Asist. Univ. Elena Paliţă

ENGLISH FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

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Elena Paliţă

ENGLISH FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

EDITURA “ACADEMICA BRÂNCUȘI”

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TÎRGU-JIU

978-973-144-826-8UNIT 1

What is democracy?

DEFINING DEMOCRACY

Government of the People

Democracy may be a word familiar to most, but it is a concept still misunderstood and misused in a time when totalitarian regimes and military dictatorships alike have attempted to claim popular support by pinning democratic labels upon themselves. Yet the power of the democratic idea has also evoked some of history's most profound and moving expressions of human will and intellect: from Pericles in ancient Athens to Vaclav Havel in the modern Czech Republic, from Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence in 1776 to Andrei Sakharov's last speeches in 1989.

In the dictionary definition, democracy "is government by the people in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system." In the phrase of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is a government "of the people, by the people, and for the people."

Freedom and democracy are often used interchangeably, but the two are not synonymous. Democracy is indeed a set of ideas and principles about freedom, but it also consists of a set of practices and procedures that have been molded through a long, often tortuous history. In short, democracy is the institutionalization of freedom. For this reason, it is possible to identify the time-tested fundamentals of constitutional government, human rights, and equality before the law that any society must possess to be properly called democratic.

Democracies fall into two basic categories, direct and representative. In a direct democracy, all citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials, can participate in making public decisions. Such a system is clearly only practical with relatively small numbers of people--in a community organization or tribal council, for example, or the local unit of a labor union, where members can meet in a single room to discuss issues and arrive at decisions by consensus or majority vote. Ancient Athens, the world's first democracy, managed to practice direct democracy with an assembly that may have numbered as many as 5,000 to 6,000 persons--perhaps the maximum number that can physically gather in one place and practice direct democracy.

Modern society, with its size and complexity, offers few opportunities for direct democracy. Even in the northeastern United States, where the New England town meeting is a hallowed

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tradition, most communities have grown too large for all the residents to gather in a single location and vote directly on issues that affect their lives.

Today, the most common form of democracy, whether for a town of 50,000 or nations of 50 million, is representative democracy, in which citizens elect officials to make political decisions, formulate laws, and administer programs for the public good. In the name of the people, such officials can deliberate on complex public issues in a thoughtful and systematic manner that requires an investment of time and energy that is often impractical for the vast majority of private citizens.

How such officials are elected can vary enormously. On the national level, for example, legislators can be chosen from districts that each elect a single representative. Alternatively, under a system of proportional representation, each political party is represented in the legislature according to its percentage of the total vote nationwide. Provincial and local elections can mirror these national models, or choose their representatives more informally through group consensus instead of elections. Whatever the method used, public officials in a representative democracy hold office in the name of the people and remain accountable to the people for their actions.

Majority Rule and Minority Rights

All democracies are systems in which citizens freely make political decisions by majority rule. But rule by the majority is not necessarily democratic: No one, for example, would call a system fair or just that permitted 51 percent of the population to oppress the remaining 49 percent in the name of the majority. In a democratic society, majority rule must be coupled with guarantees of individual human rights that, in turn, serve to protect the rights of minorities--whether ethnic, religious, or political, or simply the losers in the debate over a piece of controversial legislation. The rights of minorities do not depend upon the goodwill of the majority and cannot be eliminated by majority vote. The rights of minorities are protected because democratic laws and institutions protect the rights of all citizens.

Diane Ravitch, scholar, author, and a former assistant U.S. secretary of education, wrote in a paper for an educational seminar in Poland: "When a representative democracy operates in accordance with a constitution that limits the powers of the government and guarantees fundamental rights to all citizens, this form of government is a constitutional democracy. In such a society, the majority rules, and the rights of minorities are protected by law and through the institutionalization of law."

These elements define the fundamental elements of all modern democracies, no matter how varied in history, culture, and economy. Despite their enormous differences as nations and societies, the essential elements of constitutional government--majority rule coupled with individual and minority rights, and the rule of law--can be found in Canada and Costa Rica, France and Botswana, Japan and India.

Democratic Society

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Democracy is more than a set of constitutional rules and procedures that determine how a government functions. In a democracy, government is only one element coexisting in a social fabric of many and varied institutions, political parties, organizations, and associations. This diversity is called pluralism, and it assumes that the many organized groups and institutions in a democratic society do not depend upon government for their existence, legitimacy, or authority.

Thousands of private organizations operate in a democratic society, some local, some national. Many of them serve a mediating role between individuals and the complex social and governmental institutions of which they are a part, filling roles not given to the government and offering individuals opportunities to exercise their rights and responsibilities as citizens of a democracy.

These groups represent the interests of their members in a variety of ways--by supporting candidates for public office, debating issues, and trying to influence policy decisions. Through such groups, individuals have an avenue for meaningful participation both in government and in their own communities. The examples are many and varied: charitable organizations and churches, environmental and neighborhood groups, business associations and labor unions.

In an authoritarian society, virtually all such organizations would be controlled, licensed, watched, or otherwise accountable to the government. In a democracy, the powers of the government are, by law, clearly defined and sharply limited. As a result, private organizations are free of government control; on the contrary, many of them lobby the government and seek to hold it accountable for its actions. Other groups, concerned with the arts, the practice of religious faith, scholarly research, or other interests, may choose to have little or no contact with the government at all.

In this busy private realm of democratic society, citizens can explore the possibilities of freedom and the responsibilities of self-government unpressured by the potentially heavy hand of the state.

(www.ait.org.tw)

SPEAKING AND READING

1. Read the text and answer the questions:

a) What is the dictionary definition of the word “democracy”?

b) Which is the role of the government in a democracy?

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c) How can you define pluralism?

d) What is the difference between an authoritarian society and a democratic one?

2. Skim the text and find all the words or phrases connected to the meaning of the word “democracy”.

3. Express in a few sentences your opinion concerning the importance of democracy in your daily life. Discuss with the other students.

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY

1. Complete these sentences by using the opposite of the word in bold.

1. She fell off the chair and everyone ________. (cry)

2. Why do we ________ so much time on the way we look? (save)

3. Many houses were ________ in the war. (create)

4. What time does your aunt ________? (arrive)

5. Don't ________ we're going to the library together tomorrow. (remember)

6. The test was not easy and therefore most of the students ________. (pass)

7. I expect they ________ tomorrow. (lose)

8. John asked me if I would ________ him some money till next week. (borrow)

9. He was very surprised when his girlfriend________ his proposal to go on a holiday together. (accept)

10. The suspect flatly ________ stealing the gold necklace. (admit)

11. Smoking has been ________ restaurants. (permit / allow)

12. Your behaviour was completely________! You're eighteen years old, not eight!(responsible)

2. Change the following adjectives to nouns:

pessimistic brave

patient accurate

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mature selfish

optimistic possible

honest inferior

violent stupid

foolish anxious

reliable loyal

popular warm

necessary safe

realistic ill

proud superior

strong

3. Explain the following words and put them into sentences:1. actually / now

2. advice / advise

3. affect / effect

4. already / yet

5. afraid of / worried about

6. avoid / prevent

7. beside / besides

8. bring / fetch

9. chance / possibility

10. channel / canal

11. conduct / direct

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12. continuous / continual

13. driver / chauffeur

14. formidable / wonderful

15. fun / funny

16. go / play

17. come along with / follow

18. harm / damage

19. invent / discover

20. job / work

21. kind / sympathetic

22. lay / lie

23. lend / borrow

4. Put into sentences the following expressions using “make”:

make the best of

make a break with

made a meal of

make do with

make time

made off with

make-believe

make up my mind

4. Translate the following sentences into Romanian:

a) I think if you work hard you’ll do very well in the exam.

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b) If you ask me, patience and honesty are the most important elements of a marriage.

c) In my view, it was a big mistake not to try to buy the company, last year.

d) The way I see it, people should take responsibility for their own lives.e) To my mind, the way she behaved was inconsiderate.f) To be honest, I thought he should have won the show.g) As far as I’m concerned, history is much more important than any

other subject at this specialization.h) All things considered, I think we were wise to cancel our flights.i) From where we stand, freedom of the individual is worth fighting for.j) It seems to me that human rights is a very complicated issue.k) It’ll be cheaper to take the train, I reckon.

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UNIT 2

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. HISTORY

International relations (IR) or international affairs, depending on academic institution, is either a field of political science, an interdisciplinary academic field similar to global studies, or an entirely independent academic discipline in which students take a variety of internationally focused courses in social science and humanities disciplines. In both cases, the field studies relationships between political entities (polities) such as states, sovereign states, empires, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international non-governmental organizations (INs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs), and the wider world-systems produced by this interaction. International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State.

As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460–395 BC), and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete academic field (No. 5901 in the 4-digit UNESCO Nomenclature) within political science. In practice International Relations and International Affairs forms a separate academic program or field from Political Science, and the courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary.

For example, international relations draws from the fields of: technology and engineering, economics, communication studies, history, international law, demography, philosophy, geography, social work, sociology, anthropology, criminology, psychology, gender studies, cultural studies, culturology, and diplomacy. The scope of international relations comprehends globalization, diplomatic relations, state sovereignty, international security, ecological sustainability , nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, global finance, as well as terrorism and organized crime, human security, foreign interventionism, and human rights, as well, as, more recently, comparative religion.

The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system. Prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, especially within the Holy Roman Empire. More than the Peace of Westphalia, the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 is thought to reflect an emerging norm that sovereigns had no internal equals within a defined territory and no external superiors as the ultimate authority within the territory's sovereign borders.

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The centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, but the citizenry of a state, defined as the nation, should be defined as sovereign. Such a state in which the nation is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state (as opposed to a monarchy or a religious state). The term republic increasingly became its synonym. An alternative model of the nation-state was developed in reaction to the French republican concept by the Germans and others, who instead of giving the citizenry sovereignty, kept the princes and nobility, but defined nation-statehood in ethnic-linguistic terms, establishing the rarely if ever fulfilled ideal that all people speaking one language should belong to one state only. The same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. (It is worth noting that in Europe today, few states conform to either definition of nation-state: many continue to have royal sovereigns, and hardly any are ethnically homogeneous.)

The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonialism and the "standards of civilization". The contemporary international system was finally established through decolonization during the Cold War. However, this is somewhat over-simplified. While the nation-state system is considered "modern", many states have not incorporated the system and are termed "pre-modern".

Further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered "post-modern". The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of these different types of states is disputed. "Levels of analysis" is a way of looking at the international system, which includes the individual level, the domestic state as a unit, the international level of transnational and intergovernmental affairs, and the global level.

What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after World War I, and is dealt with in more detail below. IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the "I" and "R" in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Many cite Sun Tzu's The Art of War (6th century BC), Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC), Chanakya's Arthashastra (4th century BC), as the inspiration for realist theory, with Hobbes' Leviathan and Machiavelli's The Prince providing further elaboration.

Similarly, liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau, with the work of the former often being cited as the first elaboration of democratic peace theory. Though contemporary human rights is considerably different from the type of rights envisioned under natural law, Francisco de Vitoria, Hugo Grotius and John Locke offered the first accounts of universal entitlement to certain rights on the basis of common humanity. In the 20th century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of international relations.

(www.wikipedia.org)

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SPEAKING AND READING

1. Read the text and answer the questions:

a) How can you define “international relations”?

b) Can you draw any connection between the field of international relations and other domains? Give some examples and explain your reasons.

c) How was the contemporary international relations system established?

d) What is the connection between Marxism and international relations?

2. Skim the text and find all the words or phrases connected to the meaning of “international relations”.

3. Express in a few sentences your opinion concerning the importance of international relations for our country. Discuss with the other students.

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY

1. Translate into English the following sentences:a) Toată viaţa lui a fost sărac.b) Toate firele erau rupte.c) Am ascultat toată emisiunea ȋn mașină.d) Îl văd ȋn fiecare lună și de fiecare dată ȋntreabă de tine.e) Cu toate că ţin la el nu m-aș putea mărita cu el.f) Se poartă ca și cum totul ar fi al lui.

2. Translate into Romanian the following sentences:a) It always rains on Sunday. It never seems to rain on any other day.b) He is still waiting. He has been standing there for the last hour.c) I still think you should have asked them in spite of what you say.d) Why does he always phone while I’m eating?e) The temperature is still rising. It will soon be boiling hot.f) In the 18th century France was still a monarchy.

3. Transform the verbs in bold into adjectives and complete the sentences:a) act - My father is still very ________ although he is quite old.b) admire - Her behavior in this difficult situation has been absolutely ________ . c) bore – The students don’t want to attend this course. They find it absolutely________ .d)bore – We are ________today. We are not in the mood for anything.e) care - Be ________ not to disturb the silence of the class, or your teacher will get really mad!f) compare - The success of the football team, this year is________ to any other one.g) construct – The teacher made some very ________ observations to my paper.h) create – My nephew is a very________ artist. He won a prize in this field this year.

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UNIT 3

European institutions

The EU has an institutional framework aimed at promoting and defending its values, objectives and interests, the interests of its citizens and those of its member countries. This framework also contributes to ensuring the coherence, effectiveness and continuity of EU policies and actions.

According to Article 13 of the Treaty on European Union, the institutional framework comprises 7 institutions:

the European Parliament; the European Council; the Council of the European Union (simply called ‘the Council’); the European Commission; the Court of Justice of the European Union; the European Central Bank; the Court of Auditors.

Each institution acts within the limits of its remit, granted in the Treaties in line with the procedures, conditions and purposes laid down therein.

The European Parliament, the Council and the Commission are assisted by the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions performing advisory functions.

European Parliament

The European Parliament (EP) is the only directly-elected EU body and one of the largest democratic assemblies in the world. Its 751 Members represent the EU's 500 million citizens. They are elected once every 5 years by voters from across the 28 EU countries. Its representatives are called Members of the European Parliament - MEPs.

Following the 2014 elections to the European Parliament (EP), with a turnout of only 42.54%, the seats are distributed between 8 different Parliamentary groups the EPP - Group of the European People's Party, the S&D - Group of the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats in the European Parliament, the ECR - European Conservatives and Reformists, the ALDE - Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, the Greens/EFA - Group of Greens/European Free Alliance, the GUE/NGL - European United Left/Nordic Green Left, the

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EFDD - Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy Group and the NI - Non-attached Members - Members not belonging to any political group.

The number of MEPs per country is set by a European Council decision adopted unanimously on the EP proposal. No country has fewer than 6 or more than 96 MEPs: Austria: 18, Belgium: 21, Bulgaria: 17, Croatia: 11, Cyprus: 6, Czech Republic: 21, Denmark: 13, Estonia: 6, Finland: 13, France: 74, Germany: 96, Greece: 21, Hungary: 21, Ireland: 11, Italy: 73, Latvia: 8, Lithuania: 11, Luxembourg: 6, Malta: 6, Netherlands: 26, Poland: 51, Portugal: 21, Romania: 32, Slovakia: 13, Slovenia: 8, Spain: 54, Sweden: 20, United Kingdom: 73.

The EP's main functions are as follows:

legislative power: the EP is now a co-legislator. For most legal acts, the legislative power is shared with the Council, through the ordinary legislative procedure.

budgetary power: the EP shares budgetary powers with the Council in voting on the annual budget, rendering it enforceable through the President of Parliament's signature, and overseeing its implementation

power of control over the EU's institutions, in particular the Commission. The EP can give or withhold approval for the designation of Commissioners and has the power to dismiss the Commission as a body by passing a motion of censure. It also exercises a power of control over the EU's activities through written and oral questions, put to the Commission and the Council. It sets up temporary committees and committees of inquiry, whose remit is not necessarily confined to the activities of EU institutions but can extend to action taken by EU countries in implementing EU policies.

The Lisbon Treaty has strengthened the EP's role by placing it on an equal footing with the Council of Ministers. It has:

extended the ordinary legislative procedure (ordinary legislative procedure) to 40 new fields including agriculture, energy security, immigration, justice and home affairs, health and structural funds;

reinforced the EP's role in the adoption of the EU budget. The EP is responsible for the adoption of the entire budget together with the Council;

enabled MEPs to give their consent on a wide range of international agreements negotiated by the EU such as international trade agreements;

introduced new rights to be informed on the activities of the European Council, the rotating Council presidency and the EU's external action;

given the EP the right to propose changes to the Treaty; improved EP's power of scrutiny by electing  the President of the European Commission,

and by  approving European Commission's members by a vote of consent.

SPEAKING AND READING

1. Read the text and answer the questions:

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a) Which are the European Union’s institutions?

b) How many members of the European Parliament are from Romania?

c) Which are the European Parliament’s main functions?

d) What was the impact of the Lisbon Treaty on the European Parliament’s role?

2. Skim the text and find all the main functions of the European Parliament. Discuss with other students, stating your own opinion.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY

1. Read the following sentences and explain the meaning of the words in bold.

1. I have always tried not to be so critical with my children, as my mother had been to me.

2. Jane is so witty. She can always find an answer to any question.

3. Sometimes my father can be really impulsive. He really seems to lose his temper.

4. This man is the most conceited person I know. He always thinks that his problems are the most important.

5. My son is very absent-minded. He always seems to have something else on his mind.

6. Victor is so obstinate. He does only what he wants.

7. The manager has been extremely reserved. He didn’t say a word about his retirement.

8. You're not very punctual, are you?

9. Jane is my best friend, but she is quitebossy sometimes. She always wants to rule.

10. Jack is a very pessimistic person. He always sees the dark side of any situation.

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11. Dylan is optimistic about his future career.

12. My friends are quite reliable. They are always there when I need them.

13. My mother is very sensitive.She can’t watch a romantic movie without crying.

14. This student is very sensible. He can give you a good answer to any question related to this field.

15. His parents are verypossessive. He can’t go out without their permission.

16. I have always considered myself an open-minded person.

17. My boys are extremely sociable. They make new friends easily.

2. Transform the verbs in bold into adjectives and complete the sentences:

a) continue - My grandmother has been in ________ pain for three days, before she died.

b) create – The pupils in this class are very________ . They are always full of ideas.

c) decide – The teacher was very ________ when he announced the marks of the exam.

d) excite – He was very _______ when he told us that his wife was pregnant again.

e)hope – I am ________ that he will accept our offer.

f) suspect – His parents were very ________ when they found out that he hadn’t passed his exams.

g) use – This book is very ________ . You can find all the answers to the grammar questions in it.

3. Fill in the blanks using “so” or “such”:

a) It was a nice surprise to see you yesterday!

b) It was a long time since we have met and you were looking well!

c) I’m glad you decided to call to see me and to stay a long time.

d) It was fun talking about old times!

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UNIT 4

European Council

Under the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Council became an EU institution. The treaty also created the new position of the President of the European Council. In late 2014, Donald Tusk was elected its president for a period of two and a half years.

Comprising the Heads of State or Government of the EU countries, it meets at least 4 times a year and includes the President of the European Commission as a full member.

The European Council's role is to provide the impetus, general political guidelines and priorities for the EU's development (Article 15 of the Treaty on European Union - TEU).

It does not exercise any legislative function. However, it may be consulted on criminal matters (Articles 82-83 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union - TFEU) or on social security matters (Article 48 of the TFEU) where an EU country opposes a legislative proposal in these areas.

Its decisions are taken by consensus or, where so provided by the treaties by unanimity, qualified majority or simple majority. The conclusions of European Council proceedings are published after each meeting.

European Commission

Established in 1957, the European Commission now comprises 28 Commissioners including its President. It acts in the EU's general interest with complete independence from national governments and is accountable to the European Parliament.

It has the right of initiative to propose laws in a wide range of policy areas. In the fields of justice and home affairs, it shares a right of initiative with EU countries. Like the European Parliament and the Council, EU citizens may also call on the Commission to propose laws by means of the European Citizens' Initiative.

The Commission has the right to adopt non-legislative acts, in particular delegated and implementing acts, and has important powers to ensure fair conditions of competition between EU businesses.

The Commission oversees the implementation of EU law. It executes the EU's budget and manages funding programmes. It also exercises coordinating, executive and management

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functions, as laid down in the Treaties. It represents the EU around the world in areas not covered by the common foreign and security policy, for example in trade policy and humanitarian aid.

The Commission comprises Directorates-General (departments) and Services which are mainly located in Brussels and Luxembourg.

Court of Justice of the European Union

The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) was first created in 1952. The Treaty of Lisbon added to its jurisdictional scope. The CJEU comprises the following 2 branches.

1. The Court of Justice: this court continues to give preliminary rulings, hear some actions against EU institutions brought by EU countries and take appeals from the General Court. It now also gives rulings in the area of freedom, security and justice and makes decisions on police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters and issues arising from the Charter of Fundamental Rights.

2. The General Court: this court has jurisdiction to hear actions against EU institutions brought by citizens and, in some instances, by EU countries. It also gives rulings in cases on employment relations between the EU institutions and their civil servants.

SPEAKING AND READING

1. Read the text and answer the questions:

a) Who was the president of the European Council for two and a half years?

b) How many times a year does the European Council meet?

c) What is the role of the European Council?

d) How many members does the European Commission have?

e) Which are the rights of the European Commission?

f) When was the Court of Justice of the European Union created?

g) Which are the branches of the Court of Justice?

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2.Express in a few sentences your opinion concerning the importance of the European Union institutions. Discuss with the other students.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY

1. Fill in the blanks with the following words: unhappy, miserable, upset, depressed, down, disappointed

a) After waiting for an hour in the cold rain, he was cold, wet and utterly…………….

b) She was …………..that he had never replied to her letter.c) This rainy weather is making us all a bit………………..d) I don’t know why she goes on seeing her, when she makes her…………..e) I’ve just been feeling………………recently, that’s all.

2. Choose the right explanation for every word or expression from the left column:

to abandon - a structured, formal argument on a controversial topic to back - to give support to

a ballot - the process of trying to get oneself (or someone else) elected

to campaign - to choose someone to be a leader through a democratic vote

a campaign - the piece of paper you write your vote onto cast (a ballot) - to put (your ballot) in the ballot box

connections - the act of formally expressing one's choice in writing or by raising one's hand social

to debate - the process of choosing a leader through a democratic vote

a debate - to leave something behind; to give something up

to elect- to advertise oneself (or someone else) as a candidate in

an upcoming election; to work towards getting oneself (or someone else) elected

an election - to have a structured, formal argument about a controversial topic

to run for president - to formally express one's choice in writing or by raising one's hand; to make one's choice in an election

to vote - to campaign to be president, to try to become presidenta vote - relationships which allow you certain opportunities;

the people you know who can help you (get a job, raise

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money, gain power, etc.) 

3. Put the words and the expressions from exercise 2 into sentences.

UNIT 5

Court of Justice

The Court of Justice, together with the General Court, forms the Court of Justice of the European Union whose aim is to ensure the uniform interpretation of EU law and that EU countries and institutions respect the law.

The Court is responsible for dealing with:

references for preliminary rulings from national courts on interpretation of EU law; actions brought by an EU country or the Commission against an EU country for

infringing EU law; some actions brought by an EU country for annulment of a measure adopted by an EU

institution; actions against an EU institution for failure to act; appeals on points of law against judgments of the General Court.

The Court is composed of 28 judges (1 from each EU country) and 11 advocates-general, who present opinions on cases brought before the Court. They are appointed by common accord of EU countries for 6 years.

General Court

Along with the Court of Justice, the General Court is one of the EU’s judicial institutions making up the Court of Justice of the European Union. Their purpose is to ensure a uniform interpretation and application of EU law. Decisions of the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice, but only on a point of law. Before the Lisbon Treaty came into force on 1 December 2009, it was known as the Court of First Instance.

The Court is responsible for dealing with:

cases lodged by individuals, businesses or organisations against acts by EU institutions and bodies;

cases lodged by EU countries against certain decisions of the Commission or the Council; cases relating to the EU trade mark; cases on employment relations between the EU institutions and their civil servants.

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The General Court currently has 47 judges. As part of the reform of the judicial system of the EU, this number will increase to 56 (2 per EU country) in 2019. The judges are appointed for a renewable term of 6 years by common agreement of the governments of EU countries.

Specialised courts

Specialised courts are responsible for examining at first instance claims lodged in certain specific areas. They are part of the Court of Justice of the European Union and are attached to the Court.

The creation of specialised courts may be decided by the Council acting by qualified majority under the co-decision procedure with the Parliament at the request of either the Commission or the Court of Justice of the European Union.

Members of specialised courts are selected from among persons whose independence is beyond doubt and who possess the ability required for appointment to judicial office. They are appointed by the Council, acting unanimously.

The only specialised court to have been created so far is the Civil Service Tribunal. Between 2005 and 2016, this court dealt with cases involving the EU institutions and its employees. In 2016, this court was dissolved and its competences transferred back to the General Court as part of the reform of the judicial architecture of the EU.

SPEAKING AND READING

3. Read the text and answer the questions:a) What is the aim of the Court of Justice of the European Union?

b) What are the responsibilities of the Court?

c) For what term are the judges of the Court appointed?

d) Who may decide the creation of Specialised Courts?

4. Skim the text and find all the words or phrases related to “justice”. Discuss with other students, stating your own opinion.

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY

1.Fill in the blanks with the following phrasal verbs: run into sb, run out of, run after, run over.

1. What do you need from the shop?Well, we’ve eggs, so get a dozen

2. What happened to Sam’s bicycle? It’s in pieces. It’s broken!It was by a bus yesterday.

3. Jack threw the ball and the dog it.4. Have you heard the news? Jane is in town.

Yes, I know. I him this morning.5. The car turned the corner, lost control and a dog.6. I can’t do any more exercise. I’ve energy.7. The policeman the burglar for five minutes before he finally caught him.8. I an old school friend who I hadn’t seen for ten years.

2. Put in a/an, the where necessary and explain your choice:a) This is … person who pretends to be your mother.b) My friend has …. Very beautiful wife.c) Me and my friends, we’re going to …. New York next week.d) … cats are very cute pets.e) … flat my cousin lives in is very modern.f) My parents usually have … lunch with me at noon.g) He is going to stand for … Parliament at … elections next year.h) … chemistry is my favorite subject.i) I haven’t seen Susan for … very long time.j) My husband loves skating in … winter.

3.Find and correct the mistakes from the following sentences. Some of them are correct.a) The man who lives next door is doctor.b) Architects who designed this block won a prize.c) Sugar is bad for your health.d) The oil I bought yesterday is gone.e) This is very good coffee.f) She’s Catholic and he’s Anglican.g) A Mrs. Foley s waiting to see you.h) I’ve got headache and cold.

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i) Freedom of the individual is worth fighting for.j) Books on the shelf are yours.k) Who’s knocking at the door? It’s the doctor.l) Mum, pass me salt please!

UNIT 6

Charter of Fundamental Rights

The Charter of Fundamental Rights consolidates all the fundamental rights applicable at the European Union (EU) level. Broader than the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, it establishes ethical principles and rights for EU citizens and residents that relate to dignity, liberty, equality, solidarity, citizenship and justice. In addition to protecting civil and political rights, it covers workers' social rights, data protection, bioethics and the right to good administration.

The Charter is legally binding. In accordance with Article 6 of the Treaty on European Union, it has the same legal value as the EU treaties. It applies only when EU institutions and EU countries are implementing EU law and does not extend the competences of the EU beyond those already granted in the treaties.

The EU Agency for Fundamental Rights was created to provide EU institutions and countries with assistance and expertise in the field of fundamental rights.

EU citizenship

European citizenship was first defined in Articles 9 - 12 of the Treaty on European Union. Articles 18 - 25 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) set down the rights resulting from EU citizenship.

Any national of an EU country is considered to be a citizen of the EU. EU citizenship does not replace national citizenship: it is an addition to it. Citizenship gives them the right to:

move and take up residence anywhere in the EU; vote and stand in local government and European Parliament elections in their country of

residence; diplomatic and consular protection outside the EU from the authorities of any EU country

if their country of nationality is not represented; petition the European Parliament and appeal to the European Ombudsman; address the European institutions in any of its official languages and to receive a reply in

the same language; non-discrimination on the basis of nationality, gender, race, religion, handicap, age or

sexual orientation; invite the Commission to submit a legislative proposal (citizens' initiative);

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access EU institutions' and bodies' documents, subject to certain conditions (Article 15 of the TFEU).

Role of the European Parliament

The European Parliament, the only EU institution elected directly by the citizens of the Union, is strongly committed to promoting sustainable democracies in the world and has highlighted this commitment in a number of resolutions.

Parliament is continuously engaged in election observation activities, working to strengthen the legitimacy of national electoral processes and to increase public confidence in the protection of elections and human rights. In the current legislative term, Parliament has so far sent delegations to observe elections in Ukraine, Egypt, Tunisia, Moldova, Tajikistan, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Kyrgyzstan, Haiti, Tanzania, Burma/Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Uganda, Peru, Mongolia, Zambia, Gabon, Montenegro, Georgia, Ghana, Jordan and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Parliament may decide to send delegations of MEPs to observe elections or referendums, on condition that the elections are held at national level, that the national authorities have invited the EU or the European Parliament, and that a long-term mission is present. Parliament delegations are always integrated into EU EOMs or the long-term missions of the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). The European Parliament is consulted on the identification and planning of EU EOMs and on the subsequent follow-up.

Long-term EOMs assess not only events on election day but also the whole electoral process, in order to gauge the state of democratic development in a given country at a particular time. Long-term observers usually begin operating two months before the elections and follow the entire electoral process through to the announcement of the official results and the appeals procedure. Short-term observers (STOs) monitor polling day and the tallying of votes. The chief observer leading an EU EOM is, as a rule, an MEP.

In order to ensure a comprehensive approach to democracy support, election observation is linked to complementary activities including electoral follow-up, human rights actions and initiatives to support parliamentary work. The European Parliament provides assistance to help parliaments beyond the EU’s borders strengthen their institutional capacity. Activities include joint training programmes and study visits for members and officials of third-country parliaments. In addition, the Democracy Fellowship Programme (DFP) offers staff of non-EU parliaments the opportunity to spend several weeks at the European Parliament, working with their counterparts at the EP Secretariat.

The Democracy Support and Election Coordination Group (DEG), established within Parliament, gives political guidance for activities supporting democracy, including the promotion of

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parliamentary democracy and election observation. It consists of 15 MEPs and is co-chaired by the chairs of Parliament’s Committee on Foreign Affairs and Committee on Development.

SPEAKING AND READING

5. Read the text and answer the questions:a) Where was first defined the European citizenship?

b) Which are the rights given by a citizenship?

c) What is the role of the European Parliament?

d) What is the Democracy Support and Election Coordination Group?

6. Skim the text and discuss with your colleagues the rights given by a citizenship. Try to state your own opinion.

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY

1. Translate and put into sentences the following expressions:

a) To do an exercise = a face un exerciţiub) To do the housework = a face curăţeniec) To do some homework = a face temed) To do research = a face cercetare

2. Translate and put into sentences the following expressions:

a) To make a bed = a face un patb) To make the bed = a face patulc) To make a choice = a face o alegered) To make an effort = a face un eforte) To make a fuss = a face un scandal, tărăboif) To make a decision = a lua o hotărâreg) To make an offer = a face o ofertăh) To make plans = a face planurii) To make a mistake = a face o greșealăj) To make a noise = a face zgomotk) To make progress = a face progresel) To make suggestions = a face o sugestie

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UNIT 7

External relations

The work of the European Union (EU) in the area of external relations includes the negotiation of trade agreements, and cooperation on energy, health, climate and environmental issues, often in the context of international organisations such as the United Nations. It also operates European Neighbourhood Policy programmes in relation to its closest international neighbours.

Under the Lisbon Treaty, which came into force in 2009, there was a reorganisation of the EU's external relations work with the creation of the European External Action Services (EEAS), the European Union's diplomatic arm, and the post of High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.

Foreign policy: aims, instruments and achievements

The EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) was established in 1993 and has since been strengthened by subsequent Treaties Today, Parliament scrutinises the CFSP and contributes to its development, in particular by supporting the European External Action Service (EEAS), the EU Special Representatives (EUSRs) and the EU’s foreign delegations. Parliament’s budgetary powers shape the scale and scope of the CFSP, as well as the EU financial instruments that sustain the EU’s foreign activities.

CFSP: development through Treaties

The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) of the European Union was established by the Treaty on European Union (TEU) in 1993 with the aim of preserving peace, strengthening international security, promoting international cooperation and developing and consolidating democracy, the rule of law and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Treaty introduced the ‘three-pillar system’, with the CFSP as the second pillar. While common positions and joint actions framed common foreign policy responses, the CFSP was based principally on intergovernmental procedures and consensus.

The 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam established a more efficient decision-making process including constructive abstention and qualified majority voting (QMV). In December 1999, the European Council established the function of the High Representative for the CFSP (as well as that of

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Secretary-General of the Council). The 2003 Treaty of Nice introduced further changes to streamline the decision process and mandated the Political and Security Committee (PSC), which had been established through a Council decision in January 2001, to exercise political control and strategic direction of crisis management operations. Following the failure of the EU Constitution project in 2005, its key institutional provisions were recast in a further Reform Treaty, signed in Lisbon on 19 October 2007.

Entering into force on 1 January 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon provided the Union with legal personality and an institutional incarnation of its external service, in addition to eliminating the EU’s pillar structure. The Treaty created a range of new CFSP actors, including the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (who also serves as Vice-President of the Commission) and the new permanent President of the European Council. As well as creating the EEAS, the Treaty upgraded the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), which forms an integral part of the CFSP.

SPEAKING AND READING

7. Read the text and answer the questions:a) What is the role of the European Union in the area of external

relations?

b) When did the Lisbon Treaty come into force?

c) What was the impact of the Lisbon Treaty?

d) What was the aim of the Common Foreign and Security policy?

8. Skim the text and find the main ideas of the text. Discuss with other students, stating your own opinion on the importance of external relations within the European Union.

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY

1. Read the text below. Use the words in bold to form one word that fits in the same numbered space in the text:

a) Sensitive, b) child, c) art, d) pain, e) recover, f) important, g) emotion, h) consult

Most impressive is Dr. Ohana’s (a) to the individual needs of his patients, honed by (b) experience and his earlier career as a doctor. Born in Marrakech in 1951, Ohana grew up in an (c) household. When Ohana was 10 however, his father severed the nerves and tendons of a hand and he could no longer play a musical instrument. Moved by the devastating effect this had on his father and his (d) route to (e) , Ohana decided to become a doctor. He became a surgeon, specializing in cancer patients.It was during this period that he learnt the (f) of finding out how patients feel (g) . He believes it to be a crucial element in cosmetic surgery. “No matter how able a surgeon is, the success of an operation depends entirely on why the patient has come for a (h) “, he says.

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FURTHER READING

THE PILLARS OF DEMOCRACY Sovereignty of the people. Government based upon consent of the governed. Majority rule. Minority rights. Guarantee of basic human rights. Free and fair elections. Equality before the law. Due process of law. Constitutional limits on government. Social, economic, and political pluralism. Values of tolerance, pragmatism, cooperation, and compromise.

The Founding Fathers of the EU

KONRAD ADENAUER

Konrad Adenauer, (born January 5, 1876, Cologne, Germany—died April 19, 1967, Rhöndorf, West Germany), first chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany; 1949–63), presiding over its reconstruction after World War II. A Christian Democrat and firmly anticommunist, he supported the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and worked to reconcile Germany with its former enemies, especially France. The son of a Cologne civil servant, Adenauer grew up in a Roman Catholic family of simple means in which frugality, fulfillment of duty, and religious dedication were stressed. He studied law and political science at universities in Freiburg, Munich, and Bonn. In 1906 he was elected to the Cologne city council and in 1917, during World War I, was chosen Oberbürgermeister, or lord mayor, of the city. Retaining that office until 1933, Adenauer created new port facilities, a greenbelt, sports grounds, and exhibition sites and in 1919 sponsored the refounding of the University of Cologne.

In 1918 Adenauer had hoped at first that the Rhineland might become one of the member states of Germany’s new Weimar Republic, but, when the British finally evacuated Cologne in 1926, the city and its surrounding district remained part of the Prussian Rhine province. Adenauer, who had been a member of the Prussian Herrenhaus (upper chamber of parliament) before its abolition in 1918, was a member of the Staatsrat (the central organ representing the diets of the

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Prussian provinces) from 1920 and became its speaker in 1928. Politically, he belonged to the Centre Party, which reflected Catholic principles.

When the Nazi Party of Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, Adenauer lost all his offices and posts. After intermittent persecution, he was sent to a concentration camp in 1944. At the end of World War II, the U.S. military authorities restored him as mayor of Cologne, but the British, who assumed control of the city in June 1945, removed him from office in October. Rather than withdrawing from public life, Adenauer was reinvigorated by his fall from power.

Even before the end of the war, a new political party was being formed—the German Christian Democratic Union (CDU)—in which Roman Catholics and Protestants buried their long-standing differences to present a common front against Nazism and to promote Christian principles in government. Adenauer played an important role in the formation of this new party, and in 1946 he became its chairman in the British zone of occupation. Subsequently the CDU expanded into the four zones of the Allied occupation. As the Soviet Union began to increasingly obstruct the Allied Control Council, the Western Allies decided to give their three occupation zones a federal-state organization. Adenauer became president of the Parliamentary Council, which produced a provisional constitution for the intended German Federal Republic. In 1949 Adenauer became chairman of the CDU for the whole of West Germany, and, in the first general elections under the new regime, his party and its regular ally, the Bavarian Christian Social Union (CSU), together won 139 of the 402 seats in the Bundestag, the lower house of the federal parliament. He managed to form a coalition government, but it was by a majority of only one vote that the Bundestag confirmed his appointment as chancellor on September 15, 1949.

As chancellor, Adenauer was opposed to socialist ideas and rejected the notion of an egalitarian mass society. His leading political theme was individualism under the rule of law. He was imbued with the conviction that the state must guarantee its citizens optimal room for independent intellectual and economic development, as well as absolute protection under the law. The political platform of the CDU, however, went beyond Adenauer’s ideas, advocating some programs that were socialist in nature. Adenauer reacted pragmatically, expressing a willingness to compromise on domestic programs with which he philosophically disagreed so that he could promote the unity of the country and give West Germany an important place in the European community.

The focus of his interest throughout his career lay in foreign affairs. He viewed the expansion of communist rule into the heart of Europe as a direct threat to the West and its values. He had no faith in the possibility of peaceful coexistence with the communist world and felt the need for tough opposition to any aggressive military threats from the Soviet Union and its allies. He considered irreconcilable the differences between individualistic rule of law and totalitarian dictatorship and between humanistic Christian teachings and communist social regimentation. He therefore became a strong advocate of the Cold War politics of containment. As a result, he energetically supported German contributions to NATO and its nuclear arsenal, though he would have preferred the development of a European defense community. He worked tirelessly for the reconciliation of Germany with its neighbours, especially France.

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There were numerous important events in West German history during Adenauer’s term. In 1950 West Germany gained associate membership in the Council of Europe. In 1951 the country established a foreign office (with Adenauer himself as minister of foreign affairs until 1955), achieved full membership in the Council of Europe, and became a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community. In 1952 Germany participated in the formation of the European Defense Community (EDC). In 1954–55, after the collapse of the EDC, West Germany was recognized as a sovereign state and was admitted into NATO. And in 1957–58 Germany became a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC; later sucMeanwhile, Adenauer’s rising prestige was reflected in the elections of 1953 and 1957; in both the CDU-CSU coalition won a strikingly increased majority in the Bundestag, ensuring that Adenauer was unchallenged for the chancellorship. However, the terms under which he secured West Germany’s membership in the EEC were criticized by the CDU’s Ludwig Erhard, who, as minister of economic affairs from 1949, was given the main credit for the “miracle” of the West German economic recovery. Erhard became vice-chancellor in 1957, but antagonism between him and Adenauer grew more pronounced, and in 1959 Adenauer tried to exclude him from eventual succession to the chancellorship.In the elections of 1961 the CDU-CSU lost a number of seats in the Bundestag. To form the next government, Adenauer brought the Free Democratic Party (FDP) back into coalition with his own party (as in 1949 and 1953 but not 1957). The FDP, however, made Adenauer promise to relinquish the chancellorship before the end of the parliamentary term. In 1963, after achieving his long-sought treaty of cooperation with France and its leader, Charles de Gaulle, Adenauer accordingly resigned and was succeeded by Erhard. Adenauer remained chairman of the CDU until March 1966. During Adenauer’s chancellorship his opponents had demanded that Germany be neutralized and placed in a position of nonalignment between the Eastern and Western blocs. But Adenauer and his party won all major elections because they declared that the risks to security in such a policy would be intolerable. To the end of his life, Adenauer was reproached, unfairly, for not having seriously worked for the reunification of Germany, but he believed that such was the duty of the powers that had partitioned Germany rather than of the West German government.

Adenauer enjoyed congenial relations with important European and American statesmen, particularly de Gaulle and U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. Adenauer’s use of language served him in his political goals, for it was sharpened to be intelligible and convincing to the common man and its simplicity emphasized his authority. In his personal life Adenauer was unpretentious and extremely disciplined. He was married twice and was twice widowed. Attesting to his political importance, the leaders of the United States and France, as well as many other heads of state, including David Ben-Gurion of Israel, attended his funeral in 1967.

WINSTON CHURCHILL

Sir Winston Churchill, in full Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill (born November 30, 1874, Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire, England—died January 24, 1965, London), British statesman, orator, and author who as prime minister (1940–45, 1951–55) rallied the British people during World War II and led his country from the brink of defeat to victory.

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After a sensational rise to prominence in national politics before World War I, Churchill acquired a reputation for erratic judgment in the war itself and in the decade that followed. Politically suspect in consequence, he was a lonely figure until his response to Adolf Hitler’s challenge brought him to leadership of a national coalition in 1940. With Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin he then shaped Allied strategy in World War II, and after the breakdown of the alliance he alerted the West to the expansionist threat of the Soviet Union. He led the Conservative Party back to office in 1951 and remained prime minister until 1955, when ill health forced his resignation.

In Churchill’s veins ran the blood of both of the English-speaking peoples whose unity, in peace and war, it was to be a constant purpose of his to promote. Through his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, the meteoric Tory politician, he was directly descended from John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, the hero of the wars against Louis XIV of France in the early 18th century. His mother, Jennie Jerome, a noted beauty, was the daughter of a New York financier and horse racing enthusiast, Leonard W. Jerome.

The young Churchill passed an unhappy and sadly neglected childhood, redeemed only by the affection of Mrs. Everest, his devoted nurse. At Harrow his conspicuously poor academic record seemingly justified his father’s decision to enter him into an army career. It was only at the third attempt that he managed to pass the entrance examination to the Royal Military College, now Academy, Sandhurst, but, once there, he applied himself seriously and passed out (graduated) 20th in a class of 130. In 1895, the year of his father’s tragic death, he entered the 4th Hussars. Initially the only prospect of action was in Cuba, where he spent a couple of months of leave reporting the Cuban war of independence from Spain for the Daily Graphic (London). In 1896 his regiment went to India, where he saw service as both soldier and journalist on the North-West Frontier (1897). Expanded as The Story of the Malakand Field Force (1898), his dispatches attracted such wide attention as to launch him on the career of authorship that he intermittently pursued throughout his life. In 1897–98 he wrote Savrola (1900), a Ruritanian romance, and got himself attached to Lord Kitchener’s Nile expeditionary force in the same dual role of soldier and correspondent. The River War (1899) brilliantly describes the campaign.

The five years after Sandhurst saw Churchill’s interests expand and mature. He relieved the tedium of army life in India by a program of reading designed to repair the deficiencies of Harrow and Sandhurst, and in 1899 he resigned his commission to enter politics and make a living by his pen. He first stood as a Conservative at Oldham, where he lost a by-election by a narrow margin, but found quick solace in reporting the South African War for The Morning Post (London). Within a month after his arrival in South Africa he had won fame for his part in rescuing an armoured train ambushed by Boers, though at the price of himself being taken prisoner. But this fame was redoubled when less than a month later he escaped from military prison. Returning to Britain a military hero, he laid siege again to Oldham in the election of 1900. Churchill succeeded in winning by a margin as narrow as that of his previous failure. But he was now in Parliament and, fortified by the £10,000 his writings and lecture tours had earned for him, was in a position to make his own way in politics.

A self-assurance redeemed from arrogance only by a kind of boyish charm made Churchill from the first a notable House of Commons figure, but a speech defect, which he never wholly lost,

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combined with a certain psychological inhibition to prevent him from immediately becoming a master of debate. He excelled in the set speech, on which he always spent enormous pains, rather than in the impromptu; Lord Balfour, the Conservative leader, said of him that he carried “heavy but not very mobile guns.” In matter as in style he modeled himself on his father, as his admirable biography, Lord Randolph Churchill (1906; revised edition 1952), makes evident, and from the first he wore his Toryism with a difference, advocating a fair, negotiated peace for the Boers and deploring military mismanagement and extravagance.

In 1904 the Conservative government found itself impaled on a dilemma by Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain’s open advocacy of a tariff. Churchill, a convinced free trader, helped to found the Free Food League. He was disavowed by his constituents and became increasingly alienated from his party. In 1904 he joined the Liberals and won renown for the audacity of his attacks on Chamberlain and Balfour. The radical elements in his political makeup came to the surface under the influence of two colleagues in particular, John Morley, a political legatee of W.E. Gladstone, and David Lloyd George, the rising Welsh orator and firebrand. In the ensuing general election in 1906 he secured a notable victory in Manchester and began his ministerial career in the new Liberal government as undersecretary of state for the colonies. He soon gained credit for his able defense of the policy of conciliation and self-government in South Africa. When the ministry was reconstructed under Prime Minister Herbert H. Asquith in 1908, Churchill was promoted to president of the Board of Trade, with a seat in the cabinet. Defeated at the ensuing by-election in Manchester, he won an election at Dundee. In the same year he married the beautiful Clementine Hozier; it was a marriage of unbroken affection that provided a secure and happy background for his turbulent career.

At the Board of Trade, Churchill emerged as a leader in the movement of Liberalism away from laissez-faire toward social reform. He completed the work begun by his predecessor, Lloyd George, on the bill imposing an eight-hour maximum day for miners. He himself was responsible for attacking the evils of “sweated” labour by setting up trade boards with power to fix minimum wages and for combating unemployment by instituting state-run labour exchanges.

When this Liberal program necessitated high taxation, which in turn provoked the House of Lords to the revolutionary step of rejecting the budget of 1909, Churchill was Lloyd George’s closest ally in developing the provocative strategy designed to clip the wings of the upper chamber. Churchill became president of the Budget League, and his oratorical broadsides at the House of Lords were as lively and devastating as Lloyd George’s own. Indeed Churchill, as an alleged traitor to his class, earned the lion’s share of Tory animosity. His campaigning in the two general elections of 1910 and in the House of Commons during the passage of the Parliament Act of 1911, which curbed the House of Lords’ powers, won him wide popular acclaim. In the cabinet his reward was promotion to the office of home secretary. Here, despite substantial achievements in prison reform, he had to devote himself principally to coping with a sweeping wave of industrial unrest and violent strikes. Upon occasion his relish for dramatic action led him beyond the limits of his proper role as the guarantor of public order. For this he paid a heavy price in incurring the long-standing suspicion of organized labour.

In 1911 the provocative German action in sending a gunboat to Agadir, the Moroccan port to which France had claims, convinced Churchill that in any major Franco-German conflict Britain

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would have to be at France’s side. When transferred to the Admiralty in October 1911, he went to work with a conviction of the need to bring the navy to a pitch of instant readiness. His first task was the creation of a naval war staff. To help Britain’s lead over steadily mounting German naval power, Churchill successfully campaigned in the cabinet for the largest naval expenditure in British history. Despite his inherited Tory views on Ireland, he wholeheartedly embraced the Liberal policy of Home Rule, moving the second reading of the Irish Home Rule Bill of 1912 and campaigning for it in the teeth of Unionist opposition. Although, through his friendship with F.E. Smith (later 1st earl of Birkenhead) and Austen Chamberlain, he did much to arrange the compromise by which Ulster was to be excluded from the immediate effect of the bill, no member of the government was more bitterly abused—by Tories as a renegade and by extreme Home Rulers as a defector.

War came as no surprise to Churchill. He had already held a test naval mobilization. Of all the cabinet ministers he was the most insistent on the need to resist Germany. On August 2, 1914, on his own responsibility, he ordered the naval mobilization that guaranteed complete readiness when war was declared. The war called out all of Churchill’s energies. In October 1914, when Antwerp was falling, he characteristically rushed in person to organize its defense. When it fell the public saw only a disillusioning defeat, but in fact the prolongation of its resistance for almost a week enabled the Belgian Army to escape and the crucial Channel ports to be saved. At the Admiralty, Churchill’s partnership with Adm. Sir John Fisher, the first sea lord, was productive both of dynamism and of dissension. In 1915, when Churchill became an enthusiast for the Dardanelles expedition as a way out of the costly stalemate on the Western Front, he had to proceed against Fisher’s disapproval. The campaign aimed at forcing the straits and opening up direct communications with Russia. When the naval attack failed and was called off on the spot by Adm. J.M. de Robeck, the Admiralty war group and Asquith both supported de Robeck rather than Churchill. Churchill came under heavy political attack, which intensified when Fisher resigned. Preoccupied with departmental affairs, Churchill was quite unprepared for the storm that broke about his ears. He had no part at all in the maneuvers that produced the first coalition government and was powerless when the Conservatives, with the sole exception of Sir William Maxwell Aitken (soon Lord Beaverbrook), insisted on his being demoted from the Admiralty to the duchy of Lancaster. There he was given special responsibility for the Gallipoli Campaign (a land assault at the straits) without, however, any powers of direction. Reinforcements were too few and too late; the campaign failed and casualties were heavy; evacuation was ordered in the autumn.

In November 1915 Churchill resigned from the government and returned to soldiering, seeing active service in France as lieutenant colonel of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers. Although he entered the service with zest, army life did not give full scope for his talents. In June 1916, when his battalion was merged, he did not seek another command but instead returned to Parliament as a private member. He was not involved in the intrigues that led to the formation of a coalition government under Lloyd George, and it was not until 1917 that the Conservatives would consider his inclusion in the government. In March 1917 the publication of the Dardanelles commission report demonstrated that he was at least no more to blame for the fiasco than his colleagues.

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Even so, Churchill’s appointment as minister of munitions in July 1917 was made in the face of a storm of Tory protest. Excluded from the cabinet, Churchill’s role was almost entirely administrative, but his dynamic energies thrown behind the development and production of the tank (which he had initiated at the Admiralty) greatly speeded up the use of the weapon that broke through the deadlock on the Western Front. Paradoxically, it was not until the war was over that Churchill returned to a service department. In January 1919 he became secretary of war. As such he presided with surprising zeal over the cutting of military expenditure. The major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was, however, the Allied intervention in Russia. Churchill, passionately anti-Bolshevik, secured from a divided and loosely organized cabinet an intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation—and in the face of the bitter hostility of labour. And in 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded the Ukraine.

In 1921 Churchill moved to the Colonial Office, where his principal concern was with the mandated territories in the Middle East. For the costly British forces in the area he substituted a reliance on the air force and the establishment of rulers congenial to British interests; for this settlement of Arab affairs he relied heavily on the advice of T.E. Lawrence. For Palestine, where he inherited conflicting pledges to Jews and Arabs, he produced in 1922 the White Paper that confirmed Palestine as a Jewish national home while recognizing continuing Arab rights. Churchill never had departmental responsibility for Ireland, but he progressed from an initial belief in firm, even ruthless, maintenance of British rule to an active role in the negotiations that led to the Irish treaty of 1921. Subsequently, he gave full support to the new Irish government.

In the autumn of 1922 the insurgent Turks appeared to be moving toward a forcible reoccupation of the Dardanelles neutral zone, which was protected by a small British force at Chanak (now Çanakkale). Churchill was foremost in urging a firm stand against them, but the handling of the issue by the cabinet gave the public impression that a major war was being risked for an inadequate cause and on insufficient consideration. A political debacle ensued that brought the shaky coalition government down in ruins, with Churchill as one of the worst casualties. Gripped by a sudden attack of appendicitis, he was not able to appear in public until two days before the election, and then only in a wheelchair. He was defeated humiliatingly by more than 10,000 votes. He thus found himself, as he said, all at once “without an office, without a seat, without a party, and even without an appendix.”

In convalescence and political impotence Churchill turned to his brush and his pen. His painting never rose above the level of a gifted amateur’s, but his writing once again provided him with the financial base his independent brand of politics required. His autobiographical history of the war, The World Crisis, netted him the £20,000 with which he purchased Chartwell, henceforth his country home in Kent. When he returned to politics it was as a crusading anti-Socialist, but in 1923, when Stanley Baldwin was leading the Conservatives on a protectionist program, Churchill stood, at Leicester, as a Liberal free trader. He lost by approximately 4,000 votes. Asquith’s decision in 1924 to support a minority Labour government moved Churchill farther to the right. He stood as an “Independent Anti-Socialist” in a by-election in the Abbey division of Westminster. Although opposed by an official Conservative candidate—who defeated him by a hairbreadth of 43 votes—Churchill managed to avoid alienating the Conservative leadership and

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indeed won conspicuous support from many prominent figures in the party. In the general election in November 1924 he won an easy victory at Epping under the thinly disguised Conservative label of “Constitutionalist.” Baldwin, free of his flirtation with protectionism, offered Churchill, the “constitutionalist free trader,” the post of chancellor of the Exchequer. Surprised, Churchill accepted; dumbfounded, the country interpreted it as a move to absorb into the party all the right-of-centre elements of the former coalition.

In the five years that followed, Churchill’s early liberalism survived only in the form of advocacy of rigid laissez-faire economics; for the rest he appeared, repeatedly, as the leader of the diehards. He had no natural gift for financial administration, and though the noted economist John Maynard Keynes criticized him unsparingly, most of the advice he received was orthodox and harmful. His first move was to restore the gold standard, a disastrous measure, from which flowed deflation, unemployment, and the miners’ strike that led to the general strike of 1926. Churchill offered no remedy except the cultivation of strict economy, extending even to the armed services. Churchill viewed the general strike as a quasi-revolutionary measure and was foremost in resisting a negotiated settlement. He leaped at the opportunity of editing the British Gazette, an emergency official newspaper, which he filled with bombastic and frequently inflammatory propaganda. The one relic of his earlier radicalism was his partnership with Neville Chamberlain as minister of health in the cautious expansion of social services, mainly in the provision of widows’ pensions.

In 1929, when the government fell, Churchill, who would have liked a Tory-Liberal reunion, deplored Baldwin’s decision to accept a minority Labour government. The next year an open rift developed between the two men. On Baldwin’s endorsement of a Round Table Conference with Indian leaders, Churchill resigned from the shadow cabinet and threw himself into a passionate, at times almost hysterical, campaign against the Government of India bill (1935) designed to give India dominion status.

Thus, when in 1931 the National Government was formed, Churchill, though a supporter, had no hand in its establishment or place in its councils. He had arrived at a point where, for all his abilities, he was distrusted by every party. He was thought to lack judgment and stability and was regarded as a guerrilla fighter impatient of discipline. He was considered a clever man who associated too much with clever men—Birkenhead, Beaverbrook, Lloyd George—and who despised the necessary humdrum associations and compromises of practical politics.

In this situation he found relief, as well as profit, in his pen, writing, in Marlborough: His Life and Times, a massive rehabilitation of his ancestor against the criticisms of the 19th-century historian Thomas Babington Macaulay. But overriding the past and transcending his worries about India was a mounting anxiety about the growing menace of Hitler’s Germany. Before a supine government and a doubting opposition, Churchill persistently argued the case for taking the German threat seriously and for the need to prevent the Luftwaffe from securing parity with the Royal Air Force. In this he was supported by a small but devoted personal following, in particular the gifted, curmudgeonly Oxford physics professor Frederick A. Lindemann (later Lord Cherwell), who enabled him to build up at Chartwell a private intelligence centre the information of which was often superior to that of the government. When Baldwin became prime minister in 1935, he persisted in excluding Churchill from office but gave him the exceptional

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privilege of membership in the secret committee on air-defense research, thus enabling him to work on some vital national problems. But Churchill had little success in his efforts to impart urgency to Baldwin’s administration. The crisis that developed when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 found Churchill ill prepared, divided between a desire to build up the League of Nations around the concept of collective security and the fear that collective action would drive Benito Mussolini into the arms of Hitler. The Spanish Civil War (1936–39) found him convinced of the virtues of nonintervention, first as a supporter and later as a critic of Francisco Franco. Such vagaries of judgment in fact reflected the overwhelming priority he accorded to one issue—the containment of German aggressiveness. At home there was one grievous, characteristic, romanticmisreading of the political and public mood, when, in Edward VIII’s abdication crisis of 1936, he vainly opposed Baldwin by a public championing of the King’s cause.

When Neville Chamberlain succeeded Baldwin, the gulf between the Cassandra-like Churchill and the Conservative leaders widened. Repeatedly the accuracy of Churchill’s information on Germany’s aggressive plans and progress was confirmed by events; repeatedly his warnings were ignored. Yet his handful of followers remained small; politically, Chamberlain felt secure in ignoring them. As German pressure mounted on Czechoslovakia, Churchill without success urged the government to effect a joint declaration of purpose by Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. When the Munich Agreement with Hitler was made in September 1938, sacrificing Czechoslovakia to the Nazis, Churchill laid bare its implications, insisting that it represented “a total and unmitigated defeat.” In March 1939 Churchill and his group pressed for a truly national coalition, and, at last, sentiment in the country, recognizing him as the nation’s spokesman, began to agitate for his return to office. As long as peace lasted, Chamberlain ignored all such persuasions.

In a sense, the whole of Churchill’s previous career had been a preparation for wartime leadership. An intense patriot; a romantic believer in his country’s greatness and its historic role in Europe, the empire, and the world; a devotee of action who thrived on challenge and crisis; a student, historian, and veteran of war; a statesman who was master of the arts of politics, despite or because of long political exile; a man of iron constitution, inexhaustible energy, and total concentration, he seemed to have been nursing all his faculties so that when the moment came he could lavish them on the salvation of Britain and the values he believed Britain stood for in the world.

On September 3, 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Chamberlain appointed Churchill to his old post in charge of the Admiralty. The signal went out to the fleet: “Winston is back.” On September 11 Churchill received a congratulatory note from Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt and replied over the signature “Naval Person”; a memorable correspondence had begun. At once Churchill’s restless energy began to be felt throughout the administration, as his ministerial colleagues as well as his own department received the first of those pungent minutes that kept the remotest corners of British wartime government aware that their shortcomings were liable to detection and penalty. All his efforts, however, failed to energize the torpid Anglo-French entente during the so-called “phony war,” the period of stagnation in the European war before the German seizure of Norway in April 1940. The failure of the Narvik and Trondheim expeditions, dependent as they were on naval support, could not but evoke some memories of the Dardanelles and Gallipoli, so fateful for Churchill’s reputation in World War I. This time,

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however, it was Chamberlain who was blamed, and it was Churchill who endeavoured to defend him. As prime minister

The German invasion of the Low Countries, on May 10, 1940, came like a hammer blow on top of the Norwegian fiasco. Chamberlain resigned. He wanted Lord Halifax, the foreign secretary, to succeed him, but Halifax wisely declined. It was obvious that Churchill alone could unite and lead the nation, since the Labour Party, for all its old distrust of Churchill’s anti-Socialism, recognized the depth of his commitment to the defeat of Hitler. A coalition government was formed that included all elements save the far left and right. It was headed by a war cabinet of five, which included at first both Chamberlain and Halifax—a wise but also magnanimous recognition of the numerical strength of Chamberlainite conservatism—and two Labour leaders, Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood. The appointment of Ernest Bevin, a tough trade-union leader, as minister of labour guaranteed cooperation on this vital front. Offers were made to Lloyd George, but he declined them. Churchill himself took, in addition to the leadership of the House of Commons, the Ministry of Defence. The pattern thus set was maintained throughout the war despite many changes of personnel. The cabinet became an agency of swift decision, and the government that it controlled remained representative of all groups and parties. The Prime Minister concentrated on the actual conduct of the war. He delegated freely but also probed and interfered continuously, regarding nothing as too large or too small for his attention. The main function of the chiefs of the armed services became that of containing his great dynamism, as a governor regulates a powerful machine; but, though he prodded and pressed them continuously, he never went against their collective judgment. In all this, Parliament played a vital part. If World War II was strikingly free from the domestic political intrigues of World War I, it was in part because Churchill, while he always dominated Parliament, never neglected it or took it for granted. For him, Parliament was an instrument of public persuasion on which he played like a master and from which he drew strength and comfort.

On May 13 Churchill faced the House of Commons for the first time as prime minister. He warned members of the hard road ahead—“I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat”—and committed himself and the nation to all-out war until victory was achieved. Behind this simplicity of aim lay an elaborate strategy to which he adhered with remarkable consistency throughout the war. Hitler’s Germany was the enemy; nothing should distract the entire British people from the task of effecting its defeat. Anyone who shared this goal, even a Communist, was an acceptable ally. The indispensable ally in this endeavour, whether formally at war or not, was the United States. The cultivation and maintenance of its support was a central principle of Churchill’s thought. Yet whether the United States became a belligerent partner or not, the war must be won without a repetition for Britain of the catastrophic bloodlettings of World War I; and Europe at the conflict’s end must be reestablished as a viable, self-determining entity, while the Commonwealth should remain as a continuing, if changing, expression of Britain’s world role. Provided these essentials were preserved, Churchill, for all his sense of history, was surprisingly willing to sacrifice any national shibboleths—of orthodox economics, of social convention, of military etiquette or tradition—on the altar of victory. Thus, within a couple of weeks of this crusading anti-Socialist’s assuming power, Parliament passed legislation placing all “persons, their services and their property at the disposal of the Crown”—granting the government in effect the most sweeping emergency powers in modern British history. he effort was designed to match the gravity of the hour. After the Allied defeat and the evacuation of the

41

battered British forces from Dunkirk, Churchill warned Parliament that invasion was a real risk to be met with total and confident defiance. Faced with the swift collapse of France, Churchill made repeated personal visits to the French government in an attempt to keep France in the war, culminating in the celebrated offer of Anglo-French union on June 16, 1940. When all this failed, the Battle of Britain began on July 10. Here Churchill was in his element, in the firing line—at fighter headquarters, inspecting coast defenses or antiaircraft batteries, visiting scenes of bomb damage or victims of the “blitz,” smoking his cigar, giving his V sign, or broadcasting frank reports to the nation, laced with touches of grim Churchillian humour and splashed with Churchillian rhetoric. The nation took him to its heart; he and they were one in “their finest hour.”

Other painful and more debatable decisions fell to Churchill. The French fleet was attacked to prevent its surrender intact to Hitler. A heavy commitment was made to the concentrated bombing of Germany. At the height of the invasion threat, a decision was made to reinforce British strength in the eastern Mediterranean. Forces were also sent to Greece, a costly sacrifice; the evacuation of Crete looked like another Gallipoli, and Churchill came under heavy fire in Parliament.

In these hard days the exchange of U.S. overage destroyers for British Caribbean bases and the response, by way of lend-lease, to Churchill’s boast “Give us the tools and we’ll finish the job” were especially heartening to one who believed in a “mixing-up” of the English-speaking democracies. The unspoken alliance was further cemented in August 1941 by the dramatic meeting between Churchill and Roosevelt in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, which produced the Atlantic Charter, a statement of common principles between the United States and Britain.

Although Churchill laid down the burdens of office amid the plaudits of the nation and the world, he remained in the House of Commons (declining a peerage) to become “father of the house” and even, in 1959, to fight and win yet another election. He also published another major work, A History of the English- Speaking Peoples, four volumes (1956–58). But his health declined, and his public appearances became rare. On April 9, 1963, he was accorded the unique distinction of having an honorary U.S. citizenship conferred on him by an act of Congress. His death at his London home in January 1965 was followed by a state funeral at which almost the whole world paid tribute. He was buried in the family grave in Bladon churchyard, Oxfordshire.

In any age and time a man of Churchill’s force and talents would have left his mark on events and society. A gifted journalist, a biographer and historian of classic proportions, an amateur painter of talent, an orator of rare power, a soldier of courage and distinction, Churchill, by any standards, was a man of rare versatility. But it was as a public figure that he excelled. His experience of office was second only to Gladstone’s, and his gifts as a parliamentarian hardly less, but it was as a wartime leader that he left his indelible imprint on the history of Britain and on the world. In this capacity, at the peak of his powers, he united in a harmonious whole his liberal convictions about social reform, his deep conservative devotion to the legacy of his nation’s history, his unshakable resistance to tyranny from the right or from the left, and his capacity to look beyond Britain to the larger Atlantic community and the ultimate unity of Europe. A romantic, he was also a realist, with an exceptional sensitivity to tactical considerations at the same time as he unswervingly adhered to his strategical objectives. A

42

fervent patriot, he was also a citizen of the world. An indomitable fighter, he was a generous victor. Even in the transition from war to peace, a phase in which other leaders have often stumbled, he revealed, at an advanced age, a capacity to learn and to adjust that was in many respects superior to that of his younger colleagues.

ANNEXES

Analyse the two CV models you have below and try to make your own example:

EuropassCurriculum Vitae

Insert photograph. Remove heading if not relevant (see instructions)

Personal informationFirst name(s) / Surname(s) First name(s) Surname(s) (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Address(es) House number, street name, postcode, city, country (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Telephone(s) (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Mobile: (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Fax(es) (remove if not relevant, see instructions)E-mail (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Nationality (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Date of birth (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Gender (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Desired employment / Occupational field

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Work experience

Dates Add separate entries for each relevant post occupied, starting from the most recent. (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

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Occupation or position heldMain activities and

responsibilitiesName and address of employer

Type of business or sector

Education and training

Dates Add separate entries for each relevant course you have completed, starting from the most recent. (remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Title of qualification awardedPrincipal subjects/occupational

skills coveredName and type of organisation

providing education and training

Level in national or international classification

(remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Personal skills and competences

Mother tongue(s) Specify mother tongue (if relevant add other mother tongue(s), see instructions)

Other language(s)Self-assessment Understanding Speaking Writing

European level (*) Listening Reading Spoken interaction

Spoken production

LanguageLanguage

(*) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

Social skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Organisational skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Technical skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Computer skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Artistic skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Other skills and competences

Replace this text by a description of these competences and indicate where they were acquired. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

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Driving licence State here whether you hold a driving licence and if so for which categories of vehicle. (Remove if not relevant, see instructions)

Additional information Include here any other information that may be relevant, for example contact persons, references, etc. (Remove heading if not relevant, see instructions)

Annexes List any items attached. (Remove heading if not relevant, see instructions)

EuropassCurriculum

Vitae

Personal informationFirst name(s) /

Surname(s) Palita Elena

Address(es) 56, 9 Mai str., Tg-Jiu, RomaniaTelephone(s) Mobile phone 0723162997

E-mail Drelciuc_elena@yahoo.com

Nationality Romanian

Date of birth 17.02.1985

Work experience

Dates 16.02.2009 - presentOccupation or position

heldTeacher of English and French

Main activities and responsibilities

Teaching practical courses of English and French for technical faculties

Name and address of employer

“Constantin Brancusi” University, Tg-Jiu

Dates 2008 - 2009Occupation or position

heldEnglish teacher

Main activities and responsibilities

Teaching English to high school students and to those from arts and crafts domains

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Name and address of employer

“Henri Coanda” High School, Tg - Jiu

Dates 2006Occupation or position

heldCollaborator teacher of English

Main activities and responsibilities

Teaching English to employees of local industrial companies (technical vocabulary, modern means of communication)

Name and address of employer

CEPECA Consulting Centre, Bucharest

Dates 2005Occupation or position

heldCollaborator assistant for the Communication and team work course

Main activities and responsibilities

Helping the teacher explain and exemplify the modern approach to communication and team work

Name and address of employer

CEPECA Consulting Centre, Bucharest

Education and training

Dates 2008Title of qualification

awardedCertificate of participation to “The Festival of your Chances”

Principal subjects/occupational skills

covered

Study and analysis of the main methods and resources to guide students to an appropriate job choice

Name and type of organisation providing education and training

The CountySchool Inspectorate, Gorj

Dates 2004 - 2008Title of qualification

awardedPhilology graduation diploma

Principal subjects/occupational skills

covered

English, French, English Literature, French Literature, British Civilisation, French Culture and Civilisation, Compared Literature, Pedagogy

Name and type of organisation providing education and training

The University Of West, Timisoara

Dates 2006

Title of qualification awarded

English Certificate - Toefl Institutional

Principal subjects/occupational

skills covered

English, communication and free speech, reading comprehension, grammar, vocabulary and creative writing.

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Name and type of organisation providing education and training

OSI, New York (Bucharest)

Dates 2005

Title of qualification awarded

Graduation Diploma of the Communication and team work course

Principal subjects/occupational

skills covered

Communication engineering, Human Resources Management, Obtaining basic information, The art of forming a team, Solving problems management, Public and administration Relations

Name and type of organisation providing education and training

CEPECA Consulting Center, Bucharest

Dates 2004

Title of qualification awarded

French Professional Certificate

Principal subjects/occupational

skills covered

French; teaching French to beginner pupils

Name and type of organisation providing education and training

The CountySchool Inspectorate, Gorj

Dates 2004

Title of qualification awarded

French Culture and Civilization Certificate

Principal subjects/occupational

skills covered

French, French culture and civilization

Name and type of organisation providing education and training

Embassy of France, Bucharest

Dates 2000 - 2004

Title of qualification awarded

High School graduation diploma

Principal subjects/occupational

skills covered

French, English, Romanian, History

Name and type of organisation providing education and training

“Spiru Haret” High School, Tg-Jiu

Personal skills and competences

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Mother tongue(s) Romanian

Other language(s)Self-assessment Understanding Speaking Writing

European level (*) Listening Reading Spoken interaction Spoken production

French Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced

English Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced Advanced

German Beginner Beginner Beginner Beginner Beginner

Spanish Beginner Beginner Beginner Beginner Beginner

Social skills and competences

Communication and team work abilities acquired in my professional and educational experiences..

Organisational skills and competences

Organisation abilities acquired in multi cultural environments within the non governmental student organizations.

Computer skills and competences

Microsoft Office, competences acquired in the educational and professional experiences.

Driving licence

B category

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FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS

One of the most difficult things about letter writing is knowing how to adapt your writing for formal or informal situations. Some situations (such as applying for a job, communicating with an important client, requesting action from a boss, etc) are likely to be more formal than emailing a colleague.

There are many different factors that affect formality, such as sentence length, use of pronouns and passives, and even choice of punctuation. But vocabulary choice is perhaps the biggest style marker. Generally speaking, longer words and Latin origin verbs are formal, while phrasal verbs and idioms are informal. There are also many formal – informal style equivalents that you can use in your writing.

Here is a selection of common informal / formal equivalents.

(Informal writing / formal writing)

a bit / a little need / requirepromise / assure get smaller / decreasesend back / return help / assistso / consequently keep / retainthing / matter (or issue) let / permitunhappy / dissatisfied make sure / ensurewant / wish many / numerousa lot / a great dealabout / approximatelyabout / concerningask about / enquireask for / requestbig / majorbigger / greaterbut / howeverbuy / purchase

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choose / selectearlier / previousfind / locateget / obtain (or acquire)

Which phrase or type of language would you find in a formal letter? Which phrase or type of language would you find in an informal letter? Put the letter 'F' next to those phrases or language types that are used in formal letters and 'I' next to those used in informal letters.

I am sorry to inform you that... phrasal verbs I am very grateful for... Why don't we... I will not be able to attend the... idioms and slang contracted verb forms like we've, I'm, etc.Give my regards to... I look forward to hearing from you... Let me know as soon as... short sentences

Dear Tom, Dear Ms Smithers, Best wishes, Yours faithfully, I'm really sorry I... Unfortunately, we will have to postpone... We had a little bit of luck... Our computers are used for a variety... I use my pencil sharper for... polite phrases fewer passive verb forms

Look at the phrases 1-11 and match them with a purpose A-K

1. That reminds me,... 2. Why don't we... 3. I'd better get going... 4. Thanks for your letter... 5. Please let me know... 6. I'm really sorry... 7. Love, 8. Could you do something for me? 9. Write soon... 10. Did you know that.. 11. I'm happy to hear that...

1. to finish the letter 2. to apologize 3. to thank the person for writing 4. to begin the letter 5. to change the subject 6. to ask a favor 7. before signing the letter 8. to suggest or invite 9. to ask for a reply 10. to ask for a response 11. to share some information

Choose one of the three subjects and write a letter to a friend or family member

1. Write a letter to a friend you haven't seen or spoken to in a long time. Tell him / her about what you have been doing and ask them how they are and what they have been up to recently.

2. Write a letter to a cousin and invite them to your wedding. Give them some details about your future husband / wife.

3. Write a letter to a friend you know has been having some problems. Ask him / her how she / he is doing and if you can help.

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LETTER OF APPLICATION

Your StreetAddressCity, State Zip CodeTelephone NumberE-mail Address

Month, Day, Year

Mr./Ms./Dr. FirstName LastNameTitleName of OrganizationStreet or P.O.BoxAddressCity, State Zip Code

Dear Mr./Ms./Dr. LastName:

Opening paragraph: State why you are writing; how you learned of the organization or position, and basic information about yourself.

2nd paragraph: Tell why you are interested in the employer or type of work the employer does (Simply stating that you are interested does not tell why, and can sound like a form letter). Demonstrate that you know enough about the employer or position to relate your background to the employer or position. Mention specific qualifications which make you a good fit for the employer’s needs. (Focus on what you can do for the employer, not what the employer can do for you.) This is an opportunity to explain in more detail relevant items in your resume. Refer to the fact that your resume is enclosed. Mention other enclosures if such are required to apply for a position.

3rd paragraph: Indicate that you would like the opportunity to interview for a position or to talk with the employer to learn more about their opportunities or hiring plans. State what you will do to follow up, such as telephone the employer within two weeks. If you will be in the employer’s location and could offer to schedule a visit, indicate when. State that you would be glad to provide the

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employer with any additional information needed. Thank the employer for her/his consideration.

Sincerely,

(Your handwritten signature [on hard copy])

Your name typed(In case of e-mail, your full contact info appears below your printed name [instead of at the top, as for hard copy], and of course there is no handwritten signature)

Enclosure(s) (refers to resume, etc.)

(Note: the contents of your letter might best be arranged into four paragraphs. Consider what you need to say and use good writing style).

EXAMPLE:

1000 Terrace View Apts.Blacksburg, VA24060

(540) 555-4523stevemason@vt.edu

March 25, 2010

Ms. Janice WilsonPersonnel DirectorAnderson Construction Company 3507 Rockville PikeRockville, MD20895

Dear Ms. Wilson:

I read in the March 24th Washington Post classified section of your need for a Civil Engineer or Building Construction graduate for one of your Washington, DC, area sites. I will be returning to the Washington area after

52

graduation in May and believe that I have the necessary credentials for the project.

Every summer for the last five years I have worked at various levels in the construction industry. As indicated on my enclosed resume, I have worked as a general laborer, and moved up to skilled carpentry work, and last summer served as assistant construction manager on a two million dollar residential construction project.

In addition to this practical experience, I will complete requirements for my B.S. in Building Construction in May.  As you may know, Virginia Tech is one of the few universities in the country that offers such a specialized degree for the construction industry. I am confident that my degree, along with my years of construction industry experience, make me an excellent candidate for your job.

The Anderson Construction Company projects are familiar to me, and my aspiration is to work for a company that has your excellent reputation.  I would welcome the opportunity to interview with you. I will be in the Washington area during the week of April 12th and would be available to speak with you at that time. In the next week to ten days I will contact you to answer any questions you may have.

Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely,(handwritten signature) Jesse Mason

Enclosure

 

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Letter of inquiry about employment possibilities, e-mail version

Subject: (logical to recipient!) Inquiry about software engineering position after completion of M.S. in computer engineering

December 12, 2009

Mr. Robert BurnsPresident, Template DivisionMEGATEK Corporation9845 Technical WayArlington, VA22207burns@megatek.com

Dear Mr. Burns:

Via online research in Hokies4Hire through Career Services at Virginia Tech, I learned of MEGATEK. Next May I will complete my master of science in computer engineering. From my research on your web site, I believe there would be a good fit between my skills and interests and your needs. I am interested in a software engineering position upon completion of my degree.

As a graduate student, I am one of six members on a software development team in which we are writing a computer-aided aircraft design program for NASA. My responsibilities include designing, coding, and testing of a graphical portion of the program which requires the use of ZX-WWG for graphics input and output. I have a strong background in CAD, software development, and engineering, and believe that these skills would benefit the designing and manufacturing aspects of template software.  Enclosed is my resume with further background information.

My qualifications equip me to make a contribution to the project areas in which your division of MEGATEK is expanding efforts.  I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss a position with you, and will contact you in a week or ten days to answer any questions you may have and to see if you need any other information from me.  Thank you for your consideration.

Sincerely,Morgan Stevens123 Ascot Lane

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Blacksburg, VA24060(540) 555-2556mstevens@vt.edu

Information seeking letter, hard copy version

23 Roanoke StreetBlacksburg, VA24060

(540) 555-1123K.Walker@vt.edu

October 23, 2010

Mr. James G. WebbDelon Hampton & Associates800 K Street, N.W., Suite 720Washington, DC 20001-8000

Dear Mr. Webb:

Next May I will complete my bachelor’s degree in Architecture at Virginia Tech, and am researching employment opportunities in the Washington area. I obtained your name from Professor (lastname) who teaches my professional seminar class this semester. S/he indicated that you had volunteered to provide highly motivated graduating students with career advice, and I hope that your schedule will permit you to allow me to ask for some of your time and advice. I am particularly interested in historic preservation and have done research on the DHA website to learn that your firm does work in this area. I am also interested in learning how the architects in your firm began their careers. My resume is enclosed simply to give you some information about my background and project work.

Within two weeks I will call you to arrange a time to speak to you by telephone or perhaps visit your office if that would be convenient. I will be in the Washington area during the week of November 22. I very much appreciate your time and consideration of my request, and I look forward to talking with you.

Sincerely,(handwritten signature)Kristen Walker

Encl.

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SMALL GRAMMAR COMPEDIUM

List of Irregular VerbsInfinitive Past Past participle Translation

to abide abode abode a astepta, a sta, a locui

to arise arose arisen a se ridicato awake awoke awoke a se trezi to be was, were been a fi to bear bore born a se naste to beat beat beaten a bateto become became become a devenito begin began begun a începe to behold beheld beheld a zări, a vedea to bend bent bent a îndoi to beseech besought besought a implorato bear bore born a se naşte to bet bet bet a paria to bid bade bidden a oferi, a licitato bind bound bound a lega to bite bit bitten a muşca to bleed bled bled a sângera to bless blest blest a binecuvânta to blow blew blown a sulfato break broke broken a spargeto breed bred bred a creşte to bring brought brought a aduceto broadcast broadcast broadcast a transmite prin radioto burn burnt (burned) burnt (burned) a ardeto burst burst burst a izbucni

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to buy bought bought a cumpara to can could been able to a putea, a fi posibilto cast cast cast a arunca to catch caught caught a prinde to choose chose chosen a alege to cleave cleft cleft a despica to cling clung clung a se lipi to come came come a veni to cost cost cost a costa to creep crept crept a se târâ to cut cut cut a taia to deal dealt dealt a se ocupa, a trata afaceri to dig dug dug a săpa to do did done a face to draw drew drawn a desena to dream dreamt (dreamed) dreamt (dreamed) a visa to drink drank drunk a bea to drive drove driven a conduce maşina to dwell dwelt dwelt a locui, a ramâne, a insista to eat ate eaten a mânca to fall fell fallen a cădea to feed fed fed a hrăni to feel felt felt a simţi to fight fought fought a lupta to find found found a găsi to fly flew flown a zbura to forbid forbade forbidden a interzice to forecast forecast forecast a prevedea to foresee foresaw foreseen a prevedea to foretell foretold foretold a prezice to forget forgot forgotten a uita to forgive forgave forgiven a ierta to forgo forwent forgone a renunţa la,

a da uitării forsake forsook forsaken a părăsi to freeze froze frozen a îgheţa to get got got a primi

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to give gave given a da to go went gone a merge to grind ground ground a măcina to grow grew grown a creşte to hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged) a spânzura to have had had a avea to hear heard heard a auzi to hide hid hidden a ascunde to hit hit hit a lovi to hold held held a ţine to hurt hurt hurt a răni to keep kept kept a păstra to kneel knelt knelt a îngenunchia to knit knit knit a tricota to know knew known a şti, a cunoaşteto lay laid laid a aşeza to lead led led a conduce to lean leant leant a se sprijini de to learn learnt (learned) learnt (learned) a învata to leave left left a lăsa, a părăsi to lend lent lent a împrumuta (cuiva)to let let let a permite to lie lay lain a fi culcat to light lit lit a aprinde to lose lost lost a pierde to make made made a face to mean meant meant a însemna to meet met met a întâlni to misgive misgave misgiven a inspira neîcredere to mislead misled misled a induce în eroare to mistake mistook mistaken a înţelege greşit to outdo outdid outdone a întrece to overcome overcame overcome a învinge to overdo overdid overdone a face exces to pay paid paid a plăti to put put put a pune to read read read a citi

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to rend rent rent a sfăşia, a rupe to ride rode ridden a călări to ring rang rung a suna to rise rose risen a se ridica to run ran run a alerga to say said said a spune to see saw seen a vedea to seek sought sought a căuta to sell sold sold a vinde to send sent sent a trimite to set set set a fixa, a regla to sew sewed sewn (sewed) a coase to shake shook shaken a scutura,

a clătina to shave shaved shaven a se bărbieri to shed shed shed a vărsa (lacrimi) to shine shone shone a străluci to shoe shod shod a incălţa,

a potcovi to shoot shot shot a împuşca to show showed shown a arăta to shrink shrank shrunk a se strânge to shut shut shut a închide to sing sang sung a cânta to sink sank sunk a se scufunda to sit sat sat a sta (pe scaun)to slay slew slain a ucide to sleep slept slept a dormi to slide slid slid a aluneca to sling slung slung a azvârli to slit slit slit a crăpa,

a despica to smell smelt (smelled) smelt (smelled) a mirosi to smite smote smitten a lovi to sow sowed sown a semăna to speak spoke spoken a vorbi to speed sped sped a accelera,

a goni

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to spell spelt (spelled) spelt (spelled) a pronunţa literă cu literă to spend spent spent a petrece,

a chefui to spill spilt spilt a vărsa to spin spun spun a toarce,

a se roti to spit spat spat a scuipa to split split split a despica to spoil spoilt spoilt a strica to spread spread spread a întinde to spring sprang sprung a sări, a ţâşni to stand stood stodd a sta în picioare to steal stole stolen a fura to stick stuck stuck a înfige, a se lipi to sting stung stung a înţepa to stink stank stunk a mirosi urât to strike struck struck a lovi to string strung strung a înşira,

a încorda to strive strove striven a se strădui to swear swore sworn a jura to sweep swept swept a mătura to swim swam swum a înnota to swing swung swung a se legăna to take took taken a lua to teach taught taught a învăţa, a preda to tear tore torn a rupe, a sfăşia to tell told told a spuneto think thought thought a gândi, a crede to throw threw thrown a arunca to thrust thrust thrust a îmbrânci to tread trod trodden a călca to underlie underlay underlain a susţine to understand understood understood a înţelge to upset upset upset a supăra to wake woke woken a se trezi to wear wore worn a purta to weave wove woven a ţese

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to wet wet wet a uda to win won won a câştiga to wind wound wound a se răsuci to wring wrung wrung a frânge,

a smulge to write wrote written a scrie

'IF' SENTENCES AND THE 'UNREAL' PAST

IF AND THE CONDITIONAL

There are four main types of 'if' sentences in English:

1.The 'zero' conditional, where the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present:

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE If + simple presentIf you heat iceIf it rains

simple presentit melts.you get wet

In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible. They are often used to refer to general truths.

2. The Type 1 conditional, where the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSEIf + simple presentIf it rainsIf you don't hurry

Simple futureyou will get wetwe will miss the train.

In these sentences, the time is the present orfuture and the situation is real. They refer to a possible condition and its probable result.

3. The Type 2 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:

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'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE If + simple pastIf it rainedIf you went to bed earlier

Present conditionalyou would get wetyou wouldn't be so tired.

In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result.

4. The Type 3 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE If + past perfectIf it had rainedIf you had worked harder

Perfect conditionalyou would have got wetyou would have passed the exam.

In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed, and they refer to an unreal past conditionand its probablepast result.

A further type if 'if' sentence exists, where Type 2 and Type 3 are mixed. The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE If + past perfectIf I had worked harder at schoolIf we had looked at the map

Present conditionalI would have a better job now.we wouldn't be lost.

In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and presentin the main clause. They refer to anunreal past condition and its probable result in the present.

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Reported speech

DefinitionReported speech is often also called indirect speech. When we use reported speech, we are usually talking about the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too. For example:

"I'm going to the cinema".He said he was going to the cinema.

Basic tense chart

The tenses generally move backwards in this way (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

present simpleI'm a teacher.

past simpleHe said he was a teacher

present continuousI'm having lunch with my parents.

past continuous.He said he was having lunch with his parents.

present perfect simpleI've been to France three times.

past perfect simpleHe said he had been to France three times.

present perfect continuousI've been working very hard.

past perfect continuousHe said he had been working very hard.

past simpleI bought a new car.

past perfectHe said he had bought a new car.

past continuous past perfect continuous

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It was raining earlier.He said it had been raining earlier.

past perfectThe play had started when I arrived.

past perfectNO CHANGE POSSIBLE

past perfect continuousI'd already been living in London for five years.

past perfect continuousNO CHANGE POSSIBLE

Other verb forms

Other verb forms also sometimes change:

willI'll come and see you soon.

wouldHe said he would come and see me soon.

canI can swim under water for two minutes.

couldHe said he could swim under water for two minutes.

must All tickets must be bought in advance.

had to He said that all tickets had to be bought in advance.

shall What shall we do about it?

should He asked what we should do about it.

may May I smoke?

might He asked if he might smoke.

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Things are slightly more complicated with imperatives.

positive imperative Shut up!

tell + infinitive He told me to shut up.

negative imperative Don't do that again!

tell + not + infinitive He told me not to do it again.

imperatives as requests Please give me some money.

ask + infinitive He asked me to give him some money.

He said it had started raining heavily when he left work (is wrong because it means it was already raining when he left work)

He said it started raining heavily when he left work (is the best version because it is accurate, short, and there is no confusion because of the time context)

Generally speaking, the past simple and continuous don't always need to be changed if:

there is a time context which makes everything clear,

and/or

there is another action already using the past perfect, which might alter the meaning or make things confusing.

Time and place references

Time and place references often have to change:

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now Then

today that day

here There

this That

this week that week

tomorrowthe following day the next day the day after

next weekthe following week the next week the week after

yesterdaythe previous day the day before

last weekthe previous week the week before

agopreviously before

2 weeks ago2 weeks previously 2 weeks before

tonight that night

last Saturdaythe previous Saturday the Saturday before

next Saturday the following Saturdaythe next Saturday

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the Saturday afterthat Saturday

Examples:

I went to the theatre last night. He said he had gone to the theatre the night before.

I'm having a party next weekend. He said he was having a party the next weekend.

I'm staying here until next week. He said he was staying there until the following week.

I came over from London 3 years ago. He said he had come over from London 3 years before.

Personal pronouns

You also need to be careful with personal pronouns. They need to be changed according to the situation. You need to know the context. For example, there is possible confusion when you try to change reported speech to direct speech:

She said she'd been waiting for hours.(Is she one person or two different people?)

I told them they would have to ask permission.(Are we talking about two groups of people or only one?)

MODAL VERBS-

CAN / COULD / MAY / MIGHT / MUST / SHALL / SHOULD / OUGHT TO / WILL / WOULD

Modal Example Uses

Can They can control their own budgets. Ability / Possibility

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We can’t fix it.

Can I smoke here?

Can you help me?

Inability / Impossibility

Asking for permission

Request Could Could I borrow your dictionary?

Could you say it again more slowly?

We could try to fix it ourselves.

I think we could have another Gulf War.

He gave up his old job so he could work for us.

Asking for permission.

Request

Suggestion

Future possibility

Ability in the past May May I have another cup of coffee?

China may become a major economic power.

Asking for permission

Future possibility Might We'd better phone tomorrow, they might be eating

their dinner now.

They might give us a 10% discount.

Present possibility

Future possibility

Must We must say good-bye now.

They mustn’t disrupt the work more than necessary.

Necessity / Obligation

Prohibition Ought to We ought to employ a professional writer. Saying what’s right or correct

Shall

(More common in

the UK than the US)

Shall I help you with your luggage?

Shall we say 2.30 then?

Shall I do that or will you?

Offer

Suggestion

Asking what to do

Should We should sort out this problem at once.

I think we should check everything again.

Profits should increase next year.

Saying what’s right or correct

Recommending action

Uncertain prediction Will I can’t see any taxis so I’ll walk.

I'll do that for you if you like.

Instant decisions

Offer

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I’ll get back to you first thing on Monday.

Profits will increase next year.

Promise

Certain prediction Would Would you mind if I brought a colleague with me?

Would you pass the salt please?

Would you mind waiting a moment?

"Would three o`clock suit you?" - "That’d be fine."

Would you like to play golf this Friday?

"Would you prefer tea or coffee?" - "I’d like tea please."

Asking for permission

Request

Request

Making arrangements

Invitation

Preferences

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Practice your grammar

1. Fill in with a/an:

a) …. Armchairb) …. Envelopec) …. optimistic persond) …. popular studente) …. English wordf) …. Engineerg) …. private universityh) …. calm teacheri) …. interesting subjectj) …. easy language

2. Put in a/an, the where necessary and explain your choice:

k) This is … person who pretends to be your mother.l) My friend has …. Very beautiful wife.m) Me and my friends, we’re going to …. New York next week.n) … cats are very cute pets.o) … flat my cousin lives in is very modern.p) My parents usually have … lunch with me at noon.q) He is going to stand for … Parliament at … elections next year.r) … chemistry is my favorite subject.s) I haven’t seen Susan for … very long time.t) My husband loves skating in … winter.

3. Find and correct the mistakes from the following sentences. Some of them are correct.

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l) The man who lives next door is doctor.m) Architects who designed this block won a prize.n) Sugar is bad for your health.o) The oil I bought yesterday is gone.p) This is very good coffee.q) She’s Catholic and he’s Anglican.r) A Mrs. Foley s waiting to see you.s) I’ve got headache and cold.t) Freedom of the individual is worth fighting for.u) Books on the shelf are yours.v) Who’s knocking at the door? It’s the doctor.w) Mum, pass me salt please!

4. Fill in with much, many, a little, a few, a lot:

a) There is too…………..milk in the fridge.b) There are too…………… eggs on the table.c) My friend’s got…………….money.d) I want to know how……………that blouse is. I haven’t got money.e) There’s only……………..time left before the competition.f) You need……………of sugar for this cake.g) ……………. of the students came to my lecture yesterday.h) My friends have……………..plans for the summer.i) Not …………….is happening in our office at the moment.j) It’s too much soup! I want…………less please!k) There are………….people in the shop today.

5. Circle the correct answer:

a) My father paid ...................... money for that car.a) many b) a few c) a lot of

b) She drinks her coffee with………………….sugar.

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a) a little b) a c) the

c) . …………… Sunday is the best day for having a walk.

a) the b) - c) a

d) My son has never seen so …………………..snow before.

a) many b) much c) a lot of

6. Complete the following sentences using verbs in the Present Simple form:

a) Susan…………………..to the seaside every summer.b) Mrs. Hall………………………in a school as a teacher.c) Her children……………………in the park every day.d) Luke usually…………………….the homework on his own.e) He………………………..French at OxfordUniversity.f) Sarah and John………………….cards every evening.g) Here…………………the postman.h) Water………………….at 100° C.i) He………………….about fifty cigarettes a day.j) I…………………forward to receiving your letter.

7. Translate into Romanian the following sentences:

a) Gases expand when heated.b) The exhibition opens on January 1st and closes on January 31st.c) I assume everything will be all right.d) I hear there are roadworks in the street again.e) This train leaves tomorrow morning.

8. Translate into English the following sentences:

a) Prietenii fiului meu locuiesc langa mare.b) Eu ma trezesc in fiecare dimineata la ora 7.c) Traim vremuri grele.d) Sora mea poarta ochelari.e) Concertul incepe la 7.30 si se termina la 9.30.

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9. Put into sentences the following verbs using the 3rd person singular:

to do, to miss, to mix, to catch, to push, to cry, to buy, to say, to obey

10. Write the plural of the following nouns:

a) one pencil – three…b) one book – two…c) one cat – five…d) one student – six…e) one cup – seven…f) one plate – ten…g) one computer – twelve…h) one pen – four…i) one door – nine…j) one window – eight…

11. Write the plural of the following nouns:

a) one toy – six…b) one family – two…c) one party – three…d) one boy – six…e) one monkey – five…f) one raspberry – nine…g) one cherry – eight…h) one watch – six…i) one boss – three…j) one fox – six…k) one potato – ten…l) one radio – two…m) one leaf – eleven…n) one knife – six…o) one bus – twelve…p) one wife – four…q) one glass – nine…r) one roof – two…s) one proof – five…t) one box – seven…

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12. Write the plural of the following nouns:

a) one child – ten…b) one mouse – seven…c) one woman – two…d) one man – five…e) one policeman – three…f) one ox – nine…g) one sheep – six…h) one fish – eight…i) one deer – eleven…j) one goose – four…k) one foot – two…l) one craft – three…m) one scarf – nine…n) one datum – three…o) one phenomenon – two…

13. Write the nouns in the plural in the correct column and then read them out:

Noun /s/ /z/ /iz/

cherry

video

hand

computer

notebook

box

chief

pencil

glass

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14. Correct the following sentences:

a) The physician will be able to give you some advice/some advices.

b) For good health we should eat a few vegetables/a few vegetable every day,

as well as a little fruit/a little fruits.

c) I’d love a coffee/ coffee, please.

d) I want to eat some fish/fishes. I’m interested in studying these fish/fishes.

e) The Council will remove the unwanted furnitures/the pieces of unwanted

furniture.

15. Decide if the following words are countable or not and afterwards put them into sentences to prove your opinion:

a) information…b) soap…c) beef…d) oil…e) water…f) coffee…g) furniture…h) advice…i) sugar…j) fish

16. Make the following uncountable nouns countable using partitives:

a) … meatb) … advicec) … informationd) … chocolatee) … jamf) … newsg) … milkh) … sugari) … vinegarj) … cheese

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k) … flourl) … team) … breadn) … papero) … luckp) … coffeeq) … oilr) … soaps) … woodt) … ham

17. In each sentence, either one or both of the forms in italics is correct. Tick the sentences where both forms are correct and underline the correct form in the others:

a) Mumps is/are not a problem if contracted in childhood.

b) “The Three Kings” was/were a great success.

c) Have thought about doing gymnastics? I think it’s/they’re very good for you.

d) The police are/is taking care of this area of the town.

e) The United Nations is/are sending a special envoy to the conflict zone.

18. Replace the underlined nouns by personal pronouns:

a) Mary speaks French very well. ……………………….

b) The picture is on the wall. …………………………….

c) The ski instructor didn’t ski better than I. …………….

d) You and Bob are very good students. ………………...

e) Those men were founders of Microsoft. ……………...

f) The boy and the girl are coming home soon. …………

g) Susan loves animals very much. ……………………..

h) English is an important language for your career. ……

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19. Fill in the blanks with the correct personal pronoun:

a) When I met … I was very young.b) Here comes Mary. I see … in front of the house.c) My mother didn’t tell … the truth about men.d) Where is my pencil? I know I put … on the table.e) The teacher didn’t see … coming late to class.f) I asked … about the importance of religion in … lives. They didn’t

know what to answer.g) For … family is very important. We love being together.h) She was very sad when she heard … talking about … personal

issues in public. He was the only person she trusted.

20. Replace the words in bold with the correct personal pronoun:

a) The vase is valuable. …………………………………………….b) I really feel sorry for the abused children. ………………………c) John and Susan phoned. ………………………………………...d) Our curtains look dirty. …………………………………………e) They were polite to me and John. ……………………………….f) Don’t blame Harry! It was me who opened the letter. …………g) You should visit this city. It’s not far from Bristol. …………….h) Don’t expect David to accept your invitation. ………………….

21. Fill in the blanks with the correct reflexive pronoun:

a) John treated …………. to an ice cream.b) Jane was upset. Alexa was really annoyed with ………….c) Politicians have to believe in ………… if they expect people to believe

in them.d) Ben made sure that everyone except ………. had a drink.e) Help …………. to the food, won’t you?f) The house looks amazing. Did you do it all by …………..?g) Steve and Elaine blame only …………….. for the break-up of their

marriage.h) I don’t like the new fashion, …………….

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22. Translate into Romanian the following sentences:

a) You can wear whatever you like to go to the theatre these days.b) They behave really badly at football matches nowadays.c) One can sympathise with the sentiments behind the actions of the

strikers.d) We can say whatever we want to a teacher nowadays.

23. Fill in the blanks with the correct pronoun:

a) This is …………….. special for my mother.b) There isn’t ………….. important in that red box.c) I’d like ……………. cheaper for that person.d) Haven’t you got ……………. to do?e) Is there ……………… for me to sit on?f) …………… as I was saying, she got home late that night.g) Tony decided to do ……………… active about his problems.h) ………….. was able to tell me the truth about his death.

24. Translate into English the following sentences:

a) N-am gasit pe nimeni disponibil a ma ajute .b) Ceva tot trebuie sa faci!c) Nimic bun nu poate aparea legat de acest subiect.d) Vreau sa lucrez undeva unde sa pot sa imi arat abilitatile de conducator.e) Ai putea sa imi dai ceva sa ma ajuti pentru acest proiect?f) Este cineva acolo?g) O voce placuta se auzea de undeva.

25. Fill in the blanks with the correct demonstrative pronoun:

a) … is a house. It’s here.b) … is a coat. It’s on the armchair.c) … is a pair of trousers. It’s there.d) … is a shirt. It’s here, on the sofa.e) … is a skirt. It’s in the bathroom.f) … is a T-shirt. It’s on the bed.g) … is a scarf. It’s there.

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h) … is a cap. It’s in the hall.

26. Write questions and answers as in the example:

Example: tea/coffee

Do you like this tea?

Yes, I do. And I like that coffee, too.

a) cake/steakb) juice/milkc) apple/peachd) pear/pineapplee) strawberry/cherryf) banana/orangeg) apple-pie/strawberry-jamh) tomato/green pepperi) pizza/hamburgerj) tablecloths/napkins

27. Translate into English the following sentences:

a) Cine a cules fructele acestea? Eu nu am văzut pe nimeni in gradina.b) Acest telefon mobil este interesant.c) Aceasta vaza este mai frumoasa decât aceea.d) Aceste cărţi sunt mult mai interesante decât acelea de pe raftul de sus.e) Aceşti tineri sunt din ce in ce mai nerespectuoşi.f) Aceea este fiica mamei tale vitrege?g) Acesta este dicţionarul pe care mi l-am cumpărat ieri.

28. Look at the jobs below. Write a definition for each of them:

a) A hairdresser...b) An engineer...c) A driver...d) An architect...e) A singer...

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f) A mechanic...g) A shopkeeper...h) A teacher...i) A nurse...j) A farmer...k) An actor...

29. Look at the names of objects below. Write a definition for each of them:

a) A vacuum cleaner...b) A washing machine...c) A dishwasher...d) An iron...e) A mobile phone...f) A refrigerator...g) A TV set...h) A toaster...

30. Make questions for the underlined words:

a) Last month I told Jack the truth.b) John met his friend Daniel.c) Mark told his brotherseverything about Virginia.d) All my colleaguesstarted talkingwhen I entered the room.

31. Fill in the blanks with the comparative or the superlative form of the adjectives:

a) Diane is ....................... (smart) student in our class.b) Our car is ..................... (fast) than this one.c) Dogs are ....................... (pretty) than cats.d) Tom’s house is ......................... ( big) than mine.e) This book is ...........................(interesting) in the whole library.f) This building is not as .........................(modern) as the other one.g) John is ............................. ( intelligent) in our school.h) That dress is .......................... ( beautiful) I have ever seen.i) This movie is ........................... (short) than the one we watched last week.

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32. Write sentences as in the example:

Kate is more intelligent than John. (as)

John is not as intelligent as Kate.

a) The book is more interesting than the movie. (as)b) The dog is prettier than the cat. (as)c) Mark is fatter than Daniel. (as)d) In my house is warmer than outside. (as)e) Her composition is better than mine. (as)f) Our garden is larger than the schoolyard. (as)g) My poem is more beautiful than her song. (as)h) This house is bigger than the one across the street. (as)i) My dress is longer than her skirt. (as)j) My luggage is heavier than his. (as)

33. Write the comparative and the superlative of the following adjectives:

strange.......................................................................................................

far..............................................................................................................

good..........................................................................................................

bad.............................................................................................................

large...........................................................................................................

narrow.......................................................................................................

wide...........................................................................................................

tall..............................................................................................................

short...........................................................................................................

intelligent..................................................................................................

brave.........................................................................................................

big.............................................................................................................

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fat..............................................................................................................

disappointed..............................................................................................

expensive...................................................................................................

cheap..........................................................................................................

wonderful...................................................................................................

difficult.......................................................................................................

easy.............................................................................................................

lazy.............................................................................................................

coward........................................................................................................

fast..............................................................................................................

34.Translate into English:a) Sora mea este mai tânăra decât el.b) Camera mea este cea mai liniştită din întregul hotel.c) Cursul de inginerie energetică este cel mai interesant.d) Mobilul meu este mai performant decât al lui.e) Studenţii acestei universităţi sunt mai pregătiţi pentru piaţa muncii decât cei

din alte oraşe.f) Hainele mele sunt mai curate decât ale ei.g) Colegul meu are un scris mai frumos decât al meu.h) Prânzul la acest restaurant a fost mai bun decât cel de ieri.i) Casa părinţilor lui este mai departe decât a noastră.j) Acest profesor universitar este mai vârstnic decât celalalt.

35.Write the correct comparative form of inferiority :i) My school is ............................. yours. (big)j) Their composition was ........................ than my cousin’s. (concise)k) This man is .......................... my father. (skilled)l) My elder brother has been ....................... than Bill. (kind)m) This red jar is ........................... the green one. (narrow)n) Peter’s kite is ........................... his friend’s. (small)

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36.Make up sentences with the following words; look at the example first:

Kate/John/intelligent

Kate is intelligent, but John is more intelligent.

The cat/the dog/pretty

...........................................................................

My flat/ his house/large

...........................................................................

The book/ the movie/ interesting

...........................................................................

The skirt/the dress/short

...........................................................................

Tom/Gwen/ bad

...........................................................................

My aunt/ my mother/ good

...........................................................................

37.Choose the correct form of the adjective:These are................... roses in my garden.

a) beautiful b) more beautiful c) the most beautiful

This cake is ........................ honey.

a) sweeter b) as sweet as c) the sweetest

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My house is ......................... than my father’s.

a) large b)larger c)the largest

This book is ..............................the movie I saw last month.

a) more interesting b) as interesting as c) the most interesting

John is .............................man from this class.

a) the tallest b) less taller c) as tall as

38.Translate into Romanian:1. The more we study the more we know.2. The more we know the more we forget.3. The more we forget the less we know.4. The less we know the less we forget.5. The less we forget the more we know. So why study?

39.Translate into English:1. Azi e mai cald ca ieri.2. Camera noastră e mai mare decât bucătăria.3. Unde este cea mai apropiata benzinărie ?4. Verişoara mea este mai tânăra decât mine.5. Cel mai bun student din aceasta grupa este Daniel.6. Fratele meu este mai mic decât mine cu doi ani.7. Acesta este cel mai prost răspuns pe care puteai să îl dai.8. Prietenul ei este cel mai arogant om pe care l-am cunoscut

vreodată.9. Acest tânăr pictor este mai creativ decât toţi colegii săi.10.Sunteţi mai leneşi decât studenţii de anul trecut.11.Fetele sunt mai impulsive decât băieţii.12.El este mai de încredere decât ea.

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40.Find the correct translation for the idioms below :as good as gold negru ca tăciunele

as mad as a March Hare bun ca pâinea caldă

as thin as a poker timid ca o tânără nemăritata

as black as pitch sărac lipit pământului

as shy as a sheep neruşinat foc

as blod as brass nebun de legat

as changeable as weather slab ca un catâr

as proud as a peacock tăcut ca pământul

as silent as a mouse blând ca un mieluşel

as tall as a lamp-post prost ca noaptea

as obstinate as a mule înţelept ca o bufniţă

as poor as a church mouse înalt cât o prăjină

as meek as a lamb încăpăţânat ca un catâr

as wise as an owl mândru ca un păun

as silly as a goose schimbător ca vremea

41. Write the correct verbal form to complete the sentences:

a) They to work every day.

b) He always his homework.

c) We to bed early.

d) Tom seldom English to his wife.

e) My sister in Braila.

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f) We breakfast every morning at 7 am.

g) Every summer we to my grandparents at the mountains.

h) The students of this

university always to school.

42. Transform the following sentences according to the model:

I like this cake – He likes this cake.

a) I drink a coffee. –

b) We live in Spain. –

c) I go to bed early. –

d) I try to learn this poem. –

e) You cry every day. –

f) We cross the road. –

g) I look forward to receiving your letter. –

h) We watch TV. –

i) I wash the dishes. –

j) You mix the milk with the sugar. –

43. Translate into English:

a) El se scoală in fiecare dimineaţă la ora 5.

b) Adesea mergem împreună la universitate.

c) Studenţii dau o petrecere în fiecare săptămână.

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d) El nu bea niciodată cafea seara.

e) Mamele gătesc in fiecare zi.

f) Eu citesc cursurile in fiecare zi.

g) Acest profesor vorbeşte încet de fiecare data.

44. Turn into negative the following sentences:

a) We like English very much.

b) My friend loves chocolate.

c) My parents want to go to Italy next week.

d) Dan is riding his bike.

e) I speak Chinese and French.

f) I see her for the first time in my life.

g) We have the permission to leave earlier.

h) He has to translate this poem now.

i) He needs a new house before he decides to get married.

j) He always brings me something to eat.

45. Write the “ING” form of the following verbs:

to be to do

to drink to behave

to cut to become

to stop to forget

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to take to stand

to have to leave

to leave to come

to listen to eat

46. Make up sentences using present continuous:

a) He / eat a chocolate cake.

b) The teacher / ask questions.

c) My parents / go to work.

d) Mother / clean the house.

e) You / pass the English exam.

f) The girls / go to school.

g) We / write a composition.

h) Tom / explain the lesson.

i) He / have dinner.

j) I / do the laundry.

47. Answer the following questions:

a) Are you going to school today?

b) Are they reading a novel at the moment?

c) Is it raining now?

d) Are you having breakfast now?

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e) Are they eating candies?

f) Is your father working in Bucharest at the moment?

g) Are you teaching English presently?

h) Is she washing the dishes now?

48. Translate the following sentences:

a) Îmi cumpăr o maşină peste câteva zile.

b) Acum luam micul dejun: tata bea cafea, eu mănânc o felie de pâine cu miere si unt, iar mama bea un pahar de suc de portocale.

c) Dana este la ea in dormitor. Citeşte o carte.

d) Tu nu şti sa prepari cafeaua, nu-i aşa ?

e) Mark se întâlneşte cu prietenul lui joi la ora 3.

f) Tata repara maşina momentan.

g) Afara ploua cu găleata.

h) Sora mea poarta o rochie de mătase roşie la acesta petrecere.

i) Vântul suflă cu putere.

j) Plâng pentru că îmi vorbeşte urât.

49. Translate the following sentences into Romanian:

a) My father is coming to see me in the evening.

b) The train arrives at 6 pm.

c) He has an appointment at the dentist at 2.30 pm.

d) All the students are reading in English very well.

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e) My brother is waiting in the corner.

f) Generally we get up late, but today we are getting up early.

g) She is flying to Bucharest next week.

h) Everybody is going to work tomorrow.

50. Rewrite the following sentences using one of the verbs below:

to seem to look to smell to taste to sound

a) This situation seems to be difficult.

b) This tea has a bad taste.

c) This soup has a great smell.

d) This song has an awful sound.

e) This apple is very fresh.

f) This cake has a very sweet taste.

g) Our teacher has a nice look.

51. Write the correct form of the verb in brackets:

a) John (see) the principal tomorrow.

b) I (taste) the soup now.

c) We (think) about the concert next week every day.

d) I (feel) this fabric to see if it is silk.

e) He (think) about the holiday now.

f) You (be) extremely rude today.

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52. Translate into English:

a) De obicei se imbraca in rosu, dar azi poarta negru.

b) Maine ies in oras cu prietenii mei.

c) Saptamana aceasta am grija de pisica vecinilor mei.

d) Soarele arde groaznic azi.

e) Intotdeauna merge cu viteza!

53. Write the correct form of the verbs in brackets :

a) She (enjoy) watching TV so she (stay) home every night.

b) Japanese cooking (not use) a lot of dairy food.

c) My father won’t give up cigarettes. He (smoke) about thirty a day.

d) We (take) a holiday in Greece every year.

e) Then you (mix) all the ingredients together quickly and (put) the mixture in a hot oven.

54. Translate into English:

a) Mergem la şcoala in fiecare zi, dar asta nu înseamnă că nu mai avem

libertate.

b) Momentan încerc să învăţ acest curs pentru examenul de săptămâna

viitoare.

c) Îmi place sa citesc literatură veche.

d) Vremea este minunată azi, chiar dacă soarele arde cu putere.

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e) Îmi plac florile foarte mult. Acum le îngrijesc in fiecare zi.

f) Avem o programare la dentist pentru săptămâna asta.

g) Apa fierbe la 100 de grade.

55. Complete the sentences using the Present Perfect Simple or Continuous:

a) The President (resign).b) He already (see) the play.c) My sister all day. (drive)d) Mum for a week. (work)e) I the book yet. (finish)f) she ever to France? (be)g) We for the book the whole year. (work)

56. Turn into interrogative:

a) The postman has got the bad news.

b) All students from the class have played this game.

c) We haven’t listened this song yet.

d) They haven’t gone to Japan lately.

e) The man has stolen the picture from the museum.

f) Some women have visited this old church.

g) My teacher has read this novel.

h) The dog has eaten all the food left.

i) The doctor has seen he patient.

57. Translate into English:

a) Am parcat maşina lângă casa lui.

b) Ai terminat de citit cartea acasă?

c) Ai mai condus până acum ?

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d) Nu ai comandat înca ?

e) De când citeşte Dana în camera ei ?

f) El scrie la lucrarea pentru examen de o jumătate de oră.

g) Dona a făcut o mulţime de poze până acum.

h) Câte capitole ai scris la această lucrare ?

i) Noi am văzut deja acest film.

j) Copilul n-a terminat înca de desenat.

58. Complete the sentences using the following words : ever, never, since, for, yet, just, already, lately.

a) They’ve written the final observation.

b) I have seen such an awful thing in my whole life.

c) John has called his daughter from abroad.

d) Have you seen the waterfall?

e) The doctor’s wife hasn’t arrived home .

f) She has written two books 1999.

g) The Flinstones have lived here seven years.

h) They haven’t seen me .

59. Fill in with the correct past tense form of the following verbs:

a) He (drink) a glass of juice.

b) I (read) the book a year ago.

c) My sister (buy) the red blouse from that city.

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d) Mark (get) his driving license last year.

e) All guests (bring) presents for the baby.

f) My aunt (give) me a purse.

g) The plumber (cut) the old pipe to fix the problem.

h) They (write) the letter three days ago.

i) The driver (get) to the station before dawn.

j) Grandpa (tell) me the truth after her death.

60. Translate into English:

a) Tata a gătit pui ieri.

b) Mama a spălat vasele, iar tata s-a uitat la televizor.

c) Parinţii mei nu locuiau aici acum doi ani.

d) Ai citit cartea despre ingineria mediului ?

e) El n-a discutat despre examen.

f) Tocmai am vărsat o ceaşcă de cafea pe covor.

g) Plouă de două zile in oraşul nostru.

h) A nins in Anglia săptămâna trecută.

61. Correct the sentences:

a) Mike didn’t bought the tape.

b) They drive to London last night.

c) I haven’t see Nancy for 1999.

d) We have yet broken the coffee cup.

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e) Did you seen what he did to me?

f) Bill has write this book all day long.

g) I meet him when I went to Spain.

h) We find the house on fire when we arrived from the holiday.

i) She has yet entered the restaurant.

j) The bus has already gone. You missed it.

62. Fill in with FOR or SINCE:

a) He’s been reading this book noon.

b) Dona has danced a couple of hours.

c) They’ve listened to music one hour.

d) She’s had that music box childhood.

e) I haven’t been on a holiday I was a child.

f) We have been watching TV two hours.

g) I haven’t visited this museum I was a child.

h) My friends have been playing this game twenty minutes.

63. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:

a) Before Romeo met Juliet, he (be) in love with Rosaline.

b) After Romeo and his friends (put) on masks, they went to the ball.

c) When Romeo (take) Juliet’s hand, he started to talk to her.

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d) Juliet, too, fell in love with him as soon as she (see) him.

e) She wanted to know the young man’s name after he (leave) the ball room.

64. Put the verbs into the correct tense:

a) I (read) a newspaper by the light of a candle.

b) Suddenly, I (not be) in the house any longer.

c) Then the tiger (disappear) and I was alone in the snowstorm.

d) I (be) alone in the dark for several hours when they found me.

e) My father (find) out the truth before our arrival.

65. Fill in writing the correct verbs in the Past Perfect Simple:

a) I (see) the town by seven o’clock.

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b) The boy (break) his leg before his mother came.

c) you (finish) your report by nine?

d) they (be) on the island before the ship came?

e) The banker’s wife (write) the e-mail by seven.

f) They (repeat) the play before the director arrived.

66. Turn into interrogative:

a) Mum had listened to what I had to say before my father’s arrival.

b) The man had forgotten his gloves in the hall.

c) The nurse had finished her job.

d) Meg had eaten a delicious cake.

67. Turn into negative:

a) The hunting dogs had stopped near the forest.

b) The boy followed his mother.

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c) Had the policeman caught the thief?

d) The lady in red had invited me to dance that night.

e) Had dad called you before mum’s death?

f) She had been writing that letter for an hour when he arrived home.

68. Correct the following sentences if necessary:

a) My son had drink a cup of milk.

b) My father has write a book before my birth.

c) I hadn’t managed to escape that dangerous situation.

d) Had Ellie discover that lost ring?

e) All students had notice the teacher’s mistake.

f) I had reading this story for an hour when mum arrived.

69. Fill in the blanks with THAN or WHEN:

a) Scarcely had Dan entered the ball room he put on his mask.

b) Hardly had he finished speaking he kissed her.

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c) Hardly had Juliet answered Romeo’s words her nurse called her.

d) Scarcely had she found out about him she felt sorrow.

e) No sooner had he made several steps he saw Mark.

f) Barely had he read through it he saw my name on it.

g) Barely had he seen his wife he spoke to her.

g) Hardly had the clown gone out with the guest listRomeo took it from him.

70. Translate into English:

a) Baietii mancasera toate fructele inainte de ora patru.

b) Noi mersesem cu masina zece mile inainte de a vedea casa parintilor mei.

c) Ajunsese fata acasa inainte sa sune unchiul ei ?

d) Ei cantarisera deja obiectele inainte ca noi sa sosim.

e) Obisnuiam sa merg la mare inainte de acest accident.

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f) Ei nu scisesera compunerea inainte ca profesorul sa intre in clasa.

g) Toti jucatorii observasera greseala.

h) Tata ascultase stirile deja.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Murphy, Raymond, Essential Grammar in Use. A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Elementary students on English, Cambridge University Press: 1991

2. Olivia, Farrington, Dificultăţi și capcane ale limbii engleze, ed. Teora: 1995

3. Virginia Evans, Jenny Dooley, Coursebook Enterprise 3, Express Publishing: 2002

4. Swan, Michael and Catherine Walter, Oxford English Grammar Course. Intermediate, Oxford University Press: 2011

5. Vince, Michael and Paul Emmerson, Elementary Language Practice With Key. English Grammar and Vocabulary. Macmillan Education: 2003

6. http://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions- bodies_en

7. www.britannica.com 8. https://ro.wikipedia.org/

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CONTENTS

UNIT 1: WHAT IS DEMOCRACY.............................................................2

UNIT 2: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. HISTORY....................................10

UNIT 3: EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS........................................................14

UNIT 4: EUROPEAN COUNCIL................................................................18

UNIT 5: COURT OF JUSTICE....................................................................21

UNIT 6: CHARTER OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS........................................24

UNIT 7: EXTERNAL RELATIONS...............................................................28

FURTHER READING................................................................................31

ANNEXES: CV/ FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS..................................42

SMALL GRAMMAR COMPEDIUM............................................................55

PRACTICE YOUR GRAMMAR………………………………………………………………….69

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………………..100

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