WHAT IS EDUCATION?

What is EDUCATION? Is a fundamental question, which has been stimulating the minds of the philosophers and thinkers from Socrates and Plato down to Gandhi and Dewey. Education is an abstract entity and its concept is dynamic. It is a continuous process as it has been passed through many ages and stages in its process of evolution. At every stage it has had a different meaning according to the conditions that prevailed. Thus, the concept of education is still in the process of evolving and this process will never come to an end. It is, rightly said that the last word on education will never be said. Education deals with the ever-growing human in an ever-growing society. It must continuously grow and change. (Safaya, R and Shaida, B.D)

Thus, it is very difficult to define education in very precise terms. Different philosophers, educationists, thinkers, statements, politicians etc give widely different definitions of education according to their own outlook on life and according to circumstances that are prevailing. However, before we examine/analyse some of the definitions, we must look at the etymological explanation of education.

The word “education” is derived from the Latin word “educare” which means, “to bring up”. There is yet another Latin word “educere”, which means to “bring forth”. Education therefore means both to bring forth as well as bring up. It was the Latin writer Varro who said:

Educit obstetrix, Educat, Nutrix, Instituit, Pedagogus, Docet, Magister

Which means, the mid-wife brings forth, the nurse brings up, the tutor trains and the master teaches? (Pascal, G. Fundamentals of Sociologoly, p.210)Accordingly education does not merely mean the acquisition of knowledge or experience but it means the development of habits, attitudes and skills which help a person to lead a full and worthwhile life. (Safaya, R & Shaida, B.D.)

Other theorists give a different explanation of the word “educate”. They say “e” means “out of” and “duco” means “to lead” i.e to educate means “to lead forth” or “to extract out”. The explanation presumes that all knowledge is inherent in children. Only methods are to be found out to tap their brains and knowledge will flow out automatically.

However, we must use the two views with some caution, as we cannot draw out anything unless we have put in something before. The child is not like an artesian well where we put a funnel and the water will gush out. Rather a child is like a bank, where something must be put before we expect to draw out. Thus unless knowledge and experience is given in the form of education, we cannot draw out anything from the learner.

Now let us examine some of the definitions of Education:

1. It is the process of training the individual through various experiences of life so to draw out the best in him or her. (Safaya R. & Shaida, B.D)

2. Mahatma Mohan Karamchand Gandhi – Education means all round drawing out the best in the child and man – body, mind and spirit.

3. Rabindranath Tagore – Education means enabling the mind to find out the ultimate truth which emancipates us from the bondage of dust that gives us the wealth, not of things but

of inner light, not of power but of love, making this truth its own and giving expression to it.

4. Dr. Jagar Dorji – Education is a process of facilitating the full growth of innate abilities (potentialities/talents) of the learner through an institutionalised form called schooling.

5. Buddhist perspective – For a Buddhist education is process of leading the learner to enlightenment – the ultimate Buddhahood, a freedom from the cycle of rebirth through realisation of the truth.

6. Western Educationists with a pragmatic view (not based on religious sentiments) John Dewey defined education as the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences.

7. John Dewey – Education is the development of all those capacities (physical, mental and moral) in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfil his possibility.

8. T.P. Nunn – Education is the complete development of the individuality of the child so that he can make an original contribution to human life according to the best of his capacity.

9. Plato – Education develops in the body and in the soul of the pupils all the beauty and all the perfection of which he is capable of.

10. Aristotle - Education develops man’s faculty, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty in which perfect happiness essentially consists.

11. Pestalozzi – Education is the development of innate powers of man which is natural, harmonious and progressive.

Education – A Triangular ProcessIn the early times education was seen as a bipolar process in the sense it dwelt on the teaching-learning relationship between the educator and the educand, the teacher and the student, the learned and the learner, the mature and the immature. The teacher in the process of teaching modified the personality of the students and the learner in the process of learning modified his/her personality, which was greatly influenced by the teacher. The factors were mostly psychological factors.However, with the changing view of education a new factor emerged, which was the sociological factor. John Dewey laid stress on sociological side of the education process when he remarked, “ All Education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race.” The three vertices of the triangular relationship/process are:

1. The student who receives education2. The teacher who imparts it3. The social environment in which all education is imparted

Students

EDUCATION

Teacher Social Environment The Triangular Process of Education

Education conceived as a Triangular process involves the interplay of the educator, the educand and the social environment. The educator tries to modify the personality of the learner in the light of the needs of the society to which the learner belongs. And this is possible only when the child is an active participant in the educational activities. The educator is only to direct the activities and experiences of the learners through which they learn. In a democratic society, these activities must arise and develop out of the real needs of the community. In an educative situation, the students will also react upon the educator resulting in the modification of this behaviour. In this way the teaching-learning process becomes simultaneous processes.

Broad and Narrow Meaning of Education:

1. Narrow meaning of Education – It is regarded as the instruction imparted in school or other educational institutes.

In this view education is believed to begin with the entrance of a child in a school and end with his/her graduation from the university.

The amount of education thus received by the child is measured in terms of the number and grade of examinations passed by him/her.

There are specific influences which influence the education of the learner based on a definite purpose, in a pre-planned, suitable and methodical manner by the parents, teachers and other members of the community for the welfare of the learner for the welfare of the younger generation and for perpetual preservation of the cultural heritage. In this sense, education must consist of memorizing what others have thought and learnt.

John Stuart Mill – “ In the narrower sense, education means the culture which each generation purposely gives to its successor in order to qualify, to keep up and to improve the level attained. It includes whatever we do for ourselves and whatever is done for us by others for the express purpose of bringing up somewhat nearer to the perfection of our nature”.

Thus in conclusion, the narrow meaning of education is the purposeful activity, which is planned deliberately for the purpose of the learner’s individual and social development. This activity is organized through the school as the chief agency of education.

2. Broader meaning of Education – In this viewpoint, Education means the process of development from infancy to

maturity. It begins at birth and continues throughout life, till death: “from womb to tomb”.

It includes all knowledge and experiences acquired during infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, adulthood and old age through any agency of education – school, home, religious places, society etc. In this way one’s whole life and all life activities become a real source of education. Thus education becomes the sum total of experiences that the child receives inside the school or outside, through the study of different subjects through various activities, the library, the playground, the workshop, or through other agencies.

An educationist Lodge says – “ In the wider sense, all experience is said to be educative. The bite of a mosquito, the taste of watermelon, the experiences of being caught in a storm in the sea – all such experiences have directly educative effect on us. The child educates his parents, the student his teacher. Everything we say, do or think, educates us in no less than what is said or done to us by other beings. In this wider sense, life is education, education is life. Whatever broadens our horizons, deepens our insight, refines our reactions and stimulates our thoughts and feelings, educates us!”

MEANING AND AIMS OF EDUCATION

The study of the child: It is believed that every child is a unique entity. The primary task of education is to study the nature of the child in terms of his instincts, urges, motives, needs, aptitudes and interests. All these factors help a teacher to understand the child and educate him accordingly.

Individual differences: This refers to the fact that no two individuals are alike. Individuals differ in age, potentialities, interests, aptitudes, achievements, intelligence and other traits. Knowledge of individual differences helps the teacher in developing the right attitude towards the pupils and also helps him to devise ways and means for achieving the attitude. Psychology provides essential background in this regard.

Child not a miniature adult: Psychological researches have proved that the child is basically a child first. He is not a miniature adult. He is an adult in the making. The whole programme of education has to be so geared as to fulfill the needs of the child. It has to take full notice of child’s potentialities, his age and stage of development and his capacities, possibilities and limitations. The important aim of the school should be to discover the inherent good in every child and help him attain his potentialities to the highest degree of perfection.

Education, Individual and SocietyObjectives: Students will be able to describe the meaning of education and aims of education through their experience.

Meaning of Education:Education is a process of facilitating the full growth of innate abilities of the learner through an institutionalised form called schooling. Gandhi would have called this process the all round development of the individual learner. For a Buddhist, education should lead the learner to enlightenment, the ultimate Buddhahood, a freedom from the cycle of rebirth through realisation of the truth. An educated person is more knowledgeable than a person who has not been educated. Russel (1926, 1985) would argue that education leads to humbleness of mind, growth of intellectual faculty.

1. Education and Individual:Education is for all round development of the individual learner. For Gandhi the all round development refers to the proper growth of body, mind and speech. Russel has categorized four good qualities of an individual. They are:

1. Vitality - This means physically healthy. A healthy body facilitates interests and hard work.

2. Courage – This means absence of fear and power to control fear. It indicates that a person should be pure in mind and spirit. A truthful person has no reason to fear. Honesty, sincerity and humbleness are other qualities of a courageous person.

3. Sensitiveness – Sometimes being courageous can be foolish. For example, speaking against someone shows courage, but a sensitive person will think about all the pros and cons. A sensitive person is also a sympathetic person.

4. Intelligence – Intelligence possessing knowledge and receptivity to learn more knowledge. Alert curiosity is said to be the foundation of intelligence.

Besides these there are other aspects of the individual:5. Sound mind – also called affective quality that provides healthy attitudes and possession of values that are conducive to individual and social well-being.

Education’s contribution to the development of these four qualities is summarized thus:“Sensitiveness would make people with a will to abolish (say a crisis or poverty), intelligence could show them the way, and courage would lead them to adopt it “(Russel, 1926) Education should provide opportunities to the growth of these qualities.UNESCO (1972) adopts this definition:“The physical, intellectual, emotional and ethical integration of the of the individual into a complete man is a broad definition of the fundamental aim for education” (p 156)

Education and SocietyEducation is a reflection of the society to which it belongs. It is also subject to the society, while contributing to its goals. It helps society to mobilize its productive energies by ensuring that the required human resources are developed (UNESCO, 1972: 55)

Throughout ages education has been instrumental in maintaining the existing values and balance of power and affected the destiny of nations and the courses of history.

First, it is engaged in socializing children, provides training in civics. This process helps society to pass on its values and traditions to the younger generation for continuation. The cultural and religious traditions, rites, rituals, customs, language are all inherited through the process of education.

Second, education enhances change and progress in society. But for education, society would still be in its primitive form of caves dwelling and hunting. Education provides opportunity for intelligence to set at work, which are innovative and progressive. This leads society from one set of change to another. The social, political, economic and technological changes that have occurred in the world today are due mainly to education. A nation today has passed through a long history of evolution from primitive to the modern era of microchips. This is facilitated by education.

What are education aims and what are the determinants of the aims: “Before considering how to educate, it is well to be clear as to the sort of results which we wish to achieve” (Russel, 1972: 32)

True to this thought of Russel, every country has some sort of outcomes in mind while considering education. The results or outcomes may be in the form of a learner’s ability to do a particular job. For instance, a child who is sent to school is expected to finish the secondary education and then go on to do a job such as clerical, teaching, engineering etc. Such extrinsic aims may be prevailing in most countries.

According to Peters (1963) the purpose of education is to provide some worthwhile activities. These activities are:

1. To pursue knowledge2. To engage in activities that are socially acceptable3. To engage in activities that are not trivial (teaching somebody to play mouse-cat games is

hardly a worthwhile activity),4. To learn to be essentially unbiased and transparent

Professor Norman Graves (1982) suggests that “a person who has been initiated into a number of worthwhile activities is willing to continue with some of these on his own”. We know that children learn to read and write in schools. But the greatest achievement will be that if these children are able to continue with self-directed learning. After all it is said that an educated person is one who is capable of learning more.

Types of aims:1. Individual Aims:

Healthy body: six sense faculties - Eye sense faculty – mig gyi wangpo Nose sense faculty – na yi wangpo Tongue sense faculty – Che yi wangpo Body sense faculty – Lue kyi wangpo Mind sense faculty – yid kyi wangpo

Happy, cheerful, emotionally well balanced Satisfactory life, self employment, contented, self fulfilling Possessing good moral values, well mannered; includes virtues like:

faith – dedpa; self-respect – ngotshar shepa; non- attachment – machhagpa; non-hatred – zhedang medpa; non-deludedness – timug medpa; effort – tsendruel; flexibility(tolerance) – shintu jangpa; attentiveness – baag yoedpa; Equanimity (calmness/composure) – tang nyom

2. Social Aims*: Amiable, understanding, friendly Kind, cooperative, empathetic Ready to serve others

3. Political Aims: Law abiding, conscious of civic rights and duties Participative, uncorruptive Patriotic, self sacrificing

4. Moral Aims: One who knows the ten virtues and the 16 non-virtues. Knows good and bad Conscientious, ethical Respect for one’s culture and others too.

Determinants of Aims:1. Prevailing philosophy - includes the way the education is viewed in terms of its practical

values. In the past children were sent to the monastery for spiritual attainment. Nowadays we send children to schools for employment.

2. Prevailing political climate - includes policies such as love, dedication and patriotism; and loyalty to the Tsawa Sum.

3. Level of economic development – includes the nature of job in the employment market; for example, with industrial development our education content should be more geared towards technology oriented etc.

4. Needs of the learner - learner needs are varied such as activity based, solving practical problems, relevance with real life situations – what is learnt in the school should be valid beyond the school gate.

*SOCIAL AIM OF EDUCATIONWhen Herbert Spencer declared, “Complete living” as the aim of education he, in fact, laid the foundation of sociological thinking in education. Since then vocational efficiency, training in citizenship, training for leisure, and preparing the individual for different callings in adult life etc. have been advocated from time to time as the aims of education. The philosophy behind sociological thinking in education is two- fold:

i. Society is the source of all human value. The individual accepts the social ideals as his own.ii. The individual realizes his best by being socialized.Education has to make the individuals socially efficient for a society. The function of education according to this ideal is to enable the individual to develop himself fully according to means compatible with the interest of the society. The chief exponents of liberal social aim of education are Prof. John Dewey and Bagley. They believe that education should attempt to secure social efficiency by the positive use of individual power and capacities in social occupations and not by negative constraint or imposition from without. A socially efficient individual believes John Dewey, would be able to “control his environment and fulfill his possibilities”. A truly educated man is he who is vocationally fit and independent, culturally refined, and morally above the animal being.Man is pre-eminently the social animal, “Gregariousness, the seeking of group life and the avoidance of being alone, is a universal ethnic characteristic of mankind. It is therefore very essential to socialize an individual so as to enable him to qualify for group living.Therefore, the aim of education has often been stated in terms of social efficiency or as an adequate adjustment to the social environment in which man is born.Education from sociological point of view is considered as a social necessity. It becomes a great socializing factor.

IMPORTANT PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATIONIntroduction –

Since the creation of human beings, we have always been confronted with questions, which relate to our origin, our aims in life, our diverse relationships and our destiny. Different thinkers attempted to interpret human in their own ways. But the most important basis of understanding humans is through philosophy, which is mainly concerned with an enquiry into reality. Accordingly to Aldous Huxley, “Men live in accordance with their conception of the world”. There is no aspect of human life and human activity, which is divorced from philosophy. Plato said “he who has taste for every sorts of knowledge, who is curious to learn and is never satisfied” is termed a philosopher. (Safaya and Shaida)

Relation between Education and Philosophy – Concept Clarification:

What is philosophy? It is the systematic enquiry about the ultimate realities in the universe. It is the study of general principles and understanding of all that comes in the range of human experience. It is a search for the comprehensive view of nature.

It answers such questions like: What is life? Who am I? Where do I come from? It seeks to know the real value of things as distinct from their face value.

Etymologically, philosophy is derived from two Greek words – Philos and Sophia. Philos means love of and Sophia means wisdom. So the word philosophy means, “Love of wisdom”. It is thus, concerned with the search for eternal truth.

John Dewey – Philosophy is the “critical reviewing of just those familiar things”. Raymont – Philosophy is “an unceasing effort to discover the reality that lies behind the particular facts”.

It must, however, be clearly understood that philosophy is mostly an idea of what is possible and not a record of accomplished facts.

Hence it is hypothetical. It may or may not be proved true. It is presently an assignment of something to be tried.

There is no finality. Its chief value lies not in furnishing solutions (which can be achieved only in action) but in defining difficulties and suggesting ways and means of dealing with them.

Thus philosophy maybe described as “generalized thinking in relation to its place, function and value in experience”.

Branches of Philosophy: a. Metaphysics – the discussion about the nature of ultimate reality and the cosmos;b. Epistemology – the theory of Knowledge;c. Ethics – the theory of Morality;d. Aesthetics – The discussion of beauty;e. Logic – the Study of ideal method of though and reasoning.

Thus, philosophy influences the daily life of every individual. Everybody has a particular philosophy of life. Some are pessimists, some optimists, some are idealists, some believe in destiny, some are realists, some atheists, others materialists etc. We all have our own attitude towards life.

Relationship between Philosophy and Education –Apparently if viewed in the following manner, there is very little relation between the two:

1. Education is an art and philosophy is a science2. Education is practical while philosophy is speculative.

However, though there are differences between them, we must not forget that philosophy determines the supreme aim of life and sets standards and values that should guide and direct man’s educational efforts to achieve them. Thus philosophy is a major concern of education. It can be further discussed in the light of the following points:

1. Philosophy points out the way to be followed by education – Philosophy deals with the ends and education with the means to achieve those ends. Education referred to as applied philosophy.

2. Education is the best means for the propagation of philosophy – Through education theories/ideas/beliefs can be communicated to the people at large. They are 2 sides of the same coin – philosophy the contemplative side and education the active side of the coin.

3. All great philosophers of the world have also been great educators – Most of the educational movements of the world, owe their origin to the philosophical schools of different

philosophers. Examples – Plato and Idealism, Aristotle, Buddha and Buddhism, Locke, Rousseau, Spencer, Tagore, Gandhi and John Dewey.

4. Philosophy determines all the broad aspects of education – All problems of education are problems of philosophy. It is philosophy that provides aim to education. These aims determine the curriculum, the methods of teaching, the problems of school organization and school discipline and the role of teachers and the learners.

5. Modern philosophies have a special impact – The influence of modern philosophies on

educations is very evident for example: the concept of mechanism on physics, psychology and economics in the early 19th Century. Neo-Darwinism introduced the concept of cut-throat competition, struggle for existence, intellectualism and man’s faith in reason. Emphasis on knowledge received universal acceptance. After the 2 WWs, more emphasis was given to humanism, faith in higher principles, and values of life, character development and emotional integration. The new schools of philosophy tried to synthesise science and religion.

PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATIONDefinition:

1. The term ‘Pragmatism’ is derived from the same Greek word, meaning ‘active & efficient’. It means a matter of fact treatment of things, based solely on their practical utility. It is the element of utility that has the greatest appeal for pragmatist.

2. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, pragmatism is defined as thinking about or treating things in a practical way. In other words it is the belief that the truth or value of theory can only be judged by its practical results.

Philosophy: (John Dewey):1. No absolute values: All values change with time& space. Man is the creator of his own

values. What is true today may cease to be true tomorrow. Man’s life is series of experiments & purposeful actions. Everything is provisional; nothing is ultimate.

2. Knowledge closely related to action: Knowledge & thinking are closely related with action. They are tentative plans of action. They have to be tested by action & knowing the result of their being acted upon. He affirms, “the essence of pragmatic instrumentralisation is to conceive of both knowledge & practice as means of making good”.

3. Individual & society closely related: There exist a strong relationship between the individual & the society, to which he/she belongs. Self can neither grow in solitude nor in natural surroundings. For proper growth, an individual must live both in natural (physical) environment & human (social) environment.

4. Barrier of separation among people must be broken: the barrier of creed, religion, language, nationality, & color have divided humanity & separated people from people. These barriers must be broken to establish harmony between individual & groups, & ensure the process of the human growth.

Important principles of Pragmatism:

1. No ultimate values: There is no absolute value as such, but people create their own values during the courses of activities. Even truths are man made product. According to pragmatism, “what ever fulfils man’s purpose & desires & develops his life is true. Truth is that which gives satisfactory results when put into practice”.

2. Emphasis on experimentation: pragmatism lays a special stress on the value of experimentation. It stands for testing every statement by finding out its practical implications. If these implications are desirable, the statement is accepted, otherwise

rejected. People always carry out various experiments in their life but no judgment is possible before an experiment is tested by experience. Only that thing is good & beautiful which emerges out useful after experimentation. For this purpose Mr. Peirce calls it as the ‘laboratory habits of mind’.

3. Belief in practical philosophy: philosophy is not simply wisdom of the past. True philosophy is one that helps in the solution of the practical problems of the life. John Dewey states, “Philosophy in order to be philosophy should have meaning and utility in the solution of human problems. it should be practical; and useful in influencing the conduct of life and not a passive enquiry or contemplation”. In brief, “philosophy is thinking what to do in a life situation and it is brought into existence when problems occur”.

4. Human development according to environment: Pragmatism believes that growth of human personality takes place because of the interaction with environment. Man tries to adjust himself to his environment & these results in his growth. During the process of adjustment, man not only adopts himself to his environment but he also tries to mould the environment according to his needs, purposes, & desires.

5. Faith in democracy: Pragmatism has deep faith in democracy. It only through democracy that an individual can realize the maximum development of his personality. This development is possible only in a social contact. Thus a democratic social order is considered essential for the healthy growth of an individual.

6. Revolt against traditionalism: pragmatism believes that reality is in the making. True is that which works in a practical situation. Whatever fulfils ones purpose & develops his life, is true. So it is the revolt against traditionalism & absolutism.

In nut shell we cannot judge any idea of true or false simply by looking at it. \we consider proposition true so long as it proves effective I linking past & future, & in organization present experience to our satisfaction. An idea may thus true under certain circumstance but false under others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRAGMATISM

1. No fifed reality: Pragmatism gives no clear formulation of education in advance. Pragmatism stresses on human purposes & this satisfaction of human wants rather that one grand purpose toward which the universe is to move. The most general educational aim of the pragmatist is just the creation of new values. (Idealism has more to contribute to aims & objectives of education than its method).

2. Learn by doing: pragmatism stress on action rater than reflection; it countenances no divorce between theory & practical. Thus, well-worn teaching maxim, “learn by doing, “is regarded as an important corollary of the pragmatism in educational method. (This pragmatist view is adopted in our education system as we see in the science subject).

3. Protest against the tradition of the school: pragmatist many of the tradition of the school. It protest especially against the notion that the child should differentially at the feet of any teacher and acquire merely the result of other people’s thinking; it rather want him to forge for himself the knowledge and skill necessary to deal effectively with situation of real life.

PRAGMATISM IN RELATION WITH EDUCATION

I. Pragmatism and Aims of education:

1. Creation of new values: Pragmatist has no fixed aim or goals of education. According to Ross, “The general educational aims of the pragmatist is just is the creation of new values. So the main tasks of the education are to put the educand in a position of developing values for himself.

2. Activity and experience: For the creation of new values, activity and experiences are essential. Education should, therefore, provide physical, intellectual, moral and aesthetic activities, the media for the creation of values.

3. Personal and social adjustment: These aspects are developed for meeting the individual and social needs of man. So the main aim of education is to direct the impulses, interests and abilities towards the satisfaction of the felt needs of the child in the environment.

4. All round development: the individual must develop physically, mentally, socially morally and aesthetically.

II. Pragmatism and curriculum.

1. Activity curriculum: Pragmatist is not in favor for fixing curriculum in advance. Only an outline of the activities may be kept in view in the beginning and curriculum be evolve according to the requirement of the situations.

2. Utilitarian curriculum: Pragmatic curriculum is utilitarian only those experiences are provided which gives us as much knowledge & skills to the child, as he requires for his present & future life.

3. Principle of integration: Pragmatist condemn the traditional division of the curriculum into subjects of instruction. It is generally agreed that school studies should be integrated inside school as their counterparts are integrated in the world outside. Our education system continence on this point.

III PRAGMATISM & METHOTD OF TACHING

1. Learning by doing: It believes with new methods. These methods are to be devised by the teacher in the light of real life situations. Encourage learning through self-effort & creative activity.

2. Project method: problematic act carried out completion in its natural setting. In the project method of instruction, the problem comes first & the learning is incidental to its successful situation; principles; skills and methods are acquired by the pupils as he/ she experience the need for them.

FAMOUS PERSONALITIES.

William James: Who is often called the founder of pragmatism, once said that it was,” a new name for old ways of thinking”. He believes that nothing is “self evident”. To him, an idea is true if it works and false if it does not work.

William James, Charles Peirce & John Dewey: -they were the American philosophers who gave form to the doctrines of pragmatism.-they said nothing is justify this is interpretation. They claimed that an idea could be said to “work” only when action s bases upon its resulted in the predicted results.John Watson: States that pragmatism is the philosophy that an idea must be judged by how it works, rather then how it looks or sounds.

Perennialism

Perennial means “everlasting, “like a perennial flower that comes up a year after year. Espousing the notion that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived, perennialism urges that these ideas should be the focus of education. According to Perennialists, when students are immersed n the study of those profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake and become true intellectuals.

Definition In the sixth edition of Ornstein and Levine’s textbook, Foundations of Education, they describe perennialism as follows:Perennialism is a culturally conservative educational theory cantered on the authority of tradition and the classics. It believes that

1. Truth is universal and does not depend on the circumstances of place, time, or person; 2. A good education involves a search for and an understanding of the truth; 3. Truth can be found in the great works of civilization; and 4. Education is a liberal exercise that develops the intellect.

PHILOSOPHY:

Perennialists believe that one should teach the things of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics.

A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of real science.Perennialist curricula tend to be much more liberal topics and principle based.

PRINCIPLES1. Perennialism is an EDUCATIONAL philosophy, not a philosophic system. 2.Permanence is more real than change. 3. Human nature remains essentially the same. 4. The good life -- the life that is fit for women to live -- remains essentially the same. 5. Moral principles remain essentially the same. 6. Hence, the education that men receive should remain essentially the same.

CHARACTERISTICS

In perennialism the value of scientific experimentation to acquire knowledge is not reflected. Perennialists seek to help students discover those ideas most insightful and timeless in

understanding human condition. Perennialists teach about the process by which scientific truths have been discovered.

Perennialists emphasize, though, that students should not be taught information because of future scientific and technological findings. For instance in teaching students how to use current forms of computer technology.

Perennialists criticize undue reliance to textbooks and lectures to communicate ideas. Perennialists aim to develop all students’ intellectual powers, and moral qualities.

Perennialism advocates classrooms cantered around teachers in order to accomplish to these goals. The teachers do not allow the students’ interests or experiences to substantially dictate what they teach. They apply whatever creative techniques and other, tried and true methods are believed to be most conducive to disciplining the student’s minds.

Educational Application(1) Because human beings are essentially the same, education should be essentially the same for everyone. The function of a citizen may vary from society to society, but the function of man, as a man, is the same in every age and in every society since it results from his nature as a man. The aim of an educational system ... is to improve man as man. (Hutchins)

(2) Because the nature of man is constant -- because men as men are everywhere the same -- education should be basically the same for all men. This means that children are rational beings, not plastic personalities to be molded to the teacher's whim. Problem solving is thus a waste of time on the part of pupils. Why spend hours to discover a fact or a principle when it can be taught to pupils in a few minutes. Drill, repetition and memorization are vital in the leaning process. Teaching should not be slanted to the "least common denominator." Rather, slow learners must spend more time to learn the same content as do the brilliant students. The quality of education must not be diluted. Promotion chronologically by age promotes a false standard of equality.

(3) Because man's highest characteristic -- the one differentiating him from the lower life forms -- is his reason, he must use it to direct his life and control his instincts. Men are free, not determined. They are responsible for their actions. We cannot excuse a child's actions because of his environment or personal problems. Because men are rational, they must live rationally. Hence, children must be held to the standards of reason, and this is one function of education.

(4) Education should adjust man to the truth, which is eternal, while the contemporary world is not. "Education implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge. Knowledge is truth. The truth everywhere is the same. Hence, education should be everywhere the same." (Hutchins)

(5) Education should be for the "long-haul," not for the immediate, contemporary fad. It is not the job of the school to meddle in contemporary problems, social reform, and political action. It is the job of the school to provide an education on the basis of which education; students later after graduation can rationally initiate the efforts for social reform, change, and political action.

(6) Education is a preparation for life, not an imitation of life; or as the progressive insist it is not "life itself."

(7) The child should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint him/her with the world's permanencies: English, languages, history, mathematics, natural sciences, the fine arts, and philosophy. The child should learn reading and writing, how to speak and how to listen. He is a social being and lives in a community of men. Thus he must use his reason -- his powers of rationality -- to communicate with other men. The three Rs ARE important.

(8) Education should introduce the pupil to the universal concerns of mankind thorough the study of the great works of literature, philosophy, history, and science.

(a) Such works represent man's finest insights into his own nature. (b) The insights presented in these works are eternal. They do not change; they are never dated. In

this way, s/he learns truths that are more important than any s/he could find by dipping into this or that in the contemporary scene, or by pursing his own interests.

ProgressivismDefinition:

1. Progressivism is a political movement that represents the interests of ordinary people in their roles as taxpayers, consumers, employees, citizens, and parents. To coin a phrase, progressivism champions government "of the people, by the people, for the people."

2. Democratic point of view, progressivism in this context was a blanket term for many political movements: on the local level, it included efforts to reform the structure of city governments, to grant them home rule, to lower transit fares, to regulate or socialize natural monopolies such as electricity and natural gas, and to rid politics of the stench of the saloon and the open control of politicians by those engaged in dubious business practices. At both state and local levels, progressives argued for the right of citizens to initiate legislation, to nominate candidates in open primary elections, to vote on laws directly, to elect and recall judges, to have secret ballots, and to revise the tax system to spread burdens more justly.

3. Educationist point of view, progressivism is a term equivalent to the British notion of “child-centred,” education, or the American idea of “open” education.

4. Progressivism was not so much an organized movement as it was a general spirit of reform embraced by Americans with diverse goals and backgrounds during the early twentieth century (1900-20). Progressives sought the advancement of humanity (progress was defined here in Darwinian terms; i.e., the actually improvement of mankind in an evolutionary sense). Progressives sought advancement through the liberation of human energies and potential from both the fading restraints of past ages and the new restraints imposed by modern industrialism. Progressivism was, thus, both forward-looking and backward looking in its outlook.

5. According to John Dewey progressivism is regarded as the physical universe as real and fundamental. He also claimed that the one constant truth about the universe is the existence of change. For Dewey, change was not an uncontrollable force; rather, it could be directed by human intelligence. He explained that as we alter our relationship with our environment, we ourselves are made different by the experience.

Philosophies in progressivism:John Dewey's PhilosophyDewey regarded the physical universe as real and fundamental. He also claimed that the one constant truth about the universe is the existence of change. For Dewey, change was not an uncontrollable force; rather, it could be directed by human intelligence. He explained that as we alter our relationship with our environment, we ourselves are made different by the experience. Dewey not only believed in the existence of change but welcomed it. He regarded the principles of democracy and freedom espoused in America as representing tremendous progress over the political ideas of earlier times. Nevertheless, Dewey found much that was wrong with American society, and he had little affection for the traditional American approach to education. He hoped that his school reforms would alter the social fabric of America, making it a more democratic nation of free thinking, intelligent citizens.

Dewey taught that people are social animals who learn well through active interplay with others and that our learning increases when we are engaged in activities that have meaning for us. Book learning, to Dewey, was no substitute for actually doing things. Fundamental to Dewey's epistemology is the notion that knowledge is acquired and expanded as we apply our previous experiences to solving new, meaningful problems. Education, to Dewey, is a reconstruction of experience, an opportunity to apply previous experiences in new ways. Relying heavily on the scientific method, Dewey proposed a five-step method for solving problems:

Become aware of the problem; Define it; Propose various hypotheses to solve it; Examine the consequences of each hypothesis in the light of previous Experience. Test the most likely solution.

Principles of Progressivism:

Beliefs: The basic Progressive vision is of community as a caring, responsible family. Progressives envision a community where people care about each other, not just themselves, and act responsibly with strength and effectiveness for each other. The basic principles of Progressivism are:

Equity: What citizens and nations owe each other? If you work hard; play by the rules; and serve your family, community, and nation, then the nation should provide a decent standard of living, as well as freedom, security, and opportunity. Equality: Do everything possible to guarantee political equality and avoid imbalances of political power.

Democracy Maximize citizen participation; minimize concentrations of political, corporate, and media power. Maximize journalistic standards. Establish publicly financed elections, Invest in public education. Bring corporations under stakeholder control, not just stockholder control.

Government for a Better Future: Government does what the future requires and what the private sector cannot do or is not doing effectively, ethically, or at all. It is the job of government to promote and, if possible, provide sufficient protection, greater democracy, more freedom, a better environment, broader prosperity, better health, greater fulfilment in life, less violence, and the building and maintaining of public infrastructure.

Ethical Business: In the course of making money by providing products and services, businesses should not adversely affect the public good, as defined by the above values. Values-based Foreign Policy: The same values governing domestic policy should apply to foreign policy whenever possible.

Characteristics of Progressivism1. Freedom of thought and action.

‘‘Letting individuals think freely is the best way to drive into intellectual activity’’. To children considerable freedom and independence should be given. The philosophy considers the teachers as one of the research consultant or manager of resources. In American terminology, the teacher becomes primary a “facilitator.” in this regard; progressivism echoes the naturalism-, which ultimately says that law of nature has everything that the child need later in his/her life . ” Nature provides for the child’s growth in her own fashion and this should never be thwarted” In short: Self-determination to choose, to think, to decide for themselves.

2. Protest against traditional practice. We cannot escape from the truth that the progressivism stemed from radical dissatisfaction with traditional practice. Traditional practice in educating the children had limited success as it involves the teacher expounding the subject and instructing the whole class at once (which the devices to convert tedium into fun is very much lacking)

3. Interest based curriculum. The curriculum should be determined by the child’s needs and interests (this dictum, however, is not unproblematic as consideration of ‘interest” and “needs” will show) an interest-based curriculum could be understood to mean a number of different things. At its most radical it might mean allowing children to do whatever they want to do given a free choice, children will opt for whatever interests them most. An interest-based curriculum might be interpreted as one, which starts from and uses children’s existing interests.

4. Bond between Progressivism and Understanding the learner. Progressive’s focus is less on what each might become and more on what each already is. In progressives’ education, children’s educational development is not understood in terms of things that should be known, rules that must be followed or adult characteristics that ought to be adopted, children development is seen as a gradual and natural progression which is best aided by adults who have an appreciation of and a respect for the ways of children. Progressives emphasize that it is in the nature of the child to be active. The progressive view is that education should be designed to reject the nature of the child. Importance is therefore attached to the study of children.

Progressivism in Education:

Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, progressivists center the curriculum around the experiences, interests, and abilities of students. Teachers plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push the students to a higher level of knowledge. In addition to reading textbooks, the students must learn by doing often students leave the classroom for fieldtrips during which they interact with nature or society. Teachers also stimulate the students' interests through thought-provoking games. For example, modified forms of the board game Monopoly have been used to illustrate the principles of capitalism and socialism.

In a progressivist school, students are encouraged to interact with one another and to develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view. Also, teachers feel no compulsion to focus their students' attentions on one discrete discipline at a time, and students may be responsible for learning lessons that combine several different subjects.

Progressivists emphasize in their curriculum the study of the natural and social sciences. Teachers expose students to many new scientific, technological, and social developments, reflecting the progressivist notion that progress and change are fundamental. Students are also exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognizes accomplishments of women and minorities as well as white males. In addition, students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside of the schoolhouse; they learn to be flexible problem solvers.

Progressivists believe that education should be a always enriching process of ongoing growth, not merely a preparation for adult lives. They also deny the essentialist belief that the study of traditional subject matter is appropriate for all students, in spite of interest and personal experience. By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists attempt to make schooling both interesting and useful. Perfectly, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse unify together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life.

Famous Personalities:1) Hazen S. Pingree, mayor of Detroit from 1890 to 1896. Structural reformer: 2) James R. Couzens, Detroit police chief 1916-1918, mayor 1918-1920. Models of municipal reform: 3) President Theodore Roosevelt (Republican, 1901-1909) 4) President William Howard Taft (Republican, 1909-1913) 5) Eugene Debs (Socialist Party)6) Woodrow Wilson (Democrat), President 1913-192

7) John Dewey (1859 – 1952) Social reforms with a back ground in philosophy and psychology.

Essentialism

Essentialism refers to the “traditional” or ‘back to the basics” approach to education. It is so named because it strives to instill student with the ‘essential’ of academic knowledge and character development.

Philosophy:

Essential prompts educators to teach students traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge.

It contends that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Teachers should, instead, instill such traditional values as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practically.

Essentialists would emphasize technological literacy because it will help students fit into society and become a contributing member of the community.

They hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and an extensive body of knowledge but also disciplined minds, capable of applying what they have learned in school in the real world.

It is important as it introduces and implant in children the knowledge needed to become model citizen.

Through the essential methods of teaching, students learn the social, political and economic structure of our nation’s society. This allows them to grow into educated adults with their own opinion and who have the ability to make knowledgeable decisions.

Principle of Essentialism:

1. Gripping and enduring interests frequently grow out of initial learning efforts that are not appealing or attractive.

Early in 20th century; essentialism was criticized as being too rigid to prepare students adequately for adult life. But with the launching of Sputnik in 1957, interest in essentialism revived.

2. Essentialism make an individual, respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practically.

3. Essentialism in power and influence. The aim of leadership in essentialism is social change measured by intent and by the satisfaction of human needs and expect ions. Burns (1978) refers to this aim as the ‘essence’ of leadership. He believes it is possible for the leader to identify the ‘true’ and essential needs of followers – certain universal psychological economic, spiritual, aesthetics and safety needs.

4. Essentialism in trait and behavior.

Greenleaf (1977), describe a leader as a servant. A person who first wants to serve others and puts there needs and desires before his or her own. A set of traits and behaviors mark the servant leader; goal oriented, listens and understands others, pays attentions to language and meaning, imagination, reflection, acceptance and empathy, prophetic or practicing foresight, awareness and perception, persuasion, and conceptualizing.

5. Essentialism in contingency.

In this case, the “essential” individual’s environment is marked by:

Support and acceptance by group member. Clear-cut and structure task.

Ability to reward and punish.

6. Essentialism in situation.

The task of an “essential” individual is to be able to accurately identify the situation and match the activity. Heifetz (1994), states that the situation identify are not believe to differ based on culture, social, psychological and historical differences.

Characteristics of Essentialism:1. Instill the essentials of academic skills and knowledge and moral development.

Students are promoted only after acquired the basic required material for their next grade.2. Academically rigorous for both the slow and fast learners.

Strictly followed by both the class of learners despite their capabilities.3. Educationalist decide what is most important for the learners to learn and emphasis little on

learner’s interest. Essential things have to be taught, as it is essential in life.

4. Essentialists do not necessarily follow the idea of the “perennialist” that all knowledge is in the Great book.

Knowledge can be obtained in a multiple places.5. School should not only try to radically reshape society but should transmit the traditional

values and intellectual knowledge that a student fits into the society. The values like good virtues, respects for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others, practicality, etc.

6. It is form of reductionism by which the world is viewed through a single lens that reduces overlapping ideas, false universalism and over generalized concepts to one specified concept.

7. Absolute is essential.

The understanding the ultimate reality, truth and goodness must be an open book to the mind of the absolute.

Famous Personalities:

Person who hopes to reduce the content of school curriculum to so called essential.

1. Aristotle: Greek philosopher, logician, and scientist who perhaps more than any other thinker, have characterized the orientation and content of all that is termed western civilization.

2. James Bryant Conant: US educator and scientist, president of Harvard University and US high commissioner for Western Germany following World War II. After returning from Germany (1957) he took up an earlier interest in public education and conducted studies of the comprehensive high school and the junior high school.

3. John Dewey: philosopher, psychologist and educator who was one of the founder of philosophical school of pragmatism, a pioneer in functional psychology and representative of the progressive movement in US education.

4. Diana Fuss: Essentialism is most commonly understood as a belief in the real true essence of things, the invariable and fixed properties that define the “whiteness” of a given entity.

5. William Bagley: he originally popularized the term essentialism as an educational philosophy in 1930s. According to him essentialism refers to the traditional or back to Basics approach to education.

6. Hirsch: He argues for the importance of acquiring knowledge that is facts, names, and so on, during the school years as the basis for being a knowledgeable and productive adult.

7. Popper: The term he to designate the belief in things having essential qualities first used essentialism.

8. Plato: Ancient Greek philosopher, the second of the great trio of ancient Greek Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. He develops a wide-ranging system of philosophy that was strongly ethical, resting on a foundation of external ideas, or forms that are universals or absolutes. Platonism influenced current of philosophy up to the 20th century.

9. St. Augustine.

10. Henry Steele Commager.

11. Salman Rushdie.

Essentialism in relation to education:

Essentialism is a theory that states that children should learn the traditional basic subjects & that there should be learned thoroughly & rigorously. As essentialist program normally teaches children progressively from less complex skills to more complex.

As the essentialism’s philosophy indicates that teacher should instill such traditional virtues as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practicality.

Essentialist hope that when students learn school, they will posses not only basic skills & an extensive buddy of knowledge, but also disciplined minds, capable of applying what they have learned in the social world that is to posses a working knowledge about the people, events and ideas.

Essentialism’s philosophy states that in the school, the classroom should be oriented around the teacher who serves as an intellectual & moral model for the students. The teachers or administrators decide what is most important for the students’ interest, particularly if they should divert their or attention from the academic curriculum those who embrace this philosophy focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating student’s progress.

Students should be taught to be culturally “literate” that is to posses a working knowledge about certain people, events, ideas & institution that would shape society.

Behaviorism

An important aspect of psychology called behaviorism developed from research on learning. The American psychologists J. B. Watson introduced it in 1913. Behaviorists study only observable behavior, rather than states of consciousness of thought process. They believe that changes in behavior result from a learning process called conditioning. In conditioning, each new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus.

Definitions: Behaviorism is the doctrine that all human actions could, if full knowledge were available, be

explained by stimulus and response. (Oxford University dictionary.) “Behaviorism” is derived from the word “behavior”. The process by which behavior changes

as result of experience or practice through learning.

Philosophy: Thorn dike believed that every new idea, every new feeling or sensation is a response to a

preceding idea, feeling or sensation. His formula for human behavior is seen in terms of S-R (stimulus- response).

The strict behaviorists speak only about what a person does. He avoids references to the mind, the feelings or any other inner state. He speaks of “conduct” (observable) not of ‘character” (inferred).

Principles of behaviorism

1. Behaviorism is NATURALISTIC. This means that the natural world is in the ultimate reality, and everything can be explained in terms of natural laws. Man has no soul and no mind only a brain that responds to the external stimuli.

2. Behaviorism teaches that a man is nothing more than a machine the responds to conditioning. One writer has summarized in this way:

The central tenet (belief) of behaviorism is that thoughts, feelings & intentions; mental processes do not determine what we do. Our behavior is the product of our conditioning. We are biological machines & do not consciously act; rather we react to stimuli.

The idea that man are “biological machine” whose minds do not have any influence on their actions contrary to the biblical view that a man is the very image of God- the image of creative, planning & thinking of God. In fact, Skinner goes so far to say that the mind & mental processes are “metaphor & fictions” & that behavior is simply a part of biology of the organism.

3. In this way, behaviorism teaches that we are not responsible for our actions. If we are mere machine, without minds & souls, reacting to stimuli & operating on our environment to attain certain ends, then everything we do is inevitable. Sociobiology, a type of behaviorism compares man to computer; garbage in, garbage out.

4. Behaviorism is manipulative. It seeks not merely to understand human behavior, but to predict & control it. From his theories, Skinner developed the idea of “shaping”. By controlling rewards & punishments, you can shape the behavior of another.

As a psychiatrist, one of Skinner’s goals to shape his patient’s behavior so that he/she react in more socially acceptable ways. He quite clear that his theories should be used to guide behavior. The experimental analysis of behavior has led to an effective technology, applicable to education, psychotherapy & the design of cultural practices in general, which will be more effective when it is not competing with practices that have had the unwarranted support of mentalistic theory.

In summary, the ethical consequences of behaviorism are great. Man is stripped of his responsibility, freedom & dignity & is reduced to purely biological being, to be “shaped” by those who are able to use the tools of behaviorism effectively.

Characteristics of Behaviorism:

Behaviorism is derived from the belief that free will is an illusion. According to a pure behaviorist, human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment. Alter a person’s environment and you will alter his thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Provide a desired behavior and soon they will learn to perform the behavior on their own.

A persons behavior is determined by genetic endowment traceable to the evolutionary history of the species and by the environmental circumstances to which an individual he/ she has been exposed.

Behaviorist discussed behaviorism in terms of motives and rewards (Watson). It is also moving about in the environment and manipulating things (Skinner).

Relationship with Education:

The American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner studied how behavior is related to the conditions of the stimuli such as reward and punishment. He called such conditions reinforcements contingencies. According to Skinner, reward reinforces behavior positively and makes it more likely to occur again. Punishment reinforces behaviors negatively, decreasing the probability that it will recur. Skinner’s work led to the development of modern teaching machines, which are based on positive reinforcement.

Famous personality:

1. John B. Watson (1878-1958): As American psychologist and founder of behaviorism. He was the one who codified & publicized behaviorism. According to him, behaviorism was restricted to the objective, experimental study of the reactions between environmental events & human behavior. Watson’s behaviorism became so dominant psychology in the US during 1920s & 1930s.

2. Ivan Petrorich Pavlov (1849-1936): was Russian psychologist. He was chiefly known for his development of the concept of the conditioned index, which in turn related to learning.

3. Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1999): US psychologist & professor. He worked on animal behavior. He also proposed the behavioral laws & conducted the experiment to see the validity of his laws.

4. B.F. Skinner (1908): Professor of psychology at Indiana University & is today’s most eloquent behaviorist associationist. He produced a powerful pure, descriptive behaviorism. His approach has had a profound impact on educational practices. He developed teaching machines & programmed learning.

5. Edward C. Tolman (1886-1954): Was concerned with moral behavior.6. E.R. Gutherie (1886-1959): he proposed a theory of behavior based on a single-law. He said

that any time a response occurs, it is linked with each of the stimulus present at the time, the response is made.

7. C.L Hall (189-52): developed a hypothetical deductive method in his drive –reduction theory of learning. He formulated explicit postulate about learning such as reinforcement in the sense of reduction of drive is essential for any learning to occur.

Existentialism.

Existentialism is the youngest philosophy. It is very difficult to find its roots in any of the ancient philosophies. It may be describe as a modern 20th century philosophy. However, it has not yet received a wide general recognition in the educational field.

Famous Personalities:

1. Soren Kiergeard, the Danish philosopher (1823-1835 AD).2. Jean Paul Sartre, a French writer of 20th century.3. Karl Jaspers, a German philosopher.4. Paul T’llich and 5. Reinhhold Niebuhr, the two leading protestant theologian.

Existentialism may be described as a modern philosophy, which is primarily built upon the work of the contemporary scholars of the 20th century.

Main assumptions of existentialism.

1. Man’s Existence: for the essentialist the starting point for all existence is the recognition of individual existence. For the existentialist then, man makes through choices among many alternatives in the environment.

2. Self Knowledge: The extentialists consider “self know thyself” is the basic premise of this philosophy.

3. Freedom and Responsibility: the existentialist considers that each man has the responsibilities of or creating his own values and in doing so he is choosing freedom and responsibilities.

4. Man is not complete: for the existentialists the man is not complete; he is in the process of becoming. Man has to meet the challenge. He marches on the process of becoming a complete man to reach his completeness.

5. No acceptance of ready-made concepts: existentialism believes that man cannot accept the ready-made concepts of existence forced upon him. He is a free agent capable of shaping his own life and choosing his own destiny.

Existentialism and Education.Existentialism has very little to offer as a philosophy of education. There seems to be only one major book, which deals with the philosophy of existentialism as applied to education. This is George Kneller’s “Existentialism and education”.

Educational Implications of Existentialism.

1. According to existentialism the primary aim of education is the making of human person as one who lives and makes decision about what he will do and be.

2. The school should provide an environment where the individuals find security, encouragement and acceptances by the teacher.

3. All school subjects and activities should present situations for the development of human beings.

4. The teachers should facilitate development or originality and creativity by providing necessary material and equipment.

5. The teacher is very active and welcomes challenges to his ideas from the students.6. Democratic ideas must pervade the school environment in which the students grow.7. Concern and respect for individual students should be the main concern of the school.

Mechanizations and impersonality are to be counteracted in school.

Historical Analysis of Development Philosophies

Ideas and concepts do not occur in a vacuum but are products of the social, cultural and historical events surrounding them. Such has been the case in the thinking about development. Our present age has no monopoly on theories of social change and development. Throughout history people have always been confronted with the reality of change around them, and the philosophers and social commentators have from earliest times attempted to explain how and why these things happened.On the other hand certain aspects of change have not always been apparent. It is relatively easy to perceive short-term changes that occur daily around us; it is more difficult to perceive broader changes over a long period of time. For example, historians often think of the fall of the Roman Empire as though it occurred at one point in time in history .For some, this event took place when Rome was invaded by Alaric of the Visigoths in A.D. 410, by Attila the Hun in A.D. 452, by the sacking of Rome by the Vandals in A.D. 455, or by the deposition of the1ast Roman Emperor in A.D. 476. But how did the people of Rome regard these events? Were they aware that later writers and historians would describe them in such dramatic terms as the decline and fall of an empire? One early historian did not think so.

The three centuries between the great age of Marcus Arelius and the overwhelming of Rome by barbarians in the fifth century A.D. is often called the epoch of Rome’s ‘decline and fall’. But 6 Education and National Development

Romans who lived in those centuries did not know it was falling. To them, the business of empire appeared to go on as usual: petty tyrants paraded as emperors; rich men dressed up in senatorial togas; Roman soldiers went forth to battle barbarians, even if they did it more for money than for the glory of Rome. It is only in the perspective of time that Rome's fall is evident (Hadas, 1971:141, italics ours).

.Social change, and in particular social development, is a phenomenon which might only be perceived over a long period of time from a macro perspective. This is certainly the point, which Nisbet clearly makes in his work Social Change and History (1969).

No one has ever seen a civilization die, and it is unimaginable, short of cosmic disaster or thermo nuclear holocaust, that anyone ever will. Nor has anyone ever seen a civilization -or culture or institution -in literal process of decay and degeneration, though there is a rich profusion of these words and their synonyms in Western thought from Hesiod to Spengler. Nor, finally, has anyone ever seen -actually, empirically seen, as we see these things in the world of plants and animals -growth and development in civilizations and societies and cultures, with all that is clearly implied by these words: change proceeding gradually, cumulatively, and irreversibly, through a kind of unfolding of internal potentiality, the whole moving toward some end that is presumably contained in the process from the start. We see none of these in culture: death, degeneration, development, birth (p. 3).

One of the difficulties, then, not only in defining social change but also in empirically studying it, is that we do not always have the advantage of a macro perspective. Thus much of the ambiguity in the concepts related to social change, and the difficulties in identifying the variables which contribute to it, is due to the fact that what we identify as change may only be short-term variations in a larger trend. Or conversely, we may conclude that over a given period of time no change has occurred, when in fact if seen from a long-term perspective, considerable change has taken place. The problem of temporal boundaries and a sufficiently macro perspective in the study of social change and development was equally as bothersome for the classical social theorists as for those contemporaries who are interested in change and development today.

1. Classic Cyclical TheoriesThe classical philosophers have a highly sophisticated view of progress and development. The Greeks in particular, not only knew, accepted and liked change, but they also were the first in history to make a science out of the study of change. They had a word, physis, which expressed the notion of development very well. Physis literally means growth in the sense of unfolding. They applied this term metaphorically to all living things -a tree, animal, man or society.As an example one could take Aristotle's theory of the development of the State. According to Aristotle the origin of the State is found in the family, which he defines as a self-sustaining form of social organization but without the benefit of more elaborate institutions. A colony of families comes together to form a village and this represents the second stage of development. Finally the bringing together of several villages forms a new entity which Aristotle calls the State. There are three important elements of this theory. First the development of the State represents a growth or unfolding -physis - which is inherent in the nature of the family. Secondly the State is imminent in the family, which is the cause of the development. And thirdly the development of the State did not occur by accident but was the result of a natural process. To this extent Aristotle's theory of the

development of the State is similar to Fletcher's notion of the value-free logic of development about which we discussed earlier.An essential element in this process for the classical thinkers was the fact that it took place in cyclical patterns involving the growth and decay of civilizations. Although the Greeks and Romans would not argue that history repeats itself, they did contend that the development cycles were always occurring. The Roman historian Polybius said of the Roman victory over Carthage:

As every body or state or action has its natural periods of first growth, then of prime, then finally of decay, and as everything in them is at its best when they are in their prime, it was for this reason that the difference between the two states manifested itself at this time (cited in Nisbet, 1969:35).The recurring cycles of development stages emerged from the closeness to nature experienced by the classical thinkers. The never- ending dramatic sequence of seasons in the Mediterranean climate with its periods of growth, prime and decay were reflected in their views of the ages of civilization. Like the perennial plant which produces flowers which bloom and die, only to bloom again at a later stage as the plant grows larger, so too the Greeks and the Romans saw civilizations rise and fall in the process of the historical development of mankind.By the 5th century Christianity had become the State religion in Rome. The fusion of Hebrew, Greek and Christian thought introduced a fundamental change in thinking about progress and development. The person most responsible for articulating the early Christian view was St. Augustine in his important book The City of God. The ideas contained in this work were to dominate European Christian thought at least until the 12th century.Augustine and other Christian writers kept the growth metaphor, that is the notion of physis, in their theories of change and development. They did not, however, accept the never-ending cyclical element, which was so important to Greek and Roman thought. In the Christian view the cycle of growth and decay was seen as a single, unique cycle, never to be repeated. Thus it was thought that there is one cycle in mankind, which started with the creation of Adam, reached its full flowering with the coming of Christ, and would end with the death and destruction of the material world. It should be noted, however, that the Christian thinkers felt that this event would occur quite soon and their interpretation of history always tended to take this into account. While they were pessimistic about the future of the material world, they were optimistic about the eternal world which would follow, that is, the City of God. The notion of physis as a natural process was replaced by the "will of God " as the main force of change in the material world.This expectation of the end of the world was to dominate Christian thinking for almost 1200 years. Medieval man was pessimistic about the future of the material world, and believed that progress existed only in planning for the coming of the City of God. Even during the flowering of the Renaissance, men felt that mankind was nearing an end and that the apex of civilization had long passed. This view prevailed in spite of advances in science and technology .It was only in the 17th and 18th centuries that the dominance of the Augustinian view began to wane and give way to new theories of development. However, remnants of the Christian view continue to survive in modem thought primarily in the various messianic movements, which proclaim the coming demise of human civilization and the world itself.

2. The Enlightenment Optimism

The events of the Renaissance set the stage for the expansion of geographical and intellectual horizons giving rise to the belief in the possibility of an unlimited progress of mankind. The discovery of new worlds, the advancement of biological and natural sciences, the developments of new forms of art and architecture, and the preliminary stages of an international economy through trade and banking, all gave rise to new ideas and beliefs which seriously challenged the traditional

Christian ways of thinking. The Protestant Reformation at the end of the Renaissance was a consequence rather than a cause of this breakdown. The first major systematic departure from the prevailing Augustinian view of progress came in 1688, when the French intellectual Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle argued what became the modern view of development: that civilization made progress in the past, is now making progress, and will continue to make progress into the unlimited future. The idea of unending and unlimited progress is the cornerstone of the intellectual modernism of the Enlightenment, which radically departed from the cyclical view of history of the classical Christian thinkers. According to Fontenelle:

A good cultivated mind contains, so to speak, all minds of preceding centuries; it is but a single identical mind which has been developing and improving itself all the time...; but I am obliged to confess that the man in question will have no old age; he will always be equally capable of those things for which his youth is suited, and he will be ever more and more capable of those things which are suited to his prime; that is to say, to abandon the allegory , men will never degenerate, and there will be no end to the growth and development of human wisdom (cited in Nisbet, 1969:104).

During the Enlightenment period of the 17th and 18th centuries there emerged a number of beliefs which directly affected ideas about development. In particular it was thought that pure knowledge and science supersede theological knowledge, that natural processes are cumulative, logical and unlimited in terms of growth, and that the task of statecraft is to remove obstruction to the natural progress of nature and mankind. -In this period the ideas of the French mathematician and philosopher Descartes were extremely influential in that he established convincingly the supremacy of rational knowledge and the importance of doubting everything which cannot be proven. The German philosopher Leibniz further argued that progress was "not accident but a beneficent necessity", and that the process does not take place through discontinuities and leaps, but in a continuous, gradual, and cumulative manner.One cannot speak about theories of change and development without mentioning the work of Immanuel Kant. Writing in late 18th- century Germany, Kant's conviction in the unlimited progress of mankind is reflected in his assumptions about the natural continuing advance of civilization, particularly in its moral existence. Furthermore, while Rant accepted that this unlimited progress might be interrupted, he believed that it would never be entirely broken off or stopped.Somewhat later in France another typical Enlightenment view can be found in Condorcet's work Progress of the Human Mind. While hiding for his life from the Jacobins his faith in human progress was not daunted. Condorcet spoke of the indefinite perfectibility of mankind, and felt that this continuing progress would vary in speed, but would never be reversed. Finally, also reflecting the optimism of the Enlightenment, Rousseau praised the "noble savage" devoid of any contamination by civilization. At the same time he believed that only by entering civil society could an individual really become human and gain the power of self-control which he saw as the only true liberty. In other words, for Rousseau progress consisted in the ability of an individual to remain uncorrupted by civilization, and yet remain a part of it and carry out the responsibilities of a citizen. It is precisely in the. Resolution of this apparent contradiction that Rousseau placed so much emphasis on education (Rousseau, 1974 (1762)).Convictions about the inevitability of progress are not restricted to the Western world. Chinese civilization developed an intellectual tradition, which recognized the continual changing forces of society. The principles of yang and yin were seen to represent opposites, which worked together in harmony to rule the world. Encompassing these two principles is the notion of tao: “All yin and all

yang are tao." In traditional Chinese thought, yang was seen as the male or positive principle in nature: the sun, light, brilliant. On the other hand, yin represented the. Female or negative principle in nature: shady, dark, cloudy, cold. Finally, tao meant way, path or road which in its deeper meaning implied social and cosmic order, totality and responsibility. The possession of tao with yang and yin in harmony were seen as leading to the time of Great Happiness or original Golden Age. The main thinker in this tradition was Confucius (Becker and Barnes, 1961).Additional non-Western views about social change and development can be found in the Near East and in particular in the Islamic tradition. While Western Europe struggled through the Dark Ages to the Renaissance there were important social thinkers in Islamic society who attempted to explain change as manifested in the Moslem world. The culmination of Islamic thought can be found in the ideas of Ibn Khaldun, who has by some been regarded as the world's first sociologist. Drawing upon Aristotelian philosophy Khaldun saw change and development in terms of dialectic and cyclical processes. He was perhaps the first social thinker who put forth conflict as a major factor in explaining change (Becker and Barnes, 1961}. Khaldun never developed a complete theory to explain societal change, although his interests in historiography and the rise of Islam continually kept his attention on laws of society and social change. Khaldun definitely believed in ordered social change and rejected randomness, which he attributed to "hidden causes". He saw continuity in the rise and fall of states and empires and argued that "the past and future resemble each other as two drops of water" (Becker and Barnes, 1961:270}. Yet he also saw all social change taking place within the conditional limits of climate and geography, particularly within the context of his experience of the North African desert in which he lived.Khaldun's dialectic and cyclical theory is best illustrated in his description of the transition from nomadic tribal life to sedentary city life, which he saw as a basic historical process. For Khaldun, the nomads, by virtue of their rigorous and difficult life in the desert, were seen as having strong tribal discipline and intense esprit de corps. On the other hand, the sedentary city-dwellers, because of the relative ease and softness of city life, were seen as lacking bravery, fighting ability, discipline and ferocity. Thus Khaldun argued that any pastoral nomad group can conquer a sedentary city community of equal manpower. However, the nomadic victors soon become accustomed to sedentary city life, with its characteristics, and eventually become prey to new nomadic invaders. In this way, according to Khaldun, empires established by nomads rise to power only to fall, thus constituting a constant cycle of change (Khaldun, 1980 (1394}}.

3. Evolutionary Theories of the 19th and 20th Centuries

At the turn of the 19th century the optimism of the Enlightenment gave way to more systematic and complex theories of change and development. These theories can be best described under the general rubric of evolutionary or organic theories. As such, evolutionary theories were based upon six assumptions about change. For the 19th- century writers change was seen as natural, directional, imminent, continuous, necessary and proceeding through uniform causes.A forerunner to the evolutionary theorists, and one, whose influence cannot be doubted, was the German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Hegel's notion of development was similar in some respects to classical Greek and Roman thought, and was the same as that contained in the classical notion of physis.

The principle of development involves also the existence of a latent germ of being -a capacity or potentiality striving to realize itself. This formal conception finds actual existence in spirit; which has the history of the world for its theater, its possession, and the sphere of its realization (cited in Nisbet, 1969:159).

For our purposes Hegel made two contributions to the emerging evolutionary theory .His notion of the dialectic was to influence later thinkers like Marx and his followers and represents a contrast with those who saw development as occurring through stages of "levels of organizations", rising from the lower to the higher through historically conditioned transformations. In his description of history he was idealistic (history is the result of God's will), deterministic (what happens has to happen) and saw history as culminating in the progress of the Prussian state (Karier, 1967).

It was a contemporary of Hegel, the French philosopher and father of sociology, Auguste Comte, who was among the first to systematize evolutionary theory in his notion of a positivistic social science. Unlike Hegel, Comte did not place God at the center of his evolutionary theory, but saw progress and development as stemming from the scientific achievements of men. Comte described progress in terms of the Law of Three Stages through which he thought mankind was evolving. The first stage, which he called Theological, represented the level of society dominated by "priests", ruled by the military , and built upon the family as the major social unit. The second he called the Metaphysical which he saw as based upon the philosophical reasoning of mea. The third and final stage toward which he saw mankind evolving was the Scientific or Positive one, which must be reached by the study of the laws of nature and the use of scientific experiments.Later in the 19th century, evolutionary theory emerged in a somewhat different form through the work of the British philosopher and sociologist, Herbert Spencer. Building upon the notion of the "survival of the fittest", an idea which he, like Darwin, derived from Malthus, Spencer based his own theory of the evolution of society on its organizational structure. Spencer's definition of evolution has become classic:

Evolution is an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion; during which matter passes from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent heterogeneity; and during which the retained motion undergoes a parallel transformation (cited in Timasheff, 1964:32).

For Comte evolution consisted mainly of moral progress and the advancement of ideas; for Spencer evolution consisted of a greater specialization and differentiation of the structure of society.Comte believed that evolution should be guided by human intervention. Scientific knowledge of society results in moral advancement and can be planned. Among the term~ he frequently used were "social engineering" and "social hygienics". Spencer, on the other hand, was labelled a "Social Darwinist". He believed that like the evolution of the plant and animal kingdom, the "survival of the fittest" principle should be allowed to operate in society. For Spencer, the poor were poor because they were less fit; the rich on the other hand deserved to be rich. In effect the political implications of Spencer's thinking were in line with the laissez-faire political policies of his time, and which, indeed, are still with us today in some philosophical and political thought.Evolutionary theory continued to be prevalent, sometimes in very subtle ways, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries especially in the works of the French sociologist Emile Durkheim and other social scientists. Permeating much of this evolutionary thought was the theme that society, as a living organism, develops from a simple primitive stage to a complex modem one. The practical application of this general theory for understanding societal development was that the poor non-industrial societies were seen as representing a primitive stage of evolution, while the industrialized countries were associated with the more complex and civilized stage. The higher more complex societies were seen as the end-points toward which the primitive (less-developed) societies would eventually reach. However, all societies, even the advanced ones, were seen as evolving in the direction of greater progress.

During this period evolutionary theory was used to justify the behavior of colonizing societies toward their colonies, in particular with respect to allowing them to remain in their preindustrial

stage, while using their labor and material resources to support further industrialization in the mother country .The activities of colonial governments and the work of religious missions were based on the assumption that the peoples of the less-developed societies were primitive" "backward" and "uncivilized", and thus needed to be assisted in their development along the same unilinear evolutionary path as traversed by their own societies.

In the early 20th century evolutionary theory as a viable expla- nation for development began to be challenged. Critics argued, for example, that particular aspects of social behavior and the level of development of any society could not be effectively explained solely in terms of its origins. In other words, there was no basis for postulating the continuity of the historical evolution of a society. A second criticism of evolutionary theory was that it could not always explain social anomalies, for example, the survival of highly traditional religious rituals in modern industrial environments. For the most part evolutionists explained irregular patterns that did not fit the theory as anachronistic remnants of the past, whereas others preferred to explain them in terms of their functional interrelationships and utility in the society. A third criticism of evolutionism was directed at its assumption of unilinearity, which was increasingly seen as untenable. This became particularly evident with the emergence of the socialist states. Many critics felt that evolutionary theory had not specified the causal mechanisms and processes of change. In other words, the theory could describe the different evolutionary stages of societies but could not explain how a society passes from one stage to the next. Finally the assumption regarding the inevitable progress of mankind became untenable with the events of World War I and World War II. These events indicated that societies can decline as well as make progress.

4. Structural- Functionalism

Criticism of evolutionary theory by and large came from a new theoretical orientation emerging from both anthropological and sociological thought. From modest beginnings in the 1930s, the orientation known as structural-functionalism dominated sociology and other social sciences by the 1950s. The main proponents of structural-functionalism were Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton, who were responsible for its systematic formulation. The theory did not directly deal with social change or development, but since it is related to several of the major development theories (for example human capital theory and modernization theory) it merits our attention here. The basic principles of structural-functionalism are quite simple and can for our purpose be stated briefly. In the first place society is seen as a system composed of interrelated parts (religion, education, political structures, the family, etc.). These parts are said to constantly seek equilibrium or harmony between themselves. The interrelationship of these parts is thought to occur by consensus, and pathological or non-normative events or arrangements are said to produce tension. In such a condition the parts strive to adjust in order to achieve equilibrium (homeostasis) again. For the structural- functionalists society is said to change, but there is no mention of evolution over a long period of time. Furthermore, conflict in society is seen as dysfunctional to social integration and equilibrium.In spite of its general domination of social science theory and research from the 1940s to the 1970s, structural-functionalism has been criticized on several grounds. It has been accused of focusing solely on the static aspects of society to the neglect of change, process, conflict and dissent. In addition it is argued that the theory contains an ideological bias in favor of the status quo. Harmony and integration are seen as functional, highly valued, and to be preserved, whereas conflict, change or tension are seen to be dysfunctional and to be avoided. Therefore structural-functionalism has been criticized as conservative and against change, development or social reform. Nevertheless, there seems to be a renewed interest in functionalist theory, and the

emergence of what is called neo-functionalism is attracting attention within the social sciences (Alexander, 1985).Structural-functionalism and evolutionary theory were eventually fused in the later writings of Talcott Parsons into what is known as neo-evolutionism. The most important result of this fusion is that the new theory gave analytical force to the evolutionary perspective and provided structural-functionalism with the means for dealing with change. In other words, societies were said to evolve along an evolutionary path through the processes of integration, differentiation and reintegration, taking into account both internal and external factors. The importance of neo-evolutionary theory is that it was primarily responsible for the emergence of modernization theory, one of the most important of the contemporary development theories (Parsons, 1966).

5. Modernization Theory

Modernization Theory, as we know it today Whereas the link between the first two sets of variables have been well established in research, the links between the others are more problematic. For example, recent research has shown that developing countries with higher exposure to Western media do not manifest higher levels of modern values or indeed, economic development (Delacroix and Ragin, 1978). Likewise, farmers who score high on the scale of modern values do not show higher levels of agricultural productivity (Sutcliffe, 1978). Finally, it is clear that modernization has resulted in the convergence of some characteristics in world educational systems, for example, schooling as a public responsibility, as compulsory, and as structured both in terms student progression and teacher certification. Nevertheless, because of specific economic, political, cultural and historical contexts, considerable divergence in educational systems persists, namely repetition rates, teacher strategies and parental perceptions of schooling (Inkeles and Sirowy, 1983).In general there are at least four criticisms of modernization theory .The first of these concerns the causal linkage between variables as indicated in the figure. The second concerns the underlying assumption of modernization, that modern attitudes and values are incompatible with traditional ones. In contrast, Gusfield (1967) argues that these values are not incompatible and cites the case of Japan where traditional forms of labor commitments seem to have contributed to economic growth while the same commitments were seen to be an impediment in the West. Thirdly, modernization theory assumes that modern values and behavior by individuals necessarily lead to socioeconomic development at the societal level. However, Portes (1973) and others contend that this causal linkage does not necessarily hold because a society is not simply the sum total of the individuals within it. For example, the emigration of professionals from less-developed countries is a form of modern behavior, but could not be said with any certainty to contribute to structural and economic development in those countries (Portes, 1973). Finally modernization theory in its assumptions about the end-point of the modernizing process is ideologically biased and ethnocentric. In terms of the criteria used to measure modernization, for a society to become modern, it must also become Western (Hoogvelt, 1976).

6. Human Capital Theory.

While modernization theory dominated the thinking and research of sociologists

Modernization theory, as we know it today, emerged in the 1950s and contrasted sharply with the evolutionary theory of the 1920s and 1930s. To some extent modernization theory was an intellectual response to the two world wars and represents an attempt to take an optimistic view about the future of mankind. Early forms of modernization theory had little to say about the further

advancement of the already modern, industrialized societies; it was assumed that they had "arrived " and that their past was of interest only to show the future path of those societies still on the road to modernity. In fact some authors, for example Huntington (1976), argued that early modernization theory justified complacency (the status quo) at home and change abroad. The theory had no image of potentialities of modernity’s future, but only faith in the past.

According to Huntington (1976), the process of modernization can be characterized as revolutionary (a dramatic shift from the tradition to modern), complex (multiple causes), systematic, global (affecting all societies), phased (advance through stages), homogenizing (convergence), irreversible and progressive. Modernization theory is also interdisplinary. Sociologists, psychologists, political scientists, economists and social and cultural anthropologists have used the theory. It has been particularly important for sociologists and social psychologists.

One of the first major studies that examined modernity is found in David McClelland’s book The Achieving Society (1961). According to McClelland the rise and fall of civilizations is due to the individual values held by the majority of the population in the society. He argued that there is a personality characteristic, which he called the achievement motive (in Ach), acquired through socialization, which makes a society open to economic and technological advancement.

The notion of the need for the achievement as a psychological trait (reminiscent of Weber’s Protestant Ethic) was developed by the American sociologist, Alex Inkeles, who formulated a set of attitude questions known as the modernity scale. During the 1960s and 1970s the modernity scale was widely used to measure the extent to which members of a given society hold what are considered to be modern values. Inkeles and his followers argue that to modernize is to develop, and that a society cannot hope to develop until the majority of its population holds modern values. These theorists, along with all structural functionalists, also argue that the creation of modern values can be the result of human planning and that particular social institutions are of extreme importance for their emergence, for example, the socialization which takes place in families, schools and factories.

Modernization theory has stimulated a large amount of research and has been an implicit assumption underlying much development funding by governments, national and international foundations and organizations. Many studies have shown that education and factory employment are directly related to the acquisition of modern values. These studies have been conducted in a variety of countries, such that there is a direct causal link between five sets of variables, namely, modernizing, institutions, modern values, modern behavior, modern society and economic development. These links are illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

Modernizing Modern Modern Modern Economic

Institutions Values behavior Society Develop, the economists also formulated their own theory of development based upon structural functional notions. Modernization theory for the sociologists was mainly a social psychological theory focusing upon individual values and attitudes. The economists, however, focused upon the productive capacity of human manpower in the development process and in so doing treated the improvement of the human workforce as a form of capital investment. Thus the human capital theory postulates that the most efficient path to the national development of any society lies in the improvement of its population, that is, its human capital.

One of the first systematic articulations of human capital theory occurred in 1960 when Theodore Schultz made his presidential address to the American Economic Association on the theme "Investment in Human Capital " (Schultz, 1961). In this widely cited address Schultz stated that education was not to be viewed simply as a form of consumption but rather as a productive investment. He argued that education does not only improve the individual choices available to men, but that an educated population provides the type of labor force necessary for industrial development and economic growth.As with modernization theory, human capital theory provided a basic justification for large public expenditure on education both in developed and developing nations. The theory was consistent with the ideologies of democracy and l1beral progressivism found in most Western societies. Likewise, both theories attributed the sources of underdevelopment or economic stagnation to factors within countries themselves rather than to factors outside the countries. Its appeal was based upon the presumed economic return of investment in education both at the macro and micro levels. For politicians and decision- makers, efforts to promote investment in human capital were seen to result in rapid economic growth for society. For individuals, such investment was seen to provide returns in the form of individual economic success and achievement (Karabel and Halsey, 1977; Blaug, 1970, 1976). "

Human capital theory has been criticized on several grounds. At the individual level it has become highly controversial whether or to what extent education or other forms of human investments are directly related to improvements in occupation or income (Jencks et al., 1972). In fact, it is now accepted that raising the level of education in a society can, under certain circumstances, increase the inequalities in income distribution. This is especially true with regard to the way education is financed and the way it is distributed in terms of facilities (Blaug, 1985).Other factors which have been found to be important for occupational and income success are family background and innate ability (Fägerlind, 1975; Jencks et al., 1979). Likewise individual attainment is also affected by structural factors, such as the economic, political and social systems and the way that they favor or discriminate against some strata in society. At the macro level the underlying assumptions of human capital research have also been suspect. Human capital theorists generally assume that after all the known inputs into economic growth have been explained, much of the unexplained residual variance represents the contribution of the improvement of human capital, of which education is seen as most important. Vaizey (1972), for example, cites figures from Schultz showing that the contribution of the improvement of human capital to economic growth in the USA between 1919 and 1957 ranged from between 36 and 70 percent of the unexplained growth.However, as economists such as Blaug and Vaizey have been quick to point out, the residual in human capital analysis is generally assumed to represent the results of the improvement of labor quality, but in reality is more a "measure of ignorance". Human capital theory has intuitive appeal, but methodological difficulties, in particular regarding the measurement ~f the contribution of education to labor quality, has placed obstacles to its full acceptance. It is now only one of a number of approaches to the study of the economic value of schooling, and other theories such as the screening hypothesis and labor market segmentation approach enjoy current attention (Blaug, 1985). However the implications of these approaches for development are not always made explicit.

8. Marxist Theories of Development

Most theories of change and development assume that these processes occur in gradual and peaceful ways. As previously mentioned, the evolutionary and structural functionalist theories have tended to overlook the element of conflict in social systems, or conversely have regarded it as

pathological or abnormal to the system. Indeed one of the most frequent criticisms of these, theories is that they virtually ignore conflict as a major dimension in social change. Yet, a close scrutiny of history, from past to present, often highlights the importance of conflict in social events. Examples of these kinds of conflicts include the innate contradictions of a social system, revolution, exploitation, colonialism, dependency, struggle for survival, and class and racial conflicts.Nisbet (1969) argues that the principle of conflict has been implicit in all theories of change and development. He contends that conflict and change are two sides of the same coin and to emphasize one does not mean that the other is not recognized. Even St. Augustine spoke of the struggle between good and evil; Spencer also acknowledged conflict in the notion of the struggle for survival. However, in European thought Hegel was perhaps the first and most important of the social thinkers who gave conflict a central focus in his theory of change. His principles of the dialectic whereby all change is seen as the result of a process of thesis, antithesis and synthesis, was the foundation for Marx's theory of society which has had profound impact on several schools of development theory today.According to Marx, society is polarized into two classes which ~re in conflict, the exploiting and the exploited. Like other evolutionary theorists, Marx saw society as progressing through stages from an original primitive communist stage, through slavery, feudal, capitalist, socialist and finally to a visionary communist society. But unlike the evolutionary theorists, Marx saw these changes from stage to stage as the result of dramatic and qualitative leaps due to the conflicts within society and changes in modes of production.

Although the principles of Marx's theory of the structure of society are well known, it will be useful to summarize them here in the context of our later discussion of education and development. For Marx the major agent of social change is the economic structure of society. Class societies (which include the capitalist) are those where private ownership of the means of production exists, whereas classless societies (which include the socialist and communist) are those where the means of production are publicly or collectively owned. In the former type of society there are two major classes, those who own the means of economic production and those who do not, which Marx called the bourgeoisie and the proletariat respectively. The capitalist system is dependent upon the extraction of profit by the owner from the labor of the proletarian class (surplus value). In order to accomplish this the bourgeois class (those who control the means of production) must legitimate their claim to the surplus value either by social norm or by force. For Marx the remaining social institutions (the superstructure) exist to reinforce and reproduce the social norms relating to the economic structure, that is the control of the means of production and the legitimation of this control. Through the legitimating force of these institutions, the working class, as Marx saw it, was ignorant of its exploited condition (false consciousness). As this class becomes aware of its condition, the conflict of interests between the classes emerges, giving rise to revolution and thus major structural social change. It is this inevitable transition that Marx saw as part of a necessary process of development and progress (Smelser, 1973; Melotti, 1977).In socialist societies, change is said to occur in a somewhat different manner. Marx saw socialism as an intermediate stage between capitalism and communism. While eradicating the capitalist structure, remnants of capitalism were seen as still surviving in the socialist stage. Thus for Marx it was essential that there be strong centralized rule by a proletarian elite, the so-called dictatorship of the proletariat, in order to prevent society from regressing again into capitalism. The purpose of the socialist system, in Marx's view, is to strengthen and mobilize the masses in their struggle to completely overcome the capitalist system of production and exploitation. Thus two essential components for a Marxist program of development are mass literacy and ideological consciousness-raising through which the proletariat is made aware of its exploited situation (Melotti, 1977).

There is nothing incompatible between Marxism and a development strategy based upon industrialization. In the case of the Soviet Union, Lenin is generally regarded as applying Marxism to a policy of industrialization under socialism. In so doing he emphasized the importance of centralization of control in the State, nationalization of the means of production, and democratic participation in economic planning (Lane, 1974).

Marxist thinking about social change, and implicitly about development, has had considerable impact on development theory. Recent interpretations of Marx's original position and further applications of his thought have given rise to a number of different forms, which have been called neo-Marxist theories of development. For the most part these recent versions of Marxism focus upon selected, problematic aspects of Marx's original theory. For example, Marx spoke about colonialism and the stunting effect it sometimes has on development, for example, Ireland, but he never extended his idea to include the notion of underdevelopment. Likewise one of the most important concepts in Marxist analysis is that of mode of production, which is the combination of two aspects of production: production as a material process and as a social one. For 'example, feudal and capitalist societies represent two modes of production in which one social class exploits and dominates another. Recently there has been considerable debate about the nature of various modes of production, and in particular the transition between modes of production and the possibility of two modes coexisting in the same society (the theory of a dual economy). The absence of a crystallized class structure in many less developed societies has made the application of Marxist concepts problematic for development theory and strategies. Mao Zedong recognized this difficulty and incorporated different types of the agricultural population into the Marxist class structure (Mao Zedong, 1967). On the basis of this extension of orthodox Marxism, Mao's revolutionary program for socialist development in China has been influential in many third world countries today.The orthodox Marxist-Leninist perspective on development formed the basis for the emergence and application of a currently dominant general theory of development, known as dependency theory. Although dependency theory exists in many versions, it is possible to understand its basic characteristics and subsequent implications for a unique approach to the problems of development.

9. Dependency Theory

In contrast to evolutionary and modernization theories, dependency theory focuses upon the- relationships both between and within societies in regards to social, cultural, political and economic structures. The underlying assumption of this theory is that development and underdevelopment as relational concepts within and between societies are inversely related. The underdevelopment of a region or society is seen as a process, which is linked to the development of another region or an outside society. The term dependency is used to emphasize that the causal relationship between the development of central or metropole societies and the underdevelopment of peripheral or satellite societies is an historical and at least indirectly an intentional process. The intellectual origins of dependency theory can be traced to Marx. It was Marx's concern with the exploitation by the bourgeois of the proletariat which led the American economist Paul Baran, in his work The Political Economy of Growth (1957), to see" under- development in the poor countries as caused by capitalism in the Western world. A further contribution to the intellectual origins of dependency came from Lenin's concept of imperialism, which dependency theorists used to describe the process whereby capitalism dominates and exploits the poor countries.In some respects dependency theory can be seen as the obverse of the theory of imperialism; whereas the theory of imperialism concentrates on the domination and exploitation of the poor countries by the rich, dependency theory focuses on the extent to which poor countries are dependent on the rich. Without question the most important popularizer and systematizer of

dependency has been Andre Gunder Frank, who began to study and write about development problems in Latin America in the late 1950s and 1960s. According to dependency theorists the world can be divided into the core and the peripheral countries (Galtung, 1971). These countries are seen as part of a global system dominated by a capitalist economic network. The process of dependency whereby the rich core countries dominate and exploit the poor peripheral ones is best described in the following words of one writer:

The mode of articulation of the underdeveloped economies with the world economic system may result in a transfer of resources from the periphery to the centre and/or this articulation may give rise to various 'blocking mechanisms' which hold back or 'distort' the economies of the periphery, thereby preventing an allocation of resources which will produce economic growth (Roxborough, 1976:118).

According to dependency theory the transfer of resources can occur in many ways, including plunder, colonial or neo-colonial relationships, or the operations of multinational corporations. Dependency theory provides an alternative to theories of capitalist development. It rejects the linear and progressive view of development and places importance on factors external to society. Furthermore, dependency theory focuses on the process whereby the condition of the less developed regions and countries in the world are seen to be caused by the activities of the rich countries. The process whereby the metropolis dominates the countryside within a country is identical to that which occurs between countries.In considering the dependency relationships between countries it is not necessary that the rich country physically dominate the poor. It is enough that the leaders or the elite of the poor countries hold attitudes, values and interests consistent with those in the rich countries. Andre Gunder Frank gave these elites the name "lumpenbourgeoisie" and regarded them as major instruments of the dependency relationship (Frank, 1972).It may be useful to compare dependency theory with modernization theory in order to highlight its unique approach to understanding development and underdevelopment. Firstly, whereas modernization theory treats the nation-state as an autonomous unit, dependency theory focuses on the relationship between nation-states. Secondly, modernization theorists accept that elites may playa positive role in the development process, whereas dependency theorists regard elites as an obstacle to real development. Thirdly, modernization theorists see education as providing skills necessary for development, while dependency theorists regard education as reinforcing the dependency condition of less developed societies. Finally, dependency theorists do not deny that education promotes modernization, but question whether modernization promotes autonomous national development (Walters, 1981).There have been a number of variations of dependency theory, which have focused to a greater or lesser degree on specific aspects of the theory itself. Indeed, some authors have tended to prefer the terms "paradigm" (Foster-Carter, 1976), "school" (Lall, 1975), or at the least, a collection of theories (Palma, 1978) to designate what we call, in a broad sense, dependency theory. However, there can be little doubt that dependency theory has been extremely important on thinking about development, and some have argued that the notion of dependency has replaced modernization as the dominant conceptual model in the development literature (Webster, 1984).At the same time there have been numerous criticisms. One is that dependency theory, at least in its early formulation, focused too heavily on the factors external to societies and neglected the internal structures of underdevelopment. A second criticism concerns a combination of historical accuracy and conceptual ambiguity. In its early formulation by Frank (1967) it is argued that dependency occurs through participation in a world capitalist system. Yet it is further argued that the process of underdevelopment in Latin America began with colonization by the Spanish and the Portuguese during the 16th century. However, it is difficult to concede that the agricultural economy of Latin America, both then and now, can be described as a capitalist mode of

production. In other words, there is a confusion in the theory concerning the two concepts of the "capitalist mode of production” and "participation in a world capitalist economic system" (Booth, 19'75).

There are other criticisms worth noting. For example, recent studies suggest that foreign investment, trade and aid to a given country does, in the short run at least, contribute to economic growth in that country (Bornschier et al., 1978). In this context it makes more sense to speak of dependent development rather than the development of underdevelopment (Cardoso, 1972). Related to this is the fact that the dependency theorists have failed to take into account that some dependent nations have succeeded to become rich while others have remained poor (Warren, 1980). Lastly the dependency theorists have not explained the participation of non-capitalist countries such as the Soviet Union in the development of the poor countries, and the extent to which it promotes its own form of dependency and underdevelopment in them.Perhaps the most serious difficulty with dependency theory has been its failure to provide a viable strategy for development without creating some degree of dependency in the poor country .To sever trade relations, to refuse international aid or to nationalize multinational companies are simplistic policies, which are not likely to eliminate dependency or promote economic growth.The goals of complete self-sufficiency and autonomy by a nation are unrealistic in the present-day world condition. Therefore the important question is what kind of dependency and what kind of development should be pursued in any given context. The dependency theorists have given few guidelines in this regard.Finally the dependency theorists have not explained how the national elite of a poor country, who are seen as collaborators with the elites of rich countries in the dependency process, can be made to ignore their own interests and positions in favor of those of society as a whole. Yet in spite of these difficulties it must be said that the dependency perspective has provided us with a critical starting-point and understanding of important aspects in the process of development among the poor countries in the world.

10. Liberation Theory.Closely related to the Marxist and dependency theories of development are the so-called liberation theories. The authors of these theories do not completely reject the Marxist and dependency perspectives, but offer an alternative focus as to the source of underdevelopment and the means to overcome it. Furthermore, the liberation theories are not intended to be complete systematic theories of development but represent attempts to prescribe specific means to promote certain aspects of it. The liberation schools of thought are built upon the conviction that nothing good or profitable can be secured for the poor members of an underdeveloped society without a drastic and radical change in the structure of that society, as well as a broader radical change of the current socioeconomic, political and cultural world order. The liberation theorists basically take a humanistic approach to questions of development. The underlying assumption is that members of the underdeveloped societies are oppressed by the power holders of their own societies, who control the relevant economic resources such as land, industry and wealth. Some liberation theorists argue that the main remedy for overcoming this oppression lies in the education of the oppressed to be aware of their condition. This practice is called "conscientiza~ao" by the Brazilian educationist Paulo Freire. He explains the practice as follows:

As the cultural revolution deepens 'conscientizacão' in the creative praxis of new society, men will begin to perceive why mythical remnants of the old society survive in the new ……..I (Freire) interpret the revolutionary process as dialogical cultural action which is prolonged in 'cultural revolution' once power is taken. In both stages a serious and profound effort at

'conscientizacao' -by means of which men, through a true praxis, leave behind the status of 'objects' to assume the status of historical 'Subjects' -is necessary (Freire, 1972:158).

Freire is one of the main proponents of liberation theory whose focus tends to be on the role of education in the liberation and development process. Indeed, for Freire, liberation is development, and for those espousing the liberation approach, development is more a question of justice rather that wealth (Curle, 1973}.Liberation theory has been adopted at various times by policy-makers in some countries where education has been seen as the main tool for development, for example Guinea Bissau, Angola, Mozambique and Nicaragua. At the same time, however, the writings of Freire, for quite a few years, were banned in his own country, Brazil, and some other Latin American countries. In many less developed countries the governments have tended to regard education, and particularly literacy, as neither economically beneficial nor politically desirable. Education, by producing a literate peasantry or workforce, has been seen by some as a potential threat to the status quo, and especially to the economic and political systems. Freire agrees, and as he states: "It would be extremely naive to expect the dominant classes to develop a type of education that would enable subordinate classes to perceive social injustices critically" (Freire, 1985}. For Freire, literacy is a potentially political act which is important for liberation and therefore for development. So far, there is little evidence available upon which to base an evaluation of development strategies derived from liberation theory, particularly those related to education. The perspective in general has been criticized by some as being utopian in its optimistic view of education as an agent of social change (Paulston, 1977). A further difficulty in the educational method is that it can be used to serve any political position. In other words, liberation can also mean oppression to a new master, and does not necessarily resolve the problems of development previously discussed in this topic.

Source: Education and National Development – A Comparative Perspective (2nd Edition) by Ingemar Fägerlind & Lawrence J. Saha.

Dimensions of Development:

1. Increase in the efficiency of the production system of a society.2. Satisfaction of the population’s basic needs3. Attainment of the objectives sought by various groups to a society, which are linked to the

use or scarce resources.

Education’s contribution to development:

I. The nature of developed societies

Literacy rate very high

100% school enrolment (6-15 years o age)

High percent (late teens & early 20s) in secondary & tertiary education)

The level of Education in these societies is among the most important elements that explain the importance of societies in a developed form.

II. The condition in developed societies

Production & trade almost wholly monetized.

And extraordinary large numbers of crucial circumstances are in written rather than oral form

Customary & simple “mores” are completely unworkable since political & economic organization demands a system of written law in possible throughout the nation.

The dependence of the developed society on advance technology is absolute.

No developed society can be maintained without some demographic balaAgency of Education

Home as an Agency:

- According to Ballard, family is the original institution from which all other institutions developed. It is, in fact, the foundation of all social institution.

- The family through social relationship forms a person into human nature.- Home is a place where we learn our first lesson of living together, helping each other, learning

together, working in cooperation, learning lessons of mutual help & adjustments.

Role of the home in the pastThe home played following roles in the past:

i. Central of normal education:

Old members of the family were very particular that their children should follow moral code 7 accordingly they used to get good examples before him.

They were very keen that nothing should be done which in any way brought slur/mark on the name of the family.

ii. Sources of religious education All the members of the family held the same religious views & in this way home imparted

religious education to considerable extent.

iii. Providing vocational guidance: Children use to inherit paternal occupations. The son learnt the vocations of their father &

girls got training of becoming good housewives from their mother.

iv. Providing social techniques: The family developed a code of behavior for regulating the interactions of its members. This

code was also to be observed outside the family. In this way family was an important agency for developing social behavior and attitude.

v. Understanding of a child’s nature:

The intelligent parent would seize of every opportunity to gain knowledge of child psychology. He would consider a child to be an adult in miniature. He would show neither leniency no strictness in dealing with children.

vi. Importance of play in the education: It is a wrong notion on the part of the parents to think that play is a waste of time &,

therefore, not allowing them to play. They should provide ample opportunities for play.

vii. Opportunities for self-expression: Parents should encourage their children to participate in various recreational & constructive

activities. They should provide them with newspapers, magazines & books of short stories.

viii.Special responsibility for religious education: Right type of religious education should be provided by the home.

ix. Realization of the limitations of the school: The parents should realize the importance of the works of the school, its limitations &

cooperate with the school authorities in furthering the progress of their children.In short, homes where children are regarded as a scared trust by the guardians, where there is the proper climate for child to develop good ideals, habits, modes of thinking & behavior, where the relationship between the members are smooth & harmonious, make the task of the school easy & ensure good education for children. An educationist has observed, “A wise father is more than a hundred school masters. The mother’s face is the child’s first lesson-book. Home makes the man”.

Present day role of the family.

Family is one of the most fundamental agencies of education. A child spends his most of time in the family & the family is the child’s entire social environment. Child being in the most impressionable period acquires certain habits, attitudes & ideas from the home. Home offers the psychological security which is essential for the growth & development of children. The interaction between the parents and children is highly educative; by their own examples parents influence their children in right or wrong direction.

The roles of family

1. Proper physical development: For proper physical development of the child, the home should provide good food, healthy surroundings & rest. The home should be airy & well ventilated.

2. Proper moral environment: Since morality cannot be taught, it can only be learnt. It is, therefore, essential that the older members of the family set good examples before the younger ones.

3. Opportunities for participation in household responsibilities: Children should be associated with the management of the household affairs. By participating in such activities children learn to subordinate their interest for the sake of the family.

4. Development of the intellectual, aesthetic & practical interest of the child: It is very important that the parents should try to find out the interests of the children & take necessary steps for their development.

Home as educational agency provides some important functions in educating a person. They are as follows:

1. Social: The bond of love shared among the family members enriches human personality and add grace to it. In the word of Rossell, “Home gives the child experience of affection & of a small community in which he is important. He has also the experience of relation with people with both the sexes & different ages & of the multifarious business of adult life.” Thus, we can see that it is in the family that the child has his first social relationship. It is at home a child learns how to speak, talk, eat, wear clothes, lives neatly, & respect others. For the child to socialize in the society, family or home plays a very important role.

2. Economic: Family acts as a medium for transmitting vocational knowledge & technical skills to children. Family also acts as a sort of mutual insurance organization. It serves & helps those members of the family also, who can’t support themselves due to sickness, unemployment & old age.

3. Civic virtues: Civic virtues are first learnt at home through their parents or elders. It is the family that the child learns the first lesson of the citizenship; & develops sense of belongingness. A child receives good training in discipline & self-control.

4. Moral value: If the parents are honest, truthful, hardworking, courageous, children will also imitate them & become a good citizen. It may not be true to all but majority will follow the values taught & learnt at home.

5. Religious & cultural values: In the family, religious ceremonies & festivals are celebrated with full faith & devotion. Development of a child’s religious faith & culture interest takes place primarily from home. Through the activities performed by the family members to celebrate the religious rites & festivals. Children learn to practice them; inherit them & preserve them as traditions of the family.

Educational Functions of Home

1. Personal inter-action: Home is a place where the people or members of the family can talk or interact face to café & that also freely. They can share their personal views & ideas, thereby helping themselves to get educated. Thus, home is the most prominent informal educational agency.

2. Provides complete social environment in childhood: During infancy, home is child’s entire social environment. It is in this environment that the child’s whole personality grows and develops.

3. Vocational education: In most cases, girls learn to play the role of housewives by helping their mother at home & by learning from them. This way a child acquires vocational education from home.

4.Teachers’ social virtues: In a family, a child learns to acquire social virtues such as co-operation, good will, mutual understanding, self-sacrifice & so on. Children a lot of social behavior through social gatherings like religious ceremonies & festivals at home.

5.Provides moral & religious education: Family & home is the only effective agency for providing education for morality & spirituality to children which is seldom provided in school. They acquire this education through religious ceremonies & festivals celebrated at home.

6.Develop proper attitudes & interest: a child can build good function of character building & morality development through play things, toys, pictures, newspapers, books, health interests & attitudes are developed in the family.

School: an Agency

It is big enterprise in a complex society. It is an active formal agency of education which stands in between the home & other informal active & passive agencies.

Important functions of the school:

I. Conservation & perpetuation of social life.II. Promotion of culture & civilizationIII. All-round development of the individualIV. Promotion of social efficiencyV. Inculcation of higher values of life.

Society as an agency

What is society or community? Society is a part of the state or the nation. However, local society is the seed-bed of culture,

civilization & character. Every society has its own school for their children where they are expected to receive the

knowledge which is essential for successful living & basis of that society/community. All the programmes carried out in the school are in accordance to the need of the society

which is also the requirement for the country at large. It also tries to modify the patterns of the behavior in view of the total culture of the nation,

which will ultimately maintain & strengthen national solidarity. But, society is dynamic & ever-changing. So, the school & its educational programmes also

must change according to the changing needs & concepts of the society. Society: A group of families settled in a village or town & bound together with more or less

common practices, ideals, values & culture.

Society as an agency of education:

A society is a kind of communities, whose members has become socially conscious of their mode of life & are united by a common set of aims & values. Education is an activity which goes on in a society & its aims & methods depend on the nature of the society in which it takes place. For education this distinction is useful because children are member of the community, but, cannot be said to be the member of the society until they are conscious of the way their society functions & of their rights & duties in it as full citizens.Children are potential members of the society & the task of the education is to prepare them for full membership 9non social community). In all civilized society there is few formal & powerful way of educating people, social influences still remain an effective force of education. Education can be made more meaningful, if the school operates as an agent for importance of society. This will make children& adults to co-operate & work together in common projects, such as literary work.

Schools alone will not succeed in delivering the good on behalf of education nor will the school & the family together. Education is the result of living & growing up in a community. It is the community which can provide more effective setting for education.

The relation between education & society1. Relation of education to culture: Recent writers say that “education in fact nothing other

than the whole life of community (culture).” “The culture of a society” is the way of life of a society. This includes the way of eating food, weaving clothes etc. Education is influenced by the culture of the society in which it takes place. The behavior of human being is very flexible & will adapt itself to the cultural environment.

2. Education as the transmission of culture: The task of education is to hand on the cultural values & behaviors pattern of the society to its young & potential members. This means society achieve a basic conformity & ensures that its traditional mode of life have preserved.

3. The social determinants: The kind of education provided will be different to different kinds of society.

4. Education & social structure: Social structure means the network of social institutions within which personal relationships take place. Education is the process of preparing people to fit into this complex social structure & to play particular social roles as member of more than institutional group.

5. Social interaction: The name given to any relation between person & groups which changes the behavior of the participants. Children learn/acquire the culture of their group. He/she begin to learn their role in different groups & are the part of developing his personality.

Education plays a great role in the development of the society. A great consisting of educated people would be completely different from a society where education is completely nil.

State as an agency

In the words of Aristotle, 'the state is a union of families & villagers having, for an end, a perfect & self sufficing life, by which we mean happy & honorable life. A state exists for the sake of good life & not for the sake of life only". According to another definition, "state is an organized political community with government, recognized by the people". In other words "when a society becomes so organized it develops machinery for expressing & enforcing its opinion upon its members, it can be called a state". According to Dewy, "the state is the organization of the public affected, through the officials for the protection of the interests shared by its member.' there is, thus, an ultimate relationship between the state & the individual because state exists only for the good of all its members, individually as well as collectively. Had there been no state, there would have been neither rights nor duties & the entire humanity would have reverted to barbarism.

1. Important functions of the state: According to Rousseau's social contract theory, the main functions of the state were confined to checking external aggression, safeguarding internal peace & protecting the life & property of the individual members of the state. Education was not considered to be a state responsibility. It was first responsibility of the family & then of the local community or society. It is, therefore, that Rousseau's theory cannot be accepted in the present day circumstances, when the entire concept of the state has changed because of the establishment of the social

democracy in place of aristocratic governments & absolute monarchies, all over the world.In the words of Bertrant Russel, "the functions of the modern state are partly external. one must say, broadly speaking that internal purposes of the state are good which include such matters as roads, lighting, education, the police, the law, the post office & so on... since education of the young of a whole community is an expensive business, it is bound in the main, to fall to the lot of the state." Social democracy presupposes a society of internal dependent members, in which the contribution of each has significance to the contribution of the rest. A democratic state cannot function properly unless each & every one of its members inspired with democratic ideals & trained in the working of democratic machinery. It is only through education that such enlightened person can be produced for the state.

2. The state and education: As noted above, education, these days, is one of the most important functions of a state. But in olden days, education was not the responsibility of the state. It was imparted by parents in the family or by monks & religious teachers in their hermits or in the churches & monasteries, in those days political power was in the hands of the kings & a handful of influential persons who was determined the state policy by virtue of their established superiority. Such an aristocratic group would naturally step into the modern period of history. We find a number of schools & colleges growing up & functioning successfully in the big towns & at many other centre of learning, running both by government & private bodies. In the past, education was the privilege of the few & was organized by the few. It was not meant for all, it was for the classes & not for masses. But with the coming in of democracy, this idea gained strength that education of all citizen is the primary responsibility of the state. in a democracy people are the real masters & the state is directly influenced by the education of its 'masters'. In the words of prof. Laski, "Education of the citizens is the heart of the modern state."A welfare state, like India, must adopt a positive attitude towards the health, employment & housing of the people, as well as towards social education & education of children. It must plan for the utilization of human resources, just as it does for natural resources. it must provide not only a adequate amount for education, but also education of adequately high standard. It must make education free & compulsory by opening & maintaining schools & colleges at state expense & to provide liberal & professional education from the nursery to the university. a welfare state has even the right to compel attendance in schools by regulating child labor. It is, therefore, that in the new constitution on India it is clearly mentioned as one of the directive principle of state policy that free & compulsory education is provided by all the provincial governments, the children in the age group 6 - 14.

3. Educational functions of the state: As we have already mentioned, education to a great extent, is a function of the state which is the most powerful & most influential of all social organizations. It possesses all possible means of effective control, direction & regulation of education. The state, therefore, can derive as the most useful agency of educational policy for the entire country. Its important educational functions may be stated as under: ------

a) Providing educational aims & objectives: Schools in a modern state are required to ensure the minimum requirement of physical, intellectual, social, & cultural attainments of the children, studying therein. This is possible only when clear-cut objectives of education are laid down by the state for the guidance of the schools. In the welfare state like India, for example, we aim at producing democratic citizen who could not only keep internal peace & security, but also defend the country against external aggression, if any to ensure its continued existence on the one hand & developing healthy feeling of internationalism & catholicity of outlook on the other. With aims in view the school will prepare individual for the pattern of culture towards which the entire nation is heading. In the words of philosopher- Ex-President of the Republic of India, Dr. S.

Radhakrishanan, "Our education system must find the guiding principle in the aim of the social order for which it prepares & in the nature of the civilization, it hopes to build up."

b) Aggangi8ng for education of different levels: It is the bounden(responsibility which cannot be ignored) duty of the state to open schools & colleges & thus afford full & rich facilities for education of all types; primary, secondary, university, professional & technical etc. suited to the needs of the community. For this purposes, the state opens a large number of elementary schools for providing free & compulsory education to all children up to a certain standard & for fixed number of years. along with the elementary education, the states also makes provision for higher education of all types; liberal scientific, commercial, technical & vocational to train & prepare different individuals for different jobs & vocations, according to their aptitude & natural endowment. For this purpose, the state opens & maintains a number of high, higher secondary & multipurpose schools, industrials, commercial & technical institutions, colleges & universities. But the state is not only to look to the educational needs of the rising generations but to those adults also who have had no or little schooling in their childhood. This function is achieved through a well-organized programme of social education.

c) Framing of curriculum & syllabus: It is the of the state to facilitate and suggests syllabi for the different grades to maintain uniformity or standard throughout the country & then modify & improve upon them from time to time, according to the demands of the hour. This is done after consultation with governments & with specialists & experts in the field or curriculum construction. Such curricula & syllabi are, however suggestive with option to provincial governments to make desirable changes in them, according to their local conditions.

d) Planning, directing & controlling educational activities: State control of education, on healthy lines is a great necessity to make education a reality. This control is in accordance with a properly laid down educational policy based on the needs, ideas & aspirations of the people. In the big country like India, there are many administrative units of government called the provinces of states. Each such unit maintains an educational department of its own for providing liberal & vocational education up to the highest standard. It also maintains one or more universities for providing higher education. There are also denominational institutions run by private bodies, both for elementary & higher educations, functioning in each provincial unit. Just as the provincial government is to control & coordinate the educational activities of different institutions, functioning there in, the central or union government is to direct, control & coordinates the educational programmes, undertaken by the various states under it. State control should; however be in keeping with traditions & also in accordance with the government’s capacity to discharge its job efficiently.

e) Arranging for educational research & experiments: To maintain the dynamic character of education, the state makes proper arrangements for research & experiments in various important fields of education like curriculum, evaluation & guidance etc. research will exhibit the success or failures of the educational schemes, previously planned & executed & provide guide line for the future.

f) Holding seminars & workshops for in-service personnel: The state also holds seminars & workshops for teachers, head of institutions, inspecting officers, directors of education, vice-chancellors of the universities, on national as well as provincial level, with the aim of keeping them in touch with the latest trends in educational thought & practice.

g) Appointing commissions & committees: From time to time, committees & commissions manned & headed by educational experts & specialists are appointed to survey & discuss the various

aspects of educational planning in the country & to suggest measures for further improvement of the same.

h) Establishing state school boards: The main functions of the institutes will be in service education of department officers, improvement of teacher’s education, & preparation of curriculum & textbooks development

Impact of Science and Technology on Nation Development

It is now widely recognized that science education is no longer solely about learning science-its concepts & the methods used by scientists. The social implications, both personal & collective, of scientific ideas & their technological application are perceived as equally important & are becoming more prominent in science curricula at all levels.

The social implications of biotechnology are mirrored, for example, in concerns about the manipulation of the human microorganisms into the natural environment; indeed the term genetic engineering itself frequently stirs strong, emotional, negative opinions. On the other hand, the obverse side of such issues-in the case cited, the prospect of eradicating genetic aliments & producing more cheaper food-can stimulate equally strong supportive attitudes. Such is the impact of biotechnology that it has galvanized government. Industrialists, scientists, environmentalist, religious leaders & many others to spawn conferences, committed reports, & occasionally policies.

Positive impacts of Technology

1. Agriculture: Traditional farming tools and methods are being replaced with advanced tools such as ploughing machine, thrasher, harvester, etc. & scientific method of farming is adopted in most part of the world. Farmers now sow improved qualities of seeds & artificial fertilizers. Chemical is used to control crop diseases. The introduction of new crops brought about distinct improvement in quality & variety of food, with consequent improvement in the diet & energy of the population.

2. Military Technology: Gunpowder was used in 13th century to prepare a crude hand grenade. Dynamite was developed and used between 1750 and 1900. By middle of the 19 th

century quality of artillery & firearms improved with new high explosives. Technology such as supersonic jets, missiles, rockets, etc are used today. Technological innovations have transformed the character of war itself by the introduction of new mechanical, chemical & biological devices. War of the 21st century will not be conventional war that will be fought between the nuclear power giants. Superiority in the military technology is the factor, which decides, the country’s status & security.

3. Transport & Communication: Land, sea and air carry out Transportation at present. The automobile has proceeded in its phenomenal growth in the popularity, causing radical changes in many of the patterns of life. The airplane, benefiting from jet propulsion & number of lesser technical advances has made spectacular gains at the expense of both land & ocean liner & the railroad.

In communications, their rapid growth of TV services, with their immense impact city as media of mass communication. The establishments of space satellites play dramatic parts in telephone and TV communication as well as release meteorological pictures & information.

Today, movements of people are faster & do the business better owing to the advancement in technology. Transport & communication system is the backbone of the country’ economic development.

4. Space exploration: The rocket, which has played a crucial part in the revolution of military technology since the end of the World War II, has acquired a more constructive significant in space exploration programmes.

Rockets are capable of putting satellites into orbit & explore the possible uses of satellites in communications, and in topographical & geological surveying. Landing of man in the moon & further exploration of planets to find the possibility of landing a man on other planets. Get more information in understanding the universe better.

5. Civil Engineering: It is in this field that there has not been much influence of science & education to make new control-engineering techniques. Till today, much of the labor has to be depended on human workforce in large mass. However the use of heavy earth moving & excavating machines such as bulldozer & the tower crane has reduced the workload for the people. Furthermore, use of gunpowder, dynamite, & steam digger help to reduce human drudgery.

6. Power: The 20th century has witness a colossal expansion of electrical power generation & distribution. It was first produced in large scale using steam from coal or oil-fired boilers. With increase in demand for power, electricity is produced using the fall of water to drive water turbines. After 1945, atomic power was supplied. Availability of electricity help people to work for extra hours, used in industries to run motors & a production of woods at the rate of the production increased. Thus, we have verities of goods at reasonable price.

7. Mechanical Engineering: Scientific instrument& small arms were first applied to the construction of large industrial machinery. The engineering workshops that matured in the 19 th century play the vital parts in the increasing mechanizations of industry & transport. They transformed the machine tools on which these machines were made. The dramatic increase in engineering precision & production capacity made the world more advance in technology.

8. Nuclear Technology: The anarchy of national self-government, for as long as the world remains divided into a multiplicity of nations states, or even into two power blocs, each committed to the defence of its own sovereign power to do what it chooses, nuclear weapons merely replace older weapons by such nation status. The availability of a nuclear armory, indeed, has brought home the weakness of world political systems based upon independent nation’s states, though it has not made it any easier to overcome them.

9. Population Problem: Medical technology, which, through new drugs and better techniques, has provided a powerful impulse to the increase of population. Though it also offers means of controlling this increase through contraceptive devices & through painless sterilization procedures, yet moral issue has prevented its effective by people.

10. Materials: The Space Age has spawned important new materials & uncovered new uses for old materials. Glass fiber has been molded into rigid shapes to provide motorcar bodies & hulls for small ships. Carbon fiber has remarkable properties that promise to provide an alternative to metals for high temperature turbine blades.Ceramics materials are resistant to high temperature suitable for heat shields on spacecraft.

In most of the cases the development began before the 20 th century, but the continuing increase in the demand for these metals is affecting their prices in the world commodity markets.

11. Computer: Computer has a virtue of very high spreads of which such equipment can operate, even the most complicated calculations can be converted into the binary system & perform in a very short span of time. Computer is used in chemical industry, mechanical industry, defence, business, education, hospital, and etc. computer is a versatile & indispensable machine.

12. Education: Education is not only teaching the subject contents (about science & technology) by using chalks & talks but at the present education system, computer is used to teach the lesson to a student. Traditional method of teaching & learning is fast changing. Those people who want to peruse higher education but not being able to attend the classes can actually retrieve & inform from the computer & learn it by self. This system of learning is termed as Computer Assistant Learning (CAL). There is no need of having to share & dress up to go to the class. One can learn without even meeting the teacher at the present trend of education system in the developed countries.

13. Humanizing influence of science & technology: Science has humanized society but the process has been very gradual one. Science has changed our attitude to aberrations of human behavior, gradually substituting reason for cruelty, prejudice & superstition. Science has brought about the kingdom of freedom of which Karl Marx wrote, “It begins where drudgery ends”.

14. Science & technology on Health: Science & technology has increased human life expectancy –the number of years a person can expect to live. Improved public health practices have ended the plague that once swept through many countries. Better health care & nutrition have also reduced the number of deaths among infants.

Negative impact of technology on national development

The advance of technology has benefited people in numerous ways, but it has also created serious problems. These problems have arisen mainly because technologies were put to uses without considering the possible negative impacts. They are:

1. Ozone layer Depletion & its effect: The production of CFCs from factories & industries has led to depletion of ozone layer thereby reaching ultra violet rays to the earth’s surface. This ultra violet rays cause skin cancer, cataracts, damage materials & destroy crops and marine lives.

2. Acid Rain: SO2, NO & small amount of CO produced by human activities (combustion of fossil fuels in industries & automobiles) results in acid rain. Acid rain affects terrestrial ecosystem, aquatic lives, damage monuments, in fractures & etc.

3. Global Warming: Huge amounts of CO2, CH4, NO, and CFCs are released into the atmosphere due to human activities that leads to increase in atmospheric temperature (green house effect). Due to the rise in temperature, snow & glaciers of the mountain peaks melts falling into the rivers, seas and oceans increasing the water level. During the process of floods it occur devastating valleys and people taking away the lives in thousands.

4. Television & Video: people today are greatly influenced by TV programmes. Because of TV, people have become immoral, arrogant and negligent of their culture. They valued & imitate t6heir best film stars and thereby they loose their society.

5. Crime: Due to the science & technology modern gadget of any type, form, and color is produced in large quantity in a short span of time. It has really fulfilled human desires &

wants & made our life comfortable. But all humans are not within the reach to enjoy the blessing of science & technology. As such that is crime & corruption prevailing in any nation. The most prevalent crimes of today are theft, murder, sexual assaults, suicide bombing, burglary, smuggling of drugs & jewels & social revolt.

6. Traffic contestation: Because of science & technology towns & cities grows enormously in size along with the population people in town usually travel by car, buses, scooter or motorbike, many people use their fissional private vehicles to match with their prestige public transport & the commercial vehicles such as trucks, lorries, vans, &etc. also travel through the same traffic leading to traffic contestation.

7. Juvenile Delinquency: Juvenile delinquency usually refers to the violation of a law by juveniles. Anything that youngsters do that goes against the standard of society, regardless of whether this action is legal or illegal.

Juvenile delinquents are usually separated from adult criminals in most cases. They are tried in juvenile courts where the main aims are to rehabilitate offenders rather than to punish them. Parents of today are busy and they hardly had a time to spend with their children. This leads to unhappy and discontented home lives. Thus for many young people delinquency seems to offer the only escape from boredom and other personal problems of their own. Some of the primary reason of juvenile delinquency is poor family background, family breakdown (divorce), unemployment, and exposure to the naughty world.

8. Urban sprawl: People love to live in the urban areas enjoying the luxury of development. As such there is heavy influx of people moving from rural to urban. Definitely, there is a housing problem. This has forced the people to live in squartered settlement in the outskirts of the town. This creates problems in sanitation and shabby looking of the town. This is one of the burning issues that have troubled the town planners of today.

9. Drug Addiction: Due to the science and technology every thing is available in the market. People can afford to buy many things according to their need because of the increase in per capita income.

Different types of drugs and chemicals are produced for various purposes. But some of the people have misused it. People suffering from depression and mental illness fall easy prey to drugs and chemicals. These people get nervous breakdown by the harmful effect of drugs and get engage in gambling, fighting and even to the extent of murdering. As a result social norms of the community get disturbed, disharmony occurs which in the other hand also causes the economic breakdown. Drug addiction is one of the most current problems of the youth of today.

10. Environmental pollution: Environmental pollution ranks as one of the harmful side effects of industrial technology. The waste products pollute air, water and soil, which bring adverse effect on both plants and animals. Motor vehicles cause most of the air and noise pollution. But many other products as well as many processes of technology also pollute the environment. For e.g., certain insecticides pollute the soil and water and endanger plants and animals life.

11. The depletion of natural resources: The rapid advance of technology threatens the supply resources. For e.g. the use of electrically powered machinery has greatly increased factory production. But at the same time, it has reduced the supply of oils and other fuels used to produce electricity. These fuels cannot be replaced after they are used. As power production increases, the supply of fuel decreases. As a result, the nation began to experience a fuel and power shortage.

12. Technological Unemployment: Technological unemployment results from advances in technology. As the country develops, more automatics machines are introduced in factories

and offices to perform tasks formally done by workers. The use of such machines, which is called automation, has caused some unemployment.

13. Creation of unsatisfying Jobs: Many factory jobs demand concentration. Although factory machines are safer today than in the past, many are dangerous if not operated with extreme care. The operators must be constantly alert to make sure they are operating their machines properly.

1. Quality education:

a. Meaning of quality education: Cater to wholesome development of individuality Number of grades/pass outs that end of the session indicates the quality education Values and attitude Output and input basis. Socially, morally and economically.

b. Measure of quality education: Ability in the 3 R’s (read, recite & review) & the acquisition of knowledge of a

given topic. Habits of industry, tidiness & accuracy 7 attitudes of respects for authority & love

of country. Through grades & number of awarded certificates Productivity – out put & input relationships Prosperity- how well he/she can serve others Developmental rate is a measure or quality education Number of failures & dropouts indicate the quality education.

c. Evidence in Bhutanese education system: Standard of living CAPSD EMSD University IT Distance education DE. NFE Laborites/library/internet to facilitate learner and educator. BBE Bhutan took 30 years to come to this stage while Switzerland took 300 years. Changed the attitudes of Bhutanese.

a) Meaning of quality of education.Meaning of quality of education varies for all practical purposes with the state of development of the school system and of the teachers who serve it. In the present purpose the quality of education may be thought of three different levels (which will be discussed in the education stages iv).

b) Measure of quality of education.Quality of education may be generally measured at three different levels/stages. Firstly, the classroom conception of quality, that are ensured by the inspector of the school. The quality can be the change of attitudes and respect or love and in other hand passing through the grates and achieving the final certificates as a result of an external test.

Secondly, the quality of education is measured by its productivity. This will count on numbers of different scholars that education has produced. Here, the quality is also based on the rat e of the money spend on it and the result of output is considered.At the third level, quality is judged by social criteria in which the final goals that we set for our selves, country, and our children our tribe are judged. Public play a vital role to judge the school.

c) Evidences of it in Bhutanese education system.Bhutanese education perhaps began very late in the world. People were very ignorant and the important of education was not understood in the past. Hardly there were few students taught by untrained teachers in traditional approach. Bhutan at that time was not exposed to the outer world. The subject that the student learnt was very tough and rigid. The knowledge acquired by few students was through many hardships. The quality of education was under construction. Although the beginning was bleak, now at present Bhutan has come to very density growth in education implication.At present there are many sectors to facilitate effective education in the kingdom, some of them are EMSSD, BBE, CAPSD ect. And the coming up of two teacher-training centers has blooms brilliant teachers. Now at present there are thousand graduations passing out every year, there is no doubt to say Bhutan has brought out good quality in education.

2. Economists and Educator:

a. “It is the economist who discovered education & not educator who discovered economics”. Discuss.

Economic is needed for the development of education Economist helped education while in the problems in terms of monetary for

development Economist manage the system in financial activity.

b. How do economist view education? No interest on quality of education They are after quantity education Economist thinks that educationist are more conservative Economist reflects on quantity education and not quality. They say they can produce

more graduates with out increasing the primary schools if the educator teaches well. Reduces wastage without increasing or reducing the budge. Education is the physiological barrier to the changes. Education is a conservative. Developing new technology is slowed.

c. How do educationist view economist? Educators thinks that the work of economics are easier Educationist view economist as mamoon who wants more product by investing less Educators believes that it is not wastage but investment for future producer Educator view economist as live giving element Economist is the source to run education/ educator. Work of economist is difficult Economist introduces new techniques without understanding the system of the

education Economist considers on quantity and educationist considers a quality. Economist are the life supporter of education. Economist reflects more on out put than input-quantity producer.

3. Educational conservation:

a. Social causes of conservatism: Education has been deliberately used to break ancient molds & frequently the mere

spread of education eroded old systems of values so people became suspicious and opposed for development.

Schools of state/mission were not fitted to the life of the primitive village or firm. Curriculum was rigid Prestige are not given to the social/ low classes Schools are not there in the remote areas/state could not fit the social classes. Unwilling to work after the basic education. Reluctant to take new curriculum designed text- Bhutanese context. Parent do not support the education system because of low standard. Educational system are complex to rural as compared to the urban. Social races Religion Economy of the country,

Society governed by foreign colonial powers or influenced by European ruler is influenced by curriculum or the education system framed by them. Unprivileged society or the backwards are less interested to experiment with the form of education they receive as they desire to live like English or European powers.However unfitted the education system might be to their lives, the dream of being the likes of Oxbridge graduates always let them to follow the classical form of education. Agricultural bias or the basic school, which has more, related to the lives of the render failed as the society believed in examination qualification. Qualification that will open up the windows for the newer world. Parents rarely supported the change in educational system as they thought that the children would land up[ with something more inferior. The desire of living luxurious life let them follow the educational system set up by developed nation rather than innovating their own best suited for their own surrounding.

Economic causesEconomic stability of the western country have always been constant., this factor avoids the educationist of the developing countries to mould the education system as they desire parents want the children to be free from poverty and tedium of live.Low economic background with less land persuades the parents or the classical courses designed for western education (urban. The believed that educational system best fitted for their surrounding would bind them more to farm/villages which offers no future for them.Lack of money for reform may also let the educators not to change the education system they have been following. Every modification or the least reform they want to make needs money. Which again acts as hindrance for the development in education system.Innovation, be it be in service training for teachers or appointment of supervisor to travel around the school to iron out the misconception and keep up the pressure for change, heeds or cost money. The lack of money is the prime cause for stagnant education system.

b. Economic causes of education conservatism: Costly education Lack of money for reforms

Resistance to expenditure on education

c. Administrative causes of conservatism: Administrators believed that good education costs more money Lack of proper administration No cooperation among the administrators Diverting the budget to other sector and leaving the education stagnant. New curriculum/text system are difficult to cope yet implemented. Allows not to adopt the culture of others by the administrator-own culture only Lack of effective administrator/quality.

d. Professional causes. Wholesome education. Understanding and acceptance. Teacher the product of the system. Isolation of teacher- teacher confined to a class and no interaction with society/surrounding. Range of ability of teacher.

4. Educational stages:a. Chief characteristics of each stage.

Stage I: Dame School Stage: Ill educated and untrained teachers Vague & skimpy syllabus Very narrow subject content Unorganized Completely mechanical drill on the 3 R’s Relatively meaningless symbols Very low standards Memorizing all important

Bhutanese Contexts: Education system in Bhutan till early 80’s Meaning of education was just read & write Lesson unorganized Teachers from monastic body Low standard

Stage II: Stage of Formalism Teachers are ill educated but trained Highly organized at a routine level Detailed & rigid syllabus A restricted number of narrow textbook Tight external examination A rigorous system of inspection of the work of both teachers & students Tight external discipline Memorizing heavily stressed Emotional life highly unstressed

Bhutanese Contexts:

Corporal punishment Inspection not that effective Focus mainly on texts

Stage III: Stage of transition Better educated teachers & trained teachers More emphasis on memorizing Syllabus & text books less restrictive Final leaving examination often restricts experimentation Little in classroom to cater for emotional & creative life of child.

Bhutanese contexts; Less corporal punishment Emphasis on examination

Stage IV: Stage of Meaning Well educated & well trained teachers Child is encourage to think for himself Meaning & understanding stressed Variety of content 7 methods Problem solving & creativity Internal tests Relaxed & positive discipline Emotional & aesthetic life, as well as intellectual. Closer relations with community Better buildings & equipments essential Wider curriculum

Bhutanese Contexts: Child centered Educated & well trained teachers Group discussion (problem solving) See the sentiments of child Teacher parents meeting Well framed aims, objectives & goals Community supports Unsatisfactory facilities & equipments Less future scope for teachers