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Educating Language Minority Learners in the U.S.
Seminar 1February 4, 2008
Jeannette Mancilla-MartinezHarvard Graduate School of Education
Gutman 303
Seminar 1:Educating L2 Learners
in the U.S.
Seminar 2:Pedagogical Models
Seminar 3:Reading Words &
Comprehending Text
Seminar 4:Vocabulary &
Academic Language
Seminar 5:Spelling, Grammar, &
Writing
Seminar 6:Disability vs. Exposure
Language Minority (LM) LearnersRefers to individuals from homes where a language other than a societal language is actively used, who therefore have had the opportunity to develop some level of proficiency in a language other than a societal language. A language-minority student may be of limited second-language proficiency, bilingual, or essentially monolingual in the second language.
August & Hakuta, 1997
Terminology
Societal/national/official language
ESL: English as a Second Language
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ELL: English Language Learners
LEP: Limited English Proficient
L1: First Language
L2: Second Language
Societal/national/official languageSocietal language
One, often one of several, of the languages used in a country
National languageA language considered to be the chief language in a country
Official languageA language mandated for use in official government transactions and communications, in courts of law, and in laws and regulations governing the nation as a whole
August & Shanahan, 2006
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Students whose native language is not English and are learning English as a second language in an English speaking country
English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
Students whose native language is not English and are learning English in a non-English speaking country
English-language Learners (ELL)
Students whose native language is not English
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
Term often used in state and federal regulations to refer to English Language Learners (ELLs)
Background Characteristics
Some have strong academic preparation; others arrive with limited formal schooling20% of all ELLs at the high school level and 12% at the middle school level have missed 2 or more years of schooling since age 6 (Ruiz deValesco & Fix, 2000)
Not necessarily literate in their first languageGaps in educational background; school routines, expectations
Immigrant Children vs. Children of Immigrants
Immigrant ChildrenBorn outside the U.S.
Children of ImmigrantsU.S.-born to immigrant parents
61% live in households where one or both parents are non-citizens
Growing Population of Immigrant Families
5 states with most rapid growth between 1990-2000:
North Carolina (270%)
Nebraska (269%)
Arkansas (244%)
Nevada (236%)
Georgia (210%)
4th Grade Reading: Non-ELLs vs. ELLs
50th %ile
18th %ile
8th Grade Reading: Non-ELLs vs. ELLs
50th %ile
14th %ile
BICS and CALP
BICS = Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (2 years)
CALP = Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (at least 5 years)
Essentially underscoring the distinction between conversational fluency and grade-appropriate academic proficiency
Cummins, 1979
Threshold Hypothesis
Aspects of bilingualism which might positively influence cognitive growth are unlikely to come into effect until the child has attained a certain minimum (or threshold) level of competence in the L2
Cummins, 1978
Developmental Linguistic Interdependence
A child’s L2 competence is partly dependent on the level of competence already achieved in the L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins
Believes there is a common underlying cognitive/academic proficiency which is common across languages, and which makes transfer of literacy-related skills from L1 to L2 possible
Experience with EITHER can promote development of the other, given adequate motivation and exposure
Cummins, 1978
Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)
Cummins, 1984
Political IssuesDemographic change
immigration, ethnicity, language
shift in political power
Increasing enrollment of ELLs
More than doubled in the past decade
Power relations: Societal languages, colonial languages, indigenous languages
Finances
Quality of education
literacy of the population
Policy and Practice
Influencing Factors:Political leadership
Immigration patterns
Supreme court rulings
Language debates
Research
1850-99 1900-09 1920-29 1940-49 1960-69 1970-79
Bilingual Education state laws
German Bilingual Education; from 1910-1919 = anti-German sentiment & language restrictions
English only laws in 15 states after the war
Adult/child ESL classes Bilingual
Research; Bilingual Education Act signed into law
Lau v. Nichols; Office of Civil Rights Task Force Visits
1980s 1984 1990-99 2000-present day
Demographic shifts; Population of L2 speakers = 40% in US
Ron Unz; Prop 227
English-only programs accepted under mandate of bilingual education; U.S. English & English First groups
Prop 203;Question 2;NCLB
Policy & Practice Today
Phase of English-only activisme.g. English for the Children
• Based on concerns about bilingual education
• ‘Rights’ of children associated with English learning
• Length of time vs. quality of English learning
Policy & Practice Today
Class sizes
Native language proficiency
Shortages of bilingual teachers
Overall academic performance
Demographics
Community goals
Resources
Banning Bilingual Education
California (1998)
Arizona (2000)
Massachusetts (2002)These states account for more than one-half of non-native English speakers
California
The way it was
Bilingual education implemented for nearly 30 years in CA
California
The battle beginsThe 1990s
1992: Governor Wilson vetoes new bilingual education bill, arguing it would limit the flexibility of local school boards1996: Four school districts granted “waivers” by State Board of Education exempting them from compliance with the provisions of the Bilingual Education Act
California
1998
“English for the Children” (Proposition 227) wins with 61% of vote
All children in CA public schools to be taught in English to learn English
Sheltered English immersion for English learners should not exceed 1 year during the transitional period
CaliforniaMost recently
1999: State Board of Education eliminates the redesignation criteria so each of the 1,000 districts required to set own criteria for classifying students as Fluent English Proficient (FEP)Proportion of ELLs receiving bilingual instruction dropped from 30% to 8%, proportion receiving SDAIE increasedLittle or no evidence of differences in EL performance by model of instruction across all analyses in 2003-2004
Likelihood of ELL meeting linguistic and academic criteria needed to reclassify them to fluent English proficient status after 10 years is less than 40%
Arizona
The way it was
16% ELLs
Only 30% of students eligible for language services were involved in true bilingual education programs
Arizona
2000
“English for the Children” (Proposition 203) wins with 63% of vote
One year of English immersion instruction
Massachusetts
The way it was
MA first state in nation to enact bilingual education (1971)
3% of ELLs in K-12 students served by bilingual classes
Bilingual program “trigger” = 20 students of a single language group district-wide
Massachusetts2002
English Immersion- English only (Question 2) wins with 68% of vote
Non-English speakers in English immersion classes for 1 year, then mainstreamsTeachers can use ‘minimal amount’ of student’s native languageTeacher can be sued for ‘willfully and repeatedly’ violating Question 2Students can sign waivers if they are 10 years or older or for other ‘academic needs
MassachusettsMost recently
MA Legislature voted to allow two-way bilingual programs to continue under English immersion mandate.
Two-way immersion classes allow English and non-English speaking children to learn each other’s languages simultaneously.Program popular, but serve a very small fraction of the 51,000 ELL in the state.Gov. Romney vetoed this legislation, but House and Senate overrode his vetoes.This legislation counters Question 2’s intention of limiting bilingual ed to older students.