Editura Didactica si Pedagocica

7/26/2019 Editura Didactica si Pedagocica

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EDITURA DIDACTICA f PIDAOOOIC

* psihologie ;i pedagogie

Jp* ** *-K , * viS


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Rspunsurile marelui psihl! "s pr#lemele Tuv$mln%ulul

... nvmintul n toate for- > mele, ridic trei probleme centrale, ale cror soluii nu snt nici pe departe cunoscute. i ne putem ntreba ncontinuare cum vor fi ele rezolvate altfel dect cu colaborarea profesorilor sau a uneipri dintre acetia:

1. Care este scopul acestui invmnt! "cumularea de cunotine utile! #dar utile n

ce sens!$. " nva s nvei! " nva s inovezi, s produci noul intr-un domeniuoarecare, n msura n care-l cunoti! " nva s controlezi, s verifici sau doar srepei! etc.JEAN PIAGET

\ \ .%si&olo'ie i peda'o'ie(raducere de )an *utu

+)(*" ))"C(C" l %+)"/C", 0C*+( - 123SOUBFERRIER


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1969 BfD'TIONS DENOEL, PARIS, i4/(" +)(* 5*"4C+6+

Cele d!" #e$#e di% &(e )e &*+!%e +(ee%#!l -l!* ! f)# )&(i)e de Je% Pie# +e%#(!-l!*!l l /0le l E%&i&l+ediei F(%&ee, &%)&(# ed!&2iei.

P(i*!l )"! )#!di! &(e d#e" di% 1934 &%)#i#!ie +(#e d! edi2iei %)#(e. Fii%d&e%#(# +e de)&+e(i(ile +)i5liei e%e#i&e, +!2i% &!%)&!#e +e #!%&i, )#!di!l (#"i*+li&2iile +edi&e le &e)#ei di)&i+li%e i )#7ile#e le"#!( &! *e#dele de%!*i#e8i-e, *!l# di)&!##e l &e e+&".

Al dile )#!di! i%)e(# :% &e)# -l!* d#e" di% %!l 1964. I* (ee(-# +(i*!l l&,de(e&e el de+"e#e +(7le*ele 7(d#e :% )#!di!l di% 1934, ;!%:%d +:%" I fi di)&!2ie :%#(eii %)#(e +edii !le i (e+!%e(e ei )!7 )e*%!l :%#(e7"(ii #:# di% +!% de-ede(e l *e#del(, &:# i di% &el l +((*el(. I% &e)# )#!di! )e +!%e +(7le*" de&i-ili2ie.

Ni ) +"(!# i*+(#%# )" +!%e* l di)+i2i +!7li&!l!i &e)#e d!" l!&("(i le l!i Je%Pie#, &(e, fii%d el7(#e +e 7" e$+e(i*e%#l" )lid", &%)#i#!ie (")+!%)!l !%!i *(e* de #ii%2" l &(i :%-"2"*i%#!l!i.

%artea nti+)C"7" l 8497;84(! III *!l *!l# de :%&e(&)" +(e&iee de-l#(e ed!&2iei ?1 % lii-"2"*:%#!l!i :% !l#i*ii #(eie&i de %i, e)#e &!+(i%)il% %d%-"(#@ #e*" :% f2di)+(++(#iei &(e +e()i)#" ) I(#1, 2#l I% 1934, :%#(ei*e%)i##e ef(#!(il( de+!)e i 7 I)e%i% !i*i (e:%%i(i f!%d*e%#le *e#del(,

+((*el( 0l lil%i -l *d!l!i de +!%e +(7le*ele, )! +e%#(! +ili* ##!l, +ediei :% %)*7l!l ei & di)&i+li%" &"l"!I(ll%#%,


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I% 1 #l.'I, l.!(l% Fe7-(e -(7e de)+(e &!l -ile%# i &5i( lii!l%l ?* &%(el :%&e(&"*&*+(:%d e*+i(i)*!l +ediei # II ,,ie%ll%*!l "%"#), d(e+# i fe&!%d l )#!diil(

+)i5lii=> -l *i lll&e di% &(e ( +!#e )" )e i%)+i(e &e)#" +edie I I e$+li& &e)#de&l; )! &e)#" li+)" de &( #lii%ie +ilii I%fi%i# &*+le$i##e -ie2ii )&ile +e &(e !llei l" eil* li% -l l &"(ei i%)#(!*e%# e)#e, :% &eli #i*+. I%i I*ll%l", %H% e)#e, d(

("*:%e, i +e i &e #(e&e de-i%e *!l i*ll%l-lil%( +(7le* de :%2elee de &e ):%#e* :%+)e)i !i*i %*dl&l%e -lli%2ill&e, &5i( d&" +(e&e+#ele ei ("*:% lel#i- %e%+l7%#e I%i!!*H()de )e )+(i;i%i +e #ii%2" ed!&2iei el7(#" :% )!fi&ie%#" *")!(" +e%#(! (")+!%de l%e%!*"(#ele :%#(e7"(i, &(e +( :% fie&(e i i &"(( (el-(e e)#e :% fel!l &e)# l")#" :%)e* e*+i(i)*!l!i )! #(di2iei.

:%&e(&(e de )&5i2 de-l#(e ed!&2iei i :%-"2" *:%#!l!i di% 1934 +:%" :% ilele%)#(e - li%di de&i !% i*e%) +((e) &%#i##i- l i%)#(!&2iei +!7li&e, - &%)e*%%!*i#e +((e)e &li##i-e &! &(e( l&l, :% )+e&il &l !%de ele ! +!#!# fi f-(i#ede *!l#i+lele #(%)f(*"(i +li#i&e i )&ile, d( :% +(i*!l (:%d K de(e&e *i#e(e

+(7le*el( +(el7ile ( fl)ifi& ## #7l!l K e - &%)# :% (ee$*i%(e :%#(e7"(ii de &e#ii%2 ed!&2iei :%i%## #:# de +!2i% :% &*+(2ie &! +(f!%dele (e:%%i(i le +)i5liei&+il!l!i i &5i( i le )&iliei.1E0OLUIA PEDAGOGIEI

N% -* +(%i de l &%)ide(2ii #e(e#i&e, &i de l f+#ele (e, l!%i de-(e*e )! *i#:(i!, le f& %e&e)(e. :%#(e *!l#e dl I% le, I(l #i+!(i de d#e, :% &eli #i*+ di)+(#e i )ele&):%# di% &e)# +!% de -ede(e i%)#(!i-e.

I+%((e (e!l##el(l'(l*% &%)##(e &(e )e i*+!%e d!+" !% i%#e(-l de #(ei i I de %i i &(e e)#e

)!(+(i%"#(e, )e (efe(" l i%(%2. I%


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+edi&e )!+( (%d*e%#!l!i &l( ( &%)# :% &*+((e (e!l##el( 72i%!#e de &li*!ie %! )e 2i% e$*e%e, -l(e !%!i ele- fii%d +(e&i#" di= &"#(e +(fe)(i d!+" *!%& +e&(e de+!%e &e)# de l!%!l %!l!i, i (%d*e%#!l di% &lile 7i%!i#e, !%de

+e()+ei- e$*e%el( fl)ifi&" +#e, :% &eli #i*+, *!%& ele-il( i &e +(fe)(il(:%ii. Ni )e - (")+!%de &" +(fe)(ii %! ):%# :%##de!% i*+(2ili d( (e e-e%#!lele

+"(#i%i(i l&le ( f&e *i *!l#e (-ii de&:# ele*e%#!l le#( i 7l&;!l fei- &(ei%#e(-i%e :% (i&e e$*e%QNi )e - (")+!%de de )e*e%e &" ele-ii %! ):%# %i#e &7i, &(e )" fie fl)i2i +e%#(!e$+e(i*e%#e +edi&e d( (e *!l#i#!di%e de de&iii )! de (e(%i"(i d*i%i)#(#i-e%! d! l& i ele l e$+e(i*e%#e &(e )e de)e7e)& de &ele #ii%2ifi&e %!*i +(i% f+#!l &" %!&*+(#" !% &%#(l )i)#e*#i&Q Ni )e - )+!%e, :%de)e7i, &" e$*e%ele &*+(#" !#ili##eed!i-" e#&. d( #&*i l!&(!l &e)# #(e7!ie )"l -e(ifi&"* +(i% e$+e(i*e%#e 7iei-e :%l& )" %e *!l2!*i* &! +i%ii, (i&:# de !#(i#e ( fi ele, le !%( 8e$+e(2i, *i le) &"&e)#e +i%ii ):%# -(i#e i &%#(di(ii.

O(, :% +(i-i%2 #!#!(( &e)#( +(7le*e f!%d*e%#le & i :% +(i-i%2 *!l#( l#(,+edi e$+e(i*e%#l", &(e e$i)#" ##!i i &(e i f!(%i# !% *(e %!*"( de l!&("(i

-l()e, +")#(e" :%&" #"&e(e, d:%d )#fel d-d di)+(+(2iei :%)+"i*:%#"#(e &(e&%#i%!" )" +e()i)#e :%#(e *+l(e )! i*+(#%2 +(7le*el( i *i;l&ele fl)i#e +e%#(! le (el-. C:%d !% *edi& (e&!(e l *e#d" de #(#*e%#, i%#e(-i%e de)i!( %!*i#"d" de e*+i(i)* i %i&id#" %! +!#e* fi )i!(i, :% +(ee%2 !%!i & +(#i&!l( &"-i%de&(e )e d#(e" (e*ediil( fl)i#e )! d( &2i!%ii &elei vis medicatrix naturae.T#!i e$i)#" !% -l!* &%)ide(7il de &e(&e#"(i f(*&li&e i de l#" %#!(", &(e,:*+(e!%" &! +((e)ele :% d*e%i!l &!%#i%2el( fiili&e, fe(" !% #e*ei di% &e :% &e *i)e(i) i%#!i2iil( &li%i&e. C!* )e f&e de&i &" :% d*e%i!l +ediei, !%de -ii#(!l #i%e(el(e%e(2ii e)#e :% &!", &el +!2i% :% &eei *")!(" & i :% &!l )"%"#"2ii +!7li&e, &e(&e#"(ilef!%d*e%#le ! ("*) #:# de )"(&e, &!* (#" &ele &:#e- *i&i e$e*+le *e%2i%#eQ

Corpul profesoral i cercetareaPe%#(! +e(id 1934K1964 * +!#e &i# +(+e :% ##e di)&i+li%ele &(e )e

:%&d(e" :% #ii%2ele %#!(le, )&ile )! !*%e, %!*e le !%( *(i !#(i de (e+!#2ie*%dil", &(e ! (e:%%i# *i *!l# )! *i +!2i% +(f!%d d*e%iile de &!%#i%2e &"(( eii! :%&5i%# i-i##e. I% )&5i*7, %i&i !% *(e +ed %! i d"!# %!*ele :% &e)#"

+e1dl IAIINUI*e%il( de #ii%2" e*i%e%2i &(e ! *( (i% +ediei. I#" :%&" +(7le*".

V'iill &e)#ei +(7le*e %! ):%# de l#fel )+e&ifi&i +e lel +e &( -e* :% -ede(e.P(i* &%)##(e &(e )e li%e d!d +(&!(e* )!*(ele i)#(iil( +ediei e)#e ll5il i!*+(#i- &%)ide(7il l (ef(*#(il( +ediei + % AII l)# ed!(i de *e)e(ie.

C*e%i!) &(e# i d!> &li, d( el f)#, +(i% +(e"#i(eeTT!i, #el i fil Uie! %! +(ed# %i&id#" :% &l" i, dei -!# 'I, !#= l i &" ) &!+# +(e +!2i% de ei. F(e7el,&(e Wflilliiel( de &+ii)i de+#!l !%ei ed!&2:T)e%)(ile Alll%l, l"(" :%dil",i%)!fi&ie%#", f)# &5i*i)# i filf. fll(# &* +)i5l i filf. Di%#(e &%#e*+(%i,DeeW ffl lll%%l, d*% %#e))(i, De&(lW, Cl+(ede ! f)# SI'I, l=H( !l#i*iidi ! f)# i +)i5li. Cel *i il!)#(! li% di%#(e +edii &(e %! ! f)# de&:# ed!(i

di% NlliXl(ll& !%ei &*i)ii &%d!)e i i%)+i(#e de !% fii&i% i m !% *dl&+)i5lL%e-i% i Vll%.


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+edil(Q I#" +(7le*" (-" i *e(e! ii IIIAIA. A7)e%2 )! i%)!fi&ie%2ele &e(&e#"(il(

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1Ad#'i#'% )+e&ili#e :% di)&!#(e !%( +(7le*e &! i%&l!)i- )i%di&l.

+#(!le (:%d K i &e)# e)#e f"(" :%dil" +!%!l , #%l e$i)#" %!*e()e 2"(i :% &(e+(e"#i(e d) I#U i#e le#" de f&!l#"2ile !%i-e()i#(e %!*i +( %*d%(l ):%# +(e"#i2i:% !%i-e()i#"2i, d( +(+e 0 di% +!%!l de -ede(e l *#e(iil( +e &(e !(*e" fd(%,

+(e"#i(e +(+(i!i) +edi&" fii%d %!l" UDA I% *i%i*!*, :% #i*+ &e :%-"2"#(ii +e%#(!&lile i%# +(e"#i2i )e+(#, :% &li %(*le, f"(" W(e le #fl(. l" &! &e(&e#(e!%i-e()i#(". 0* (e-e%i l file fie idei i de i%)#i#!2ii &(e ! i%#e(-e%i# :% +(i-i%2" :% !l#i*ii#(eie&i de %i, d( e)#e i*+(#%# I* %i&i :% &e *")!(" (ei*!l #(di2i%l f)# f!%e)#Ce(&e#(e +edi&", f"&:%d & -ii#(ii +(fe)(i efi l i%(ee +)i7ili#"2ile


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+(e"#i(e ed!(il( & #(e, &(e ("*:%e :%&(edi%2#" !%( i%)#i#!#e +edi&e di)#i%ede &e%#(ele de &e(&e#(e.

Al dile #i+ de i%)#i#!#e de &e(&e#(e :l (e+(ei%#" !%i-e()i#"2ile, !%de +(fe)(ii &(e !*i)i!%e )" +(ede di-e()e (*!(i le +ediei, #(e7!ie )" (%iee &e(&e#"(i :% &eei*")!(" :% &(e 2i% &!()!(i. U%ele !%i-e()i#"2i ! &(e# K i &e)#" #e%di%2" &"+"## &5i(

(")+:%di(e de)#!l de *(e &!* &:2i- %i K 8f&!l#"2i de +edie l"#!(i de f&!l#"2ile deli#e(e, de #ii%2e )! de #ii%2e )&ile e#&. D( i%&%-e%ie%#ele 7i%e&!%)&!#e le (ei*!l!if&!l#"2il(


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%eda'o'ia tiinific i determinarea scopurilor educaieiSe :%2elee de l )i%e &" )&ie##e e)#e &e &(e fi$e" 2el!(ile ed!&2iei +e &(e fe("

e%e(2iil( #i%e(e. E i f&e :%##de!% :%#(!% fel )!-e(% i %!*e :% d!" *d!(i. Lefi$e" *i :%#:i )+%#% +(i% &%)#(:%e(ile li*7;!l!i, le 7i&ei!(il(, le +i%iei +!7li&e,le f*iliei, le %e&e)i#"2il( e&%*i&e e#&., di&" +(i% %!*e()ele f(*e de &2i!%e

&lei-", +(i% i%#e(*edi!l &"(( )&ie##e )e +")#(e" i )e #(%)f(*", *del:%d fie&(ee%e(2ie %!" d!+" *!l;!l )##i& )! *7il l &el( +(e&ede%#e. I% l dile (:%d, e lefi$e" +i :%#(!% *d +(e*edi## +(i% (%ele de )## )! i%)#i#!2iile +(#i&!l(e, d!+"#i+!(ile de ed!&2ie -!#e :% -ede(e

D( &e)#" de#e(*i%(e )&+!(il( ed!&2iei %! )e f&e l :%#:*+l(e. C:%d )e f&e :%*d )+%#%, e )&!l#" de leile )&ili&e &(e +# fi %li#e i &e)# )#!di! e)#e de%#!(" )" l"*!(e)&" de&iiile +(e*edi##e le !#(i#"2il( :% *#e(ie de ed!&2ie. C:# de)+(e&e)#e de&iii :% )i%e, ele1M? IAUIIIe%e(l de&:# +e 7" de i%f(*2ii di-e()e %! a? ?>iill#le, &i i e&%*i&e, #e5%i&e,*(le, i%#ele!le F[i i'#% I%f(*2ii )e &!le, :% e%e(l, +(i% &%)!l#(e fii ifl(

i%#e(e)2i i f"(" :%dil" e)#e %e&e)( )" )e &e)#, de +ild" &:%d e)#e -(7 de)+(e %e-ile l (&%*i&e le )&ie#"2ii. D( i :% &e)# &, +e% DIIIIIIC&(e d! di(ei-e ed!(il(( +(ee%# !% B#H %e#i(7i# +)i7ili##e de di)+!%e de )#!dii 7iei- %l%2lll( di%#(e-i2 )&il" i ed!&2ie. Pe de Wh*i e)#e )!fi&ie%# )" )e fi$ee %!*i#e )&+!(i +e%#(! + ?iiil= (eli, de(e&e ("*:%e +(7le* *i;l&el(, 2i% 1*i *!l# de +)i5lie de&:# de)&ilie, d( &(e +lll##*&%" ##!i lee(e )&+!(il(. De &ee, D!(_ m n )i*+lifi:%#(!&:#- l!&(!(ile )!)2i%:%d &" *!l +e P i!l(# )"l f(*ee *!%& ed!i-" e)#e !%

+(d!) l 'Ifl2ll l %! l %#!(ii ("*:%e f+#!l &" %#!( %! )e )! =%i 5 '#@2ii de&:# &! %!*i#e&%di2ii d&" le &!%#e*, Y -i%i de &e)#e &%di2ii %! +e%#(! &%#(&(, &i +e% ? A&l(ifi& lee(e )&+!(il( )&ile. Pe de l#" +(#e, i* li*i#"* l )&+!(i, di-e()elefi%li#"2i !(*"(i#e +# U# Al *!l# )! *i +!2i% &*+#i7ile )! &%#(di(ii :% #!i e)#ee-ide%#, de e$e*+l!, &" +!#e* #e+# de l -lll +e &(ei ed!&"* & ei )" fie :% &eli #i*+&% i l(ii i %-#(ii :% %!*i#e d*e%ii le i-i#"2ii )lii III((e ):%# %e&e)(e )e*e%e&li#"2i, i &%f(*i#i ll#-l Y% l#e (*!(i le &!%#e(ii i le i-i#"2ii. A , de#e(*i%(e)&+!(il( ed!&2iei )! ("*:%e &5e)#i!%e +i%ii 8!#(i#e i de e*+i(i)*, )! #(e7!ie )"fie ei I I !%( )#!dii )i)#e*#i&e, f+# &(e ) &%#!(# di% I! (e *i &l( :% !l#i*ii %i.

N % de-l## de&i )&ilie ed!&2iei &(e %eli;# b#i! 11-


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#ele de )#(%!l(e, 8)!&&e)i!%e &%#i%e%#el(, *7ili##e )&il" :% +e()+ei- ed!&2ieie#&.

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*+l(e (e)!()el( +!)e l di)+i2i &lii, +(d!i-i##e )i)#e*!l!i, (+(#!(ile di%#(e(ie%#(e #i%e(e#!l!i de &"#(e &l" i e-l!2i f(*el( de i-i##e e&%*i&" e#&.Se :%2elee &" %)*7l!l &e)#( l!&("(i +(ei%#" !% i%#e(e) &e%#(l +e%#(! 8+l%ifi&(e

:%-"2"*@%#!l!i, &(e &%)#i#!ie )#"i +(e&!+(e :% +(+e ##e 2"(ile i &(e &%)#" :%:%#&*i(e +(ieel( &! *!l2i %i :%i%#e. :%#( de-"(, &e)#" +l%ifi&(e e)#e :% *d fi(e)&le#" de de#e(*i%(e )&+!(il( !(*"(i#e i #&*i &e)#" de#e(*i%(e ( +!#e fi&l(ifi" :% di-e()e (de de &"#(e )&ili ed!&2iei.

0* )+!%e *i di(e &" +l%ifi&(e i fi$(e 2el!(il( +edi&e +# ")i i%f(*2iile%e&e)(e :% l!&("(i de ed!&2ie &*+(#", & &ele &(e +( :% *Te %!*"( :% S.U.A.


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ll!-f#( !% di%#(e &ele *i delie )!7 (+(#!l +( Nl%ll)#l&e i e$+e(i*e%#le i %! +!#e*de&:# )" #e+#e *l 5#"(:#(e :%i%#e de :%d("%i )" %e +(%!% =ii?(#i i+#eel( )!+i%iil( (e&e+2i%#e, &(e )#:( lll% +#i*".de)+(e &!l#!( !*%i)#" i f(*(e )+i(i#!l!i i)#(i&, ii &l)i&e #i% :% li%ii *(i &e)# )&+,d( &! !%ele 0>> &(e ):%# e$+(i*#e di% &e :% &e *i f(e&-e%#. :%&" il*l )! (%i#1onvor)irile asupra studiilor uma( de &"#(e I%)#i#!#!l I%#e(%2i%l de &+e((e i%#ele& l

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+(ed#e, l &+&i##e i%#ele!l" ele-il( I& :%2elee i l -l(ile +e(*%e%#e le)&ie#"2ii. :% I> CP!(*e" %e -* &!+ de #(ei e-e%i*e%#e +(i%&i+le f+ &(e(ie"%ile )i#!2ii di% d*e%i!l ed!&2iei i l 2f#*:%#!l!i, e-e%i*e%#e &(e de#e(*i%" di-e()e+2i!%i f i* fel ##d#" &e(&i#i- i &&ele(#. Re!l#" de i&i &" +!%e(e %)#(" de *i ;)(e%!%2" #(e+## l #%!l de 0id(e, +e%#(! d+# !% #% de %(2i!%e i de di)&! . *ii*edi#" i &%&(e#".Cele #(ei e-e%i*e%#e l &(e %e* (efe(i# ):%# &(e#e(e fli+l%)" %!*"(!l!i ele-il(, &ee&e )e d#(e" !%!i V *!l# *i l( l di-e()e f(*e de :%-"2"*:%#, difi&!l e +(+e

+(+(2i%l" (e&(!#"(ii !%!i +e()%l did& iifl&ie%# de +(e"#i# i %)*7l!l %il(%e&e)i#"2i :% li e&%*i&e, #e5%i&e i #ii%2ifi&e le )&ie#"2il( +e%#(! f )e (%ie":%-"2"*:%#!l +!7li&.

A&e#i #(ei f(i i%#e(-i% de; :%#( *")!(" +(e&i7il" l']?(e *e#del( e%e(le de:%-"2"*:%# i &%d!& l 5llle le)%e de :%2ele) :%#(e *e#dele -e(7le #(di2i%le, # A# (fl)i(e e)#e &e *i !(" #!%&i &:%d &d(ele di i Ti(e %! ! +!#!# 7e%efi&i de +(e"#i(e*i -%)#", l!dele i-e, &(e de-i% &! #:# *i %e&e)(e &! &:# !(*" l *l *!l# f(*(e!%( &d(e #e5%i&e i #ii%2ifi&e, *e >le I%#!i#i-e )! !di-i!le &! &(e &(ede* &" )e +#2i%e &elei (e!l##e & i &! +(&edeele i-e, d(49:%#(!% (i#* *i &&ele(#, i :%-"2"*:%#!l +((*#, l &"(!i )!&&e) di% &e :% &e *i *(i(i)&" )" %e f&" )" !i#"* +(7le*ele +e &(e el le (idi&".;etodele receptive sau de transmitere a cunotinelor de ctre profesor

A( +!#e )" +(" li+)i# de )e%) )" *i%#i* *e#dele #(di2i%le de +(ed(e -e(7l" :%#(

e$+!%e(e de)#i%#" )" &&e%#!ee ele*e%#ele %i i%#e(-e%i#e d!+" 1934. S +(d!) :%)" !%f+# %!, &el &" !%ele 2"(i, &!* ( fi (e+!7li&ile ++!l(e di% E)#, +lede" :% f-(e !%!i


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:%-"#"*:%# 7# :% e)e%2" +e #(%)*i#e(e de &"#(e +(fe)( )! +e 8le&2ie, +e(fe&2i%:%d##d#" )+eele de *"%!%# le *e#del( +(i% &e(&e#"(i +)i5+edi&e )i)#e*#i&e id:%&i#e. O(, &e)#e &e(&e#"(i +!% :% e-ide%2" :% *d fi(e)& i %e:%&e## (l!l i%#e(e)!l!i i l&2i!%ii :% :%2elee(e ele-il(, )#fel :%&:# )e +(d!&e !% )i de &%fli :%#(e &ee &e ele)!e(e" :% &!(ile +(#i&!l(e i li%iile e%e(le le !%ei ed!&2ii (e&e+#i-e. P(ei%#" de&i

!% %!*i# i%#e(e) e$*i%(e :%de+(+e di% &e)# +!% de -ede(e de-l#"(ii *e#del(didi&e :% 2"(ile (")"(i#e%e.De f+#, &%fli!l l#e%# +e &(e -e* )e%#i*e%#!l de 1 &%)## :% &e)# fel, 2i%e de

d!li##e i%)+i(2iil( ideli&e +e(fe &e(e%#e :% &ee &e +(i-e#e )+i(i#!l d!l#, d( &"(( )i%#e" (idi&" +(7le*e :% d*e%i!l ed!&2iei.

P(i* di%#(e &e)#e i%)+i(2ii #i%de )" +(ei%#e -i2 *e%#l" & +(d!) l :*7i%"(ii dif(i e)e%2ili f(!l 7ili& i -i2 )&il". F(!l (%i& fe(" &%di2iile +e%#(!:%-"2(e leile 8&%di2i%"(ii +(i*(e


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61;etodele active

N! )e +#e )+!%e &" d!+" 1934 +(ef&e(e f!%d*e%#l (e:%%i# +(&edeele+edi&e :% )e%)!l *e#del( i-e. C! +(i%&i+l" %! e)#e, f"(" :%dil", &5e)#i!%e de+(i%&i+i!, &%#(( &el( &e * -"!# :% le"#!(" &! !%ele )i#!2ii di% e)#, de(e&e +e +l%#e(e#i& )e (idi&" di% &e :% &e *i +!2i%e 7ie&2ii :*+#(i- (e&!(e(ii )i)#e*#i&e l i-i##eele-il(. A! f)# li&5id#e, de l#fel, !%ele di)+!#e, &el +!2i% :% #e(ie, di%#(e &(e +(i%&i+leled!" ):Ti# &ele &e !(*e"

:% +(i*!l (:%d ) ;!%) l :%2elee(e f@+#!l!i &" . &l" i-" %! :%)e*%" :% *d

%e&e)( &l" de l!&("(i *%!le i &", d&" l %!*i#e %i-el!(i i-i##e &+il!l!i+(e)!+!%e *%i+!l(e de 7iee i &5i( !% %!*i# %!*"( de ##%"(i *#e(ile, :% *")!(,de +ild, :% &(e %2i!%ile li&*#e*#i&e ele*e%#(e )e e$#( %! di% &e)#e 7iee, &idi% &2i!%ile )!7ie!l!i i di% &(d%"(ile l( l l#e %i-el!(i, i-i##e &e *i !#e%#i&"d &"!#"(i )e +#e de)f"!( :% +l%!l :%di(ii, l 7)#(&2i!%ii &elei *i -%)#e i l*%i+!l"(il( -e(7le


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*;(e &(e *#i-e" I#dele i-e de :%d#" &e %e&e)i#"2ile )&ile le i*+!% I+%(l#i. A**e%2i%#, de +ild", &!(e%#!l de)#!l de *+l! ? N.U.A. &(e &%d!&e l (e-i!i(e *e#del( de +(eiei *#e*#i&il( i #ii%2el( fii&e ele*e%#(e i &(e d(e+# &%)e&i%2":% *d %#!(l (e:%%i(e +(&edeele 8i-e. L Se)i!%e di% 1949, C%fe(i%2I%#e(%2i%l" i0Al%*:%#!l!i +!7li& d+## l!%" (e&*%d(e , :% &(e &i#i*


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= !# &! &ele le !%!i fil* i, d&" el -e d(e+##e,>#A I%i2ie(e &! ;!#(!l fil*!l!i ( &%)#i#!i :%#(de-"( I#iill e!-:%# l &elei *i (2i%le*e#dlii didi&e. +Ai le, lle()% i%( +(7le* +e(2iil( i % -"!# I= = III)!("#(%)f(*(e +e(#(ie &%)#i#!ie !% 0i(#, &%#i%!! i &(e#(. C(i#i& +e &(e el f&ei%#e li2l e)#e :%#(de-"( &(i#i&" f(#e +(f!%d" (e+(e A#ll( +e 7 i*i%il(, di&"

)+eel( fi!(#i-e, %! l +e(#i-e le :%di(ii. Pe%#(! &elei *#i-e, 7#" +e i*i%i,&5i( :*7"2i#" +(i% di%*!l +(e%# l fil*!l!i, ("*:%e %ede&-#" +e%#(! f( f#i%)#(!i-i)*!l!i +e(#(i!, de(e&e i%#elie%2 %!

l i*i%ile i*%i fil*. E e)#e *i &!(i%d &*+ li &il li+ *#( ((e )i!(")ii((o!ii%A.(+#(H( i*i%i i I> Ol *e&% i )* l i 7e*e#i> )!&&e)i!%e d#(i#" li%ei li&i i%#e(%e i !%( PcA

I% !#(el(e i %#*(+(e.; (e!*#, i*i%e, fil*!l, +(&edeele !di-i!le de l(i= *!l# & +edi &e d(e#e )" %e de il!i de I *de(%", ):%# %i#e !$ili(e

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i-i#"2ii )+%#%e i l &"!#"(ii +e() ?= !%! !#%*e de-"(!l!i K %! f& l#&e- de&:#)" A * )# -e(7li)* *i ele%# i *i (fi%# :% l&!l *li)*!l!i #(di2i%l.'f7iile )" ("#"* ##!i !% f+# &(e )e &!-i%e +!) *i #!l l +)i-!l de&:# l i-!l

+)i5liei, :% +li&2iile ei #?


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+(edile&2ie, de(e&e e)#e !% %i*l de)e7i# de d&il, d( di% +"e )!)+e dedee%e(e)&e%#" :% &%d!i#ele )le de d!+" d*e)#i&i(e, d+## #i#!di%e *i 5#"(:#

+i#i-". C%-i%) de &(e(!l i%&&e)i7il l -(i7ilel( i%#e(6M

I=(X l de %i-el!l +(e (!di*e%#( l &!%#i%2el( l!# %e!(li&e, el de&i) )" %!

&%)ide(e de&:# )#i*!li Ifi+ii7i, &(e +# fi *%i+!l2i d!+" d(i%2", +(e&!* i Iiiiii#i(ll7)e(-7ile, )! outputs,li*i#:%d!)e l (el liH l!i di(ee f"(" )e &!+ de &%e$i!%ilei%#e(%e, #!!ilfl &%&e+2ie (%i)*!l!i K &!#iel", &!* i ) ii>, %e)e#e de&i :% *d-l!%#( :%#(e -i2" *e% bI, !*%" )! %i*l", +e%#(! e$*i% e$&l!)i- &*llfli%%#!l :% )+eele )le &ele *i *#e(ile i i%(" ?i e &"!#(e e$+li&2iei +e%#(! &%)ide( %!*i leile Ui#' l!(%i#e de e$+e(i*e%#(e *i%!2i)".

A)ll%l, S_i%%e(, fl)i%d leile de :%-"2(e &%#(l#e )! lil (!#e de el i eli7e(# de(i&e +(e&!+(e #e(e#i&" &(e tfl )#:%;e%i# :%&e(&"(ile de e%e(li(e )! de +li&(eIm#! f#, &%)### *i :%#:i &" e$+e(i*e%#ele )le )e de) #* *i &! #:# *i 7i%e, &! &:# i%#e(-e%2iile!*%e le e$+e Ul' *#%#(!l!i e(! :%l&!i#e &! di)+i#i-e *e&%i&e 7i%e !ifl#. C! l#e&!-i%#e, +(!*7eii +(ei%#" (e&2ii &! #:# I (e!l#e, &! &:# ! de f&e &! 8*i%i de :%-"2#

&(e ;il(l7!l )#i*!li &! *i *!l#" +(e&iie i &! *i +!2i%" 'ill!%.l##e. Idee e%il" &(e i ) i*+!) :% &%)e&i%2" ?lll S_l*i&(, de *e)e(ie +(fe)( i :% &eli #i*+ #e(e#i&i% :%-"2"(ii, e)#e &" &e)#" 7)e(-2ie :i +")#(e" :% pf;?9iHi(,,l *")!(" -l7ili##e i +e%#(!*e%i i &" %i#e IDA0IIII de :%-"2# )!fi&ie%# de 7i%e +((*#e ( d !%Ii*l%*e%# *i 7!% de&:# +(ed(e -e(7l" efe!#" *i i?ll# )! *i ("!. i &!* &%&e+2i(%i)*!l!i K &!#ie ##iifll" )i!(" e&%*ie de &%)ide(2ii +(el7ile )!+( fi* l(i l(i%#e(%i i :%-"2"(ii l *, e)#e )!fi&ie%# )" &!%#i liill#' e%e(le le :%-"2"(ii i &%2i%!#!ldi)&i+li%el( &e I*l*le +(el!#e, +e%#(! &%)#(!i +((*e de 7"2ie >l +!2i% el" &!&e &!%#i%2el( +(e#i%)e :% *d lil%!l#.

I i+(l*e%#!l :%#(e+(i%) (e!i# +e de+li% i )e :%2elee i'", &*+(# &! +(&edeele7i%!i#e de +(ed(e +(i% #(%) liilU'#i' -e(7l" i +(i% +(&e)e (e&e+#i-e, el #(e7!i :% *dll= 'i( )" (e!e)&". U%ele )+i(i#e )e%#i*e%#le )! )e%)i7il.' )! :%#(i)## l :%d!l &"

+(fe)(ii +# fi :%l&!i2i de b.I!l. Di*+#(i-", %!" %i )e +(e &" &e)#e *i%i %e il!&,*i :%#:i, *(ele )e(-i&i! de de*%)#( f"(" (e+li&" ?a=>I5ll@, &(e(!l *e&%i& lf!%&2i!%ii +(fe)(!l!i, )#fel69

cum o&%&e+e :%-"2"*@%#!l #(di2i%l d&" &e)# :%-"2" *:%# i +(+!) d(e+# idel(e+e#(e &(e" &ee &e \ f)# e$+!) :% *d &(e, )e :%2elee de l )i%e &" *i% X

+#e :%de+li%i &! )!&&e) &e)#e &%di2ii.S )+!) &" *i% )!+(i*" f(ii fei-ii. A&e)# %! e)#e :%)" e$ i S_i%%e(

+(e#i%de &! d(e+# &!-:%# &" (elie" de)e 8*#i-2ie


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:%2elee(e +(7le*ei, &! ## #:#e (e+e#i2ii &@#e ):%# %e&e)(e i &! +((e) %e:%#(e(!+# :%&!l 72i%e(ii !%( )!&&e)e &%)#%#e. O(i&e di)&i+li%" +#e fi de&i +((*#" d!+" &e)#

+(i%&i+i!, fie &" e)#e -(7 de (2i%*e%# +!(, fie de )i*+l" *e*((e.i%ile )#fel &%&e+!#e ! (e+!(## )!&&e)e &%)ide(7ile i ! i &(e# i%d!)#(ie

+()+e(". :%#( +e(id" de &(e#e(e (+id" %!*"(!l!i ele-il( i de +e%!(ie de +(fe)(i, ele

+# f&e )e(-i&ii i%&%#e)#7ile i )i!(", :% e%e(l, !% *(e &:#i de #i*+ f2" de:%-"2"*:%#!l #(di2i%l. Ele ):%# fl)i#e %! %!*i :% &li, d( i :% :%#(e+(i%de(i !%de +e%#(!!% *#i- )! l#!l d!l2il( #(e7!ie )" li )e #(%)*i#" &!%#i%2e :%#(!% *d (+id.1

'II de)+(e -l(e i%#(i%)e&" !%ei )e*e%e *e#de de lie, e de+i%de, fi(e#e, de)&+!(ile &(e i )e #(i7!ie III%(& di)&i+li%" +(#i&!l(". :% &!(ile :% &(e e)#e fi* d( de:%)!i(e !%( &!%#i%2e, &!* ( fi )#!di!l 1=1 l(, )e +(e &" *i% +(e)#e" )e(-i&ii f(#e

7!%e I le) )!7 f(* &@#i!l!i de #i*+. :% &!(ile :% &(e I#d &%)#" :% (ei%-e%#(e)!&&e)i!%ii de (2i%*e%#e, de +ild" :% *#e*#i&i, *i% %! e$&l!de %i&i :%2ele e, %i&i(2i%*e%#!l & #(e, d( e :l &%lie" :%#( iiid )!+"("#( i e$&l!de i%i2i#i-. E)#ei%#e(e)%# )" fJ% #% &e)#" +(i-i%2" &" l C%fe(i%2 de l Vd) I==, de)+(e &(e * *i-(7i# ie)%(e i !%ele i l#ele +e%#(! -i2" &l(" (* ill#f0.l#,l=%( :%-"2"*:%#!l +((*# )e fl" de7i l :%&e+!#! ?- .file i e)#e &* +(e de-(e*e

+e%#(! f&e +(fe2ii li+(! -ii#(!l!i l!i. C ##e *e#dele de :%-"2"*:%# 7"ii> +e )#!di!l

!%!i )+e +(#i&!l( l de-l#"(ii *e%ii=, &e)#" *e#d" +#e d (e!l##e 7!%e )!7!%5i!l # -ede(e &%)ide(#, ("*:%:%d :%)" i%)!fi&ie%#" & *e#d" lie#fil", I( :% &e)#"+(i-i%2", +(7le* - fi (el-#", I% &!l #!#!(( +(7le*el( +edi&e, %! +(i%#( di)1&!#ie %2i%l" )! 7)#(", &i +(i%#( &!*!l(e de f+#e i +(i% -e(ifi&"(i +(e&i)e.

O(, l!&(! &!(i), &e)#e -e(ifi&"(i +(-i% +e%#(! **e%# *i de (7" di% :%-"2"*:%#!lde)#i%# d!l2il( de&:# di% +edi &l(" +(+(i!i)" i &e)# +e%#(! d!" *#i-e

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!%( *edi&i *ili#(i &!* ):%# &ele le Ce%#(!l!i de l 0e()ille) &(e l!&(e" :% le"#!(" &!I%)#i#!#!l de P)i5lie de l S(7%.

Al dile *#i- &%)#" :% f+#!l &" :% *!l#e &!(i *e#dele de :%-"2"*:%# +((*# ):%#di%i%#e de-l(i#e, de(e&e :% l& de )e &%)#(!i +((*e de&-#e 7#e +e +(i%&i+i!l:%2elee(ii +((e)i-e, )e #(%)+!%e :% #e(*e%i de +((*(e *e&%i&" d( &%2i%!#!l

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de &(e(!l de&-# l %il( )#(!!(i d*i%i)#(#i-e i &l(e +!)e :% )e(-i&i!l &e)#(2el!(i. :%&" d#" i :%#( *")!(" +(e+%de(e%#", )!&&e)ele de+i%d de *e#dele +edi&efl)i#e i &5i( i &e *i 7!%" +l%ifi&(e e)#e %e-i7il" d&" e %! &*+(#" :%%i(e*e#dli&" &%&*i#e%#" &! &e #eleli&". I#" de &e +(7le*ele +(el7ile e$*i%#e

+:%" &!* +(i-i%d f(*(e )+i(i#!l!i #ii%2ifi& )!7 d!7l!l )"! )+e li&*fe *#i& i

e$+e(i*e%#l )! &5i( #e5%i&, %! &%)#i#!ie )i*+le +(7le*e de i%#(d!&e(e, &i &%di2i%e":% *d di(e di%*i)*!l efei- l (ef(*el( i l +l%ifi&"(ii.)atele cantitative

U% +(i* f+# e)e%2il e)#e #e%di%2 e$i)#e%#" :% ##e )##ele %i de i%#(d!&e )! de e%e(li +(i%&i+i!l :%-"2" ? *:%#!l!i 7li#(i!, i( :% 2"(ile :% &(e &e)# +(i%&i+i! )e+li&" de;, #e%di%2 de 1 +(el!%i :% *")!( +)i7il!l!i.III! l idii2 (ef(* di% i%!(ie 1949 +(e-ede :%-"2" ,,!lHli(i#(i! +:%" l -:()# dei)+(ee&e %i :*+li

i'iili! &+iii de *7e )e$e, f(%&ei i )#("i%i &(e ! %il I% I I%!(ie 1949 )e %i. I%

&eli %, :%-"2" #l lHlli?%#(i! f)# e$#i%) :% U.R.S.S. de l l M %i. Ulii +(e-"d !%:%-"2"*@%# 7li#(i! de %!" %i :% 5lli fede(l" Ge(*%iei, de e&e %i :% I#li e#&.>H=ll e$#i%de(i :%-"2"*@%#!l!i 7li#(i! :i &(e) iliH I% *d fi(e)& !% %)*7l! de*")!(i &(e #i%de )" ii I% el" *")!(" (#!i##e :%-"2"*@%#!l!i i )" 5>i>i % :%*i"(!l

7!()el( de )#!dii. G(#!i##e, &(e e)#e %lfl I% %i-el!l &lil( de (d!l :%#:i,


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E)#e i%!#il )" i%)i)#"* )!+( f+#!l!i &" )e*e%e )+(!(i i*+!% *difi&(e &%#i%!" 7!e#el( i%)#(!&2i!%ii +!7li&e. A&e)#e 7!e#e ("*@% :% +e(*%e%2" i%)!fi&ie%#e, :% )+e&il :%&ee &e +(i-e#e :%-"2"*@%#!l )!+e(i(


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m7i#e, le +(e"#i :%-"2"#(i +e%#(! &l +(i*(" l 0!##fl#e. De l#fel, :% &e)#"+(i-i%2" )e &!-i%e )" %! %e 2!i%l* &! &!-i%#e, &i )" +(e&i"* :% fie&(e & +(#i&!l( P&e%i-el de !%i-e()i##e e -(7. :%#(de-"(, *!l#e liei) Cllee *e(i&%e %! ):%# de f+# de&:#%i#e R#l#ii# +edi&e :% )e%)!l di)&!## *i )!), &! l#e 0l%le, ele ("*:% de)&5i)e !%(8!%de((d!#e), &(e %! f -%%) +e #"(:*!l &e(&e#"(ii. I% l#e &!(i :%)", ) i%ii> I I%#e((e (el" -ii#(!l!i +(fe)( :% -i2 !%i-e( , &ee &e +(e&%ie", de +ild", (+(#!lP(e%# di% l=I% f(%&e", de7"#:%d (ef(*ele de *:i%e.

I#$+&(l*ie%#!l f"&!# l Ge%e- :% !l#i*ii %i e)#e i%)#(!i- d!7l!l +!% de -ede(e lli+)!(il( i )!&&e)el( l!i. P(i% il!l &e)#!i e$+e(i*e%# e)#e &" -ii#(!l d)&"l de &l" ll%%(":%&e+e +(i% 72i%e 7&l!(e#!l, +(e"#i(e ) 7ill#" el%:%d!)e +i +e +e(id"de #(ei %i. I% +flii#!l %, &%did2ii f& )#ii +(i&e, )#fel :%&:# )" d7:% *!A &!%#i%2

+(7le*el(, i( :% %!l l #(eile ei (e-i% +(i&". A%!l l dile :%)" e)#e (ee(-# )#!diil(l U%i (!l#!#&, !%de &%did2ii !(*e" &!()!(ile de +)i5lie f&!l##e de #ii%2e, de

+edie ' l dife(e%2ie(e l( de ie)#!l )#!de%2il(. :% )&5i*7, I%i2ie(e +(i*i#"e)#e )!fi&ie%#" +e%#(! i i%#e(e) +e &ei lli%l 7!%i i !%ii &%#i%!" !l#e(i(


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&ei +(i-e#e +e )#!de%2ii :%ii, :%&:# de)e &e)#" f(*2ie )e (ed!&e l !% %)*7l! de&!()!(i i de e$*e%e, i( l!&("(ile +(i&e )e (ed!& l +li&(e &:i#(- #e)#e. O(, :%

+)i5lie, :%#( *")!(" i *i *i&" de&:# :% l#e d* %ii, f+#ele i i%#e(+(e#"(ile %! +# fi:%2ele)e de&:# d!+" & )e efe!e" +e()%l &e(&e#(e. Fi(e#e, l!&(!l &e)# e)#e &el *i(e! de (%i#, *i le) +e%#(! :%&e+"#(i :% &!l +(#i&!l( l e$e*+l!l!i *e%2i%# de

%i, +(7le* e)#e (el-#" :% fel!l !(*"#( I%)#i#!#!l de)f"(" &e(&e#"(i &e ):%#+l%ifie %!l de &"#(e +(fe)(i i &%d!)e de )i)#e%2i &(e, :% fie&(e d!+" *i",i%#e(5e" &+ii :% :%&" +e(i +!)e l di)+i2i l( :% fie&(e &l". L &e)#e &e(&e#"(i

+(#i&i+" (!+!(i de di )! de &el *!l# #(ei )#!de%2i, &( :%-2" )" %#ee f+#ele, )"i%#e(5ee i (e, *i le), f& (+(#e +e(idi&e, )&ii%d!le l de)f"!((e &e(&e#"(ii :%-#(!(ile & i :% (e!i#ele ei. T&*i #(e(e -ii#(il( :%-"2"#(i l &e)#" &l7((e,:%#( *")!(" di% &e :% & *i *(e, i &e)# &%# &! f+#ele #(e+## de;#e i el7(#e,&%)#i#!ie +(e"#i(e l( e)e%2il" +(e"#i(e i%#ele!l", +(i% f+#!l &" li )e de-"l!ie&*+le$i##e &5e)#i!%il( ]:% #i*+ &e &!()!(ile %! )e &!+" de&:# de &5e)#i!%i (el-#e &(e

+( :% &e)# & *!l# *i )i*+le de&:# ):%# :% (eli##e i +(e"#i(e *(l" )! )&il", &(e d"ed!(!l!i &%-i%e(e &" di)&i+li% ) &*+(#" !% &:*+ %e*"(i%i# de +(f!%d"(i

#e(e#i&e i de +e(fe&2i%(e #e5%i&". C! l# &!-i%#e, :% &e(&e#(e i +(i% &e(&e#(e +(fe)i ded)&"l :%&e#e" de fi )i*+l" *e)e(ie i de+"e#e &5i( %i-el!l !%ei -&2ii fei-e

+e%#(! d7:%di de*%i##e (i&"(ei +(fe)i!%i &e 2i%e :% &eli #i*+ de (#" i de #ii%2",de(e&e #ii%2 de)+(e &+il i de)+(e ed!&2i ) &%)#i#!ie *i *!l# & (i&:%d !% d*e%i!i%e+!i7il.

5ormarea personalului didactic secundar:% *;(i##e 2"(il(, +(fe)(ii )e&!%d(i ):%# +(e"#i2i :% f&!l#"2i i 72i% cel pu:in

li&e%2". Ei ):%# 7i%!i2i de&i i &e(&e#(e, &el +!2i% :% d*e%i!l di)&i+li%el( +e &(e !(116JJ==#A )" le +(ede, )#fel :%&:#, d&" ):%# %i*2i de f&!l fii +e%#(! &e)#e di)&i+li%e,#(e7!ie )" fie :% )#(e )" di)


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I H &ee, C%fe(i%2 I%#e(%2i%l" :%-"2"*@%#!l!i P!7li& -!# d(e+##e &:%d,&!+:%d!)e, l )e)i!%e ) di% 194 de iiiii%(e +e()%l!l!i didi& )e&!%d(, i%)i)##)!+( %e# e)l#"2ii !%ei i%i2ie(i +)i5li&e l &eli %i-el &! &el l11

+(e"#i(ii l di)&i+li%ele &e )e +(ed!. O(, &e)#" f(*2i +)i5+edi&" )e (elie"

*!l# *i (e! l +(fe)(ii de %i-el )e&!%d( de&:# l &ei de (d!l :%#:i, iei( *#i-ele ("##e(idi&" de)e 7(ie(" de *e#(e&!# :% &le &el( *l 7i%e i%#e%2i%#e :%&e(&"(i. Difi&!l##e&%)#", :%i%#e d ##e, :% f+#!l &" +e%#(! :%2elee +)i5li f!%&2iil( *i%#le ledle)&e%#!l!i e)#e %e&e)( )" )#"+:%e#i :%#(e de-l#(e de l -@()# f(ed" +@%" l &ed!l#" i &f# -ii#(ii +(fe)(i )e&!%d(i :%&e+ +(i% )e dei%#e(e) ##l de -:()# &+il"(iei,:%i%#e de :%2elee :% &e *")!(" %li ##li#"2ii +(&e)el( f(*#(e &l(ifi&" +(&e)ele

+(+(ii dle)&e%2ei,Cele d!" +(&edee &(e ! (e!i# +:%" &!* &el *i 7i%e )"i f&" +e &ei i%#e(e)2i )"

&&e+#e )e*e%e f(*2ie, ):%# K &el +!2i% :% &ee &ei +(i-e#e +e -ii#(ii +(fe)(i d#ii%2e K, !(*"#(ele

U%!l &%)#", fi(e#e, :% i )&i l &e(&e#"(i +)i5+ed i&e +(i-i%d &!#(e )! &!#(e

)#(!!(" lie*#e*#i&", (i &!#(e )! &!#(e )i#!2ie de &!li##e fii&" &(e(!lde)e &! ##!l %e+(e-"!# l )!7ie&2il( de di-e()e -:()#e e)#e )!fi&ie%# +e%#(! ("# &"e$i)#" +(7le*e +e &(e ed!(!l (e ## i%#e(e)!l )" le &!%)&" :% *"%!%2i*e. Cel"ll#

+(&ede! )e (efe(" l +(e"#i(e #e(e#i&". Se :%#:*+l" de)e & !%ii di%#(e -ii#(ii +(fe)(ide #ii%2e )" %!#(e)&" !% di)+(e2 %edi)i*!l# +e%#(! +)i5li de-l#"(ii, +:%" :% **e%#!l&:%d ):%# l"*!(i2i )!+( i*+(#%2ei e+i)#e*li&e leil( &e)#ei de-l#"(i. Di*+#(i-", d#" &e +(7le*ele &5ii2i%"(ii &!%#i%2el( ):%# +!)e :% #e(*e%i de (el2ii :%#(e )!7ie i7ie, &! l#e &!-i%#e :% #e(*e%i de i%#e(+(e#"(i e*+i(i)#e, +(i(i)#e )! e!%)#(!i-i)#e e#&.,ei (e")e)& le"#!(" e! !%ele +(7le*e &e%#(le le di)&i+li%ei l( de )+e&ili##e i :i d!)e* de i%#e(e)!l &e(&e#"(il(, :% #i*+ &e )i*+l +(ee%#(e +edi&" &e)#( :i l)"%e+")"#(i.

C:# de)+(e -ii#(ii +(fe)(i de li#e(e, )#di!l &e(&e#"(il( +e(*i#e :%#( *")!(" *i *i&")e*e%e &%#e. D(, d#" &! +((e)!l %liel( li%-i)#i&e +(i-i%d e-l!2i i%di-id!l" li*7;!l!i, +e()+ei-ele de-i% +(*i2"#(e, #:# di% +!%!l de -ede(e l )#(!!(li)*!l!ili%-i)#i& :%)!i, &:# i di%11M

I% %l (el2iil( di%#(e f!%&2i )e*i#i&" i :%di(e. i :% 5i d*e%i! &:*+!i de &e(&e#"(ie)#e i*e%) i %! :%&+e %ll" &" - -e%i i :% &(e #ii%2ele ed!&2iei, 7e%efi&ii%d l%#&e)#e +(#!(i, -( +!%e l +!% #e5%i&i *!l# *i I!%ie d&&:i# &ele de )#"i i -( )i!(,

+(i% &5i( &e)# fi#, +(e"#i(e *i efi&ie%#" &(+!l!i didi& i *i le) :%fi((e l!ii-" l de-l#(e %e:%&e##" &e)#( I+ll%e.


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#%artea a doua4/


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)&ili(e, ed!(!l ) +(e&!+# l :%&e+!# de 2el!(ile ed!&2iei *i *!l# l!&i# de #e5%i&ei, de *!l &%)#i#!i# *i *!l# de&:# de *+ll i de leile de-l#"(ii )le.

I% fel!l &e)#, el f)# :%de*%#, :% *d i*+li&i# )! e$+li&i#, )" &%)ide(e &+il!l fie &+e !% *!le2 &(e #(e7!ie I%)#(!i#, *(li# i ide%#ifi &:# *i (e+ede &! *delele =AIOd!l#e, fie !% )!+(# de -(i#e +"e (ii%(e, (e)+ei- & *#e(ie (ei)#e%#" &(e

#(e7!ie (e&!+e(#" *i *l# de&:# i%f(*#". De l &e)# +!% de -ede(e +le&" i !#A.l*;(i##e +(&edeel( %)#(e +edi&e. A&e)# +!% de -ede(e defi%e#e *e#dele8-e&5i )! 8#(di2i%le I! ed!&2ie. e#dele %i ):%# &ele &(e 2i% )e* de %#!(

+#!+(le &+il!l!i i f& +el l leile &%)#i#!2iei +)i5li&e = I%di-id!l!i i l leilede-l#"(ii l!i.1Z1%asivitate sau activitate

A&!* #(e7!ie )" %e :%2elee*. e*(i, )!+!%e(e +)i-ii, i*i#(e d!l#!l!i ii, :%e%e(l, f(ii de (e&e+2ie ):%# #%l #:# de %#!(li +e%#(! &+il e i i-i##e )+%#%". O(,%! )( +!#e )+!%e &" -e&5ile *e#de, (i&:# de %#i+)i5l5 i ! f)# ele &:#ed#", !%eli;# ##l 7)e(-(e &+il!5il )!7 &e)# (+(#. Ad(, :%#(e &ele d!" +edii &(i#e(i!l

#(e7!ie &"!## %! :% !#ili(e &!#"(ei #(")"#!(i *e%#li#"2ii &+il!l!i, &i :% &%&e+2i de'%)*7l! +e &(e ed!(!l di%#( #7"(" )! &ell#" i f&e de)+(e &+il.

E)#e (e &+il"(i !% ("! %e&e)( )! #(")"#!(ile *e%#li#"2ii &+il!l!i ! )e*%ifi&2ief!%&2i%l", defi%i%d i-i##e de-"(#"Q :% f!%&2ie de (")+!%)!l d# l &e)#" :%#(e7(ef!%d*e%#l", (+(#!l di%#(e )&ie##e d!l#" i &+il!l &(e #(e7!ie ed! - fi &%&e+!# &!%il#e(l )! (e&i+(&. :% +(i*!l &, &+il!l e)#e &5e*# )" +(i*e)&" di% e$#e(i( +(d!)ee# el7(#e le &!%#e(ii i le *(li#"2ii d!l#e. Rel2i ed!i-" &%)#" di% +(e)i!%edi%#( +(#e i (e&e+#(e de &ell#". Di% &e)# +!% de -ede(e, l!&("(ile ele-il(, &5i( i &ele&! &(e( +(%!%2# i%di-id!l


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f(*e%#(e :% )&5i*7, l R!))e! ")i* %*%'+2ie de %)*7l! &"(ei -l(e %e !i*e#e)#"i &! III *i *!l# &! &i# e % f)# i%)+i(#" de %i&i e$+e(ie%2" illl%2lfi&" i &! &i#&%#e$#!l )"! filfi& :*+iedi +(e di'-e(i +(e&ie(e ei 7iei-".

11 ! &! :%)ei &%-i%e(il( )le de)+(e +e(fe&2i!%e !%#!(ii i +e(-e()i!%e)&ie#"2ii, R!))e! ;!%) +e &e)#" i%ie %e+(e-"!#" l idee &" -:()# &+il"(iei ( +!#e fi

!lllfl, #%#(!&:# e)#e %#!(l", i &" de-l#(e *i%#l" +#e1Z3fi (el#" de lei &%)#%#e. Ed!&2i ( #(e7!i de&i )" !#iliee &e)# *e&%i)* :% l& )" i )e

+!%" de &!(*ei!l, :% fel!l &e)# el el7(# +edie &i(e *e(e +:%@ I% el7((e*"%!%#!l!i. P!#e* ) +(e&ie* fie & %#i&i+(e e%il" 8*e#del( %i de ed!&2ie,fie & )i*+l" 5i*e(", d!+" &!* %eli;"* +(i(i)*!l filfi& l l!i Je%% J&`!e) )!,de(:%d l d(i%2 l!i, le &%)ide("* & fii%d :% *d %e&e)( le#e de #eele l!i )&ili&e.

De f+#, &i#i%d &(#e l!i R!))e!, Brriile,e)#e i*+)i7il )" f&e* 7)#(&2ie de*e#fii& !#(!l!i. :% &e)#" +(i-i%2" Je% J&`!e) e)#e !% +(e&!()( (e&!*&*+(*i2"#(. D( #&*i &e)#" 7)e(-2ie %e f&e )" :%2elee* de-"(# %!##e *e#del( di% )e&l!l l //le :% +i2ie &! )i)#e*ele #e(e#i&ie%il( &l)i&i. F"(" :%dil",

R!))e! :%#(e-"!# &" 8fie&(e -:()#" :i (e (e)(#!(ile ei, &" 8&+il!l (e *d!(i de -ede, de :%di i de )i*2i &(ei ):%# +(+(ii. F"(" :%dil", el de*%)#(# I% *del&-e%# &" %! )e +#e :%-"2 %i*i& de&:# +(i%#( &!&e(i(e i-" i &" ele-!l #(e7!ie )"(ede)&+e(e #ii%2 :% l& )" (e+e#e f(*!lele ei -e(7le. R!))e! e)#e !#(!l &elei(e&*%d"(i +e%#(! &(e i )e -( ie(# *!l#e 8:%&e+e2i +(i% -" )#!di ele-ii, +e%#(! &", &!)i!(%2", %!i &!%#e2i &:2!L de ;+!2i%'- D( &e)#" i%#!i(e &%#i%!" (eli#"2ii de-l#"(ii*i%#le *i e)#e :%&" l el )i*+l" &(edi%2" )&ili&", &5i( !% i%)#(!*e%# +le*i&. D&"el :%)!i ( fi )#!di# leile &e)#ei *#!("(i +)i5li&e &"(ei e$i)#e%2" +)#!le" ###i*+!l, %! ( fi di)&i# e-l!2i i%di-id!l" de *edi!l )&il. G")i* &5i( l el %2i!%ile de)e*%ifi&2ie f!%&2i%l" &+il"(iei, de e#+e ie de-l#"(ii i%#ele!le i *(le, i%#e(e) ii-i##e de-"(#", d( &e)#e %2i!%i %! ! i%)+i(# efei- 8%ile *e#de de&:# di%**e%#!l :% &(e ! f)# (e")i#e +e +l%!l 7)e(-"(ii 7iei-e i l e$+e(ie%2ei de &"#(e!#(i *i +(e&!+2i de de-"(!l :% )i%e i de &%#(l )i)#e*#i&.

Di%#(e &%#i%!#(ii l!i R!))e!, &el +!2i% di ! (e!i# )" (eliee !%ele idei le l!i&5i( :% d*e%i!l &lii. I% &e)# )e%) ei +# fi &%)ide(2i & de-"(2i +(e&!()(i l %il(*e#de. E)#e -(7 de Pe)#li


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&+il!l )e de)e7e#e de d!l# i &" fie&(e -:()#" :i (e &(e(ele ei +(+(ii. :%&(ede(e ) :%(% )#%2 leil( e-l!2iei +)i5i&e e( &5i( #:# de *(e f(! ## i%)+i(# fi*) l!i #ormul ed!&2iei %e#i-e >! i%!#ili#"2ii i%#e(-e%2iei +(fe)(!l!i. D( :% &e &%)#! +e!l(!R!))e! &e)#e &(e(e )+e&ile le &+il"(iei i &i)#e lei le de-l#"(iiQ :% f(" de7)e(-2iile )le ?a>(#l%e%#e )!+( !#ili#"2ii e$e(&i2i!l!i i &"!#"(ii +(i% ##%"(i i )!+(

%e&e)i#"2ii 7ili&e +e(idei de &+il"(ie, de)e7i(ile +e &(e el le )#7ile#e :%#(e &e)#"+e(id" i -i(# d!l#" ):%# +(i% e$&ele%2" %e#i-e &+il!l %! &!%#e (2i!%e,)e%#i*e%#!l d#(iei e#&. A)#fel, e#+ele e-l!2iei *i%#le )#7ili#e de el


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li)#e %e&e)(" ##!i (ee(-". :% )e&l!l l /l/le %!*e # !%)e )i)#e*e +edi&e )!7# +e +)i5lie f"(" l!%e :%)" l &ee &e %!*i* )#"i 8%ile *e#de. E)#e le +(i)))" :%&e(&"* i&i )" :%i("* ##e d(i%ele ++il%`i&e i :% )+e&il )" di)&!#"* ideile l!iS+e%&e(. Ni )e +%(e :%)" %e&e)( )"l *e%2i%"* +e e(7(#. :%#(!&:# el d%l %% *del)!+"("#( de +edie i%)+i(#" di%#( +)i5 1111' &(e :%&" %! e( e%e#i&", di)&!#(e

+e(ei )le %e vn %;!# )" ("#"* &e ! d!) %! :% +edie (e&e%#ele I* ("(i )!+(+)i5liei &+il!l!i[ , lle(7(# &%)#i#!ie dife(i#ele *dli#"2i de+e(&e+2ie.

A (e!i# (e ei(7i(#, +(i% *e#dele )le, )" #(%)f(*>> &lQ N!. Ni&i i%)#i#!2ie&*+(7il" &! &l)ele %#) )(i, &! &lile De&(lW e#&. %! #(i7!ie +#e(%i##e l!i (

7(#. De &eQ E$+li&2i &%)#" :% f+#!l &" +)i5li l!i e)#e +(i% e$&ele%2" d(i%" (e&e+#i-i#"2ii i ele*e%#el( de &%)e(-(e +e &(e le &*+(#" )+i(i#!l. e(7i(# %! #i!# )"el7(ee #e(ie i-i#"2ii, (e&%&ilii%d +!%!l de -ede(e 7ili& l de-l#"(ii &!%li &elei &%)#(!&2ii &%#i%!e +e &(e (e+(ei%#" i%#elie%2.

I#"%e de&i :% *")!(" )" )#7ili* &(d%#ele i )" e$+li&"* +(i2i %il( *e#de deed!&2ie, +(+(ii e+&ii %)#(e. I% ##e e+&ile, #2i +edii ! &e(!# d+#(e &lii l&+ii. De l 2#!))e% :%&&e, fie&(e (e+e#" &" &+il!l e)#e :%e)#(# de l %#!(" &!

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