

a

e,

U

8

5.10 Implementation the FPE in 2003 has led to drastic changes in the structure and level o f the unit cost at the primary level. I t i s estimated that the current unit cost at the primary level has reached 5,534 Kshs per pupil. However, the salary component o f the unit cost i s reduced to only a l itt le over 80 percent due to faster growth o f enrollment than the number of teachers in the system together with the largely increased nonsalary components due to the school capitation grants.

Teacher resource

5.1 1 As teacher’s salary bill i s the largest component o f government recurrent expenditure, it i s necessary to look further into the details in this area. Expenditures o n teachers represents a bulk o f public spending, therefore the distribution o f teachers in relation to enrollments will also give us insights into the resource distribution across districts and schools.

(a) Pupil-teacher ratio

5.12 Currently, the staffing in the primary schools does not use PTR as a direct benchmark. Teacher need i s determined by the number o f classes times 1.025. The advantage o f using this formula i s that it would guarantee a sufficient number o f teachers in sparsely-populated areas where class and school size tends to be small. However, unnecessary l o w PTRs are also observed in schools with normal sizes.

5.13 Table 5.6 shows the time trend o f the numbers o f teachers and pupils between 1993 to 2000. The growth o f the number o f teachers i s faster than enrollment growth at primary level between 1993 and 1997. However, mainly due to the pol icy o f hiring suspension o f teachers issued in 1997, the teacher growth i s slower than enrollment growth in 1999 and 2000. The 2003 enrollment surge has pushed the PTR even higher. The trends o f the growth o f teachers and enrollment, together with pupil-teacher ratio evolution between 1993 and 2003 are shown in Figure 5.1, with 1993 levels as the base index.

Table 5.6: Number of Teachers and Pupils at Primary Level 1993-2003

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2003

no. o f teachers 164,252 169,015 172,793 175,092 186,590 192,306 186,612 178,902 178,037

no. of pupils 5,428.60 5,557.00 5,536.40 5,597.70 5,764.90 5,919.70 5,867.70 5,882.60 6,917,553

PTR 33.05 32.88 32.04 31.97 30.90 30.78 31.44 32.88 38.85

Source: Deolnliknr (1998) and MoEST.

5.14 Figure 5.1 shows that since 1998, PTR has increased f i o m 31: l to 33: l in 2000. However, compared with intemational average, this i s st i l l low. As teacher i s the most important input in teaching-leaming process, this to some extent reflects Kenya’s efforts towards quality education. However, many existing studies show that the marginal contribution o f l o w PTR to effective leaming i s negligible up to certain level. This implies that the cost o f maintaining a l o w PTR could exceed the benefit o f i t after a certain point. Figure 5.2 presents a scatter p lo t o f individual school’s KCPE performance ranking against i t s PTR17. There does not seem to be a significant correlation between these two variables.

” PTR i s derived from school census data. KCPE results data i s maintained at KNEC. These two sources use different coding system for schools. School name i s used for merging the two datasets. Over 8,500 schools turn out in the merged data set for the graph presented here.

53

Figure 5.1: Growth of Pupils and Teachers at Primary Level, 1993-2003

, I

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

-no ofpupils -no. aftcachas -PTR

5.15 One factor worth mentioning here i s the effect o f the curriculum on the requirement of teachers. Under the old curriculum, although the staffing policy assumes that a teacher teaches 13 subjects for each class at primary level, the demand for more teachers would perhaps assist schools to cope with the teaching loads o f each individual teacher. This would therefore further drive the pupil-teacher ratio down. Following the reform towards a more streamlined curriculum, this pressure on lowering PTR should be relieved soon.

5.16 However, another downward pressure on PTR would appear with the further enrollment expansion. The system expansion would reach further remote areas with more sparsely distributed populations. More small schools would have to be established to improve the availability and accessibility o f education in these areas. Alternative teaching method such as multi-grade teaching might be an option for efficient utilization o f teachers in this case.

54

Figure 5.2: Primary School KCPE Ranking and PTR

5.

0 0 O O g6j 0 0 0 0 0

0

I I I 1 4 10869

ranking

7 There are a total number o f 44,943 teachers at secondary level in school year 2001. i t this level, curriculum based establishment i s used to plan for teacher requirement at this level. In recent years, the PTR at secondary level stands at around 16: 1, which i s l o w compared with other countries in sub-Sahara Africa. Currently, the secondary curriculum i s also being revised to strengthen the core courses. Govemment continuous effort in the area will bring a much streamlined curriculum and more efficient utilization o f teachers at this level.

Table 5.7: Numbers of Primary and Secondary School Teachers by Category

00/01 01/02 02/03 03/04 in position estimates in position Estimates

Chief principal teacher 72 Senior principal teacher Principal GraduateiApproved Teacher I Principal GraduateIApproved Teacher I1 Senior graduateiapproved Teacher Graduate/approved teacher I graduate/approved teacher I1

Untrained graduate teacher SVDiploma teacheriGraduatelapproved teacher I11 trained technical teacher

Approved teacher IV Untrained technical teachericertificate teacher P 1 teacher P2 teacher P3 teacher Untrained teacher

69 100 247 700

3,669 4,461

25,748

20 29,877

2,281

98 1,497

120,469 25,418

5,294 6,000

69 69 105 105 300 300 700 700

9,580 14,776 4 1,705

5,901

26 1,650 55,092 2,793

700 700

5,658 5,658 900

120,755 121,446 27,000 26,500

5,011 5,011 4,550 3,500

106 320 780

14,741 41,705

5,901

1,650 2,793

700

5,658

13 1,642 26,235 5,011 3,500

Total 225,923 230,421 230,789 240,789 Source: GoK Budget Estimates.

55

Table 5.8: Average Annual Salary of Teachers by Category (Kshs) ~~

avg. salary avg. salary avg. salary avg. salary 00/01 01/02 02/03 03/04

Chief principal teacher 250,776 329,559 286,330 335,244 Senior principal teacher 236,256 334,262 184,937 297,576 Principal Graduate/Approved Teacher I 193,948 25 1,277 225,900 268,128 Principal GraduateiApproved Teacher I1 211,306 211,300 233,910 245,088 Senior graduate/approved Teacher 118,673 167,053 136,659 221,856 Graduate/approved teacher I 202,217 175,020 192,244 graduate/approved teacher I1 157,680 151,620 163,879

Untrained graduate teacher 130,350 137,820 137,820 SVDiploma teacherlGraduateiapproved teacher I11 135,580 165,588’* 137,820 trained technical teacher 135,580 134,271

130,350 130,350

Approved teacher I V 11 0,300 109,242 105,456 112,644 Untrained technical teacherkertificate teacher P 1 teacher 94,451 87,633 102,350 102,906 P2 teacher 67,657 64,560 62,670 72,476 P3 teacher 55,640 55,105 55,105 59,628 Untrained teacher 100,733 59,206 58,110 60,180 Total 108,225 108,163 114,152 124,255 Source: GoK Budget Estimates.

(b) Teacher salary level

5.18 Teacher’s total salary bill also depends on the average salary level o f teachers. A commonly used comparison i s that with the per capital GDP. In 2002103, the annual average salarylg o f a Kenyan primary school teacher i s about 3.5 times, and that o f a secondary school teacher i s about 5.5 times of GDP per capita. These basically l ie in the regular range o f other comparable Sub-Sahara African countries. However, it should be noted that salaries only constitute 60 percent o f the total compensation package to the teachers at both levels. Teacher’s benefits include housing, medical, pension, other personal allowances. There i s also transferring allowances starting in 2003/04. Taking this into consideration, the average compensation for a primary and a secondary school teacher would be around 6 and 9 times o f the GDP per capita respectively.

5.19 It i s also useful to evaluate the teacher’s average salary compared with that o f other workers in the public sector. Table 5.9 l is ts and Figure 5.3 graphs the average annual earnings by level o f government structure between year 1995 and 2000. Figure 5.4 compares the earnings o f civil servant in education services to those in other public sectors.

Including Graduate/Approved teacher I and I1 also. A majority o f primary school teachers are P1 teachers. Most o f the secondary school teachers are

18

SI/Diploma/Graduate/approved teachers.

56

Table 5.9: Average Monthly Earnings in Public Sector by Function

2 000

1,000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Central Govemment 3,276 3,791 5,301 5,925 6,394 6,607 TSC 2,582 3,325 5,152 7,498 7,550 7,796 Parastatal Bodies 3,861 4,565 4,995 6,176 7,502 8,253 Majority control by the public sector 4,412 5,903 6,252 7,840 9,800 10,930 Local govemment 3,826 4,599 5,031 6,458 7,703 8,815

Source: Statistical Abstract, 2001. CBS and Ministry of Finance and Planning.

.......................................................................................................

, I I

Figure 5.3: Civil Servant's Salary Increase

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

5.20 Table 5.9 shows that salary at TSC i s quite comparable with those at both local and central government level. Compared with other public sector workers, Figure 5.4 shows that the average salary in education sector in 2000 i s higher than agriculture and forestry; mining and quarrying; construction; manufacturing; and community, social and personal services (excluding education), but lower than finance, insurance, real estate, and business services; electricity and water; and transport and communications.

57

Figure 5.4: Public Sector Monthly Earnings by Industry: 1996-2000

1997 0 1998 0 1999

’ 8 9 1 0

10 Education services 1. Agriculculre and Forestry

2. Miningand Quarrying 5 Construction Services

3. Manufacturing

4. Electricig and Water 7. Transport and communications ??.Finance. insurance, Real estate, busi.

9. Communig, social andpersonal service, including education services

Source: Statistical Abstract, 2001, CBS and Ministry of Finance and Planning, 6. Wholesale, retail trade, restaurants & hotels

5.21 The average salary trend in public sector industries i s shown in Figure 5.5. Between 1996 and 2000, the average annual salary in education services increased fastest among a l l public sector industries. The 2000 level i s more than 2.5 times as much as the 1996 level. In comparison, the construction industry’s average salary increased 72 percent during the same 5- year period.

Figure 5.5: Public Sector Average Salary Growth Rate, 1996-2000 (1996=100)

300

250

200

150

100

+ Agriculculre and Foreshy

Mining and Quarrying

+Manufacturing

Elecblcity and Water

+Construction

-Wholesale, retail trade, restaurants &

+Transport and communications

hotels

-Finance, insurance,Real estate, busi. Services

’-- -Community, social and personal services

+Education services

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

58

Development Expenditure and Donor Finance 5.22 Trends in development expenditure as shown in Table 5.10 indicate that overall development expenditure stands at Kshsl.3 bil l ion in 2000/01. External donor support constitutes a large part o f development expenditure. Preprimary education subsector development expenditure increased from Kshs 268.5 mill ion in 1999/2000 to Kshs 271.9 mill ion in 2000/2001, which accounts for 21.1 per cent o f the overall development expenditure. Primary education sector expenditure has been constant. These two subsectors have continued to receive donor support in the form o f capital outlays. Donor support also strengthened the areas o f primary education by providing textbooks and inservice teacher training2'. Due to reduced donor support at the tertiary level, development expenditure at this level declined from Kshs 1,509 mil l ion in 1998/99 to Kshs.74.6 mill ion in 1999/2000, and further to Kshs 47.9 mil l ion in 2000/01.

Table 5.10: Development Expenditure Per Subsector, 1997-2002 (million Ksh)

Subsector General Administration Preprimary Education Primary Education Secondary Education University Education Technical Education Teacher Education Special Education Polytechnic Total (Ksh Millions)

1996/97 35.00 11.80

282.80 22.60

489.80 2.60

339.40 127.00

1.20 1,312.2

1997198 21.80 45.80

3 10.40 10.60

839.80 2.80

321.20 58.20

1,610.6

1998/99 170.00 104.00 160.80

14.00 1,509.00

0.60 208.20

0.20

199912000 27.07

268.45 284.88

2.40 74.62

2.87

2.166.8 660.2

2000/2001 473.10 271.88 235.86

9.30 47.90 13.33 33.00

1.289.0 Source: MoESZ Public Expenditure Review, 2003

Efficiency of Public Spending 5.23 According to the United Nations Development Programs (UNDP) Human Development Report 2001 (Table 5.1 l), some countries that posted education indices2' above 0.5 spent over 5 percent o f their GDP on education in between 1995 and 1997. These counties include South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Kenya, Algeria, Malawi, Togo, and Nigeria. However, other countries that achieved the same level o f education index spent less than 3 percent o f their GDP on it. For example, Gabon, Uganda, and Zambia are in the latter group. In the meantime, Lesotho spent 8.4 percent of i t s GDP on education, but has an education index only at 0.49. This suggests that high public spending on education does not necessarily lead to higher education outcomes or vice versa. The discrepancies largely reflect the efficiency o f the systems, which affects the efficiency o f public spending in the sector.

5.24 In the same vein, a comparison o f public expenditure levels on education between Kenya and other African countries suggests that the country's public education spending i s relatively high as a proportion o f both total government spending and the GDP (Figure 5.6). International experience shows that better education outcomes can be achieved at or below this level o f public expenditure. This suggests that there i s much potential for Kenya to improve education sector performance through more efficient improvements in public spending on education.

2o These are recurrent items in nature. As donor support i s still through project, the added resources are accounted for as development resources in the budget. 2' The education index measures a country's relative achievement in both adult literacy and combined primary secondary and tertiary gross enrollment.

59

5.25 One caveat o f using the education index to measure spending efficiency i s that the education index does not take into account quality factors. However, although Kenyan students perform better than many o f those in other SSA countries in SACMEQ study, the unsatisfactory education quality in Kenya has been observed as the system has experienced severe shortage o f many vital educational inputs.

Table 5.11: Public spending on education and indicators of education achievement in selected African countries

GDP per capita Adult Literacy Combined primary, Education Public spending as (PPP US$, Rate (YO age 15 secondary Index (1999) % o f GDP

1999) and above, and tertiary (1995-97) 1999) gross

enrollment ratio (1999)

S. Africa 8,908 84.9 93 0.87 7.6 Zimbabwe 2,876 88 65 0.80 7.1 Mauritius 9,107 84.2 63 0.77 4.6 Botswana 6,872 76.4 70 0.74 8.6 Gabon 6,024 63 86 0.71 2.9 Kenya 1,022 81.5 51 0.71 6.5 Algeria 5,063 66.6 72 0.69 5.1 Zambia 756 77.2 49 0.68 2.2 Malawi 586 59.2 73 0.64 5.4 Egypt 3,420 54.6 76 0.62 4.8 Ghana 1,881 70.3 42 0.61 4.2 Uganda 1,167 66.1 45 0.59 2.6 Togo 1,410 56.3 62 0.58 6.1 Nigeria 853 62.6 45 0.57 0.7 Lesotho 1,854 82.9 61 0.49 8.4 Sudan 664 56.9 34 0.49 1.4 Angola 3,179 42 23 0.36 Ethiopia 628 37.4 27 0.34 4.0 Source: UNDP (2001) Human Development Report, New York.

Figure 5.6: Education Spending as Percentage of GDP vs. GDP Per Capita

a 8

60

Equity of Public Spending: Benefit Incidence 5.26 The benefit incidence table22 below shows the share o f public spending by wealth quintiles at the primary and secondary level. In general, public spending at the primary level i s the most progressive because poor households usually have larger household size with more children to attend primary schools. However, this i s only marginally the case in Kenya. Data shows that due to low school attendance by children in poor households, the poorest 20 percent o f the households in Kenya share only 19 percent o f the public spending on primary education.

The other closely related issue in public spending i s i t s equity aspect.

Table 5.12: Benefit Incidence of Public Expenditure

wealth quintiles

Poorest 2nd 3rd 4th

Richest Total

Primary level

Yo Cumulative % 19.45 19.45 23.90 43.36 24.36 67.72 21.27 88.99 11.01 100.00 100.00

Secondary level

Yo Cumulative YO 10.40 10.40 19.35 29.76 21.07 50.82 25.48 76.30 23.70 100.00 100.00

5.27 At the secondary level, public spending i s biased towards better-off households. Close to 50 percent o f the spending i s on the children from the top and the second-highest wealth quintiles, while only 10 percent i s spent on children from the poorest quintile.

5.28 The degree o f inequality i s even more severe if one looks at the distribution o f public spending across all school-age children instead o f across households, due to the fact that poor households have more out-of-school children o f the relevant age range. In addition, even some o f the children from poor households do go to school, these schools in poor communities tend to receive less public resources such as teachers from the government.

Household Expenditure on Education 5.29 Households spend a significant amount o f their resources on primary and secondary education for their children. Household expenditures include tuition, school uniform, textbooks, transportation, meals and boarding, and “harambee” contribution. Table 5.13 shows that at the primary level, before FPE policy i s implemented, it cost a household 1,210 Kshs annually on average to send a child to school. School tuition represented the largest component o f household expenditure at both wealthy and poor levels. Textbooks and uniforms also constituted a large amount o f household spending. The abolition o f school fees and public provision o f instructional materials under FPE policy has to a large extent alleviated households’ direct financing burden o f school fees and textbooks. During the follow-up visiting o f primary schools and communities by the MoEST officials and donors, many parents mentioned increased expenditure on children’s food and nutrition, which i s often viewed as an important factor for children’s effective learning at schools.

5.30 Household expenditure on secondary education i s much higher than at the primary level (Table 5.13 and Figure 5.8). The average annual expenditure i s close to 10,000 Kshs annually per secondary school pupil.

22 Using WMS I11 (1997).

61

Table 5.13: Components of Household Education Expenditures (Ksh, per child annually)

Mean 195% Confidence Interval] Primary Level

School fee 589 435 742

Uniform 217 204 230 Textbooks 253 219 286

Transportation 28 12 43

Food 25 14 35 Harambee contribution 99 92 107

total 1,210 1,036 1,383

Secondary Level

School fee 7,357 6,693 8,021

Uniform 703 619 786

Textbooks 503 436 570

Transportation 265 20 1 329 Boarding 825 663 988

Harambee contribution 245 206 285

total 9,898 9,137 10,659

Source: WMS (1997).

Figure 5.7: Household Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education

1 I

10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0 secondary primary

Elharambee contribution mfoodiboardmg atransportation 0 textbooks W unifo rm

5.31 Household expenditure on education i s a heavy burden given the tight household financial constraints, particularly with the overall declining economy and increased poverty. Before the implementation o f FPE, on average, primary and secondary education expenditure constitutes 15 percent o f household non-food consumption expenditures. Some households spend more then one-fifth o f their non-food expenditure to send children to school (Table 5.14 and

62

Figure 5.8). school. .

Many poorer households simply cannot afford and have to keep their children in

Table 5.14: Household Education Expenditure on Primary and Secondary Education

Average Annual Average Annual Non- Average Annual % of % of wealth quintiles Education food Consumption total consumption edu. Exp/total edu. Exp/total

Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure non-food exp*. consumption exp.

Poorest 1,581 10,149 54,408 15.58 2.91

2nd 2,647 12,648 66,696 20.93 3.97

4th 4,639 28,524 93,312 16.26 4.97

Richest 8,800 72,768 148,116 12.09 5.94

3rd 3,382 16,788 74,796 20.15 4.52

Total 4.200 28.128 87.396 14.93 4.81 Source: WMS (1998). * Non-food expenditures include education, non-durrrbles, clothing and footwear, health, and lighting and cooking fuel.

Figure 5.8: Primary and Secondary Education Expenditure as Percentage of Household Total and Non-Food Expenditure

i' ------------.___________-

k * *v I edu Exdtot non-food exn

E ] % o f .%of edu.Exp/totnon-food e x p . edu,Exp/totexp,

5.32 Comparing household and public spending on education, the household proportion o f total spending i s over one-fifth o f the total spending at the primary levelz3, and much higher, 41 percent, at secondary level. Given the fact that public expenditure on education i s already high in the country, this indicates that the overall unit cost i s alarmingly high at the primary and secondary levels in Kenya.

23 This reflects the situation before FPE policy. No new household survey available for most current estimation.

63

Figure 5.9: Public vs. Household (Private) Spending Per Pupil

R 1

...................................

..............

I primary secondary

public

Conclusions 5.33 Despite large amount o f resources allocated to the education sector by the government, the declining access to primary and secondary education in Kenya started in the early 1990s and did not stop until the FPE policy took place in early 2003. Education quality has also been threatened over the years, partly due to the relatively high unit cost o f education together with poor economic performance and increasing poverty level over the years. The huge household response to the FPE policy in 2003 provided evidence that reducing the cost burden on households i s crucial for further expansion o f the sector. However, this expansion i s not going to be sustainable at the current high levels o f unit cost spending on both primary and secondary levels. The improvement o f public spending efficiency will be key for the way forward.

64

Chapter 6 Institutional Arrangement and Management of Education Service Delivery

6.1 This chapter will focus on the management o f education sector in Kenya. It wil l first describe and analyse the current institutional arrangement for service delivery, identifying the weaknesses at the system level, and further analyze key constraints in the management capacity o f the existing structure from the micro point o f view.

Overall Institutional Arrangement for Service Delivery 6.2 Overall, formal education and training i s managed and administered by the Ministry o f Education, Science, and Technology (MoEST). Other government ministries, including Ministry o f Local Government (Education Department), Home Affairs, Heritage and Sport (Children’s Department) all provide education and training in parallel, although they constitute a very small proportion o f overall education and training provision in Kenya. In addition, sector-specific training i s undertaken by the relevant l ine ministries

6.3 Till the early seventies primary and secondary education in Kenya was completely a local responsibility. However, since then education responsibilities were transferred to the central level. In practice, the responsibility i s now divided among the central government, the local government and private sector (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 : Functional Assignments for Education Services in Kenya

Function Policy and sector coordination

Planning at local level

Financing

Monitoring and regulation

Service delivery

Assignment MoEST headquarter Teachers Service Commission (TSC) Kenya Institute o f Education (KIE) Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC)

MoEST District Education Board and District Education Office Local authorities in selected metropolitan areas

GoK budget allocation for salaries o f teachers, training, school supplies, and primary

Through school fees at secondary level Local Authority bursaries for the poor students 7 LA education authorities: quality control, facilities, security, an maintenance

school grants under “Free Primary Education” policy

MoEST headquarter MoEST District education office

School committees for primary schools School boards for secondary schools Local Authorities for pre-primary schools

6.4 6.1).

Responsibility o f delivery o f education services varies across levels and functions (Figure

65

6.5 Policy and Planning for Sector Development: The responsibility for policy and planning including strategic formulation rests with the central government, mainly the Ministry o f Education, Science and Technology (MoEST). MoEST develops sector strategy and exercise administrative and regulatory control over education services. Together with the Teachers Service Commission (TSC), Kenya Institute o f Education (KIE), and Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC), MoEST sets the curriculum, administers public examinations, and pays salaries o f teachers in public schools. TSC i s a particularly important part o f the education system in Kenya. I t recruits teachers and coordinates their allocation across school types and regions in the country. TSC pays the salary o f all teachers directly through grant from the MoEST.

6.6 The planning, registration, and monitoring o f schools takes place at the district level by the Distr ict Education Officer (DEO) who represents the MoEST at the district level. The DE0 serves as the secretary to the District Education Board (DEB) that i s chaired by the Distr ict Commissioner. The DEB, which consists o f members from the District Government, Local Authorities, and the communities, i s responsible for approving the construction o f any new public or private schools to ensure that the proposed schools do not overlap with existing capacity. Once a public school i s given approval for construction, or a school built by a community i s accepted, MoEST i s responsible to ensure the availability o f teachers. The DE0 i s also responsible for monitoring and oversight o f all schools.

Planning and Monitoring of Schools:

Figure 6.1: Institutional Arrangement o f Education Service Delivery

TSC recruitment and allocation o f teacheers

Ministry o f Ministry of Education, KIE Curriculum development Government

Science, and Technology

-

KNEC Public Examination administration

Provincial Education Olfcer

olfcerIDistric1 Education Board

All Local

I I School Boards/ Committees

I comminees I I

Public Secondary

ParentdStudents

primary Private Primary

Schools

66

6.7 Communities and Establishment of New Schools: New schools in Kenya are generally initiated by local communities. Once a new school i s approved by MoEST, teachers will be deployed to the school and paid by the central government. This demand-driven process has the advantage o f reflecting the need on the ground quickly. However, there are several remaining inefficiencies o f the process. According to the most research findings by Kremer, Moulin, and Namunyu (2002), this system creates incentives for local communities to build too many small schools; to spend too much on teachers relative to non-teacher inputs; and to set school fees that exceed those preferred by the median voter and prevent many children from attending school. Moreover, the system generated large financial burdens on the central government, which eventually caused the central government to abandon i t s commitment to assign teachers to any school created by local community, freezing in place an inefficient and unequal distribution of schools.

6.8 Primary and Secondary Education Service Delivery: Primary and secondary schools are largely the responsibility o f MoEST. Primary schools are operated and managed by the school committees and monitored by the DEC. The parents generally elect these school committees. Secondary schools are operated and managed by either school committees or MoEST appointed Board o f Governors. As a result, the Board members may not be resident in the school district. The construction and maintenance o f the schools i s the responsibility o f the local school committees (in the case o f primary schools) or the Board o f Governors and the school committees (in the case o f secondary schools). School committees are responsible to the parents for the receipt and expenditure o f the funds received for school construction, operation, and provision o f instructional materials. Secondary school budgets are audited by the District Education Auditors that report to MoEST. MoEST has recently completed a financial audit o f al l primary schools by outsourcing the management o f audit to private sector. Some school supplies such as science lut are produced by public companies and subsidized by MoEST.

6.9 The share o f private primary and secondary schools i s below 10 percent currently. These schools also come under the purview o f the DEOs for planning, registration and monitoring and under the DEBS for overall oversight. However, financially these schools are completely independent and do not receive any public funds.

6.10 Role of Local Authorities in Education Services: Local authorities are involved with preprimary, primary and secondary schools to varying degrees. Seven LAs are designated as “education authorities”. These seven include Nairobi, Mombassa, Kisumu, Nakuru, Eldoret, Kitale, and Thika. For these, the local authority i s required to oversee the quality o f education as well as provide facilities and facilities maintenance without having: i) adequate financial resources, ii) control over teacher allocations, and ii) powers to coordinate primary and secondary education, along with an acute shortage o f schools in major urban areas.

6.1 1 Several other LAs also occasionally contribute a portion to the construction costs o f a school. If a LA contributes to a school Harambee, the money i s given to the school committee and the LA receives receipt for the amount provided. In some cases, the money i s given to the contractor, bypassing the school committee and reducing the accountability and transparency o f the fund accounting. Several LAs provide bursaries for needy children that are paid directly to the schools involved. Up to the late seventies, when LAs were providers o f education and had financial resources, substantial sums were paid in the form o f bursaries. This has declined substantially in recent years but i s s t i l l practiced.

67

6.12 The 2004 World Development Report (The World Bank, 2003) has emphasized the central role o f accountability in the overall public service delivery. The framework for analyzing institutional arrangement for service provision includes four relationships o f accountability.

0

0

Voice, or how well citizens can hold the state - politicians and policymakers - accountable for performance in discharging i ts responsibility for education. Compacts, or how well and how clearly the responsibilities and objectives o f public engagement are communicated to the public and to private organizations that provide services. Management, or the actions that create effective frontline providers (teachers, administrators) within organizations. Clientpower, or how well citizens, as clients, can increase the accountability o f schools and school systems.

0

0

6.13 Kenya has a long tradition o f close involvement o f local communities in school management. This has provided a basic foundation for effective and efficient service delivery. However, the current system has weaknesses in all the four areas above. A focal point o f these weaknesses i s the under-defined role o f the Local Authorities.

6.14 The current arrangement o f education service delivery in Kenya i s a deconcentrated system with DEOs functioning as branches o f the central ministry in overseeing the service delivery. Except for seven o f the them, local authorities have limited functions and mandates for education service delivery. In recent years, more attention has been paid to the role o f local authorities in improving the efficiency o f education service delivery. Giving more important roles to Local Authorities can be justified by the following reasons:

0

0

0

Local Authorities are mostly held accountable for the development o f local communities. They have the ultimate incentives to support the local primary and secondary schools. Local authorities have the most direct contact with the local communities to communicate on public policies. Local Authorities in general have better knowledge on local conditions, thus have comparative advantage in ensuring the efficiency o f resource allocation on the ground, including the allocation o f teacher resources, as well as targeted demand-side financing resources. Involvement o f Local Authorities would also empower the local communities as these communities hold the votes for the Local Authorities’ officials.

0

6.15 Therefore, one central issue regarding the decentralization o f primary and secondary education in Kenya i s to evaluate the comparative advantages o f the deconcentrated MoEST district education officers and Local Authorities. From other countries’ experience, the efficiency o f service delivery can be greatly improved with local authorities playing a greater part in providing day-to-day support to school operation. For example, they can provide engineering supervision to school construction, provide local market information for schools’ purchase o f instructional materials and other school supplies, and provide guidance on efficient utilization o f school resources. The involvement o f Local Authorities in these areas would ensure quick decision-making to respond to the needs on the ground. In the meantime, the function o f DEOs shall be focused on pedagogical support and guidance to schools, maintenance o f education standards, education quality assurance, and monitoring and evaluation o f educational outcome.

68

6.16 For the Local Authorities to perform these functions effectively, both human resource and financial resource requirement need to be evaluated, particularly within the context o f the local government reform and capacity building activities in the future.

6.17 The other issue needs to be further looked into i s the role o f the private sector. The extent o f private provision o f primary and secondary education i s limited right now. In 2003 some private school at primary level even started to close due the implementation o f “Free Primary Education” policy. Private education indeed has important roles to play in meeting the main challenges that are facing education sector: access, quality, and efficiency. Potentials in four categories o f private schools can further explored: community schools, religious schools, spontaneous schools (arose in specific learning conditions to meet particular demands); and profit-making private schools. Beside this direct private provision o f education, private participation o f education can also via private operation o f publicly-owned schools; vouches or scholarships to students attending private schools; as well as private sector supply o f inputs and services into education process. An effective public-private partnership would require a clear definition o f the role o f government in regulation; funding; and information. The private sector would provide a public service regulated by the government. They should negotiate a supportive environment and an equitable basis for the partnership with the government.

Management and Capacity of MoEST 6.18 To facilitate the management and administration o f i t s functions, MoEST i s organized on three levels. Figure 6.2 presents the organization chart. At the headquarters, the ministry i s divided into two major parts comprised o f the education and the administration departments. The Directorate o f Education i s further divided into the Divisions o f Policy Formulation and Projects; Primary Division, Secondary Division, University Division, Technical Training Division, Field and Other Services Division, and Inspectorate.

69

Figure 6.2: Organization Chart of Ministry o f Education, Science, and Technology

.!€O.w"

ASSISTAN MNISTER(HIGHERE1CN) ASSlSTANMlNISTER(PRI~EDUCATICN)

I

FOOTNOTE

6.19 At the Provincial level, the Provincial Director o f Education (PDE) i s in charge o f all education services, which are managed through the Provincial Education Boards. This level provides general superintendence over several districts on behalf o f the headquarters. The arrangement for the administration follows the provincial administration structure o f the government.

6.20 At the district level, the District Education Officer @EO) manages educations services through the District Education Boards. The ministry also has Divisional Education Offices headed by Education Officers. Further down the Zonal Education Office has dual responsibility for school inspection and teacher development and support. Education services are ultimately

70

discharged at the institutional level, which comprises o f ECD Centres, primary schools, secondary schools, teacher training colleges, technical institutes, and institutions o f higher learning. The ECD Centre committees manage the ECD Centres; and school committees manage primary schools while Boards o f Governors (BOGs) manage secondary schools and tertiary institutions. The BOGs and Boards o f Trustees manage technology institutes while respective university councils manage the universities.

6.2 1 Specialized education services and functions are managed by the Semi-Autonomous Governmental Agencies (SAGAS). For example, teacher management i s the responsibility o f the Teachers Service Commission (TSC); examination and certification falls under the Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC); curriculum development i s run by the Kenya Institute o f Education (KIE); students loans for higher education by the Higher Education Loans Board (HELD); and university education i s managed by the Commission for Higher Education (CHE).

6.22 The management o f primary education within cities and municipalities i s vested in City Councils and Municipal Councils. County councils also administer bursaries and any material support to schools within their jurisdiction. To discharge the education functions assigned to them, local government structures appoint education committees. The day-to-day administration o f education i s entrusted to the Directors o f City Education and the respective Municipal Education Officers.

National Level Management and Coordination 6.23 At the national level, formalized education and training i s managed and administered by various government agencies; however, there i s currently no effective coordinating body at this level, The National Education Advisory Board established through Legal Notice No. 16 o f 1996 as a co-ordinating body has never been functional. Coordination i s therefore ad-hoc and various players at this level meet on an irregular basis as the need arises.

6.24 At the agency level, there i s no clear reporting mechanism between the ministry and i t s specialized agencies. These agencies report directly to the accounting officers while their services have a direct impact on the technical areas o f the sector. As a result, the Director o f Education and other professional heads in the ministry are not kept abreast o f the developments in various technical areas.

6.25 The Minister o f Education i s charged with promoting education in the country. In recent years, the proliferation o f NGOs in the provision o f education services has brought about critical challenges relating to the promotion and development o f services. The NGOs participate in offering education services to those with special needs, and vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, especially in slum areas; however, there i s no reporting relationship between NGOs and the ministry. The situation i s the same in relation to channels o f communication between the private sector actors in the various subsectors. As a result, the degree o f participation by NGOs and other private providers in the sector i s hardly defined. The amount o f resources invested by NGOs and private sectors in education i s difficult to estimate. This often leads to the duplication and overlaps in service delivery, and inefficient overall resource utilization.

6.26 Issues relating to the weak coordination o f education services urgently need to be addressed. The provision o f educational services from various stakeholders requires guidance and regulation in order to promote and sustain high standards and efficient resource utilization. In the meantime, institutions with an official mandate for providing education services must be well coordinated. Evaluation o f the role o f National Education Advisory Board i s crucial, particularly with regard to its responsibility for coordinating the participation o f al l shareholders

71

in the sector at the national level. At the ministry level, structured coordination mechanisms need to be established to promote inter-departmental coordination. A review o f MoEST structure and working arrangement may be a necessary f i rs t step for strengthening the system.

Information Flow and Communication 6.27 Smooth information flow and communication i s crucial for effective system management; however, there are various weaknesses in communication channels linking central planners, policy makers, managers, implementers in the field offices, institutions and stakeholders at the grassroots level. Various departments in the MoEST dealing with different functions l ike human resource development, finance, and resource management lack regular information exchanges. A t the departmental level, there i s information sharing at senior management meetings; however, there are bottlenecks in the flow o f information from senior management level to the planners and implementers at both the national level and in the field. There are no established channels directing how information should flow from the top to bottom and vice- versa. For example, staff meetings at division level are irregular or non-existent. Ministerial bulletins and newsletters are no longer in circulation. Electronic networking through e-mail i s also non-existent and many officers are not fully computer literate. Computers are normally available in offices that manage projects and in senior managers offices; however, they are rarely used for communications, but merely for typing.

6.28 Information and communication to the provincial and district offices i s usually through circulars and letters; however, those two offices normally receive a single circular from the headquarters and are expected to produce adequate numbers for circulation. This practice has proven ineffective. In most cases, provincial and district offices lack equipment and financial resources to facilitate dissemination o f data. The headquarters also requires the provincial and district offices to convey urgent messages to headquarters through fax and telephone, but very few field offices have this equipment.

6.29 Data collection on school enrollment, facilities, teachers, and other educational personnel are also coordinated at district level. At the headquarters, the data on teachers are sent to TSC for analysis; however, there are no proper channels for feeding back the results o f the analysis to the ministry headquarters and the field offices. The data on school enrollment and availability o f facilities are sent to the Planning Department in MoEST for analysis. Sometimes, i t never reaches the Planning Department and when i t does, the results o f the analysis are not disseminated to all pertinent divisions and offices. Besides, the Planning Department does not analyze all the information collected. For example, school facility data was processed for the first time this year. In addition, some key Planning Department personnel are from the Ministry o f Planning and are often called for other tasks without reference to MoEST. Finally, information- sharing among the various specialized agencies o f the ministry and within the ministry itself i s also hampered for lack o f established channels. For example, the examination results for KCPE and KCSE are rarely linked to school census for analysis. Indeed, the school coding systems are different at MoEST and KNEC, which makes data-merging a prohibitive task.

6.30 The weaknesses in communication can be traced to a dysfunctional Education Information Management System (EMIS). I t i s clear that the current system does not assist the decision-malung process in the ministry. Strategies for improving communication wil l require not only a well-designed EMIS at the center, but also regular data updating and analysis at district and school levels.

72

Human Resource Management 6.3 1 Human resource management in the sector covers recruitment, deployment, promotion, discipline, transfer, and capacity building o f the education managers and teaching force. The recruitment o f education managers rests with the Public Service Commission (PSC), which sets the criteria and selects the personnel in accordance with the MoEST requirements; and in tandem with the approved establishment. The responsibility for deploying recruited personnel rests with the Director o f Education and the relevant heads o f the department. There are no adequate procedures and guidelines for deployment and utilization o f human resources in the sector. Neither a data bank or ski l l inventory exists within the ministry to guide the deployment o f officers to their areas o f specialization, nor are there criteria and staffing norms for deploying staff.

6.32 The Kenya Education Staff Inst i tute (KESI), i s charged with training education managers; however, its human and financial capacity to undertake this task i s severely limited. Consequently, the majority o f education managers have not been exposed to sufficient management training to enable them to manage education institutions efficiently. There i s no effective official policy in place for providing in-service training to education managers. School management bodies such as PEBs, DEBs, BOGS and school committees have a crucial role in education management. However, the appointed members are usually neither inducted nor trained to carry out their respective roles. The case can be made that their recruitment i s political in some cases and some recruited personnel lack the capacity to carry out their respective responsibilities.

6.33 The Provincial and District Education Offices were created to decentralize decision making in the MoEST. However, in most cases the offices at these levels act as transmittal agents from the field to the headquarters, and are not in a position to make final and binding decisions. The officers lack the power and authority to make conclusive managerial and administrative decisions. In addition, some district level personnel lack adequate professional training to carry out their managerial duties.

6.34 The TSC was established through an act o f parliament in 1968 and mandated to register, recruit, transfer, promote, and discipline teachers. To perform these tasks, it relies on the Boards o f Governors in secondary schools, PDEs, and DEOs, and DCE, MEOs, and DEBs in primary schools as i t s agents. These agents are empowered through the TSC Act to transfer and discipline teachers on behalf o f the commission. The agents are also empowered to recommend to the commission suitable teachers for appointment to higher positions o f responsibility, such as head teachers. The process has improved the transparency to identify commendable candidates for promotion. However, inefficiencies s t i l l exist since appointment and deployment not based on professional competence s t i l l exists.

6.35 The deployment o f teachers by TSC used to follow the practice o f deploying primary school teachers in their home districts. However, an argument was made that this affected the delivery o f education services since it creates conflicts o f interest in relation to professional commitment and personal motivation. This practice was also believed to lead to the polit icking of the teaching profession and contributed to the inbreeding and promotion o f certain ethnic groups. This practice has now changed and teacher management has been decentralized to the district and school levels. T h i s process was started in 2001, and since then teacher recruitment for both primary and secondary schools has been conducted at the school level. However, this process has not been fully institutionalized. Various issues have been raised by the public regarding accountability, transparency, professionalism, and in some cases, polit icking o f the process.

73

6.36 There also exists an unbalanced distribution o f teachers since most teachers prefer to work in urban and settled areas where facilities are available. The current policy o f recruiting teachers where vacancies exist i s geared towards evening out this unequal distribution. However, the current staffing norm o f 1.025 teachers per stream at the primary level needs to be further reevaluated for greater efficient utilization o f teachers. For example, in areas that are sparsely populated, the sizes o f the schools and streams are small, which generates demand for teachers to teacher in smaller classrooms with fewer pupils. Measures such as multi-grade teaching that have been proven be successful in other countries to manage this issue need to be evaluated for Kenya. The need to revise staffing norms i s even more urgent at secondary level, especially i f Kenya i s to expand secondary enrollment‘ as rapidly as planned.

6.37 Various strategies can be employed to address the problems cited above relating to human resource management in the education sector. Actually, some capacity-building activities have taken place, particularly following the implementation o f the FPE in 2003. For example, capacities o f School Management Committees have been enhanced through focused training in financial management, procurement o f instructional materials, and for school operation using public funds. Such capacity-building activities should be built into the system on a regular basis. Strengthening system management should also entail selecting and appointing education managers on the basis o f professional training and merit. Such managers must be properly inducted into their respective roles and put through structured in-service training programs.

Funds Flow 6.38 Financing for education and training i s provided by the Central Government, local authorities, communities and parents, the private sector, NGOs, and development partners. As indicated in Chapter 5 on public sector expenditure and finance, in 2000/2001 MoEST received about 35 percent o f the total Central Government-voted budget. In 2003, due to the implementation o f the FPE policy, an even larger proportion o f public budget has been allocated to the education sector. The recurrent budget for education has accounted for 39 percent o f the total voted public expenditure in 2002/2003.

6.39 The public funds are allocated to various departments and SAGAS o f MoEST, provincial, district offices, and individual institutions. For years, the percentage allocated to O&M was inadequate to finance education and training services at the provincial and district levels where administration and supervision services for primary and secondary schools were concentrated. The government’s insufficient resources to fund PDEs and DEOs offices have often resulted in the practice o f levying funds from schools to run these offices’ services, including the provision o f administrative and inspection services. Levying such funds from schools places a burden on households that leads to low enrollment and participation rates in education. Furthermore, there i s no institutionalized mechanism for auditing funds levied from parents.

6.40 In the context o f FPE policy, levies on parents at the primary level have been abolished, although reportedly some primary schools continue to raise funds from parents to meet needs that cannot otherwise be supplied, for example to hire relief teachers when faced with heavy overcrowding. The Central Government has increased public funding most importantly as a capitation grant to primary schools to replace fees in paying for books, materials, and operation and maintenance. These funds are managed by school committees. In the mean time, there i s also largely increased funding at the district level to strengthen the management and inspectorate in order to provide adequate support to as well as monitor primary education delivery. At the secondary level, schools currently receive small grants for bursaries. The bursaries at the secondary level are managed by constituency committees, in which the Member o f Parliament plays a large role. A large percentage o f funds i s s t i l l paid by parents to finance school facilities,

74

purchase o f equipment, teaching and learning materials, and even occasionally personal emoluments. For primary schools, parents, who make up the majority members o f school committees, participate in decisions regarding the utilization o f funds. However, this i s not the case for secondary schools where the parents who act as financiers o f school activities are hardly represented on the BOGs. This has been a source o f conflict within BOGs. In the light o f the fact that parents are key financiers o f education, they need to be fully incorporated in the management and decision-malung processes. This may call for a revision o f the Education Act in order to incorporate the new roles and status o f PTAs into management o f secondary schools. The TVET Institutions are also faced with the issue o f Trustees and BOGs, whose roles need to be clearly stated in the Education Act.

These funds are managed by the Boards o f Governors.

6.41 Some perennial issues about institutional finances relate to the charged fee level and the capacity to manage school funds. Many school heads and accounting officers lack the competency in accounting and management. Furthermore, some o f the school committees and BOGs lack the capacity to oversee the proper utilization o f funds. This calls for training and or appointment o f institutional administrators with relevant sk i l ls in institutional management. I t also calls for the appointment o f capable members o f school committees and BOGs. I t has been found that the auditing o f secondary school finances i s weak as a result o f unqualified school auditors. Until 2001, there was no auditing o f primary schools, which i s the major task o f auditing since the primary schools constitute the largest proportion o f education institutions.

6.42 The amount o f fees charged at all levels varies widely between regions and institutions. The MoEST has been issuing standard fees guidelines with a view to rationalizing the fees charged by various secondary school categories. However in most cases, these fee guidelines have not been adhered to. It has also been pointed out that these guidelines do not take into account regional disparities in resource endowment and the peculiar needs o f individual schools. This has resulted in schools accumulating large deficits, which most BOGs’ are unable to clear, which, in turn, negatively affects the quality o f education services these institutions could deliver.

The Legal Framework 6.43 training in Kenya. These include the following:

There are multiple Acts o f Parliament governing the management o f education and

The Education Act Cap 21 1 o f 1968, revised in 1980, provides for the development o f schools, management and administration, development o f curricula, and teacher education.

The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) Act Cap 212 o f 1967 provides for registration, recruitment, deployment, remuneration, and discipline o f teachers for schools, colleges, and middle-level vocational training institutions.

The Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) Act Cap 225A o f 1980 regulates the management and conduct o f public examinations, certification in schools, and institutions other than the universities.

The Universities Act Cap 210B o f 1985 establishes the Commission for Higher Education (CHE) to accredit private universities and to maintain quality assurance in higher and university education and training.

Acts o f Parliament and Charters establish and manage Public and Chartered private universities, respectively.

75

0 Higher Education Loans Boards (HELB) Act Cap 213 o f 1994 which establishes HELB to manage and provide loans and bursaries to university students.

The Board o f Adult Education Act Cap 223.

The Local Government Act Cap 265.

The Children’s Act o f March 2002.

0

0

0

6.44 Other Acts that govern the provision o f specialized aspects o f education and training are the Industrial Training Act Cap 237 for the training and certification o f artisans, the Accountants Act Cap 53 1 which established KASNEB for examinations and certification in some professional and business spheres and governs several GoK Ministr ies to provide sector-related training, examination, and certification.

6.45 I t has been observed that the legislation governing the sector has not kept pace with new developments and emerging issues in education. For example, there i s no established framework regarding the expanded role o f parents and communities in education management and financing; the role o f NGOs and private sectors in the provision o f education; and foreign bodies involved in examination and certification in the country. The slow pace o f response to emerging developments and issues i s particularly questionable; and internal efforts by the ministry to address the legal constraints have not been successful.

6.46 The Education Act continues to regard local authorities as key actors in financing and management o f primary education in spite o f their lack o f capacity, and weak financial and management base. The seven municipalities the act recognizes play a role in the form o f professional supervision o f schools, teachers, and deployment o f teachers in collaboration with TSC. The act also assigns the management o f secondary schools to Boards o f Governors and primary schools to school committees; but does not specify the role o f parents and communities in the management o f schools and resources, nor their relationship with the management bodies.

6.47 The Teachers Service Commission Act established a highly centralized system o f teacher management, which creates a top-heavy Secretariat and allows only limited decentralization to PDEs and DEOs as TSC agents to deploy and discipline teachers. Current efforts by TSC to decentralize i t s functions must, therefore, find expressions within the TSC Act. This would call for further revisions o f the Act.

6.48 Each public university i s established by an Act o f Parliament. The private universities are established through charters awarded according to the provisions o f the Universities Act. Concerns have been expressed with regard to the linkages o f the charters to public universities acts, since they tend to constrain the role o f the Commission for Higher Education in i t s coordinating role.

6.49 The Board o f Adult Education i s mandated to provide Adult Education and to regulate the provision o f education, including the registration o f Adult Education Centres. Some Adult Education Centres have admitted children under fifteen years o f age and yet the Board o f Adult Education i s not mandated to provide education to children under fifteen. In addition, adult education providers are not trained to provide formal education to children.

Decentralization of Educational Management 6.50 Decision-making in the education sector in Kenya i s highly centralized at the ministry headquarters. The actual delivery o f educational services takes place at the institutional level; but at this level the decision-making authority i s lacking. For example, the curriculum i s centrally

76

managed. The teachers, who are the most important resource, have been deployed and managed mostly centrally by the TSC, with assistance o f DEOs at the district level. Moreover, educational institutions do not have complete authority over the management o f public resources and some resources are even mobilized locally. Decentralization i s justifiable considering the vast coverage o f the education sector in terms o f the number o f students, institutions, teachers, and other service providers.

The school national examinations are also centrally-set and administered.

6.5 1 system include:

The major problems that are directly attributable to the current centralized management

0 Decision-making being vested on a few senior officers. This has led to a situation where a majority o f the senior officers are not in a position to make decisions that are commensurate with their schedule o f duties and responsibilities in terms o f planning, financial allocation, and monitoring education activities;

Concentration o f decision-making at headquarters at the expense o f the field offices where service delivery i s concentrated. Consequently, feedback from the field takes too long to arrive, resulting in lagging solutions to problems in service delivery;

Due to the concentration o f power in a few offices at headquarters, field officers tend to report directly to these offices. This direct link from the DEOs to headquarters leaves the PDEs in ambiguous roles with limited responsibilities;

0 Many highly qualified and experienced officers are concentrated at MoEST Headquarters. The function o f the field offices’ i s neglected, as reflected in the lack o f qualified personnel, sufficient finances, and adequate equipment, particularly at district level;

The local level structures established to oversee the management o f institutions such as PTAs and school committees do not have sufficient authority to perform their functions. For example, in the urban areas, the local authorities have the legal mandate to oversee development o f education services in their respective areas o f jurisdiction. The centralized institutional arrangement does not release sufficient resources to those structures for the development o f the sector. As a result, the local government structure i s not in accord with the priority it deserves.

6.52 Decentralization o f the management o f the education sector would f i rst require a clear definition and specification for the scope o f authority at each management level. The requisite legal framework, which will vest the lower level structures with an adequate mandate will also need to be put in place. Some proposals on the decentralization process have already been under discussion. For example, it was recommended that the process be piloted in some districts with adequate capacity. Lessons will be learned prior to the subsequent introduction o f the process countrywide. The piloting process would also help identify the types o f authority to be devolved to lower level structures, and assess the response o f the existing structures to the process.

0

0

0

6.53 The hope i s that under a decentralized system, some administrative and financial authority would be vested at the district level. However, the decentralized arrangement would not be complete without improved authority at the school level, where teaching and learning take place. I t i s imperative for i ts ultimate sustainability that the decentralization process be anchored at the lowest level in the educational system. This would imply vesting the institutional managers, Boards o f Governors, and the school committees with administrative and financial authority to manage financial as well as personnel resources.

77

Provincial L e vel Management 6.54 At the provincial level, the PDE i s in charge and coordinates all education services that take place in the province. However, the functions o f the PDE are constrained because the Provincial Education Board (PEB), the legal instrument for facilitating PDE’s activities, has no specific terms o f reference.

6.55 Although the PDE i s also expected to coordinate district level activities, the office i s not empowered to make conclusive decisions, particularly on policy issues. Consequently, DEOs tend to link directly to the headquarters. In addition, the PDE does not have the mandate o f overseeing education services offered in cities and municipalities. Furthermore, the functions, which are specifically within the PDEs’ purview, including coordinating the admission o f Form 1 students, coordinating curricula activities, disciplining secondary school teachers and students, and overseeing inspection, are mostly carried out at the district level. Inadequate resources also hamper the eff icient performance o f the above functions at the provincial level. The role of provincial level management needs to be further evaluated.

District Level Management 6.56 The main management structure at the district level i s the District Education Board (DEB), currently chaired by the District Commissioner. The District Education Officer (DEO) i s the secretary to the DEB and head o f the Distr ict Education Office. The functions o f the Board include:

0 Receiving and administering grants or grants-in-aid in respect to schools in accordance with the approved estimates o f expenditure.

Developing plans for development or promotion o f education in their area o f jurisdiction for approval by the minister.

0 Superintending the management o f public schools.

0 Advising on the establishment o f new schools.

0 Submitting statistical, financial, and other reports the minister may require.

6.57 There are no formal requirements set for the appointment o f DEB members, which in some cases leads to appointment based on unclear criteria. According to the Education Act, the DEB has no power to superintend private schools or to coordinate education activities by communities and other actors such as the NGOs or private sector providers. This often results in lack support as well as insufficient regulations for these important players in the sector.

0

6.58 For the management structure at district level, the chairman o f the DEB i s not appointed by the Minister o f Education, but belongs to the Provincial Administration. The DE0 also reports to the District Commissioner. The leadership for education development at the district level needs to be further strengthened.

6.59 The DE0 i s functionally required to relate to other professionals in the field, and i s expected to coordinate education activities by other players, such as private service providers and NGOs. A major weakness of the DEOs i s that many have low qualifications and insufficient experience relative to those they are expected to supervise. There i s a need to adhere to minimum competences and qualifications in the appointment o f DEOs.

6.60 The districts require financial allocations commensurate with the functions vested upon them. The operations and maintenance budgetary allocations (O&M) for this critical level are, in

78

most cases, inadequate. This i s because the function o f budgeting i s done at the center and the requirements o f outlying structures are not realistically captured. As a result, the district i s usually under-funded to the detriment o f service delivery. For example, some inspectors rarely travel to schools for school inspection due to lack o f funds for travelling. In some cases, to fill the financial gaps for their operations, the DEB levies parents through primary schools to finance field operations. Under FPE policy, the situation will be alleviated by increased funding at both school and district level.

6.61 The issue o f staffing i s crucial i f the District Education Office i s to satisfactorily carry out i t s mandate. The most severe area o f staffing shortages i s for the inspectors, whose current number i s not adequate to cover the service units o f all zones. The current staffing profiles also do not take into account the workload pertaining to the unique nature o f the districts. Districts are staffed uniformly in accordance with their anticipated schedule o f duties. The staff shortage becomes more severe in recent years following a trend in which most districts are losing staff to the teaching service as a result o f far more attractive training and compensation package for teachers. Whether these inspectors can function effectively as teachers again i s one issue. On the other hand, i t i s more important to ensure adequate compensation packages and career paths for education officers so as to attract more capable candidates for many crucial positions at the district level.

6.62 At the district level, the smallest management and service units are the zones that are staffed by Zonal Inspectors and TAC Tutors. The functions o f TAC Tutors, who are currently paid and deployed by the TSC to perform non-teaching tasks, sometimes overlap with that o f the inspectors. Furthermore, a majority o f TAC tutors have primary school teacher training with a secondary school academic background. There i s little value-added to put them out o f the teaching force with few professional functions.

Registration o f Educational Institutions 6.63 The Education Act Cap 21 1 mandates the Minister o f Education to establish and maintain a registry o f all schools unaided by the govemment. However, the act does not specify any registration procedures for public, community-based public schools, tertiary institutions, or other postsecondary institutions.

6.64 The process o f registration involves malung an application to the Minister o f Education stating the classification, including the number o f classes in each Form and the physical facilities. Before submission o f the application for registration, proprietors o f private schools seek registration o f business names. However, i t has been noted that once business names are acquired, schools begin to operate even before the official registration.

6.65 If a new school meets all the requirements, i t i s granted a provisional registration for 18 months. After one year, if all required conditions are met it i s given a full registration and the school can apply for an order establishing a board of governors. The act further allows the minister to request verification, which if not provided within six months, will close the school.. The school will also be closed i f urgent matters arise but no consultations with the MoEST are conducted. If the school remains closed for six months, i t i s then removed from the register. Once a school i s registered, i t may require re-registration to accommodate any changes, including putting up additional facilities, changing the classification o f the school and ownership, transferring the school to a new site, and often re-opening a school that has closed.

79

6.66 The requirement that schools must have t i t le deeds before registration has constrained the registration o f schools. Many newly-established schools do not have t i t le deeds and others are established on public land or land owned by clans. Land acquisition has been seen as a hindrance to the establishment and registration o f private schools.

6.67 Many nonformal schools are not regulated by the MoEST, but by the Ministry o f Home Affairs, Heritage and Sports, or NGOs Council. When community groups or charitable organizations do not meet the requirements o f formal school registration, they often go this route. However, many o f these schools s t i l l offer formal school curriculum. The fragmented school registration system makes it very difficult for MoEST to regulate and keep a record o f all schools, monitor the overall quality o f education service delivery, and more importantly, to support schools that provide complementary education.

Management o f Inspection of Services 6.68 The principal role o f school inspectors i s to assure the quality o f teaching and learning with sustained efficiency at the school level. The establishment, maintenance, and improvement o f educational standards can only be achieved through a functional inspectorate, which forms the important channel between policy makers and implementers. Through inspection, the appropriate physical facilities, leaming resources, quality and adequacy o f teachers’ backgrounds and the total environment are monitored regularly.

6.69 The Public Service Commission appoints school inspectors using requirements set out by MoEST. The Education Act mandates the Minister o f Education to appoint officers with authority to enter and inspect any school. The Chief Inspector o f Schools carries out the responsibility o f deploying inspectors to schools. There are about seventy districts, 146 divisions, and 1,052 zones, excluding municipalities. The distribution o f inspectors i s confined to district service units and the zones with none at the divisional level. The shortage o f school inspectors i s a distinctive issue in the field. T A C tutors sometimes carry out inspectorial functions, although they have limited experience and training. The unattractive o f the Scheme o f Service for inspectors does not provide adequate incentive for recruitment and retention. The number o f inspectors leaving the inspectorate to jo in TSC i s alarming. In addition, in cities and municipalities, inspection functions are undertaken by Education Advisors, who have no legal mandate for these duties. This further constrains the registration o f schools in the cities and municipalities.

6.70 To effectively perform inspectoral functions, inspectorate requires adequate funding for travel and accommodation, report compilation, and data processing. Currently, inspection services are constrained by inadequate budgetary allocations. The inspector’s mobil ity and access to office machines i s almost non-existent in the field. The issue i s further exacerbated by a fast growing inspectorate with respect to staff size. Given the budget constraint, needs also arise to optimise staffing, particularly in the context o f the decentralization o f more inspection function to the district level, with emphasis on strengthening school level quality assurance.

6.71 From time to time, the ministry communicates policy decisions through directives and circulars. The enforcement agency o f the ministry is, in many cases, the inspectorate. In addition, organization o f co-curricular activities, planning, and implementation o f funded projects also takes a lot o f the inspectors’ time. These administrative functions have distracted inspectors from their professional quality-assurance responsibilities.

80

6.72 Other issues also include: the instrument governing the appointment o f inspectors does not state the subject requirements for secondary level inspectors, which hampers subject-based inspections; and placing the inspectorate function within the Directorate o f Education has l imited its operational independence and decision-malung.

Conclusions 6.73 Adequate institutional arrangements and capacity are necessary conditions for effective service delivery. At the central level, weaknesses are found in the areas o f sector analysis, policy and planning, and overall system monitoring. Coordination i s also lacking between the MoEST and other central technical agencies, including Teachers Service Commission, Kenya Examination Council, and Kenya Institute o f Education, which i s reflected by irregular information flows and communication across and within the agencies. The management o f human resources, including both education officers and teachers, and the management o f financial resources are also weak at central level.

6.74 Kenya’s education system i s highly centralized. Decentralization i s justifiable given the vast coverage o f the education sector in terms o f the number o f students, institutions, teachers, and other service providers. Weak district-level and school-level capacity, however, i s a barrier to the effective decentralization o f education service delivery. These weak areas include l imi ted local authorities’ involvement, district- and school-level planning and reporting, school inspection, and teacher support as wel l as financial management and other day-to-day functions for service delivery.

81

Chapter 7 Policy Directions and Sector Development Projections

7.1 Kenya has an impressive record o f expanding access to education during the last three decades. However, the gains made in the f i rst two decades after Independence appear to have eroded or stalled since the late 1980s. The slowing down o f the sector expansion i s often seen as closely related to the overall economic condition. The deteriorating economy and increased poverty put tight constraints on the amount o f public and private resources invested in education. In the meantime, shrinking demand for skilled labor with a smaller modem sector also curbed the incentives to invest in education. Gross enrollment rates have fallen at both the primary and secondary levels during the 1990s.

7.2 The education and training sector in Kenya i s experiencing a historical moment right now, In December 2002, a new Government was formed after a democratic election, ending 24 years o f political domination by the party that had ruled Kenya since independence. The new Government has already made a clear break from the past by i t s policy actions. In education, a FPE policy was announced and implement in school year 2003. Expansion o f primary education has now been jump-started with close to a 1 mil l ion enrollment increase between the 2002 and 2003 school years. However, in the meantime, the government has also recognized that the sector i s now facing the more critical challenges o f keeping up the momentum for continuous and more equitable expansion, improving education quality, enhancing the system management and public spending efficiency as well as setting strategies for the development o f other subsectors.

Critical Challenges Equitable Expansion o f Enrollment

Remaining issues of FPE

7.3 Under the “Free Primary Education” policy, al l school fees and levies that used to be charged to the households are abolished. Instead, the central government has provided public funds to school directly. Each school receives 1,020 Kenyan shillings for each enrollee. This Ksh. 1,020 would cover the basic cost o f instructional materials, as well as general school administration and operation activities.

7.4 Following the implementation o f the FPE policy, although the overall GERZ4 at the primary level has reached 104 percent in 2003, regional disparities s t i l l widely exist. For example, among the eight provinces, the primary GER this year reached 120 and 119 percent in Nyanza and the Western Province, respectively, compared with as low as only 25 percent in the Northeastern Province and 62 percent in Nairobi. This further brings two distinctive issues. The f i rst i s that monetary cost o f schooling i s not the only factor that affects household decision o f sending their children to school. Other socio-economic breakdowns as well as varied supply constraints, such as availability o f and distance to schools could also contribute to the disparities. The secondary issue i s related to the equity in education participation. Further investigation for effective education provisions and participation calls for special attention to northern ASAL and urban slum areas. Government needs to rethink policies for these areas and develop programs built on successful experience.

7.5 The second important issue i s the sustainability o f the FPE policy. Primary schools need to delivering education o f adequate quality, and in the mean time to keep the border-line kids in

24 Including all public schools and registered non-public schools.

82

school. There i s need for careful analysis o f what additional needs to be done particularly in the areas o f in-service teacher training.

7.6 The great increase o f public expenditure on primary education has put much pressure on the continuous expansion at this level. The sustainability issue i s particularly distinctive as the expansion at primary level will be l ikely to lead to increased demand for education at higher levels, thus increased resource requirement for the expansion o f other sub-sectors. In this respect, there i s immediate needs for the Government to develop strategies at secondary and higher level, mobil izing other resources including voluntary community contribution i s s t i l l valid. However, public subsidy would be essential for disadvantaged communities in order to reach a more equitable education coverage and participation.

Expansion at secondary level

7.7 Currently, the gross secondary enrollment ratio i s s t i l l estimated at a level o f below 30 percent. The access to secondary education i s a particularly serious issue given that the large cohort o f increased enrollment at the primary level i s expected to exit that level and enter the secondary level in a few years.

7.8 Large scale demand-side response to the abolition o f primary school fees i s evidence that one o f the main hurdles to education access i s the cost burden o n households for basic education. Although the cost-burden at the primary level has shifted to the public sector, households s t i l l finance a large part o f the high cost o f secondary level. They have had to take o n the development cost o f construction and maintenance o f physical facilities and equipment, and the recurrent costs for teaching and learning materials, school boarding, and general school administration, sometimes even including inspection fees. There i s also evidence that these costs have increased sharply over the last ten years. Alleviation o f the cost burden, particularly o n poor households, i s critical to increasing education coverage beyond primary education.

7.9 The disparities in school enrollment at the secondary level are closely related to household wealth. The poorest 20 percent o f the rural population have a gross secondary enrollment rate o f less than 10 percent, whereas the richest 20 percent o f the urban population have a GER rate o f 77 percent. Gender balance i s to a large extent maintained in primary schooling opportunities. Male and female enrollment rates at the primary level are broadly similar, and the gender difference among secondary school enrollment rates i s not as large as in other developing countries. Kenya’s abil ity to close the gap between male and female enrollments in Afr ica i s particularly impressive. However, analysis o f household data suggests that, with economic growth and rising household incomes, the gap between male and female enrollments at the secondary level wil l l ikely widen. This shows that the Government must avoid complacency and work to actively close the gender gap in secondary enrollments to keep it f rom widening in the future.

Infernal efficiency 7.10 The high repetition and dropout rate i s also an indication that there i s significant waste in the system. Only 52 percent of primary school entrants complete the 8-year primary cycle after spending an average of 9 years at this level. At the secondary level, although 81 percent o f the entrants manage to complete the 4-year cycle, i t takes an average o f 5 years to finish. The transition f rom primary to secondary i s very low, less than 50 percent.

Quality o f Education 7.1 1 Improving school retention and completion also requires greater enhancement o f education quality, including improving learning achievement as we l l as strengthening educational

83

inputs. Although the current leaming outcome i s relatively better than some other SSA countries, there i s a huge gap compared with the international standard. The current curriculum reform i s streamlining the curriculum design to improve the academic performance in the core courses. However, provision o f instructional materials, improvement o f teacher’s competence in classroom teaching, and improvements in the learning environment, including classrooms and other school facilities a l l will contribute to the improvement o f overall education quality. In addition, the factors that contribute to the classroom effectiveness including classroom leaming time, student grouping, as wel l as various pedagogical issues also need to be further investigated for quality improvement.

Costs and Financing 7.12 At the same time that access and quality indicators appear to be deteriorating, the Govemment i s facing an unprecedented financial crisis in the education sector. The education sector i s already getting a much larger share o f national resources than most other sectors. Today, education accounts for 39 percent o f total Govemment-voted recurrent expenditures and over 6 percent o f Kenya’s GDP. These shares are significantly higher than in other countries with income levels comparable to Kenya. The challenge for the Govemment will be to address the problems o f poor access, inequity, l o w quality, and heavy household financial burdens in the sector with litt le additional resources to spend on them. Also, the current expansion begun at the primary level will not be sustainable at the current high unit cost level o n both primary and secondary levels.

7.13 Fortunately, there i s substantial scope for increasing the effectiveness o f public spending o n education. Indeed, when compared to other countries in Afiica, Kenya i s currently not getting i t s money’s wor th f rom the high levels o f public spending o n education. The sector strategies below will focus o n improving the efficiency across a l l areas o f future sector development.

Sector Strategies 7.14 Further development o f the education system in Kenya requires sizeable investments in a l l critical areas, including school access, retention and completion, and education quality. Furthermore, the shift o f some o f the household burden o f education cost to the public sector wil l also put much pressure o n the public resource allocation to the sector. Given the current high public spending o n the education sector, efficiency improvement will be the key for the overall sector strategy. I t wil l benefit a l l areas o f sector development, including expanding enrollment, improving quality, lowering the unit cost, and strengthening system management. Strategic pol icy options should also be designed and evaluated comparing the impact versus cost under the focused sector development objectives.

Expand Enrollment

Targeting

7.15 There are many ways in which targeting public spending o n education in Kenya would help achieve access and equity goals more cost-effectively. Spending additional public resources o n poor and underserved districts would not only be more equitable but would also increase the effectiveness o f public spending o n education.

7.16 As noted earlier, there are huge, unacceptable differences in enrollment rates across provinces and districts. Whi le some provinces enjoy universal primary enrollment, there are some that have primary enrollment rates o f only 25 percent. If the Government’s goal i s to raise the gross primary enrollment rate to at least 75 percent in al l the provinces in the country, i t

84

would have to target extra resources for primary education to the Northeastern Province and the Nairobi slums. Targeting can also be at the district, or even zonal, level. Generally, the finer the geographical targeting, the more effective it is.25 Indeed, the disparities between districts within one province i s sometimes quite large. As Table A. 1 shows, in 2003, within the Coastal Province, the Tana River and Mombasa districts have GERs below 60 percent, compared with Taita Taveta’s at over 100 percent. Other districts with GER below 65 percent include the Eastern Province’s Marsabit and Isiolo districts, Nairobi, the Rift Valley’s Turkana, Samburu, and Kajiado districts, and all four o f the districts in the Northeastem region.

income households or other

7.17 In addition, some districts have more out-of-school children than others as a result o f both the size o f school-age population and the GER level. The current (incomplete) data shows that Mombasa, Nairobi, Turkana, Nakuru, Garissa, and Wajia are among the districts with more than 50,000 out-of-school children in each one.

Textbox 7.1 : Demand-Side versus Supply-Side Financing

7.18 Targeting could be an effective way o f utilizing limited resources to achieve a more equitable increase o f school enrollment. Instruments for targeting include both supply- and demand-side public funding (Textbox 7.1). The current process by which new schools are established in Kenya works contrary to the principle o f targeting. The TSC and MoEST provide teachers to cater to initiatives by local communities. This often results in greater allocation o f teachers (and thereby public subsidies) to better-off areas where local communities have the resources to establish or expand schools.

specific demographic groups such as orphans i s another approach to achieving greater education participation. Although every primary school- age child has benefited from the FPE policy, there i s also a need to put in place clear and transparent mechanisms for exempting the poorest students from user fees in secondary schools and malung available to them bursaries and scholarships that help their families pay for other school costs (such as

One o f the policy choices government has i s whether to link resourcing to schools or to individual students. Resourcing institutions rather than students provides the government wi th a very direct and administrative straightforward mechanism for influencing the level o f resources used in the sector. Resourcing the students, however, has other desirable effects in that it:

Permits precise targeting so that resourcing can more accurately reflect the diversity o f student circumstances Enhances the bargaining power o f parents since schools know that failure to deliver on student needs directly translates into lower resourcing; and Encourages schools to be responsive to the needs o f students and accountable to parents

textbooks and uniforms). While there appears to be some (largely informal) exemption mechanism in place, it appears to be arbitrarily applied and does not adequately shield the poor from high user fees.

7.20 Unsatisfactory sector performance combined with high public expenditure in the sector indicates that system management efficiency needs immediate improvement to ensure the sustainability o f any public policies for further sector expansion. The potential efficiency gains in the following areas are in particular need further exploration.

25 T h i s i s an area where data generated from the Management Information System of the MoEST can be used effectively. The timely availability of information on educational indicators at disaggregated levels can be useful in developing and fine-tuning targeting options.

85

EfJicient utilization of classrooms

7.21 However, classroom construction planning should be conducted in a longer timeframe. Policies to stimulate increased enrollment usually cause an enrollment surge in the f i rst a few years, which overshoots the steady-state enrollment level. Over-building classroom capacity would cause unnecessary waste if a greater number o f existing classrooms can be used more efficiently.

Expansion o f the system also calls for increased classroom capacity.

7.22 Double-shifting the use o f classrooms i s not common in Kenya. However, after the primary enrollment increase this year, many schools have successfully adopted the practice o f double-shifting the use o f classrooms, particularly for lower grades with shorter learning hours. This practice could potentially save substantial resources that would have otherwise gone into new building, which usually constitutes a significant part o f sector resources.

Public-private partnership in education

7.23 Greater private sector participation in the education sector i s inevitable for the future expansion o f education, particularly at the secondary level. There i s a range o f ways in which the private sector can participate in the education sector. These include the traditional form o f private participation - namely the delivery o f education services through privately owned schools and higher education institutions. But there are a number o f other ways that the private sector participates in education. These include:

0

0

0

Private sector management and operation o f publicly owned schools under contract to the state Government or private sector provide education vouchers or scholarships to students to attend private schools Private sector supply o f inputs or provide services to the education process

7.24 An effective public-private partnership would also require a clear definition o f the roles o f the govemment. The ultimate justification o f government involvement i s to correct the market imperfections in education due to information asymmetries, capital market constraints, the existence o f externalities, and the equity objective. These lead to the four principal policy instruments available to governments: (a) funding through both supply- and demand-side financing (See Textbox 7.1) (b) ownership; (c) regulation; and (d) information.

Improve QualiQ

Efficient allocation and utilization of teachers

7.25 At primary level, redeployment o f teachers to the areas with inadequate numbers o f teachers will be essential to the improvement o f education quality, particularly in those disadvantaged areas. Furthermore, there are large PTR differences among zones with districts and among districts within one province. For example, within the Coastal Province, the Malindi district has a PTR o f 54: 1, while the Tana River’s PTR i s 29: 1, Within Kiambu District, Tigoni Zone has a PTR o f 48:1, whereas the Nagariana Zone has a PTR as low as 31:l. Therefore, redeployment o f teachers i s not infeasible given that within-district and within-province redeployment are relatively low-cost and less stressful for redeployed teachers. Further enrollment expansion wil l also require an increased teaching force to ensure education quality. However, the new hiring and deployment o f teachers should be based on the need at the school level.

86

7.26 At the secondary level, it i s expected that teacher need will be reduced under a streamlined curriculum. These extra teachers can be absorbed by the further expansion o f the secondary education, although many o f the teachers need to be retrained to adapt to the reformed curriculum and teaching core courses. T h i s would also to some extent attend to the existing deficiency o f teachers in certain core subjects.

Ongoing Implementation of curriculum reform

7.27 The 8-4-4 system started in 1980s features a broad-based practical curriculum at all levels, which was meant to radically reorient educational policy to make it more relevant to the world o f work and the need to produce skilled and high-level manpower to meet demands o f the economy. However, the curriculum i s too diversified, leaving l i t t le time for the basics. Th is curriculum orientation has draw much attention in recent years, particularly with regard to i ts cost-effectiveness in terms o f reaching the basic objectives o f general education. Having these extra subjects for which there i s little demand imposes an unnecessary cost burden on schools and on the Kenya National Examination Council. The introduction o f many practical subjects into the curriculum, while well-intentioned, i s not effective, since many schools lack the equipment, facilities, and specialized teachers needed to effectively teach them. Sometimes these overly- specialized teachers have very few instructional hours because too few pupils register for their courses.

7.28 After a series of curriculum evaluations were performed, curriculum reform i s currently underway to re-align curriculum design and learning objectives on each level. The revised curriculum i s being implemented in phases: Standard 1 and 5, and Form I in 2003, Standard 2 and 6, and Form I1 in 2004, Standard 3 and 7, and Form I11 in 2005, and Standard 4 and 8, and Form IV in 2006. The curriculum content has been revised to focus on teaching and learning essential core skills. However, arguably, the reform at the secondary level has been less effective. While the number o f subjects examined in Form IV has been reduced, the number o f subjects which schools can teach i s s t i l l large, and TSC i s expected to provide a teacher where there are at least 8 students wishing to study a subject. The overall effects of the curriculum reform on core course learning achievement as well as on lowering the overall cost should be under continuous monitoring and evaluation.

Teaching subjects at the primary level have been reduced from 7 to 5.

In-service teacher training and other teacher professional support

7.29 The ongoing curriculum reform also requires a great deal o f in-service training of teachers and extensive teacher professional support to allow the teachers to adapt to the new curriculum. This i s particularly crucial at the secondary level where many teachers may have to be re-trained to teach core courses within the streamlined curriculum with fewer subjects. The roles o f Teacher Advisory Centres will have be re-evaluated and strengthened to provide needed professional support to transitioning teachers.

7.30 There are various ongoing teacher training programs financed by donors. Although they target primary schoolteachers in general, valuable lessons can be learned from these programs. The DFID financed distance education course could be further evaluated, strengthened and expanded to improve the pedagogical sk i l ls o f key resource teachers in maths, English, and science. Under the World Bank financed FPESP, further teacher training programs are under preparation particularly to train teachers in the use o f textbooks, managing large classes, and multi-grade teaching.

87

7.3 1 MoEST needs to develop comprehensive in-service teacher training and teacher support programs to improve the quality o f the teaching force. Teacher training emphasis needs to move away from pre-service to in-service. Furthermore, the in-service teacher training should also move away from donor-driven, designed project by project, towards a continuing ministry owned operation.

Provision of teaching and learning materials

7.32 Unti l 2002, teacher salaries account for over 95 percent o f the recurrent expenditure at the primary and secondary level. As a result, there are hardly any public resources le f t for other school inputs, such as learning materials and textbooks. The generally poor provision o f complementary inputs means that the effectiveness o f teachers i s significantly reduced. Instead o f teaching, instructors spend their time copying material from their textbooks onto the blackboard, and students waste their time recopying the blackboard material into their exercise books. This i s hardly the proper environment in which student learning can take place26.

7.33 Starting in 2003, the Government began giving school grants for textbooks and other teaching and learning materials. At the primary level, the spending on school materials has increased to close to 20 percent o f total recurrent expenditure.

7.34 At the secondary level, to raise the effectiveness o f public spending on education, the Government will have to continue to reallocate resources from teacher salaries to other recurrent inputs at the secondary level. To make the most o f limited resources, there i s need for the Government to develop policies and strategies with regard to splitting the financing burden between the Government, communities or households. Better-off students and communities who are able to pay for textbooks and learning materials may have to continue to finance these inputs themselves.

Improvement of school facilities

7.35 Overcrowded classrooms with an insufficient number o f desks and benches also have negative effects on teaching and the classroom learning environment. Improving the conditions o f school facilities may not only include new constructions but also emphasize the maintenance o f school facilities, which i s more cost-effective in general, particularly under double-shifting use o f classrooms.

7.36 The distribution o f classrooms relative to enrollment i s also uneven across districts. As new schools and classrooms are generally constructed as a result o f community initiative, poor communities usually face more severe shortage o f classrooms. Targeted development funds should be considered. In the meantime, more populated areas also face the constraint o f land availability to expand with new construction. For example, Kisume Municipality has a pupil- classroom ratio at over 70:l at primary level. Efficient utilization o f classrooms i s particularly crucial to ensure education quality in these areas.

26 Kremer, Moulin, and Namunyu (2002) analyzed information f i om the project conducted by the Dutch NGO, International Christelijk Steunfonds (ICs), that provided funds for uniforms, textbooks, and classroom construction in the districts o f Busia and Tesoto thereby reducing the financial burden placed on families. They constructed a model to explore tradeoffs between student-teacher ratios, non-teacher inputs, and the costs o f attending school by observing the impact of the Dutch intervention, versus non-intervention and the transfer o f students f rom one school to another. They found that the reduction in costs to families offset the negative effects o f increased class size. Additionally, dropout rates declined and test scores were not affected. They recommend that the costs o f textbooks and other inputs be financed by the Kenyan government through the cost savings o f employing fewer teachers to teach larger classes.

88

Improvement of classroom effectiveness

7.37 There has not been much information so far in Kenya regarding the process through which educational inputs produce leaming outcome27. The research findings in other developing countries have shown that it i s one the most important determinants o f effective leaming and teaching. Further monitoring and analysis i s needed in the areas o f classroom leaming such as time on task, students’ grouping, attention to individual students; and effective teaching including innovations in teaching methodology, collaborative lesson planning, and peer support on pedagogy.

Enhance Efficiency o f Resource Allocation and Utilization

Rationalization of teacher compensation for better incentive scheme

7.38 The factors that determine the total teacher wage bill include both the average teacher salary and the pupil-teacher ratio. According to the 2003/2004 GoK budget estimates, the average annual earnings of P1 teachers, who constitute the majority o f Kenyan primary-school teachers, i s about 3.5 times as large as the country’s per capita GDP, while the average graduate I secondary-school teacher’s salary i s 5.5 times the per capita GDP. Teacher costs are however high since benefits constitute a large proportion o f their overall compensation package. Including al l the benefits, the average teacher’s compensation would be 6 and 9 times that o f the GDP per capita at the primary and secondary levels, respectively. Comparing these numbers with those o f other developing countries shows that average teacher compensations in Kenya are now much higher than expected for a country o f Kenya’s level o f per capita income.

7.39 Although the overall teacher salary bill has grown larger over the years, the PE composition in the overall MoEST recurrent budget has shown a declining trend since 2000. However, this mainly reflects that the overall allocation to MoEST has increased significantly in the recent years. For example, the recurrent allocation for Vote 31 o f MoEST overall total increased from 35 percent in 200/2001 to 39 percent in 2003/2004. Therefore, the proportion o f the teacher salary bill over the total GoK budget envelope s t i l l shows an increasing trend if it increases faster than the voted total o f the recurrent budget. In this respect, the overall fiscal impact needs to be taken into consideration for future teacher salary increases.

7.40 There are also arguments in Kenya that teacher qualification need to better match their teaching positions. Teachers are paid by their qualifications, which does not necessarily reflect the job they are actually doing. For example, although usually only P1 teachers are needed at the primary level, graduate teachers are s t i l l teaching at this level and earning a graduate teacher’s salary. For these graduate teachers working at the primary level, the extra years o f pre-service training are not fully utilized. The foregone cost i s even higher given that these extra years in teacher training institutions could be better spent teaching, thereby gaining greater experience for more effective classroom teaching. In this regard, the need may also arise to streamline teacher training system to eliminate the inefficiencies o f these “over-qualified” teachers.

Adjust pupil-teacher ratio

7.41 Kenya used to have one o f the lowest pupil-teacher ratios in Africa. It i s particularly low considering its per capita GDP. Furthermore, this ratio had been declining steadily over time - from 39 at primary level in 1963 to 33 in 2000. In 2003, following the enrollment jump, the current PTR has reached 39:1, although there are major variations from school to school and

27 The activities in this area sponsored by Aga Khan Foundation will provide valuable experience. However there i s very limited information currently.

89

district to district. A t the secondary level, the PTR dropped f iom 26 in 1983 to a mere 16 now in the case o f secondary education. While pupil-teacher ratios are often used as a measure o f school quality in the school effectiveness literature, it i s not clear that the falling PTRs in Kenya have been associated with an improved quality o f education. One reason for the inability o f falling PTRs to improve student performance may be that declining pupil-teacher ratios have been accompanied by the reduced provision o f other inputs l ike textbooks, which has tended to further reduce the effectiveness o f teachers. The decline in the pupil-teacher ratio has also been a supply-driven phenomenon with teaching seen as a source o f employment for an increasing number o f Kenyans.

7.42 In the past, TSC was required to provide employment to al l graduates o f the teacher training colleges. This supply-driven approach has been replaced by a demand-driven approach in recent years with a freeze on hiring. However the deployment o f teachers over the years under the supply-driven approach has resulted wide variations in the pupil-teacher ratio across schools and communities. Currently, the overall PTR o f 39:l at the primary level i s quite adequate. If teachers could be re-deployed fieely nationwide, there would be no need for extra teachers except for replacing normal attrition, to the extent that enrollment increases further. Although there may be social or cultural barriers for a full range o f teacher redeployment, i t i s s t i l l the f i rst option one needs to consider for efficiency gains under a tight budget.

7.43 Curriculum-related overstaffing has been a distinctive phenomenon at the secondary level. Due to the broad curriculum and few registrants for many selective courses, many teachers do not have a high enough teaching load. This situation should improve with the ongoing implementation o f curriculum reform. However, this may also require re-training o f many teachers because the training they received to teach certain subjects may not be useful for teaching core courses. The TSC recognizes the need to revise the norms which it uses to evaluate the number o f teachers needed, and the study i s to be undertaken shortly to provide basis for staffing schools, talung into account both educational needs and resource constraints.

7.44 In many cases, low pupil-teacher ratio i s related to small schools with small class size in areas with very sparsely distributed populations. Alternative teaching methods, such as multi- grade teaching can be explored to increase o f teacher utilization.

Adequately allocate public resources between sub-sectors

7.45 The effect o f nearly one mil l ion increase o f primary enrollment in 2003 on the demand for secondary education and other levels o f education and training will be seen in a few years. There i s immediate need to plan ahead for the expected expansion. Given an improved economic perspective, i t i s envisaged that there will be increased resource demand at secondary and higher levels.

7.46 On the other hand, the GER for secondary education in Kenya cannot be compared with the average for SSA since most SSA countries have only 6 grades o f primary education. Thus, while coverage stagnated during the 199Os, and there i s no doubt a need for increased coverage, decisions on how much publicly--named upper general secondary education a country such as Kenya should provide at i t s present stage o f economic development i s not an easy one. For example, depending on labor market conditions, such resources could altematively be put into e.g., short-cycle tertiary education geared towards meeting labor market demands. Labor market considerations should play an important role in determining the priorities for public financing. How to efficiently allocate public resources among sub-sectors will be a major challenge ahead for a balance growth of the education sector to meet the needs o f poverty reduction and economic recovery.

90

Strengthen Institutional Arrangement and Capacity for Service Delivery 7.47 Strengthening institutional capacity should focus on two major areas. The f i rst involves management and planning functions at central level. The second area i s the implementation capacity at the school and district level.

7.48 In addition to necessary review and revision o f existing education legislation to cater for emerging issues and policies, at central level, there i s need for (1) better coordination o f central agencies including KIE, TSC, and KNEC for overall sector policy and standards, with (2) clear accountabilities o f various agencies. There i s also need for (3) enhanced the capacity o f monitoring and evaluation function at the central level, which would further require (4) an improved EMIS and, (5) better Research and Development (R&D) function at this level.

7.49 In accordance with GoK public sector reforms, particularly within the context o f the FPE policy in the education sector, major administrative and resource management functions have devolved to district and school levels. Therefore, there i s need to strengthen the capacity at this level for the management o f service delivery and financial accountability. The range o f management issues at this level not only covers student f low management, but may also include hiring teachers, school-based teacher development, curriculum implementation, school level financial management, and monitoring and reporting.

7.50 Another important area i s the decentralization o f education service delivery with regard to the roles o f Local Authorities. The involvement o f Local Authorities would ensure quick decision-making to respond to the needs on the ground, and great improvement o f the efficiency in service delivery. For the Local Authorities to perform the education functions effectively, both human resources and financial resources requirement need to be evaluated. In the meantime, the functions o f DEOs shall be strengthened in the areas o f pedagogical support and guidance to schools, maintenance o f education standards, education quality assurance, and monitoring and evaluation o f educational outcome.

7.51 Kenya currently lacks the prerequisites o f a legal framework wi th specific mandates for Local Authorities in education service delivery. Nonetheless, with the discussion o f the local government reform underway, this would be an crucial area for future education sector development.

Sector Development Projections 7.52 the evaluation o f efficiency gains from choosing different policy approaches.

This section Provides the cost implications o f sector policies, with particular interest in

Primary Level 7.53 The size o f the total enrollment i s one o f the most important determinants o f the required resources. In general, a large amount o f invested resources will also provide better capacity and quality o f education to attract more enrollees. The total school enrollment i s determined f i rs t by the school-age population, which i s currently affected by declining population growth. CBS projections for the primary age group i s at 1.33 percent p.a. declining to 0.80 percent p.a. by 2006. The implication o f the trend i s that Kenya will not be faced with a rapidly growing school- age populations in the coming years. Preliminary population projections, together with enrollment projections, are shown in Table 7.1.

7.54 According to the February 2003 school census, the total enrollment this year at the primary level has increased to 7.2 mil l ion from last year’s 6.3 million, including both public and non-public schools. The model here uses public school data as the basis for projection, since

91

funding for public schools constitutes a major part o f public expenditures in the sector. The intake rate i s estimated at 125 percent in 2003, following the FPE initiative.

7.55 The enrollment projection at the primary level uses the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as the target, with the primary cycle completion rate reaching 100 percent by 2015. This requires that a universal intake rate together with a zero dropout should start in 2007 at the latest. To reach this target, the projection further assumes that the dropout rate would be reduced to one- ha l f o f the current level between 2003 and 2005, and later to zero.

7.56 Due to increased public investment in the primary subsector, particularly in improved educational inputs such as textbooks and other instructional materials, i t i s envisaged that there will be significant improvement in intemal efficiency. In the projection model, we assume that the repetition rates drop to two-thirds o f the current levels between 2003-2005, and further to one- third o f the current levels starting in 2006.

7.57 However, because many out-of-school children have enrolled in 2003, the intake rates in later years will not be as high as 125 percent. The projection assumes that the effect o f the FPE will keep the intake rate at over 100 percent in the following two years, but gradually reduce it to a steady-state level o f 100 percent. The model shows that the “FPE bulge” works i t s way through the system. By 2012, the last cohort o f the “FPE bulge” will reach the last grade o f primary cycle. The system reaches a steady-state in 20 13, with 100 percent NER and 103 percent GER.

Recurrent costs

7.58 Table 7.2 to Table 7.5 present recurrent and development cost projections at the primary level based on two scenarios. The “lower-bound” scenario assumes that the uneven distribution across districts and schools can be solved via complete redeployment o f teachers. Classroom utilization can be intensified in areas where there are more than 40 pupils in one classroom on average. In this scenario, the national average will determine the total cost at this level. This scenario provides the lower bound o f the cost estimation as it assumes maximal efficiency gains. However, due to some rigidity o f teacher redeployment, and the capacity constraints o f intensified classroom use in some schools and districts, the efficiency gains cannot reach this point in reality. Therefore, an upper-bound estimation i s also presented that assumes complete rigidity o f teacher redeployment and classroom utilization.

7.59 The number o f teachers employed at the primary level drives the costs o f the primary system to a large extent, which i s the most important part o f the whole recurrent education budget. International experience indicates that a class o f about 50 i s the maximum desirable for one teacher to handle, and that an average PTR o f between about 1:40 and 1:45 i s reasonable for maximum efficiency o f teacher capacity. L o w PTR before 2003 has been a distinctive characteristic o f primary education in Kenya. The enrollment surge in 2003 has pushed the PTR to 39:l in public schools. Further increase in enrollment in later years could push it closer to the efficiency frontier.

7.60 The PTR under the lower-bound estimation remains below 43. The slight fluctuation over the years will ensure the number o f new teacher hires per year remains stable so as not to put extra strain on the teacher training institutions or the supply o f new teachers. If teachers cannot be re-deployed, it i s estimated that about 9,700 new teachers wil l be needed in 2003. This figure i s the total o f new teachers needed in districts with PTRs higher than 40:l. By the end o f 2003, every district would have a PTR lower or equal to 40: 1. This would result a nation average PTR o f 38:l. In the following years, additional number o f teachers needed will be calculated by dividing the enrollment increase by 40. It should be noted that the PTR will remain below 40:l

92

during the next decade or so. This estimation also provides an upper-bound teacher cost in the sense that the number o f extra teachers needed fi-om 2004 onwards should be lower since many districts with a PTR below 40 do not need extra teachers for increased enrollment.

7.61 The other large component o f recurrent cost at the primary level i s school grants to provide textbooks and other leaming materials, and school operations including registration, examinations, school-based teacher development, minor repairs, and other school maintenance costs. Although economy o f scale may vary the cost for these items, they are closely linked to the size (total enrollment) o f each school. Under the current project o f public provision o f textbooks, i t i s estimated that 850 Kenyan shillings i s needed for each child in school to have a minimum package o f textbooks and other leaming materials during the 2003 school year (see Table A. 9 for details). In the following years, the unit cost i s estimated as shown in Table A. 10 using the basic parameters summarized in Table A. 9. The variation from year to year i s mainly due to the gradual introduction o f new curriculum as well as various lifecycle o f different components o f the package. In addition, i t i s estimated 200 shillings per pupil per year should cover other areas o f school operations costs.

7.62 Overall, the allocation o f recurrent costs between salary and non-salary components would change from 96:4 in 2001. With maximum efficiency gains o f teacher redeployment, the ratio could reach 75:25 in year 2003 at the primary level, compared with a ratio o f around 85: 15 without teacher deployment.

7.63 The FY03/04 recurrent budget for MoEST has reached 39 percent o f the GoK’s total discretionary budget. This share i s not likely to increase significantly in the future. The increase in the domestic resource to the sector will largely rely on the economic and total budget envelope growth. Assuming a 3 percent growth rate in the coming years, the graphs below indicate no financing gap for this subsector. Indeed, there i s significant surplus that could be used for other subsectors.

Development costs

7.64 Using 40 pupils per classroom, the number o f existing classrooms seems to be adequate for the current enrollment. However, the distribution o f classrooms i s also uneven. Using district-level data, i t i s estimated that 11,600 extra classrooms need to be built to cater to 2003 enrollment. In the same vein as the recurrent cost projection, this provides an upper-bound estimate o f construction needs. The projection results are presented in Table 7.5. The lower bound estimation i s presented in Table 7.3. The unit cost for classroom construction i s estimated at $5,000 per classroom, including sanitary facilities and basic classroom furniture.

7.65 The future cost-sharing relationship between communities and the state for building and rehabilitation investments i s unclear following the introduction o f FPE. The MoEST circular o f January 8, 2003, stresses the importance o f making full use o f existing facilities, including double-shifting o f schools (although it mentions only double shif ts for classes 1-3 where enrollment expansion i s the greatest). As far as the community role in providing facilities i s concerned, i t merely says, “Whi le the Government i s undertaking school mapping, there i s need to expand the existing facilities. In this respect, communities and District Education Boards are therefore advised to put an embargo on emergence o f new schools. . . . The Government initiative towards free education encourages community initiative as long as there i s consensus by stakeholders.. .”. According to the experience in other countries, community involvement i s essential to resource mobilization, which may include voluntary financial contribution, but more importantly, should promote greater community participation through in-kmd contribution such as volunteer work.

93

7.66 The comparison between lower-bound and upper-bound estimation provides the maximum gains for efficiency improvement. I t i s estimated that between 2003 and 2015, the total savings would reach US$600 mill ion and $150 mill ion for recurrent and development resources.

94

* 0 N

9 0 N

2 0 N

N

N s

CI " 0 N

2 0 N

h 0 0 N

a 0 0 N

b 0 ::

W 0 0 N

VI 0 0 N

-r 0 0 N

m 0 0 N

r;

r- w

r- OI 9 m

r- 10

t- G.

io m 0 0 9 -

9 z t G.

9 8 z - t 9 G.

m w m. t-" a t -

O b G . m m a

m vi

00"

2 G.

a b a 0

N N

t-

r-, s "!

a b r - 0

3 & N. r-

0

W

m

1 3 m m

m p'

v? s N m

W m

I-

Q

m

$ 00, 3

. . 3, W

m

m

m

9 -!! - W 9

0, -! -!

-! m

m

m

m

T: I-

x N - m m

W 0 m

& I

N N

00 m

M 00, m

N N

m m

N N

m m

N N

m m

N N o? m

m 2 2 o ' o

0 4 4 0 4 w- m P- N vi,

m 0 0

m o o o h d vi

8 ri vi * I--

W

I-

I- m

z -. W m T 2

0 - - 0 0

m v i v i o v i w. m w N vi.

F p'

=, F 00

W m

!2 0 vi

2 f vi-

h

2 !2 W- vi- m

* 4 z m

m

N

h vi

m m

c: vi

m

W 2 2 N" m

W 0

2 0 N

2

z 2

N

m

N

c c

0 N

2 0 N

m 0 0 N

Jo 0 0 N

I- 0 0 N

rD 0 0 N

vi 0 0 N

* 0 0 N

m 0 0 N

y1 I

Figure 7.1: Upper- and Lower-Bound of Recurrent Costs at Primary Level

750.0

725.0

700.0

675.0

650.0

625.0

600.0

575.0

550.0

525.0

500.0

475.0

450.0

-t Recurrent cost (lower bound) - Recurrent cost (upper bound) -L- domestic recurrent resources

Figure 7.2: Upper- and Lower-Bound of Classroom Construction Costs at Primary Level

10.0

+Development cost (lower bound) -." Development cost (upper bound)

100

Secondary Level 7.67 Secondary level enrollment i s determined by the Standard 8 enrollment o f the year before in the primary cycle, together with the transition rate from the primary to secondary cycle. Provided here are two cases o f enrollment projections. The f i rst i s the baseline case, with the transition rate constant at the current level o f 40 percent. I t should be noted that even without an increasing transition rate, the gross enrollment ratio would increase from 23 percent to 38 percent in 2015, depending on capacity increase. This i s mainly due to the expansion o f primary education, producing more graduates from the primary cycle. The second case shows an expansion o f secondary school enrollment, with the transition rate o f 70 percent starting in 2007, together with a gradual increase in the GER from 23 percent in 2003 to 67 percent in 2015.

7.68 Due to the lack of information on school facilities at this level, the focus i s on recurrent costs projection. The final result includes three scenarios for comparison, with particular attention to efficiency gains from teacher utilization. The baseline scenario i s based on the base case enrollment without efficiency improvement o f teacher utilization. Scenario one presents the recurrent resource requirement with constant transition rate but great efficiency improvement through increasing Pupil-teacher ratio gradually to 34: 1. Scenario two presents the recurrent resource requirement with secondary enrollment expansion together with more efficient utilization o f teachers. All three scenarios keep constant the unit cost o f school-level expenditure, ie. , bursaries and other school expenditures under Head 800 o f Sub-vote 316 o f the MoEST budget.

7.69 Comparison o f the cost projections under the three scenarios shows that there i s tremendous saving potential from more efficient utilization o f teachers. The projected domestic resources would not be sufficient to sustain the system without efficiency improvement o f teacher utilization. In contrast, Scenario one shows that with the same enrollment growth, but increasing pupil-teacher ratio gradually to 34: 1, this system can be largely self-sustained. Scenario two further shows that, with more efficient utilization o f teachers, and even below the amount o f financial resources required under the baseline scenario can largely finance a much expanded secondary enrollment with 70 transition rate starting in year 2007, resulting a total enrollment o f close to over 2.6 mil l ion insteand o f 1.5 mill ion by 2015.

101

3

c i

e 3

V

N

2 N

N v?

- 2 N

N

Y c

N

d 0 m "" m

N N

-r

m

N N

51, r-,

';f

51, m

N N

d

m

N N

"*

51, r-.

d

m

N N

51, r-"

5 2 m m

N

d

m vi

N N

9

r-"

d

m vi

N N

9

x m m

N N r-.

2 R

2 P(

I

< t

:

r c

r ;

C

C i

c C

0 c

r c

2 P

2 z

2 c

c,

x

o m 2 2- m N r-

N"

0

2 m M

2 W m

M m m 2 m

2 r-

N m N" m r- W

M 3

'3. 3

0 v

0

2

d, 0 a 9 e c

m c

0.

2 N

m N, c

N N

Figure 7.3: Recurrent Cost Projections at Secondary Level

&baseline scenario -' scenario 1 --t scenario 2 -x- domestic recurrent resources

Issues o f Special Attention for Further Sector Planning

Teacher Demand And Supply for Primary and Secondary Education Expansion

7.70 Financial resource i s not the only constraint for sustainable sector development. As teachers are the most important human resource in the sector, producing sufficient number o f teachers in an efficient manner need a well-balanced planning process taking into account both the demand for teachers versus the teacher training capacity and structure in a longer time frame.

7.71 Current annual supply o f teachers from teacher training institutions and programs i s about 10,000 at primary level, and 800 at secondary level. According to the projections above, at the primary level, in addition to the existing capacities o f teacher training institutions that are not fully utilized, the annual supply o f teachers has also exceeded the demand for teachers. However, at the secondary level, although the demand for teachers can be eased through increasing pupil- teacher ratio for the f i rst a few years, the annual output o f less than 1,000 secondary school teachers can no longer meet the needs in the long term. As illustrated in Scenario 1, which has the lowest level o f teacher demand among the different scenarios, there i s s t i l l need o f around 2,000 graduates a year by year 201 1. As secondary school teacher training takes a minimum o f 3 years, expanding enrollment o f teacher training for secondary education will need to be planned well ahead.

7.72 An effective planning based on teacher demand and supply would also require a more accurate estimation o f the annual teacher attrition rate, particularly taking into account the impact o f HIV/AIDS. The current rough estimate o f 3.3 percent o f the average teacher attrition rate may need to be further adjusted to reflect the situation.

107

Teacher Pay Award

7.73 years. sustainability o f education sector development.

The teacher pay award granted in 1997/1998 i s envisaged to be implemented fully in 5-6 The fiscal implications o f this pay award has yet to be evaluated to ensure the

Costing and Inclusion of Other Sector Development Measures

7.74 I t also needs to point out that the current projection does not include all the sector development measures recommended. The main purpose o f the projection model shown here i s to provide a useful tool for strategic planning o f the sector. In addition, detailed costing o f each investment option needs the involvement o f all the stakeholders, and in close linkage with the evaluation o f implementation feasibility. This process i s underway with the MoEST’s leadership in the development o f a sector strategic plan and the preparation o f a sector-wide development program.

7.75 As any planning i s facing the constraints o f financial resources and physical and humac capacity, evaluation and prioritisation o f investment options i s particularly important for strategic planning. This i s in general a process o f cost-benefit analysis. The benefit would be evaluated with respect to the impact on education access and equity, quality and internal efficiency, as well as in system management and institutional arrangement for effective education service delivery. The cost does not only include financial cost, but also the political cost and risks.

Further focused studies needed

7.76 The major objective o f this report i s to provide an analytical base o f sector issues, and broad sector policy directions. To develop a strategic plan for the sector development, further focused studies are needed in the following areas: (1) determinants o f the participation o f basic education particularly in urban slums and nomadic areas, with attention to both demand and supply-side factors; (2) detailed teacher demand and supply study for the rationalization o f teacher training capacity; (3) TSC staffing norms study; (4) study for the designs o f effective in- service teacher training programs (5) institutional arrangement for effective service delivery, with special attention to decentralization and teacher management; (6) system monitoring and evaluation with capacity for Education Management Information System (EMIS); (7) current status of, development potentials and incentives for the private provision o f education particularly at the secondary level; (8) labor market study with close linkage with the development o f secondary, TVET, and tertiary education.

Conclusions . 7.77 Further development o f the education system in Kenya requires a major investment in all the critical areas including school access, retention and completion, and education quality. Furthermore, the shift o f some o f the household burden o f education costs to the public sector wil l also put much pressure on the public resource allocation to the sector. The implementation o f the “Free Primary Education” policy has pushed the education recurrent expenditure up to 39 percent o f the total government discretionary spending in 2002-2003. Given the extremely high public spending on the education sector, improvement o f efficiency will be the key for the overall sector strategy. The efficiency improvement would benefit all the areas o f sector development including expanding enrollment, improving quality, and lowering the unit cost as well as strengthening the management o f the system. The efficiency improvement in the allocation and utilization o f resources i s particularly vital to the sustainability o f the overall sector development.

108

7.78 The other crucial factor for sustained sector development i s the balance between the subsectors. The enrollment bulge at primary level, together with quality improvement at this level wil l ripple through the system and lead to the increased pressure o n the expansion o f general secondary, technical and vocational education and training, as wel l as tertiary education. Overall planning i s needed wel l ahead to prepare for the most effective sector-wide development strategies with close relation to Kenya’s poverty reduction and economic recovery efforts.

7.79 Further operationalizing the policy directions with sequencing and the design o f investment mechanisms would require wide discussions among stakeholders under the development o f a comprehensive sector strategic plan.

109

Annex I Additional Tables

Table A. 1: Primary GER by District, 2003 PROVINCE DISTRICT NAME ENROLL 2003 POPULATION GER

(6-13 YRS) ( Y O )

1 Coast 2 Coast 3 Coast 4 Coast 5 Coast 6 Coast 7 Coast

8 Central 9 Central 10 Central 11 Central 12 Central 13 Central 14 Central 15 Central

16 Eastem 17 Eastem 18 Eastern 19 Eastem 20 Eastern 21 Eastern 22 Eastern 23 Eastern 24 Eastern 25 Eastern 26 Eastem 27 Eastem 28 Eastem

29 Nairobi

30 Rift Valley 3 1 Rift Valley 32 Rift Valley 33 Rift Valley 34 Rift Valley 35 Rift Valley 36 Rift Valley 37 Rift Valley 38 Rift Valley 39 Rift Valley 40 Rift Valley 41 Rift Valley 42 Rift Valley 43 Rift Valley 44 Rift Valley 45 Rift Valley 46 Rift Valley 47 Rift Valley 48 Rift Valley

Coast Total

Central Total

Eastern Total

Nairobi Total

TANA RIVER MOMBASA KWALE KILIFI LAMU MALINDI TAITA TAVETA

KIAMBU THIKA MUN. THIKA DISTRICT KIRINYAGA NYERI NYANDARUA MURANGA MARAGUA

MARSABIT ISIOLO MOYALE* MERU CENTRAL EMBU MERU N. (NYAMBENE) MERU S (NITHI) MBEERE* KITUI MAKUENI MACHAKOS MWINGI THARAKA

NAIROBI

TURKANA SAMBURU KAJIADO NAROK WEST-POKOT TRANS-MARA LAIKIPIA ELDORET MUN. UASIN GISHU BARING0 NAKURU MUN. NAKURU BOMET KITALE MUN.

KERICHO BURET1 NAND1 KOIBATEK

TRANS-NZOIA

23,877 62,131 107,538 124,660 16,249 63,978 62,736

461,169 137,196 13,128 120,888 95,957 146,585 13 1,702 93,997 11 1,931 851,384 16,047 16,097 12,249 102,483 61,750 159,585 50,021 51,211 163,107 249,528 272,635 103,727 31,589

1,290,029 194,013 194,013 36,594 24,05 1 66,775 80,193 72,784 43,127 73,425 28,155 118,812 73,670 40,885 244,915 113,129 1 3,090 156,993 134,787 93,634 169,962 43,103

46,657 107,634 125,133 139,398 17,357 66,817 58,443 561,439 152,539

140,314 95,510 145,616 124,613 86,884 98,614

844,090 3 1,229 25,279 15,134 105,223 60,392 155,598 48,647 44,594 138,90 1 2 1 1,627 229,244 84,124 25,179

1,175,171 315,434 315,434 112,324 38,957 96,582 97,699 82,354 48,215 78,231

146,611 73,007

278,741 106,277

149,708 117,177 80,750 145,781 34,141

51.2 57.7 85.9 89.4 93.6 95.8 107.3 82.1 89.9 95.5 95.5 100.5 100.7 105.7 108.2 113.5 100.9 51.4 63.7 80.9 97.4 102.2 102.6 102.8 114.8 117.4 117.9 118.9 123.3 125.5 109.8 61.5 61.5 32.6 61.7 69.1 82.1 88.4 89.4 93.9 100.2 100.2 100.9 102.5 102.5 106.4 113.6 113.6 115.0 116.0 116.6 126.2

110

49 Rift Valley 50 Rift Valley

51 Westem 52 Westem 53 Westem 54 Westem 55 Westem 56 Westem 57 Westem 58 Westem

59 Nyanza 60 Nyanza 61 Nyanza 62 Nyanza 63 Nyanza 64 Nyanza 65 Nyanza 66 Nyanza 67 Nyanza 68 Nyanza 69 Nyanza 70 Nyanza 71 Nyanza

Nyanza Total 72 North Eastem 73 North Eastem 74 North Eastem 75 North Eastem

Rift Valley Tota l

Western Total

MARAKWET KEIYO

BUTEREMUMIAS BUSIA TESO KAKAMEGA VIHIGA LUGARI BUNGOMA M T ELGON

NYAMIRA KIS I I GUCHA KISUMU MUN. KISUMU DISTRICT SUBA KURIA SIAYA BOND0 MIGORI NYANDO HOMABAY RACHUONYO

GARISSA WAJIR IJARA MANDERA

47,809 49,488

1,725,381 134,389 108,869 53,046 181,430 159,028 70,601

292,524 48,335

1,048,222 131,807 130,062 125,686 64,229 55,460 45,057 46,803 149,251 7 1,990 157,855 94,912 93,580 116,195

1,282,887 16,654 18,724 4,299 24,771

36,998 36,003

1,759,560 123,566 97,452 46,789 155,096 134,311 57,851

228,377 36,623

880,065 134,114 128,518 123,345

117,453 38,790 39,940 125,632 60,153 127,355 74,509 73,263 82,059

1,125,13 1 106,705 96,184

74,982

129.2 137.5 98.1 108.8 111.7 113.4 117.0 118.4 122.0 128.1 132.0 119.1 98.3 101.2 101.9 101.9 101.9 116.2 117.2 118.8 119.7 123.9 127.4 127.7 141.6 114.0 19.6 19.5 19.6 33.0

North Eastern Tota l 64,448 217,871 23.2 TOTAL 6,917,533 6,938,760 99.7

111

Table A. 2: Classroom-Pupil Ratio at Primary Level by District, 2003 Pupil

ratio DISTRICT ENROLMENT GER # of Class Classroom

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

29

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

Coast Coast Coast Coast Coast Coast Coast

Coast Total Central Central Central Central Central Central Central Central

Central Total

Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem Eastem

Eastern Total Nairobi

Nairobi Total Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley

MALINDI KILIFI MOMBASA KWALE TAITA TAVETA LAMU TANA RIVER

MARAGUA KIAMBU THIKA DISTRICT THIKA MUN. NY ANDARUA KIRINYAGA MURANGA NYERI

MOYALE* MERU N. (NYAMBENE) MARSABIT MACHAKOS MWINGI EMBU KITUI MAKUENI MERU CENTRAL MBEERE* ISIOLO MERU S (NITHI) THARAKA

NAIROBI

TRANS-NZOIA ELDORET MUN NAKURU MUN. KITALE MUN. TRANS-MARA NAKURU KERICHO BOMET WEST-POKOT UASIN GISHU NAROK LAIKIPIA MARAKWET

63,978 124,660 62,131 107,538 62,736 16,249 23,877

461,169 11 1,931 137,196 120,888 13,128

131,702 95,957 93,997 146,585

851,384 12,249

159,585 16,047

272,635 103,727 61,750 163,107 249,528 102,483 51,211 16,097 50,021 31,589

1,290,029 194,013

194,013 156,993 28,155 40,885 13,090 43,127

244,915 134,787 113,129 72,784 118,812 80,193 73,425 47,809

95.80 89.40 57.70 85.90 107.30 93.60 51.20

82.10 113.50 89.90 95.50 95.50 105.70 100.50 108.20 100.70

100.90 80.90 102.60 51.40 118.90 123.30 102.20 117.40 117.90 97.40 114.80 63.70 102.80 125.50

109.80 61.50

61.50 113.60 100.20 102.50 113.60 89.40 102.50 115.00 106.40 88.40 100.20 82.10 93.90 129.20

973 2,153 1,366 2,409 1,779 493 891

10,064 3,070 3,791 3,480 382

3,929 3,250 3,609 5,944

27,455 25 1

3,758 403

7,040 3,042 1,854 5,299 9,078 3,793 2,008 661

2,187 1,515

40,889 4,087

4,087 2,657 522 796 289

1,100 6,281 3,603 3,033 2,062 3,469 2,485 2,313 1,514

65.8 57.9 45.5 44.6 35.3 33

26.8

45.8 36.5 36.2 34.7 34.4 33.5 29.5 26

24.7

31 48.8 42.5 39.8 38.7 34.1 33.3 30.8 27.5 27

25.5 24.4 22.9 20.9

31.5 47.5 47.5 59.1 53.9 51.4 45.3 39.2 39

37.4 37.3 35.3 34.2 32.3 31.7 31.6

112

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

72 73 74 75

Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley Rift Valley

Rift Valley Total Westem Westem Westem Westem Westem Westem Westem Westem

Western Total Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza Nyanza

Nyanza Total North Eastem North Eastem North Eastem North Eastem

SAMBURU KEIYO KOIBATEK BURET1 NAND1 BARING0 KAJIADO TURKANA

BUNGOMA LUGARI MT ELGON TESO BUTEREVMUMIAS KAKAMEGA VIHIGA BUSIA

KISUMU MUN. SIAYA MIGORI KURIA SUBA HOMABAY NYANDO BOND0 GUCHA KISII NYAMIRA RACHUONYO KISUMU DISTRICT

MANDERA GARISSA WAJIR IJARA

24,051 49,488 43,103 93,634 169,962 73,670 66,775 36,594

1,725,381 292,524 70,601 48,335 53,046 134,389 181,430 159,028 108,869

1,048,222 64,229 149,251 157,855 46,803 45,057 93,580 94,912 7 1,990 125,686 130,062 131,807 116,195 55,460

1,282,887 24,771 16,654 18,724 4,299

North Eastern Total 64,448

61.70 137.50 126.20 116.00 116.60 100.90 69.10 32.60 98.10 128.10 122.00 132.00 113.40 108.80 117.00 118.40 111.70 119.10 101.90 118.80 123.90 117.20 116.20 127.70 127.40 119.70 101.90 101.20 98.30 141.60 101.90 114.00 33.00 19.60 19.50 19.60

23.20

784 1,617 1,461 3,381 6,604 3,026 2,861 1,649

51,507 4,725 1,329 924

1,038 2,701 3,862 3,968 2,752 21,299

906 3,035 3,584 1,171 1,148 2,387 2,459 1,886 3,44 1 3,695 4,2 18 4,090 2,177

34,197 562 405 494 129

1,590

30.7 30.6 29.5 27.7 25.7 24.3 23.3 22.2 33.5 61.9 53.1 52.3 51.1 49.8 47

40.1 39.6 49.2 70.9 49.2 44 40

39.2 39.2 38.6 38.2 36.5 35.2 31.2 28.4 25.5 37.5 44.1 41.1 37.9 33.3

40.5

TOTAL 6,917,533 99.70 191,088 36.2

113

w 8

0 N

r- m m

0 IA a m 4

0 0

d r-

m

0-

2

0 0 3 N" G.

0 0 r-

0 0 r-

-i o i i w w

'

Table A. 7: Secondary School Enrollment b y Sex and District,2000

DISTRICT1 PROVINCE COAST TAITA TAVETA KILIFI MALINDI TANA RIVER LAMU KWALE MOMBASA TOTAL CENTRAL NYANDARUA NYERI KIRINYAGA MURANGA MARAGUA THIKA KIAMBU TOTAL EASTERN MACHAKOS KITUI EMBU MAKUENI MERU CENTRAL MARSABIT ISIOLO MOYALE MBEERE MWINGI MERU NORTH THARAKA MERU SOUTH( NITHI) TOTAL NAIROBI RIFT VALLEY NAKURU KERICHO BURET BOMET NAND1 LAIKIPIA KAJIADO NAROK BARING0 KOIBATEK MARAKWET KEIYO UASIN GISHU

2000 Enrollment Male

4,491 4,034 1,584 1,130

539 3,012 3,086

17,876

8,263 16,727 7,556 7,537 7,977 8,965

14,841 71,866

13,842 6,736 4,844

13,011 7,186

706 700

2,732 2,249 2,940

929 3,191

59,066 9,745

13,305 5,366

5591 4,356 7,094 4,098 2,601 1,881 3,555 2,482 2,281 3,820 5.753

Female

4,352 3,239

575 989 47 1

2,839 2,741 15,206

7,876 16,556 7,887 9,989 8,370 8,682 15,660 75,020

14,703 6,539 5,682 12,083 7,315

184 381 177

1,746 94 1

3,332 496

4,600 58,179 8,281

10,438 4,939

Total

8,843 7,273 2,159 2,119 1,010 5,851 5,827

33,082

16,139 33,283 15,443 17,526 16,347 17,647 30,501

146,886

28,545 13,275 10,526 25,094 14,501

890 1,08 1

177 4,478 3,190 6,272 1,425 7,791

117,245 18,026

23,743 10,305

3986 9,577 3,344 7,700 5,802 12,896 3,542 7,640 1,256 3,857 1,711 3,592 2,188 5,743 1,842 4,324 1,393 3,674 4,232 8,052 5,432 11,185

14-17 Year oooulation

Male

13,285 27,063 13,012 9,289 3,706

24,167 24,027

114,549

26,822 36,002 25,458 21,218 22,310 30,485 33,848

196,143

52,740 27,915 15,154 44,761 27,078 5,960 5,401 3,06 1 9,682 15,895 30,463 5,506 10,636

254,252 64,441

58,447 25,057 16,770 21,105 30,629 16,873 18,697 16,63 1 15,035 7,334 7,651 7,559

30,551

Female

13,131 26,261 12,249 8,957 3,515

23,900 27,580

115,593

24,681 35,193 24,175 20,339 20,960 3 1,784 36,238

193,370

49,334 27,304 15,170 41,913 26,710 5,550 5,210 2,960 9,349 16,391 32,837 5,645 10,663

249,036 88,191

58,745 24,840 16,434 2 1,256 30,448 16,392 18,455 15,682 14,997 7,301 7,390 8,000

3 1.345

Total

26,416 53,324 25,261. 18,246 7,221

48,067 5 1,607

230,142

51,503 71,195 49,633 41,557 43,270 62,269 70,086

389,513

102,074 55,219 30,324 86,674 53,788 11,510 10,611 6,02 1

19,03 1 32,286 63,300 11,151 2 1,299

503,288 152,632

117,192 49,897 33,204 42,361 61,077 33,265 37,152 32,313 30,032 14,635 15,041 15,559 61,896

Enrollment rate Male

33.8 14.9 12.2 12.2 14.5 12.5 12.8 15.6

30.8 46.5 29.7 35.5 35.8 29.4 43.8 36.6

26.2 24.1 32.0 29.1 26.5 11.8 13.0 0.0

28.2 14.1 9.7 16.9 30.0 23.2 15.1

22.8 21.4 26.0 33.6 23.2 24.3 13.9 11.3 23.6 33.8 29.8 50.5 18.8

Female

33.1 12.3 4.7 11.0 13.4 11.9 9.9 13.2

31.9 47.0 32.6 49.1 39.9 27.3 43.2 38.8

29.8 23.9 37.5 28.8 27.4 3.3 7.3 6.0 18.7 5.7 10.1 8.8

43.1 23.4 9.4

17.8 19.9 20.3 27.3 19.1 21.6 6.8 10.9 14.6 25.2 18.8 52.9 17.3

Total

33.5 13.6 8.5 11.6 14.0 12.2 11.3 14.4

31.3 46.7 31.1 42.2 37.8 28.3 43.5 37.7

28.0 24.0 34.7 29.0 27.0 7.7 10.2 2.9

23.5 9.9 9.9 12.8 36.6 23.3 11.8

20.3 20.7 28.8 18.2 21.1 23.0 10.4 11.1 19.1 29.5 24.4 51.8 18.1

118

TURKANA SAMBURU TRANS MARA TRANS NZOIA WEST POKOT TOTAL WESTERN BUSIA BUNGOMA KAKAMEGA MT. ELGON LUGARI TESO VIHIGA MUMIAS TOTAL NYANZA KISUMU KISII CENTRAL MIGORI GUCHA HOMABAY NYAMIRA SUBA RACHUONYO KURIA BOND0 NYANDO SIAYA TOTAL NORTH EASTERN WAJIR MANDERA GARISSA TOTAL GRAND TOTAL

1,537 1,059 1,056 4,693 1,910

72,438

4,334 14,174 6,732 1,689 4,070 2,108

10,630 4,087

17,824

6,504 10,040 6,560 9,341 3,087

13,322 1,393 4,233 1,197 2,284 3,975 5,919

67,855

1,257 1,029 1,361 3,647

830 391 612

4,544 1,492

57,974

2,331 12,136 6,801 1,237 5,181 1,634 1 1,684 2,852

43,856

3,908 8,538 2,348 7,465 2,015 11,619

442 1,963 1,045 2,164 3,446 5,674

50,627

566 330 559

1,455

2,367 1,450 1,668 9,237 3,402

130,412

6,665 26,310 13,533 2,926 9,251 3,742

22,3 14 6,939

91,680

10,412 18,578 8,908

16,806 5,102

24,941 1,835 6,196 2,242 4,448 7,421

11,593 118,482

1,823 1,359 1,920 5,102

350.317 310.598 660.915

24,892 7,410 8,289

30,876 15,394

359,200

19,897 46,326 33,630 7,533 12,143 8,975

28,630 25,238

182,372

26,689 28,879 29,021 27,893 16,581 30,526 8,891 18,450 8,131 13,673 17,549 27,784

2 5 4,O 6 7

2 1,422 16,081 25,124 62,627

22,043 7,267 8,255

30,013 14,659

353,522

19,163 47,517 33,431 7,309 12,008 9,132

29,814 25,037

183,411

28,164 29,708 29,005 27,920 15,979 30,979 8,673 17,145 7,541 12,545 16,753 25,761

250,173

16,275 12,699 2 1,323 50,297

46,935 14,677 16,544 60,889 30,053

712,722

39,060 93,843 67,061 14,842 24,151 18,107 58,444 50,275

365,783

54,853 58,587 58,026 55,813 32,560 61,505 17,564 35,595 15,672 26,218 34,302 53,545

504,240

37,697 28,780 46,447

11 2,924 1.487.651 1.483.593 2.971.244

6.2 14.3 12.7 15.2 12.4 20.2

21.8 30.6 20.0 22.4 33.5 23.5 37.1 16.2 26.2

24.4 34.8 22.6 33.5 18.6 43.6 15.7 22.9 14.7 16.7 22.7 21.3 26.7

5.9 6.4 5.4 5.8 23.5

3.8 5.4 7.4 15.1 10.2 16.4

12.2 25.5 20.3 16.9 43.1 17.9 39.2 11.4 23.9

13.9 28.7 8.1

26.7 12.6 37.5 5.1 11.4 13.9 17.2 20.6 22.0 20.2

3.5 2.6 2.6 2.9

5.0 9.9 10.1 15.2 11.3 18.3

17.1 28.0 20.2 19.7 38.3 20.7 38.2 13.8 25.1

19.0 31.7 15.4 30.1 15.7 40.6 10.4 17.4 14.3 17.0 21.6 21.7 23.5

4.8 4.7 4.1 4.5

20.9 22.2

119

Table A. 8: Public Primary School Transition Rates by Sex and District, 2000

Std 8 ( 1999) Form 1 (2000) Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

District/ Province

COAST Kwale Kilifi Tai taTaveta Lamu Tana River Mombasa Malindi Total

CENTRAL Kiambu Muranga Nyeri Kirin yaga Nyandarua Thika Maragua Total EASTERN Machakos Kitui Meru Embu Isiolo Marsabit Makueni Tharaka Nithi(M/S) Mwingi N yambene Moyale Mbeere Total NAIROBI

RIFT VALLEY Kericho Baringo Nakuru Laikipia Kajiado Narok Samburu Turkana Trans Nzoia Uasin Gishu Nandi Keiyo West Pokot

Transition rate (%) Boys Girls Total

7,022 5,983 5,812

789 1,223 5,486 2,221

28,536

14,248 10,151 16,755 8,900

1 1,769 10,683 8,535

81,041

17,988 10,179 12,032 6,011

842 545

15,470 6,142 4,983 7,168

544 3,737

85,641 15,727

7,934 5,384

20,252 6,011 3,604 3,298

880 1,437 7,530 9,393

10,386 3,617 2,372

4,922 3,499 2,905

425 687

2,736 1,455

16,629

7,009 4,591 7,927 4,225 5,895 5,281 3,979

38,907

8,835 5,055 5,526 2,698

499 371

7,606 2,826 2,578 3,249

393 1,797

41,433 7,733

4,197 2,726

10,087 2,983 2,054 2,004

538 926

3,825 4,603 5,283 1,784 1,466

1,639 1,914 2,266

290 589

1,546 588

8,832

8,179 4,692 8,941 4,002 4,247 4,694 4,618

39,373

7,662 3,632 3,588 2,831

239 197

6,884 2,031 1,078 1,737

49 1,182

31,110 4,663

2,783 1,474 6,663 1,928

970 994 347 688

2,137 3,232 3,607 2,094 1,032

2,100 2,484 2,907

3 64 536

2,750 766

11,907

7,239 5,560 8,828 4,675 5,874 5,402 4,556

42,134

9,153 5,124 6,506 3,313

343 174

7,864 3,316 2,405 3,919

151 1,940

44,208 7,994

3,737 2,658

10,165 3,028 1,550 1,294

342 511

3,705 4,790 5,103 1,833

906

829 1,099 1,136

156 323 795 441

4,779

3,996 2,019 4,450 1,797 2,195 2,342 2,225

19,024

3,639 1,891 1,886 1,365

151 151

3,603 1,103

703 820

725 16,037 2,472

1,363 891

3,673 1,024

644 514 238 444

1,343 1,629 1,958

986 551

810 815

1,130 134 266 751 147

4,053

4,183 2,673 4,491 2,205 2,052 2,352 2,393

20,349

4,023 1,741 1,702 1,466

88 46

3,281 928 375 917 49

457 15,073 2,191

1,420 583

2,990 904 326 480 109 244

1,394 1,603 1,649 1,108

48 1

16.8 31.4 39.1 36.7 47.0 29.1 30.3 28.7

57.0 44.0 56.1 42.5 37.2 44.3 55.9 48.9

41.2 37.4 34.1 50.6 30.3 40.7 47.4 39.0 27.3 25.2

40.3 38.7 32.0

32.5 32.7 36.4 34.3 31.4 25.6 44.2 47.9 35.1 35.4 37.1 55.3 37.6

38.6 32.8 38.9 36.8 49.6 27.3 19.2 34.0

57.8 48.1 50.9 47.2 34.9 43.5 52.5 48.3

44.0 34.0 26.2 44.2 25.7 26.4 41.7 28.0 15.6 23.4 32.5 23.6 34.1 27.4

38.0 21.9 29.4 29.9 21.0 37.1 31.9 47.7 37.6 33.5 32.3 60.4 53.1

23.3 32.0 39.0 36.8 48.2 28.2 26.5 31.0

57.4 46.2 53.4 45.0 36.1 43.9 54.1 48.6

42.6 35.7 29.8 47.1 28.4 36.1 44.5 33.1 21.6 24.2

9.0 31.6 36.3 29.6

35.1 27.4 32.9 32.1 26.9 30.1 39.4 47.9 36.3 34.4 34.7 57.9 43.5

120

Bomet Trans Mara Marakwet Koibatek Buret Total

WESTERN Kakamega Bungoma Busia Vihiga M t Elgon Lugari Butere/Mumias Teso Total

NYANZA Kisii Kisumu Siaya Homa Bay Nyamira Migori Kuria Suba Rachuonyo Gucha Bondo Total

N O R T H EASTERN Wajir Mandera Garissa Total GRAND TOTAL

4,862 1,048 1,535 1,564 2,785

54,270

2,264 7,241 2,722 4,285 1,093 3,601 2,808 1,265

25,279

5,391 6,856 5,654 2,893 5,824 4,575 1,076 1,589 3,541 3,386 1,448

42,233

662 651 842

2,155

4,143 657

1,234 1,744 2,853

50,253

2,822 7,146 2,288 4,842 1,007 3,690 2,764

885 25,444

5,097 5,605 4,837 1,750 5,749 2,747

788 923

2,339 2,957 1,046

33,838

263 273 291 827

9,005 1,705 2,769 3,308 5,638

104,523

5,086 14,387 5,010 9,127 2,100 7,291 5,572 2,150

50,723

10,488 12,461 10,491 4,643

11,573 7,322 1,864 2,512 5,880 6,343 2,494

76,071

925 924

1,133 2,982

1,174 287 599 61 1

1,402 19,331

1,859 4,034 1,139 2,721

419 1,128 1,035

557 12,892

2,677 2,952 1,566

857 3,418 1,763

318 408

1,125 2,352

668 18,104

371 247 361 979

897 158 544 474

1,095 16,459

1,938 3,528

638 3,086

355 1,349

811 466

12,171

2,272 2,145 1,554

635 3,139

699 300 138 569

2,007 665

14,123

135 91

180 406

2,071 445

1,143 1,085 2,497

35,790

3,797 7,562 1,777 5,807

774 2,477 1,846 1,023

25,063

4,949 5,097 3,120 1,492 6,557 2,462

618 546

1,694 4,359 1,333

32,227

506 338 541

1,385 84,825 178,4431

24.1 27.4 39.0 39.1 50.3 35.6

82.1 55.7 41.8 63.5 38.3 31.3 36.9 44.0 51.0

49.7 43.1 27.7 29.6 58.7 38.5 29.6 25.7 31.8 69.5 46.1 42.9

56.0 37.9 42.9 45.4 40.9

21.7 24.0 44.1 27.2 38.4 32.8

68.7 49.4 27.9 63.7 35.3 36.6 29.3 52.1 47.8

44.6 38.3 32.1 36.3 54.6 25.4 38.1 15.0 24.3 67.9 63.6 41.7

51.3 33.3 61.9 49.1 39.2

23.0 26.1 41.3 32.8 44.3 34.2

74.7 52.6 35.5 63.6 36.9 34.0 33.1 47.6 49.4

47.2 40.9 29.7 32.1 56.7 33.6 33.2 21.7 28.8 68.7 53.4 42.4

54.7 36.6 47.7 46.4 40.1 228,639 216,605 445,2441 93,618

121

Table A. 9: Composition of Standard Instructional Materials

l i fe (year)

textbooks1 textbooks2 textbooks3 textbooks4 textbooks5 textbooks6 textbooks7 textbooks8 teaching-guide1 t-guide2 t-guide3 t-guide4 t-guide5 t-guide6 t-guide7 t-guide8

stationery package

chalk register

Eng suppl. Reading. Kis . Suppl. Reading

atlas Eng dictionary k i s dictionary

teacher prep. book

map world map Africa map East Africa map Kenya

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

4

1

1 1

3 3

4 4 4

4

5 5 5 5

3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

1

50 50

1 1

10 10 10

50

400 400 400 400

science kits 4 400

6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 8

1

5 1

1 1

1 1 1

1

1 1 1 1 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8

1 --8

1--8 1 --8

1 - 4 1-43

6-8 6-8 6--8

1-8

1 --8 1-8 1-43 1-8 1 - 4

200 200 200 200 230 230 230 230 250 250 250 250 190 190 190 190

1501280

150 45

801140 1301140

365 400 450

120

1500 1500 1400 1400 2000

122

d

N 2

O N

r - W 2 2

3 m C N -

P C N

m C N -

2 0 N

c - C N

9 C N

m C C hl

oc C C N

r C %

\s C C N

lr

N s

P C N

c C C N

3

m

r- m W

'? w m N '"

m

W N 09

r- t- d

m t- 0

W 0 d 8 2 '?

P-

m N r:

m 2 2 W m

0 W m

2 N

N m

N 2 2 z 0.

- W

2 N

R N 0 -

0

m m oq

N r: z * w

m m o!

m 2 m d

0 x m

W x N

P od m r-

Annex I1 Kenya at A Glance

POVERTY and SOCIAL

2002 Population, mid-year (millions) GNI per capita (Atlas methcd, US$) GNI (Atlas method, US$ billions)

Average annual growth, 1998-02

Population 1%) Labor force 1%) Most recent estimate (latest year available, 1996-02) Poverty (% of population below national poverty line) Urban population (% of total population) Life expectancy at birth (years) Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births) Child malnutrition (% of children under 5) Access to an improved water source 1% of population) Illiteracy (% ofpopulation age 75+J Gross primary enrollment (% of school-age population)

Male Female

KEY ECONOMIC RATIOS and LONG-TERM TRENDS 1982

GDP (US$ billions) Gross domestic investmenffGDP Exports of goods and services/GDP Gross domestic savings/GDP Gross national savings/GDP

Current account balance/GDP Interest payments/GDP Total debffGDP Total debt service/exports Present value of debffGDP Present value of debffexports

6.4 18.2 25.0 14.5 I I .8

-4.7 I .3

10.0 14.5

1982-92 199242 (average annual growth) GDP 4.4 2.1 GDP per capita 1.0 6.4 Exports of goods and services 5.9 1.1

Kenya

31.3 360 11.3

2.3 2.9

35 46 80 22 57 16 94 95 93

1992

8.0 13.7 26.9 13.7 9.7

-2.3 2.5

86.2 31 . I

2001

1.1 -1 .o 6.0

Sub- Saharan

Africa

688 450 306

2.4 2.5

33 46

105

58 37 86 92 80

2001

11.4 12.8 26.0 4.2 9.6

-2.8 0.7

49.5 13.9 30.7

146.6

2002

1 .8 -0.2 1.9

Low- income

2,495 430

1,072

1.9 2.3

30 59 81

76 37 95

103 87

2002

12.1 14.8 25.5 8.7

13.1

0.5 51 .I 9.0

2002-08

3.5 1.8 6.9

Development diamond'

Life expectancy

GNI Gross

capita nroliment per primary

Access to improved water source

Kenya Low-income group .YIII-*

Economic ratios'

Trade

Investment Domestic savings

Indebtedness

Kenya Low-ncome group - STRUCTURE of the ECONOMY

(% of GDPJ Agriculture industry

Services

Private consumption General government consumption Imports of goods and services

Manufacturing

(average annual growth) Agriculture Industry

Services

Private consumption General government consumption Gross domestic investment Imports of goods and services

Manufacturing

1982 1992

33.4 26.6 19.9 18.9 12.2 11.1 46.7 54.5

67.1 70.2 18.4 16.1 28.7 26.9

1982-92 199242

2.7 1.6 4.3 1.6 5.1 1.8 4.9 2.9

5.1 2.2 3.6 6.6 1.5 4.3 5.7 5.5

2001 2002

19.0 19.1 18.2 18.3 12.5 12.7 62.9 62.6

79.0 81.1 16.8 10.2 34.6 31.6

2001 2002

1.2 1 .o 0.7 1.4 0.8 3.5 1.3 3.6

-4.4 0.0 4.3 6.2 2.3 3.0

-1.2 2.9

Growth of investment and GDP ( O h )

'5 T I ~ 'i I Growth of exports and Imports ( O h ) 1 20

10

0

-10

-20

Note: 2002 data are preliminary estimates. This table was produced from the Development Economics central database. * The diamonds show four key indicators in the country (in bold) compared with Its income-group average. If data are missing, the diamond will

be incomplete.

124

Kenya

PRICES and GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Domestic prices (% change) Consumer prices Implicit GDP deflator

Government finance (% of GDP, includes current grantsJ Current revenue Current budget balance Overall surplusldeficit

TRADE

(US$ millions) Total exports (fob)

Fuel Coffee Manufactures

Total imports (cio Food Fuel and energy Capital goods

Export price index (1995=100) Import price Index (1995=100J Terms of trade (IG95=100)

BALANCE of PAYMENTS

(US$ millions) Exports of goods and services Imports of goods and setvices Resource balance

Net income Net current transfers

Current account balance

Financing items (net) Changes in net reserves

Memo: Reserves including gold (US$ millions) Conversion rate (DEC, /oca//US$)

EXTERNAL DEBT and RESOURCE FLOWS

(US$ millions) Total debt outstanding and disbursed

IBRD IDA

Total debt sewice IBRD IDA

Composition of net resource flows Official grants Official creditors Private creditors Foreign direct investment Portfolio equity

World Bank program Commitments Disbursements Principal repayments Net flows Interest payments Net transfers

_____

1982

11.7

25.1 -1.5

-10.2

1982

894 223 227 107

1,415 83

523 250

77 112 69

1982

1,715 2,030 -315

-254 83

-305

139 167

248 10.9

1982

64 1 0 0

258 1 0

143 -15

-136 13 0

0 0 0 0 1

-1

~

1992

27.3 17.5

27.5 1.3

-3.3

1992

1,013 69

128 144

1,866 156 412 41 1

76 91 84

1992

2,149 2,152

-3

-355 68

-1 80

255 -75

182 32.2

1992

6,898 656

1,411

670 159 16

378 155 20

6 0

176 92

104 -1 2 71

-83

2001

3.9 11.3

22.5 1.5

-0.9

2001

1,732 115 88

274 3,182

290 810 756

74 100 74

2001

2,966 3,939 -973

-80 761

-318

509 -191

1,097 78.6

2001

5,644 24

2,263

417 26 51

252 62

-103 5 0

93 116 58 58 20 39

2002

5.0 4.9

22.4 2.4

-0.9

2002

1,742 101 97

310 3,137

300 809 803

74 104 71

2002

3,001 3,850 -848

-70 576

256

1,174 78.7

2002

6,207 13

2,447

299 13 60

0 1

-1 8 0 0

2 66 54 12 19 -7

Inflation (%)

T 15

10

5

0 97 98 99 oc 01 02

i --GDP deflator " O ' C P I

Export and Import levels (US$ mill.)

4'000 T I

O2 1 1 96 97 98 99 00 01

I Exports H I W O r t S I

1 Current account balance to GDP (%)

Composition of 2002 debt (US$ mill.)

I A: 13 G: 863

B 2,447

D 528

A - IBRD B - IDA D - Other multilateral F ~ Private C-IMF G - Short-tern

E - Bilateral

Note: This table was produced from the Development Economics central database. 8/20/03

125

Bibliography

1.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

8.

9.

Education Sector Issues, Challenges, Policies, and Strategies, Republic o f Kenya, Ministry o f Education, Science, and Technology, February 200 1.

Master Plan on Education and Training, 1997-2010, Republic o f Kenya 1998.

Education Statistical Booklet, Ministry o f Education, Science, and Technology, Republic o f Kenya, April 2000.

Report on Headcount o f Teachers and Survey o f Public Educational Institutions, Ministry o f Education and Human Resource Development, Republic o f Kenya, March 1998.

Primary and Secondary Education in Kenya: A Sector Review, Ani1 B. Deolikar, April 1998.

Setting Staffing Standards for Secondary Schools in Kenya, by Ian Halliday, Consultant. October 2000.

Efficiency o f Primary Education in Kenya: Situational Analysis and Implications for Educational Reform, by Okwach Abagi and George Odipo, Institute o f Policy Analysis and Research, 1997.

Labor Structures and School Enrollments in Developing Societies: Thailand and Kenya Compared, by Claudia Buchmann and Dan Brakewood, Comparative Education Review, Vol. 44, no. 2. 2000.

Public and Private Investment in Primary Education in Kenya: An Agenda for Action, by Okwach Abagi, Institute o f Policy Analysis and Research, 1997.

10. Implementing the Report o f the Commission o f Inquiry into the Education System o f Kenya (The Koech Report): Realities, Challenges and Prospects, by Okwach Abagi, Wasunna Owino, D.N. Sifuna, Margaret Waga, Charles Ngome, David Aduda and g. Karugu, Inst i tute o f Policy Analysis and Research, July 2000.

o f Policy Analysis and Research, April 1998.

& Company, July 1998.

Cynthia B. Lloyd, Barbara s. Mensch, and Wesley H. Clark. Comparative Education Review, vol 44, no. 2,2000.

Teachers Service Commission, 1997.

Service, by Benjamin K. Sogomo, Secretary, Teachers Service Commission, 1997.

Secretary, Teachers Service Commission, 1999.

Council, May 2000.

1 1. Education for the Next Millennium: A Demarcation o f Imperatives, by Okwach Abagi, Inst i tute

12. Cost o f Implementing Kenya’s Master Plan on Education and Training 1997-2010, by Githongo

13. The Effects o f Primary School Quality on School Dropout among Kenyan Girls and Boys, by

14. Decentralization o f the Teachers Service Commission, by Benjamin K. Sogomo, Secretary,

15. The Implications of The Civi l Service Reform Programme on the Staffing Norms in the Teaching

16. Issues on Teacher Education and Management in the 2 lst Century, by Benjamin K. Sogomo,

17. The Determination o f Unit Cost o f KNEC Examinations, The Kenya National Examination

18. Economic Policy Framework Paper for 1999/2000 - 2001/2002, Republic o f Kenya, 1999.

19. Public Expenditure Review, Ministry o f Education and Human Resource Development, 2003.

126

20. Report on Formal and Non-formal Education in Parts o f Samburu, Turkana, Marsabit and Moyale

2 1. Public Expenditure Review, Republic o f Kenya, 2003.

22. Economic Recovery Action Plan, Republic o f Kenya 2003.

23. Country Economic Memorandum (Kenya), The World Bank, 2003.

24. The Political Economy o f School Finance in Kenya, Kremer, Moulin, and Namunyu, 2002.

25. Decentralization o f Education: Demand-Side Financing, Harry Patrinos and D. Ariasingam, 1997

Districts, Ministry o f Education, Science and Technology, November 1999.

127

Documents

Education and Training in Kenya Strengthening the ...documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/... · Report No. 28064-KE Kenya Strengthening the Foundation of Education and Training in