Edited by

Mikel Duke, Dongyuan Zhao,

and Raphael Semiat

Functional Nanostructured Materials andMembranes for Water Treatment

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Edited by Mikel Duke, Dongyuan Zhao, and Raphael Semiat

Functional Nanostructured Materials andMembranes for Water Treatment

The Volume Editors

Prof. Dr. Mikel DukeVictoria Univ., Inst. ofSustainability+ Innovat., Blg. 4Room 4.107, Hoppers LaneWerribee, Victoria 3030Australien

Prof. Dr. Dongyuan ZhaoFudan UniversityDept. of ChemistryHandan Road 220Shanghai 200233Volksrep. China

Prof. Raphael SemiatTechnion - Israel Institute ofTechnology, The Wolfson Chem.Engineering Dept.32000 Technion City, HaifaIsrael

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Print ISBN: 978-3-527-32987-8ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-66849-6ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-66848-9mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-66847-2oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-66850-2

Typesetting Laserwords Private Limited,Chennai, IndiaPrinting and Binding Markono Print MediaPte Ltd, SingaporeCover Design Simone Benjamin, McLeeseLake, Canada

Printed in SingaporePrinted on acid-free paper

V

Editorial Board

Members of the Advisory Board of the ‘‘Materials for Sustainable Energy andDevelopment’’ Series

Professor Huiming ChengProfessor Calum DrummondProfessor Morinobu EndoProfessor Michael GrätzelProfessor Kevin KendallProfessor Katsumi KanekoProfessor Can LiProfessor Arthur NozikProfessor Detlev StöverProfessor Ferdi SchüthProfessor Ralph Yang

VII

Contents

Foreword XIII

Series Editor Preface XV

Acknowledgments XVII

About the Series Editor XIX

About the Volume Editors XXI

List of Contributors XXIII

1 Target Areas for Nanotechnology Development for Water Treatmentand Desalination 1Mikel Duke, Raphael Semiat, and Dongyuan Zhao

1.1 The Future of Water Treatment: Where Should We Target OurEfforts? 1

1.2 Practical Considerations for Nanotechnology Developers 21.3 The Water Treatment Market for New Nanotechnology 31.4 Purpose of This Book 41.5 Concluding Remarks 5

References 6

2 Destruction of Organics in Water via Iron Nanoparticles 7Hilla Shemer and Raphael Semiat

2.1 Introduction 72.2 Nanoparticles as Catalysts 82.2.1 Colloidal Nanoparticles 92.2.2 Supported Nanoparticles 92.3 Advanced Oxidation Processes 102.3.1 Fenton-Like Reactions 122.3.1.1 Iron Oxide as Heterogeneous Nanocatalyst 12

VIII Contents

2.3.2 Photo-Fenton Reactions 162.3.3 Nanocatalytic Wet Oxidation 172.4 Nano Zero-Valent Iron (nZVI) 182.4.1 Synthesizing Methods 202.4.1.1 Emulsified Zero-Valent Iron 212.4.2 Degradation Mechanism 222.4.3 Field Application of nZVI 252.5 Bimetallic nZVI Nanoparticles 272.6 Summary 29

References 30

3 Photocatalysis at Nanostructured Titania for Sensing Applications 33Shanqing Zhang and Huijun Zhao

3.1 Background 333.1.1 Photocatalysis at TiO2 Nanomaterials 333.1.2 Photoelectrocatalysis at TiO2 Nanomaterials 363.2 Fabrication of TiO2 Photoanodes 373.2.1 Common Fabrication Techniques and Substrates for Photoanodes 373.2.2 TiO2/BDD Photoanode 383.2.3 TiO2 Mixed-Phase Photoanode 393.2.4 CNTs/TiO2 Composite Photoanode 403.3 The Sensing Application of TiO2 Photocatalysis 413.3.1 Photocatalytic Determination of TOC 423.3.2 Photocatalytic Determination of COD 433.4 The Sensing Application of TiO2 Photoelectrocatalysis 463.4.1 Probe-Type TiO2 Photoanode for Determination of COD 463.4.2 Exhaustive Degradation Mode for Determination of COD 503.4.3 Partial Oxidation Mode for Determination of COD 533.4.4 UV-LED for Miniature Photoelectrochemical Detectors 553.4.5 Photoelectrochemical Universal Detector for Organic Compounds 553.5 Photocatalytic Gas Sensing 563.5.1 The Photoelectrocatalytic Generation of Analytical Signal 573.5.2 Photocatalytic Surface Self-Cleaning for Enhancement of Analytical

Signal 583.6 Conclusions 59

References 59

4 Mesoporous Materials for Water Treatment 67Yonghui Deng and Dongyuan Zhao

4.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions 684.2 Adsorption of Anions 734.3 Adsorption of Organic Pollutants 744.4 Multifunctional Modification of Sorbents 774.5 Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants 794.6 Conclusions and Outlook 82

Contents IX

Acknowledgments 83References 83

5 Membrane Surface Nanostructuring with Terminally Anchored PolymerChains 85Yoram Cohen, Nancy Lin, Kari J. Varin, Diana Chien, and Robert F. Hicks

5.1 Introduction 855.2 Membrane Fouling 865.3 Strategies for Mitigation of Membrane Fouling and Scaling 895.4 Membrane Surface Structuring via Graft Polymerization 915.4.1 Overview 915.4.2 Reaction Schemes for Graft Polymerization 925.4.3 Surface Activation with Vinyl Monomers 945.4.4 Surface Activation with Chemical Initiators 955.4.5 Irradiation-Induced Graft Polymerization 975.4.5.1 Gamma-Induced Graft Polymerization 975.4.5.2 UV-Induced Graft Polymerization 995.4.6 Plasma-Initiated Graft Polymerization 1015.5 Summary 104

References 107

6 Recent Advances in Ion Exchange Membranes for DesalinationApplications 125Chalida Klaysom, Bradley P. Ladewig, G.Q. Max Lu, and Lianzhou Wang

6.1 Introduction 1256.2 Fundamentals of IEMs and Their Transport Phenomena 1256.2.1 Ion Transport through IEMs 1276.2.2 Concentration Polarization and Limiting Current Density 1286.2.2.1 The Overlimiting Current Density 1286.2.2.2 Water Dissociation 1296.2.2.3 Gravitational Convection 1306.2.2.4 Electroconvection 1306.2.3 Structure and Surface Heterogeneity of IEMs 1306.3 Material Development 1356.3.1 The Development of Polymer-Based IEMs 1356.3.1.1 Direct Modification of Polymer Backbone 1356.3.1.2 Direct Polymerization from Monomer Units 1396.3.1.3 Charge Induced on the Film Membranes 1426.3.2 Composite Ion Exchange Membranes 1436.3.3 Membranes with Specific Properties 1476.3.3.1 Improving Antifouling Property 1496.4 Future Perspectives of IEMs 1506.4.1 Hybrid System 1506.4.2 Small-Scale Seawater Desalination 152

X Contents

6.5 Conclusions 152References 154

7 Thin Film Nanocomposite Membranes for Water Desalination 163Dan Li and Huanting Wang

7.1 Introduction 1637.2 Fabrication and Characterization of Inorganic Fillers 1687.3 Fabrication and Characterization of TFC/TFN Membranes 1727.3.1 Interfacial Polymerization 1727.3.2 Interfacial Polymerization with Inorganic Fillers 1757.3.3 Characterization of TFN or TFC Membranes 1777.4 Membrane Properties Tailored by the Addition of Fillers 1797.4.1 Water Permeability and Salt Rejection 1797.4.2 Fouling Resistance, Chlorine Stability, and Other Properties 1847.5 Commercialization and Future Developments of TFN Membranes 1857.6 Summary 187

References 188

8 Application of Ceramic Membranes in the Treatment of Water 195Weihong Xing, Yiqun Fan, and Wanqin Jin

8.1 Introduction 1958.2 Membrane Preparation 1968.2.1 Extrusion 1968.2.2 Sol–Gel Process 1968.3 Clarification of Surface Water and Seawater Using Ceramic

Membranes 1988.3.1 Ceramic Membrane Microfiltration of Surface Water 1998.3.1.1 Pretreatment with Flocculation/Coagulation 1998.3.1.2 Effect of Transmembrane Pressure (TMP) and Cross-Flow Velocity

(CFV) 1998.3.1.3 Ultrasound Cleaning 2008.3.1.4 Hybrid Ozonation–Ceramic Ultrafiltration 2018.3.1.5 Ceramic Membrane Applications for Industrial-Scale Waterworks 2018.3.2 Pretreatment of Seawater RO Using Ceramic Membranes 2018.3.2.1 Effect of Operational Parameters 2018.3.2.2 Ceramic Membrane Application for the Industrial-Scale SWRO

Plant 2028.4 Ceramic Membrane Application in the Microfiltration and

Ultrafiltration of Wastewater 2028.4.1 Microstructure of the Membranes 2048.4.2 Surface Properties of Ceramic Membranes 2058.4.2.1 Wettability 2058.4.2.2 Surface Charge Properties 2068.4.2.3 Technical Process 2088.4.2.4 Cost 212

Contents XI

8.5 Conclusions and Prospects 213References 213

9 Functional Zeolitic Framework Membranes for Water Treatment andDesalination 217Bo Zhu, Bin Li, Linda Zou, Anita J. Hill, Dongyuan Zhao, Jerry Y. S. Lin,and Mikel Duke

9.1 Introduction 2179.2 Preparation of Zeolite Membranes 2199.2.1 Direct In situ Crystallization 2209.2.2 Seeded Secondary Growth 2219.2.3 Microwave Synthesis 2239.2.4 Postsynthetic Treatment 2289.3 Zeolite Membranes for Water Treatment 2299.3.1 Zeolite Membranes for Desalination 2299.3.2 Zeolite Membranes for Wastewater Treatment 2359.3.3 Zeolite Membrane-Based Reactors for Wastewater Treatment 2389.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 241

Acknowledgments 241References 242

10 Molecular Scale Modeling of Membrane Water TreatmentProcesses 249Harry F. Ridgway, Julian D. Gale, Zak E. Hughes, Matthew B. Stewart,John D. Orbell, and Stephen R. Gray

10.1 Introduction 24910.2 Molecular Simulations of Polymeric Membrane Materials for Water

Treatment Applications 24910.2.1 RO Membranes: Synthesis, Structure, and Properties 25010.2.2 Strategies for Modeling Polymer Membranes 25510.2.3 Simulation of Water and Solute Transport Behaviors 26210.2.4 Concluding Remarks 26610.3 Molecular Simulation of Inorganic Desalination Membranes 26710.3.1 Modeling of Zeolites 26810.3.2 Behavior of Water within Zeolites 27010.3.3 Zeolites and Salt Ions 27610.3.4 Concluding Remarks 27810.4 Molecular Simulation of Membrane Fouling 27910.4.1 Molecular Modeling of Potential Organic Foulants 28010.4.2 Modeling of Membrane Fouling 28610.4.3 Future Directions 29110.4.4 Concluding Remarks 291

References 292

XII Contents

11 Conclusions: Some Potential Future Nanotechnologies for WaterTreatment 301Mikel Duke

11.1 Nanotubes 30111.1.1 Fast Molecular Flow 30211.1.2 CNTs as High Strength Fibers 30211.1.3 High Aspect Ratio 30311.1.4 Electrical Conductivity 30411.2 Graphene 30511.2.1 Graphene Barrier Material 30511.2.2 Desalination and Heavy Metal Adsorption 30611.2.3 Catalytic Assistance 30611.3 Aquaporins 30611.4 Metal–Organic, Zeolitic Imidazolate, and Polymer Organic

Frameworks 30711.5 Conclusions 309

References 309

Index 313

XIII

Foreword

It is with great pleasure to present to you this book on the ‘‘Functional Nanos-tructured Materials and Membranes for Water Treatment.’’ Nanomaterials are anemerging area in science that demonstrated achievements occurring in the last twodecades. We can date its beginnings from the name, ‘nanotechnology’, which wasoriginally coined by Norio Taniguchi, a professor from Tokyo University of Science,in 1974. The emergence of nanotechnology research appears to have come laterwith the advent of the scanning tunnelling microscope in 1981 and the discovery offullerenes in 1985. So from that time, besides the concept, we acquired the capacityto identify and characterise nanostructured materials, and this marks the start ofthe field of science dedicated to the nanoscale.

Nanotechnology is basically the field of science involving the manipulation ofmatter or theory at the atomic or molecular scale. In doing this, we have unearthedin exciting new properties that can influence the wavelength of light, increase theefficiency of catalysts, selectively diffuse small molecules, and even allow particles topenetrate living cell membranes. It is interesting to note that the natural world hasbeen based on nanostructured materials throughout evolution, and thus, mankindhas just started to recognise the need for tools to explore properties of materials in 1to 100 nm range. It is no wonder that governments around the world have investedbillions of dollars specifically in nanotechnology. While industries can harness thedifferent benefits of such materials for energy, foods, mining and, electronics, thisbook focuses on the advances for water treatment.

Water will always be an essential factor to our lives, and thus, there is an ongoingcause for researchers undertaking efforts to secure sustainable water sources andreduce water pollution. Water treatment is an area where I have spent muchof my career, principally in the field of membrane science. During my work Ihave explored membrane transport properties and fouling mechanisms, whichhas contributed towards the underpinning science of the widespread membranetechnology in the water industry. This is quite remarkable for a technology thatwas little heard of nearly half a century ago, and is recently one of the most widelyadopted water treatment technologies. Over the years, membrane technology hasinvolved working with nanostructured materials, although until now it has notbeen considered as a branch of nanotechnology. Now researchers are turning to

XIV Foreword

nanotechnology to address the challenges to a sustainable water future, and inmany cases this involves the marriage between nanotechnology and membranetechnology. Many of the contributors to this book are membrane scientists andengineers who have the vision that membranes are an invaluable technologyin water treatment and it can be enhanced by nanotechnology. Conventionalmembrane technology already includes a process of separating nano-dimensionalmolecules known as Nanofiltration. This technique is commercially applied, forexample, to remove organic materials (e.g. natural organic matter or sugars)from salts. However, a recently successful development that deliberately combinesmembrane technology and nanotechnology is the inclusion of nanoparticles indesalination membranes. This work, coming out of the birthplace of reverseosmosis membranes, the University of California at Los Angeles in the USA, hasnow entered the market as a commercial desalination membrane. The inclusionof nanoparticles within the polymer structure of membranes has performanceand practical benefits, that has also been explored in other forms of membranes,including ultra and microfiltration. While we see this activity rising rapidly intocommercialisation, this book also presents work in catalysis, sensing, adsorption,membrane modification, ion exchange, inorganic membranes, and nanoscalemodelling of membrane diffusion and interactions. Therefore, this book presents acomprehensive overview of the progress in nanotechnology to enhance membranesand other processes in water treatment. Whether you are an academic or workingin industry, scientist or engineer, student or professional, this book will haverelevance in your practice.

Professor Tony FaneUNESCO Centre for Membrane Science and Technology

University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australiaand

Singapore Membrane Technology CentreNanyang Technological University, Singapore

XV

Series Editor Preface

The Wiley Series on New Materials for Sustainable Energy and Development

Sustainable energy and development is attracting increasing attention from thescientific research communities and industries alike, with an international race todevelop technologies for clean fossil energy, hydrogen and renewable energy as wellas water reuse and recycling. According to the REN21 (Renewables Global StatusReport 2012 p. 17) total investment in renewable energy reached $257 billion in2011, up from $211 billion in 2010. The top countries for investment in 2011 wereChina, Germany, the United States, Italy, and Brazil. In addressing the challengingissues of energy security, oil price rise, and climate change, innovative materialsare essential enablers.

In this context, there is a need for an authoritative source of information,presented in a systematic manner, on the latest scientific breakthroughs andknowledge advancement in materials science and engineering as they pertain toenergy and the environment. The aim of the Wiley Series on New Materials forSustainable Energy and Development is to serve the community in this respect.This has been an ambitious publication project on materials science for energyapplications. Each volume of the series will include high-quality contributions fromtop international researchers, and is expected to become the standard reference formany years to come.

This book series covers advances in materials science and innovation for re-newable energy, clean use of fossil energy, and greenhouse gas mitigation andassociated environmental technologies. Current volumes in the series are:

Supercapacitors. Materials, Systems, and ApplicationsFunctional Nanostructured Materials and Membranes for Water TreatmentMaterials for High-Temperature Fuel CellsMaterials for Low-Temperature Fuel CellsAdvanced Thermoelectric Materials. Fundamentals and ApplicationsAdvanced Lithium-Ion Batteries. Recent Trends and PerspectivesPhotocatalysis and Water Purification. From Fundamentals to Recent

Applications

XVI Series Editor Preface

In presenting this volume on Functional Nanostructured Materials and Membranesfor Water Treatment, I would like to thank the authors and editors of this importantbook, for their tremendous effort and hard work in completing the manuscript in a timelymanner. The quality of the chapters reflects well the caliber of the contributing authors tothis book, and will no doubt be recognized and valued by readers.

Finally, I would like to thank the editorial board members. I am grateful to theirexcellent advice and help in terms of examining coverage of topics and suggestingauthors, and evaluating book proposals.

I would also like to thank the editors from the publisher Wiley-VCH with whomI have worked since 2008, Dr Esther Levy, Dr Gudrun Walter, and Dr Bente Flierfor their professional assistance and strong support during this project.

I hope you will find this book interesting, informative and valuable as a referencein your work. We will endeavour to bring to you further volumes in this series orupdate you on the future book plans in this growing field.

Brisbane, Australia Gao Qing Max Lu31 July 2012

XVII

Acknowledgments

Mikel Duke, Dongyuan Zhao and Raphael Semiat would like to thank all the authorsfor their hard work and commitment in producing their original contributions forthis book. Also, we appreciate their responsiveness to our requirements in theirongoing comments and revision requests during the production phase of thechapters.

All contributions were peer reviewed, so we also extend a warm thanks to thereviewers for their time and effort in providing detailed and quality comments tothe authors.

We would finally like to thank Esther Levy, Martin Graf and Claudia Nussbeckat the Wiley Editorial Office for their assistance, rapid response to questions, andenduring patience that enabled this book to be completed.

Mikel Duke wishes to thank the team at his group, the Institute for Sustainabilityand Innovation, Victoria University, for their patience and support in developingthis book. He also acknowledges the funding agencies that provided researchsupport related to the theme of this book including the Australian ResearchCouncil Linkage and Discovery Project schemes, the Victorian Smart Water Fund,the Australian Endeavour Awards, The Ian Potter Foundation, the National Centreof Excellence in Desalination Australia, the Australian Water Recycling Centreof Excellence, and the numerous industry and government partners. Max Lu’sinvitation to develop this book is greatly appreciated as well as the partnership ofDongyuan Zhao and Raphael Semiat in co-editing this book. Finally, Mikel wishesto thank Alicia and daughters, Eva and Lila, for their personal support.

Dongyuan Zhao would like to thank the NSF of China, the Fudan University, theChina Ministry of Education, and the China Ministry of Science and Technology,who provided their support for research during the writing of the book.

Raphael Semiat would like to thank the team of the Rabin Desalination Laboratoryat the Technion IIT for their help during this work.

XIX

About the Series Editor

Professor Max LuEditor, New Materials for Sustainable Energyand Development Series

Professor Lu’s research expertise is in the areas of materials chemistry andnanotechnology. He is known for his work on nanoparticles and nanoporousmaterials for clean energy and environmental technologies. With over 500 journalpublications in high-impact journals, including Nature, Journal of the AmericanChemical Society, Angewandte Chemie, and Advanced Materials, he is also coinventorof 20 international patents. Professor Lu is an Institute for Scientific Information(ISI) Highly Cited Author in Materials Science with over 17 500 citations (h-index of63). He has received numerous prestigious awards nationally and internationally,including the Chinese Academy of Sciences International Cooperation Award(2011), the Orica Award, the RK Murphy Medal, the Le Fevre Prize, the ExxonMobilAward, the Chemeca Medal, the Top 100 Most Influential Engineers in Australia(2004, 2010, and 2012), and the Top 50 Most Influential Chinese in the World(2006). He won the Australian Research Council Federation Fellowship twice (2003and 2008). He is an elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of TechnologicalSciences and Engineering (ATSE) and Fellow of Institution of Chemical Engineers(IChemE). He is editor and editorial board member of 12 major internationaljournals including Journal of Colloid and Interface Science and Carbon.

Max Lu has been Deputy Vice-Chancellor and Vice-President (Research) since2009. He previously held positions of acting Senior Deputy Vice-Chancellor (2012),

XX About the Series Editor

acting Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research), and Pro-Vice-Chancellor (ResearchLinkages) from October 2008 to June 2009. He was also the Foundation Directorof the ARC Centre of Excellence for Functional Nanomaterials from 2003 to 2009.

Professor Lu had formerly served on many government committees and advi-sory groups including the Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and InnovationCouncil (2004, 2005, and 2009) and the ARC College of Experts (2002–2004). Heis the past Chairman of the IChemE Australia Board and former Director of theBoard of ATSE. His other previous board memberships include Uniseed Pty Ltd.,ARC Nanotechnology Network, and Queensland China Council. He is currentlyBoard member of the Australian Synchrotron, National eResearch CollaborationTools and Resources, and Research Data Storage Infrastructure. He also holdsa ministerial appointment as member of the National Emerging TechnologiesForum.

XXI

About the Volume Editors

Professor Mikel Duke is the Principal Research Fellow ofMembrane Science and Deputy Director of the Institutefor Sustainability and Innovation at Victoria University,Australia. He has worked in membrane research forover 12 years and has 92 peer-reviewed publications inthis field. His focus is on development of ceramic andpolymeric membranes and their processes, specializingin molecular scale diffusion and optimizing functionalmaterial parameters. He is the recipient of an Australian

Research Council Linkage International Fellowship and an Endeavour ExecutiveAward and the founding chair of the Membrane Society of Australasia.

Professor Dongyuan Zhao is Cheung Kong Professorof the China Education Ministry, Vice Director of theAdvanced Materials Laboratory at Fudan University andVisiting Professor at Monash University (Australia). Heis an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.With over 350 peer-reviewed papers earning >20 000 ci-tations, he is the 65th Most-Cited Scientist in Chemistry(according to ISI). His research interests are in the synthe-sis of porous materials and their application in catalysis,

separation, photonics, sorption, environmental decontamination, sensors, andso on.

XXII About the Volume Editors

Professor Raphael Semiat is the Yitzhak Rabin MemorialChair in Science, Engineering and Management of WaterResources at Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. Hehas wide industrial experience in the research and devel-opment of chemical processes. His current interests andactivities are centered on water technologies, includingdesalination, and chemical-environmental processes anduse of nano particles for removal of organic matter andheavy metals from water. He has published more than140 papers in scientific journals.

XXIII

List of Contributors

Diana ChienUniversity of CaliforniaChemical and BiomolecularEngineering DepartmentWater Technology ResearchCenter5531 Boelter HallLos Angeles, CA 90095-1592USA

Yoram CohenUniversity of CaliforniaChemical and BiomolecularEngineering DepartmentWater Technology ResearchCenter5531 Boelter HallLos Angeles, CA 90095-1592USA

Yonghui DengFudan UniversityDepartment of ChemistryShanghai 200433P.R. China

Mikel DukeVictoria UniversityInstitute for Sustainability andInnovationHoppers LanePO Box 14428MelbourneVictoria 8001Australia

and

Victoria UniversitySchool of Engineering andScienceBallarat RoadPO Box 14428MelbourneVictoria 8001Australia

Yiqun FanNanjing University of TechnologyState Key Laboratory ofMaterials-Oriented ChemicalEngineeringMembrane Science andTechnology Research Center5 Xinmofan Road Nanjing 210009P.R. China

XXIV List of Contributors

Julian D. GaleCurtin UniversityDepartment of ChemistryNanochemistry Research InstituteKent Street, BentleyPO Box U1987PerthWA 6845Australia

Stephen R. GrayVictoria UniversityInstitute for Sustainability andInnovationHoppers LaneWerribee3030VictoriaAustralia

Robert F. HicksUniversity of CaliforniaChemical and BiomolecularEngineering DepartmentWater Technology ResearchCenter5531 Boelter HallLos Angeles, CA 90095-1592USA

Anita J. HillThe Commonwealth Scientificand Industrial ResearchOrganization (CSIRO)Materials Science andEngineeringClayton SouthVictoria 3169Australia

Zak E. HughesCurtin UniversityDepartment of ChemistryNanochemistry Research InstituteKent Street, BentleyPO Box U1987PerthWA 6845Australia

Wanqin JinNanjing University of TechnologyState Key Laboratory ofMaterials-Oriented ChemicalEngineeringMembrane Science andTechnology Research Center5 Xinmofan Road Nanjing 210009P.R. China

Chalida KlaysomThe University of QueenslandSchool of Chemical Engineeringand Australian Institute ofBioengineering andNanotechnologyARC Centre of Excellence forFunctional NanomaterialsBrisbaneQueensland 4072Australia

Bradley P. LadewigMonash UniversityDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringWellington RoadMonashVictoria 3800Australia

List of Contributors XXV

Bin LiFudan UniversityDepartment of ChemistryLaboratory of Advanced Materials2205 Songhu RoadShanghai 200438China

Dan LiMonash UniversityDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringWellington RoadClaytonVictoria 3800Australia

Jerry Y. S. LinArizona State UniversitySchool for Engineering of MatterTransport and EnergyUniversity Drive and Mill AvenueTempe, AZ 85287USA

Nancy LinUniversity of CaliforniaChemical and BiomolecularEngineering DepartmentWater Technology ResearchCenter5531 Boelter HallLos Angeles, CA 90095-1592USA

Gao Qing Max LuThe University of QueenslandSchool of Chemical Engineeringand Australian Institute ofBioengineering andNanotechnologyARC Centre of Excellence forFunctional NanomaterialsBrisbane

4072 QueenslandAustralia

John D. OrbellVictoria UniversityInstitute for Sustainability andInnovationHoppers LaneWerribee3030VictoriaAustralia

and

Victoria UniversitySchool of Engineering andScienceFaculty of Health, Engineeringand ScienceBallarat RdFootscray3011VictoriaAustralia

Harry F. RidgwayStanford UniversityDepartment of CivilEnvironmental Engineering450 Serra MallStanford, CA94305USA

and

AquaMem Scientific ConsultantsRodeoNew Mexico 88056USA

XXVI List of Contributors

Raphael SemiatDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringGWRI Rabin DesalinationLaboratoryTechnion-Israel Institute ofTechnologyTechnion CityHaifa 32000Israel

Hilla ShemerTechnion-Israel Institute ofTechnologyDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringGWRI Rabin DesalinationLaboratoryHaifa 32000Israel

Matthew B. StewartVictoria UniversityInstitute for Sustainability andInnovationHoppers LaneWerribee3030VictoriaAustralia

and

Victoria UniversitySchool of Engineering andScienceFaculty of Health, Engineeringand ScienceBallarat Rd, Footscray3011VictoriaAustralia

Kari J. VarinUniversity of CaliforniaChemical and BiomolecularEngineering DepartmentWater Technology ResearchCenter5531 Boelter HallLos Angeles, CA 90095-1592USA

Huanting WangMonash UniversityDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringWellington RoadClaytonVictoria 3800Australia

Lianzhou WangThe University of QueenslandSchool of Chemical Engineeringand Australian Institute ofBioengineering andNanotechnologyARC Centre of Excellence forFunctional NanomaterialsBrisbaneQueensland 4072Australia

Weihong XingNanjing University of TechnologyState Key Laboratory ofMaterials-Oriented ChemicalEngineeringMembrane Science andTechnology Research Center5 Xinmofan Road, Nanjing210009P.R. China

List of Contributors XXVII

Shanqing ZhangCentre for Clean Environmentand EnergyEnvironmental Futures CentreGriffith School of EnvironmentGold Coast CampusGriffith UniversityParklands DriveQLD, 4222 Australia

Dongyuan ZhaoFudan UniversityLaboratory of Advanced MaterialsDepartment of Chemistry2205 Songhu RoadShanghai 200433China

Huijun ZhaoCentre for Clean Environmentand EnergyEnvironmental Futures CentreGriffith School of EnvironmentGold Coast CampusGriffith UniversityParklands DriveQLD, 4222 Australia

Bo ZhuVictoria UniversityInstitute for Sustainability andInnovationHoppers LaneMelbourneVictoria 8001Australia

Linda ZouUniversity of South AustraliaCentre for Water Managementand ReuseAdelaideSouth Australia 5095Australia