Education 173Education 173

Cognition and Learning in Cognition and Learning in Educational Settings Educational Settings

Instructional Strategies Instructional Strategies

Fall Quarter 2007Fall Quarter 2007

Direct InstructionDirect Instruction Direct InstructionDirect Instruction

Also Called Teacher-Centered InstructionAlso Called Teacher-Centered Instruction Expository TeachingExpository Teaching Didactic TeachingDidactic Teaching

Does Direct Teaching Have Bad PR?Does Direct Teaching Have Bad PR? ““Few pedagogic devices . . . have been Few pedagogic devices . . . have been

repudiated more unequivocally . . . than repudiated more unequivocally . . . than expository verbal instruction”expository verbal instruction”

David Ausubel, David Ausubel, Human LearningHuman Learning But Direct Instruction CanBut Direct Instruction Can

Be EfficientBe Efficient

Direct Instruction and Direct Instruction and ConstructivismConstructivism

Prior Knowledge is ImportantPrior Knowledge is Important New knowledge must connect to LTMNew knowledge must connect to LTM

Is Direct Instruction Compatible with Is Direct Instruction Compatible with Constructivism?Constructivism? Remember that psychological Remember that psychological

constructivism is a theory of constructivism is a theory of learninglearning rather than a theory of rather than a theory of teachingteaching..

Evidence Against Minimally-Guided Evidence Against Minimally-Guided InstructionInstruction

Advance OrganizersAdvance Organizers

An Advance Organizer is a FrameworkAn Advance Organizer is a Framework Such as: An Outline, Overview, Diagram, or Such as: An Outline, Overview, Diagram, or

Table of ContentsTable of Contents Can Promote Schema ActivationCan Promote Schema Activation

Associated with Direct InstructionAssociated with Direct Instruction

Time and LearningTime and Learning Problem: Students Vary in Problem: Students Vary in

How Much They LearnHow Much They Learn Why?: Students Learn at Why?: Students Learn at

Different RatesDifferent Rates Carroll’s ModelCarroll’s Model

Why not let time vary, rather Why not let time vary, rather than achievement?than achievement?

What Kind of Time?What Kind of Time? Academically engaged timeAcademically engaged time Or “time on task”Or “time on task”

Mastery LearningMastery Learning Based on Carroll’s Model of Time and LearningBased on Carroll’s Model of Time and Learning Mastery Learning Proposed by Benjamin BloomMastery Learning Proposed by Benjamin Bloom

Also of Bloom’s TaxonomyAlso of Bloom’s Taxonomy Assumes All Students Can Learn ContentAssumes All Students Can Learn Content Instruction Followed by Mastery TestsInstruction Followed by Mastery Tests

Students are not allowed to progress until they Students are not allowed to progress until they demonstrate mastery (e.g., 90%)demonstrate mastery (e.g., 90%)

Many students require extra time or extra help, including Many students require extra time or extra help, including tutoringtutoring

Generally Positive EffectsGenerally Positive Effects Does Mastery Learning Close Gaps?Does Mastery Learning Close Gaps?

Some evidence for thisSome evidence for this Why? Because more students had entry skillsWhy? Because more students had entry skills

Discovery LearningDiscovery Learning

Learner-CenteredLearner-Centered Uses Inductive ReasoningUses Inductive Reasoning

One form of inferenceOne form of inference Inference is “going beyond the Inference is “going beyond the

information given” (Bruner)information given” (Bruner) Induction is reasoning from Induction is reasoning from

specific instance to general specific instance to general principleprinciple

Is Discovery Learning Is Discovery Learning Efficient?Efficient? Not alwaysNot always

Socratic DialogueSocratic Dialogue SocratesSocrates

The most “ignorant” man in Athens . . . but at least The most “ignorant” man in Athens . . . but at least he he knewknew that he was ignorant. that he was ignorant.

Socratic Dialogue as a Teaching MethodSocratic Dialogue as a Teaching Method Questions posed by teacherQuestions posed by teacher Questions answered by studentQuestions answered by student Purpose: To spark thinkingPurpose: To spark thinking

What Was Socrates’ Goal?What Was Socrates’ Goal? Student admits ignoranceStudent admits ignorance Now, he and Socrates both know that they are Now, he and Socrates both know that they are

ignorantignorant Then real learning proceedsThen real learning proceeds Does learning require humility?Does learning require humility?

InquiryInquiry Inquiry as a Guiding Goal of EducationInquiry as a Guiding Goal of Education

Similar to Similar to discovery learningdiscovery learning (but larger in scope) (but larger in scope) Related to constructivismRelated to constructivism Why? Students are active during learningWhy? Students are active during learning

Science Education, EspeciallyScience Education, Especially National Science Education StandardsNational Science Education Standards

Broad Meaning of InquiryBroad Meaning of Inquiry Not only lab experiencesNot only lab experiences Also, writing, reading, discussionsAlso, writing, reading, discussions Expands what is meant by “scientific method”Expands what is meant by “scientific method”

Reciprocal TeachingReciprocal Teaching

Promotes Reading ComprehensionPromotes Reading Comprehension Initially Led by TeacherInitially Led by Teacher Students Assume Teaching RolesStudents Assume Teaching Roles

Turn takingTurn taking Assignment of RolesAssignment of Roles

Promoting Learning Through Text Promoting Learning Through Text ComprehensionComprehension

Used at a Wide Range of Grade LevelsUsed at a Wide Range of Grade Levels Elementary through UniversityElementary through University

Aptitude-Treatment Aptitude-Treatment InteractionsInteractions

ATIsATIs A Valid IntuitionA Valid Intuition

Different students requireDifferent students requiredifferent experiencesdifferent experiences

What is an Aptitude?What is an Aptitude? Cognitive traitCognitive trait Or personality traitOr personality trait Or Or anyany trait relevant to instruction trait relevant to instruction

What is a Treatment?What is a Treatment? ATIs Are About Matching Treatment to Aptitude for ATIs Are About Matching Treatment to Aptitude for

Optimal LearningOptimal Learning Like organism to ecological nicheLike organism to ecological niche

More About ATIsMore About ATIs Aptitude is About Aptitude is About FitFit

Similar to adaptation in biology, or Similar to adaptation in biology, or fitness for particular nichesfitness for particular niches

No single best aptitudeNo single best aptitude No single best treatmentNo single best treatment

The Most General ATIThe Most General ATI Intelligence and Degree of StructureIntelligence and Degree of Structure

Higher-Level InteractionsHigher-Level Interactions Can ATIs become too complicated?Can ATIs become too complicated?

Cognitive StylesCognitive Styles Styles versus AbilitiesStyles versus Abilities Value-Differentiated Value-Differentiated

Rather Than Value-Rather Than Value-DirectionalDirectional More is not necessarily More is not necessarily

betterbetter Examples of StylesExamples of Styles

Field IndependenceField Independence Impulsivity vs. Impulsivity vs.

ReflectivityReflectivity Are Styles Important?Are Styles Important?

“Organizing our thinking about learning styles. Curry's (1983) Onion Metaphor”Source:http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/edit573/modules/module6%20-%20LrnSty.html