EditedandIntroducedbyRamachandraGuha

MAKERSOFMODERNINDIA

Contents

Dedication

AbouttheAuthor

AlsoByRamachandraGuha

PrefacetothePaperbackEdition

Prologue:ThinkingThroughIndia

PartI:TheOpeningoftheIndianMindIntroductiontoPartI

1.TheFirstLiberal:RammohanRoy

RelationsbetweenMenandWomen

TheFreedomofthePress

TheNeedforModernEducation

PartII:ReformersandRadicalsIntroductiontoPartII

2.TheMuslimModernist:SyedAhmadKhan

EducatingtheMuslims

AModernCurriculum

TheTwoEyesofIndia

PoliticsandDiscord

3.TheAgrarianRadical:JotiraoPhule

EducatingtheMasses

TheConditionofthePeasantry

4.TheLiberalReformer:GopalKrishnaGokhale

ElevatingtheDepressedClasses

OnHindu—MuslimCooperation

ACalltoService

5.TheMilitantNationalist:BalGangadharTilak

TheNeedforaNationalHero

TheNecessityforaMilitantNationalism

6.TheSubalternFeminist:TarabaiShinde

AComparisonofMenandWomen

PartIII:NurturingANationIntroductiontoPartIII

7.TheMultipleAgendasofM.K.Gandhi

ThePowerofNon-Violence

Non-CooperationwiththeRaj

TheAbolitionofUntouchability

Hindu—MuslimUnityandInter-FaithDialogue

ThePositionofWomen

8.TheRootedCosmopolitan:RabindranathTagore

IndiaandtheWest

TheExcessesofNationalism

TheProblemwithNon-Cooperation

9.TheAnnihilatorofCaste:B.R.Ambedkar

TheRevolutionagainstCaste

HowtoAnnihilateCaste

WhytheUntouchablesDistrustGandhi

10.TheMuslimSeparatist:MuhammadAliJinnah

TheStepstowardsaMuslimNation

11.TheRadicalReformer:E.V.Ramaswami

TheFraudofReligion

OntheRightsofWidows

TheCaseforContraception

TheConstraintsofMarriage

12.TheSocialistFeminist:KamaladeviChattopadhyay

TheWomen’sMovementinPerspective

ASocialistViewoftheCommunalQuestion

13.TheRenewedAgendasofM.K.Gandhi

RevisitingNationalism

RevisitingCaste

RevisitingHindu—MuslimCooperation

VillageRenewalandPoliticalDecentralization

PartIV:DebatingDemocracyIntroductiontoPartIV

14.TheWiseDemocrat:B.R.Ambedkar

TheIndianConstitutionDefendedandInterpreted

15.TheMultipleAgendasofJawaharlalNehru

TheTreatmentofMinorities

OnPlanningandEconomicPolicy

AsiaRedux

IndiaintheWorld

TheConflictwithChina

TheRightsofWomen

16.TheHinduSupremacist:M.S.Golwalkar

TheHinduNationandItsEnemies

TheMuslimThreat

NotSocialismbutHinduRashtra

17.TheIndigenousSocialist:RammanoharLohia

CasteandClass

BanishEnglish

18.TheGrass-RootsSocialist:JayaprakashNarayan

APleaforPoliticalDecentralization

TheTragedyofTibet

AFairDealforKashmir

TheQuestionofNagaland

19.TheGandhianLiberal:C.Rajagopalachari

OurDemocracy

Wanted:IndependentThinking

TheCasefortheSwatantraParty

ReformingtheSystemofElectionsinIndia

FreeingtheEconomy

AssistingtheBackward

WhyWeNeedEnglish

TheIndiaWeWant

20.TheDefenderoftheTribals:VerrierElwin

FreedomfortheTribals

NeitherIsolationnorAssimilation

PartV:ATraditionReaffirmedIntroductiontoPartV

21.TheLastModernist:HamidDalwai

TheBurdenofHistory

TheChallengeofSecularism

ForaUnitedFrontofLiberals

Epilogue:IndiaintheWorld

Footnotes

Prologue:ThinkingThroughIndia

1.TheFirstLiberal:RammohanRoy

2.TheMuslimModernist:SyedAhmadKhan

3.TheAgrarianRadical:JotiraoPhule

4.TheLiberalReformer:GopalKrishnaGokhale

5.TheMilitantNationalist:BalGangadharTilak

6.TheSubalternFeminist:TarabaiShinde

7.TheMultipleAgendasofM.K.Gandhi

8.TheRootedCosmopolitan:RabindranathTagore

9.TheAnnihilatorofCaste:B.R.Ambedkar

10.TheMuslimSeparatist:MuhammadAliJinnah

11.TheRadicalReformer:E.V.Ramaswami

12.TheSocialistFeminist:KamaladeviChattopadhyay

13.TheRenewedAgendasofM.K.Gandhi

14.TheWiseDemocrat:B.R.Ambedkar

15.TheMultipleAgendasofJawaharlalNehru

16.TheHinduSupremacist:M.S.Golwalkar

17.TheIndigenousSocialist:RammanoharLohia

18.TheGrass-RootsSocialist:JayaprakashNarayan

19.TheGandhianLiberal:C.Rajagopalachari

20.TheDefenderoftheTribals:VerrierElwin

21.TheLastModernist:HamidDalwai

Epilogue:IndiaintheWorld

GuidetoFurtherReading

Acknowledgements

CopyrightAcknowledgements

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Totheselflesstribeoflibrariansandarchivists—andinparticulartoDrN.BalakrishnanoftheNehruMemorialMuseumandLibrary

PENGUINBOOKSMAKERSOFMODERNINDIA

RamachandraGuhaisahistorianandcolumnistbasedinBangalore.HehastaughtattheLondonSchoolofEconomics,Yale,StanfordandtheIndianInstituteofScience.Hisnewbook,PatriotsandPartisans,acollectionofessayspublishedbyPenguinin2012,willbefollowedbynew,updatededitionsofhisearlierbooksEnvironmentalism:AGlobalHistory;SavagingtheCivilized:VerrierElwin,HisTribals,andIndia;andACornerofaForeignField:TheIndianHistoryofaBritishSport.

HeisalsotheauthoroftheinternationallyacclaimedIndiaAfterGandhi,chosenasabookoftheyearbyTheEconomist,theWashingtonPost,theWallStreetJournalandOutlook;andasabookofthedecadebytheTimesofIndiaandHindustanTimes.HeiscurrentlyworkingonabiographyofGandhi,tobepublishedbyPenguinin2013.

In2008,ProspectandForeignPolicymagazinesnominatedGuhaasoneoftheworld’shundredmostinfluentialintellectuals.HewasawardedthePadmaBhushanin2009.

AlsoByRamachandraGuhaTheUnquietWoods:

EcologicalChangeandPeasantResistanceintheHimalayaSavagingtheCivilized:

VerrierElwin,HisTribals,andIndiaEnvironmentalism:AGlobalHistory

TheUseandAbuseofNature(withMadhavGadgil)AnAnthropologistamongtheMarxistsandOtherEssaysTheLastLiberalandOtherEssays

ACornerofaForeignField:TheIndianHistoryofaBritishSportIndiaAfterGandhi:

TheHistoryoftheWorld’sLargestDemocracyPatriotsandPartisans

PrefacetothePaperbackEdition

ThisbookpresentstheworkandthewordsofthemenandwomenwhoarguedtheRepublicofIndiaintoexistence.

IhadfirstthoughtIwouldwriteahistoryofpoliticalthoughtinIndia,asingle-authoredworkwhereminewouldbethestructuringhandandsynthesizingvoice.IsoonrealizedthatthiswoulddoinjusticetothequalityofthethoughtofRammohanRoy,JotibaPhule,MohandasGandhi,B.R.Ambedkar,JawaharlalNehru,KamaladeviChattopadhyay,etal.AndsothisbecameananthologywhereIndianthinker-activistswhofoughtsocialinequality,whopromotedreligiouspluralismandfreedomofexpression,andwhooutlinedaforward-lookingpathforthenation,spokedirectlyandextensivelyintheirownvoice,theirwordsplacedalongsidethewordsofotherthinker-activistswhohadpowerfullyresistedthesetrends.

MakersofModernIndiathusprovidesarepresentativeselectionofthewritingsofthiscountry’smostremarkablesocialreformersandpoliticalactivists.Intheprologuethatfollows,Iexplaintheprinciplesofinclusionandexclusion.These‘makers’hadalltobeactiveinpubliclife,andtheyhadalsotohavewrittenoriginalworksofsocialorpoliticalcriticism.Theformercriteriaexcludedpureintellectuals,thosewhowroteandspokebutdidnot,inameaningfulsocialsense,act;thelattercriteriaexcludedpureactivists,thosewhoreshapedsocietybutdidnotleavebehindanimpressiveenoughbodyofwritingsandspeeches.

Whilemakingmychoices,Iknewtheywouldnotbeuncontroversial.AsIwriteintheprologue:‘AboutthereceptionofthisbookIamcertainonlyaboutonething;thateachregionandlanguagewillhaveitsownspecialgrouseaboutpeopleIhaveleftout.’AnearlyreaderofMakersofModernIndia,whohadjustreturnedfromaboutofpublicserviceinBengal,jokedthatthenexttimeIvisitedKolkataIwouldneedtoprotectmyselfwithacrashhelmet.HehadinmindtheexclusionfromthisbookofsuchfamousBengalisasSwamiVivekananda,SriAurobindoandSubhasChandraBose.Ihadexplainedthese(andother)omissionsinmyintroduction,butmyfriendfeltthattheBengaliswouldnotbesatisfied.

Infact,beforeIgottoKolkataIheardotherparochialcomplaints.IhadincludedasmanyassixMaharashtrians,butwhenIspokeaboutthisbookinPunémyhostscomplainedthatIshouldhavehadatleasttwomore(SavarkarandAgarkarwerethenamesoffered).InChennai,myreadingofexcerptsfromthewritingsofE.V.RamaswamiandC.Rajagopalacharipromptedthequestion—whyhadIleftoutKamarajandAnnadurai?Aleft-wingfriendinDelhi

UniversitywasenragedthatIhadnotincludedanyMarxist,andhadcompoundedthesinbyenshriningtheright-wingreactionaryM.S.Golwalkarasa‘makerofmodernIndia’.AryaSamajischargedmewithdishonouringthememoryofDayanandaSaraswati.AvenerableoldcivilservantwhohadpreviouslypraisedmybooksinprintsaidhewaswithdrawingthepraisebecauseIhadomittedVallabhbhaiPatel.MuslimintellectualsangrilyaskedwhyIhadnotincludedMaulanaAzad;thissincompounded,intheirview,bymyfeaturingan(tothem)obscureMaharashtriannamedHamidDalwai.

Ireadandheardthesecriticisms,andremainedunrepentant.AsHindusocialreformers,Dayananda,VivekanandaandAurobindohadallbeensupersededbyGandhi.BoseandPatelweremenofactionwhowerenotprofoundthinkers.LikewiseKamarajandAnnadurai.TherehadbeennogenuinelyoriginalMarxistthinker-politicianinIndia(ifBhagatSinghhadlivedanothertenortwentyyearshemighthavebecomethefirst).TohaveSavarkarandAgarkarwhenGolwalkarandGokhalewerealreadyrepresentedseemedsuperfluous.Azad’sviewsonHindu–MuslimharmonyweremoreeloquentlyconveyedinmybookbyGandhiandNehru.Urdu-speakingintellectualsinnorthIndiatreatedHamidDalwaiwithcondescensionbecausehewroteinthatplebeiantongue,Marathi.Butthatwastheirproblem,notmine.IhadincludedDalwaibecausehewasabrilliantandbravethinker,aMuslimradicalwhospokedirectlytothepost9/11world.

Iwouldyieldnogroundonthesenames,butstill,thecriticismsgotmethinking.WereItodothisbookagain,whomelsemightIinclude?IthinktheonepersonIwouldaddtothenineteenindividualsprofiledinMakersofModernIndiaistheengineer-administratorMokshagundamVisvesvaraya.Builderofdamsandsteelmills,diwanofMysore,hewasemphaticallyamanofaction;andhealsowrotemanybooksandpamphletsoutlininghisvisionforafreeIndia.Thisrestedcriticallyontheapplicationofscienceandtechnologytoaugmentlivingstandards.Asatechnologicalmodernizer,VisvesvarayainauguratedalineofthinkingwhoselaterexemplarsincludesuchinfluentialfiguresasMeghnadSaha,P.C.Mahalanobis,HomiBhabhaandSamPitroda,whohavelikewisebelievedthatascientificworldviewalonewouldmakeIndiastrong,modernanddeveloped.

Fortunately,ayoungerhistorianisplanningaseparateanthologyonthescientistsandtechnologistswhohelpedmakemodernIndia.Meanwhile,twoMumbaiwritersareworkingonabookonthemuchunderratedHamidDalwai.IhavebeenenormouslygratifiedbythepopularreceptionofMakersofModernIndia(itwasreprintedseveraltimesinhardback,andseveralIndianlanguage

editionsareunderway).However,thatthisbookshallprovokethepublicationofotherbooksisperhapsmoregratifyingstill.

PrologueThinkingThroughIndia

IThestrikingthingaboutmodernIndiaisthatthemenandwomenwhomade

itshistoryalsowrotemostauthoritativelyaboutit.Thecountry’sleadingpoliticianswereitsleadingpoliticalthinkers.ThisisespeciallytrueofthetrinityofMohandasK.Gandhi,JawaharlalNehruandB.R.Ambedkar.ThefirstwasthefatherofIndiannationalismwho,betweenthe1920sand1940s,forgedapopular,countrywidemovementagainstBritishcolonialrule.ThesecondwasthearchitectofthemodernIndiannation-state,servingasprimeministerfromthenation’sbirthinAugust1947untilhisdeathinMay1964.Thethirdwasthegreatleaderofthecountry’soppressedcasteswhoalsooversaw,asthecountry’sfirstlawminister,thedraftingoftheIndianConstitution,whichcameintoeffecton26January1950.Butevenastheyfoughtandstruggled,ledandgoverned,Gandhi,NehruandAmbedkarwroteatgreatlengthabouttheworldtheysawandshaped.

Gandhi’sCollectedWorks,publishedbytheGovernmentofIndiabetween1958and1994,runtomorethanninetyvolumes.MorethanfiftyvolumesofNehru’sSelectedWorkshavesofarbeenpublishedbyatrustcreatedinhisname.Inthe1980sthegovernmentofAmbedkar’shomestate,Maharashtra,publishedsixteenvolumesofhiswritings,eachvolumesometimesexceedingathousandpages.Althoughmanyoftheentriesinthesecollectedorselectedworksareroutinelettersorspeeches,othersrepresentextendedessaysonsubjectssuchasnationalidentity,democracy,religiouscultureandsocialjustice.Indiansingeneral(andIndianwritersinparticular)tendtobeprolixandverbose,butintheseinstancesatleastquantityhasnotnecessarilybeenatoddswithquality.

Thiscombinationofpoliticalactivismandtheoreticalreflectionwasnotpeculiartothesethreemen.OtherIndianpoliticiansandreformerswerealsoseriouswriters,articulating,intheirownmorerestrictedspheres,ideasthathadapowerfulresonanceintheirowndayandcontinuetodosoinours.

ModernIndiaisunusualinhavinghadsomanypoliticianswhowerealsooriginalpoliticalthinkers.However,itisnotunique.Inthemakingofsomeothernations,activistsandcampaignershavelikewisedoubledupasauthorsandpolemicists.ThefirstgenerationofAmericannationalists—Madison,Hamilton,Jefferson,Franklin—werecertainlymenofactionandofthought.ThiswasalsotrueofJoséMartiofCuba,LeopoldSenghorofSenegalandKwameNkrumahofGhana,whoparticipatedinmovementstofreetheircountryfromforeignrulewhilewritingimportantworksofpropagandaand/orscholarship.

Nationstendtoproducethinker-activistsattheirbirthandinmomentsofcrisis.When,inthemiddledecadesofthelastcentury,EnglandandFrancefoundtheirnationalsovereigntythreatenedbyNaziGermany,thepatriotswholedtheresistancealsowrotemostevocativelyaboutit.ThebookswrittenbyWinstonChurchillbeforeandaftertheSecondWorldWarweretowinhimtheNobelPrizeforLiterature.Likewise,CharlesdeGaulleproducedaseriesofstirringworksinthe1940sand1950s,whichdefinedanewthemeaningsofFranceandofbeingFrench.

Athirdconjuncturethatproducesthepolitician-as-writerisarevolutionarychangeinthesystemofgovernment.ParadigmatichereareLeninandMao,theacknowledgedleadersoftheRussianandChineserevolutionsrespectively.Pre-eminentlymenofaction,bothalsowroteinfluentialworksofpoliticalandeconomicanalysis.Theiressaysandbookswererequiredreadingintheirownhomeland,whilealsoattractingattentioninothercountries.

Thiswiderhistorynotwithstanding,IbelieveIndiastillconstitutesaspecialcase.Itsdistinctivenessisthreefold.First,thetraditionofthethinker-activistpersistedfarlongerinIndiathanelsewhere.WhilethemenwhofoundedtheUnitedStatesinthelateeighteenthcenturyhadfascinatingideasaboutdemocracyandnationhood,thereafterAmericanpoliticianshavemerelygovernedandruled,orsometimesmisgovernedandmisruled.1Theirideas,suchastheseare,havecomefromprofessionalideologuesorintellectuals.Ontheotherhand,fromthefirstdecadesofthenineteenthcenturyuntilthelastdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,themostinfluentialpoliticalthinkersinIndiawere,asoftenasnot,itsmostinfluentialpoliticalactors.LongbeforeIndiawasconceivedofasanation,intheextendedrun-uptoIndianindependence,andinthefirstfewdecadesoffreedom,themostinterestingreflectionsonsocietyandpoliticswereofferedbymen(andwomen)whowereinthethickofpoliticalaction.

Second,therelevanceofindividualthinkerstoohaslastedlongerinIndia.Forinstance,Lenin’sideaswereinfluentialforaboutseventyyears,thatistosay,fromthetimetheSovietstatewasfoundedtothetimeitdisappeared.Mao’sheydaywasevenshorter—roughlythreedecades,fromthevictoryoftheChineseRevolutionin1949totherepudiationbyDengXiaopingofhismentor’sideasinthelate1970s.TurningtopoliticiansinWesternEurope,Churchill’simpassioneddefenceoftheBritishEmpirewouldfindnotakersafterthe1950s.DeGaullewasfamousforhisinvocationofthe‘grandeurdelaFrance’,butthosesentimentshavenowbeen(fortunately?)dilutedanddomesticatedbythe

consolidationoftheEuropeanUnion.Ontheotherhand,asthisbookwilldemonstrate,Indianthinkersofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesstillspeakinmanywaystotheconcernsofthepresent.

AthirddifferencehastodowiththegreaterdiversityofthinkerswithintheIndianpoliticaltradition.EvenGandhiandNehruneverheldthekindofcanonicalstatuswithintheircountryasMaoorLenindidintheirs.Atanygivenmoment,therewereasmanyIndianswhowereopposedtotheirideasaswereguidedbythem.Moreover,therangeofissuesdebatedandacteduponbypoliticiansandsocialreformersappearstohavebeenfargreaterinIndiathaninothercountries.Thisdepthanddiversityofthoughtwas,asIarguebelow,ingoodpartaproductofthedepthanddiversityofthesocietyitself.

IIIhavelongbelievedIndiatobethemostinterestingcountryintheworld.

Thisistheimpartialjudgementofahistorian,notthepartisanclaimofacitizen.Indiamayalsobethemostexasperatingandthemosthierarchicalandthemostdegradingcountryintheworld.Butwhateverqualifieroradjectiveoneusesorprefers,itremainsthemostinteresting,too.Foronething,Indiaisverylargeandcontainsone-sixthofhumankind.Foranother,itsterritoryisastonishinglydiverse,withitspeoplesdifferentiatedbyreligion,language,casteandethnicity,aswellasbyecology,technology,dressandcuisine.

Beyondthesizeandthediversity,whattrulymakesIndiainterestingisthatitissimultaneouslyundergoingfivedramatictransformations.TheIndianeconomywasonceverylargelybasedonagriculture;now,itincreasinglydependsuponindustryandservices.AnoverwhelmingmajorityofIndiansoncelivedinthevillages;now,hundredsofmillionsofIndiansliveincitiesandtowns.IndiawasonceaterritoryruledoverbyEuropeans;now,itisanindependentnation-state.ThepoliticalcultureofIndiawasoncefeudalanddeferential;now,itiscombativeandparticipatory.ThesocialsystemofIndiawasoncegovernedbycommunityandpatriarchy;now,ithashadincreasinglytomakespacefortheassertionofindividualrightsaswellastherightsofpreviouslysubordinatedgroupssuchaswomenandlowercastes.

Therewere,andare,fiverevolutionssimultaneouslyoccurringinIndia:theurbanrevolution,theindustrialrevolution,thenationalrevolution,thedemocraticrevolutionandthesocialrevolution.Thekeywordhereissimultaneously.InEuropeandNorthAmerica,theserevolutionswerestaggered.ThustheUnitedStatesproclaimeditsnationalindependenceintheeighteenthcentury,urbanizedandindustrializedinthenineteenthcentury,andbecame

democraticonlyinthetwentiethcentury,afterwomenandAfricanAmericansweregrantedthevote.InEurope,whichwasacontinentbrokenupintomanydifferentnationalities,thepaceofthesedifferentrevolutionsvariedgreatlyacrosscountries.Crucially,ineverycountrythenationalrevolutionprecededthedemocraticrevolutionbyseveraldecadesormore.Thatistosay,theresidentsofacertaincircumscribedterritorycametogetherunderasingleflagandsinglecurrencywellbeforetheywereallowedtochoosetheleaderswhowouldgovernthem.

IndiahasthreetimesasmanypeopleastheUnitedStates.IthasasmanymajorlanguagesasEurope,withthissignificantdifference—eachoftheselanguageshasitsown,distinctivescript.IthasfargreaterreligiousdiversitythaneithertheUnitedStatesorEurope.Anditbecameademocracyatthesametimeasitbecameanation,thisincontrasttothecountriesofWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,wherenationhoodcamelongbeforedemocracy;andincontrastalsotoitsgreatAsianneighbour,China,wherenationhoodhasbeensustainedonlybytherepressiveregimeofaone-partystate.Inanyevent,theindustrialandnationalrevolutionswouldhaveproducedmajorconflictsandupheavals—astheyhaveelsewhereintheworld.Notably,inIndiatheseconflictshavebeenarticulatedontheonehandthrougharmedinsurgenciesorsecessionistmovements,andontheotherhandthroughstreetprotests,legalchallenges,presscampaignsandparliamentarydebates:thatistosay,throughtheprocessesofpoliticalmobilizationandrhetoricalexpressionthatademocracypermitsandevenencourages.

Thesizeofitsterritoryplusthediversityofitspeopleplusthesimultaneityofthesefivegreatrevolutions—thisiswhatmakesIndiathemostinterestingcountryintheworld.

TheindividualsfeaturedinMakersofModernIndialivedthroughtheserevolutions,struggledtofacilitateorreshapethemand—theaspectoftheircareersthatisofmostinteresttoushere—wroteabouttheirimpactonthemselvesandtheircompatriots.Theirwritingsprobeddeeplyintoeachofthesefiverevolutions.Theyexplored,forexample,howtoharmonizetheinterestsofcityandcountrysideinthetransformationoftheeconomy;howtopromotenationalunityamidstreligiousdiversityanddiscord;howtoadvancetherightsofwomenandlowcastes;howtoreconcilethesometimescompetingclaimsofindividualfreedomandsocialequality.Theorientationofsomeofthesethinker-activistswasoutwardaswellasinward;inseekingtounitetheircountryandmakeitmoredemocratic,theyalsolookedatthemostproductive

waysinwhichIndiacouldengagewithothernationsinanincreasinglyinterconnectedworld.

Themenandwomenfeaturedinthisbookdidnotspeakinonevoice.Theirperspectivesweresometimescomplementaryandmoreoftencompetitive.Buttheywerealwaysinstructive.Theirwritingswere(andare)notmerelyofacademicinterest;rather,theyhadadefiningimpactontheformationandevolutionoftheIndianrepublic.Theessaysandspeechesexcerptedheretakeusfromthesubcontinent’sfirst(andunasked-for)engagementwithmodernitythroughthesuccessivephasesoftheIndianfreedomstruggle,onthroughthenowsix-decade-oldcareeroftheworld’slargestdemocracy.Throughthem,wecantrackthecourseoftwocenturiesofIndianhistory,asseenandinterpretedbythemenandwomenwhothemselveshelpedshapeanddefinethesemostinterestingtimesintheworld’smostinterestingcountry.

IIIThisbookfeaturesnineteenindividualsinall.ItbeginswithRammohan

Roy,whowasperhapsthefirstIndianthinkertoseriouslyengagewiththechallengeoftheWest.BorninBengal,thefirstprovincetocomeunderBritishrule,Roysawinthepresenceoftheforeigneraninvitationtore-examinethepresuppositionsofhisownsociety.Ontheonehand,hesoughttoreformhisnativefaithofitsuglyandexploitativeaspects;ontheother,todemandofthewhite-dominatedEastIndiaCompanydemocraticrightsthatweregrantedathomeyetdeniedinthecolonies.Inbothrespects,Roysetthetoneforthereformersandactivistswhoweretofollow.

FromRoywemoveontoaquintetofthinkersactiveinthelastpartofthenineteenthcenturyandthefirstpartofthetwentieth.In1857,therewasamajoruprisingagainstcolonialrule,ledbydisaffectedsoldierswhodrewverymanypeasantsandpreachersintotheirfold.Aftersuppressingtherevolt,theBritishCrownassumeddirectresponsibilityfortheGovernmentofIndiafromtheEastIndiaCompany.In1885,asthenewregimewasconsolidatingitself,agroupofcity-basedandwell-educatedcolonialsubjectscametogethertofoundtheIndianNationalCongress.

Inmediatingbetweentherulersandtheruled,theCongresssought(inMukulKesavan’sfelicitousphrase)toserveasa‘Noah’sArkofnationalism’.2Asitsnameimplied,thepartymaderoomforallkindsofIndians,regardlessoflanguage,religion,region,raceorgender.Inthiseffortitwassubstantiallybutnotentirelysuccessful.WhilemanyintelligentandambitiousIndiansjoineditsranks,othersstayedaway,claimingthattheCongressrepresentedasectional,

eliteinterestthatwasinimicaltoother(andoftenlessadvantaged)kindsofIndians.

OfthefivethinkersprofiledinPartIIofthebook,twowerelong-standingmembersoftheCongress,whereastwootherswereopposedtoit.(Thefifthwasagnostic.)All,however,articulatedoriginalanddistinctiveargumentsonhowIndiamightbestgetitsfreedomfromcolonialrule,oronhowitmightmosteffectivelydealwiththedivisionsandschismswithin.

PartIIIofthebookisorientedaroundthedebatesinspiredbythelifeandworkofMahatmaGandhi.In1915,GandhireturnedtoBritishIndiaaftertwodecadesinSouthAfrica.By1920orthereaboutshehadbecometheacknowledgedleaderoftheIndianNationalCongress.Insubsequentdecadesheorganizedthreemajorcampaignsagainstcolonialrule,initiatedvarioussocialreformmeasures,andwroteceaselesslyontheproblemsandprospectsofthenation-in-the-making.

Eveninhislifetime,GandhiwashailedastheFatheroftheNation;buthewasequallythemotherofallbattlesconcerningitsfuture.NomodernpoliticianwasasreadytobecriticizedasGandhi.Hisdailyactivitieswereopentopublicscrutiny,whilehiscampaignswerealwaysintimatedinadvancetohisadversaries.Norwerethelatteralways(orevenprincipally)British.AmongtheIndiancriticsofGandhiwerecolleagueswhoworkedalongsidehimbutcouldnotfollowhiswordentirely,aswellasrivalswhosetthemselvesupinpoliticaloppositiontohim.

Allhislife,Gandhiengagedinargumentswithfriendsandrivals.Thesedebatesarepresentedhere,inGandhi’swordsandthoseofhisprincipalinterlocutors.Ofthefiveother‘Makers’includedinPartIII,twowerecriticaladmirersofGandhi;thethreeothers,hostileadversaries.

PartIVisorientedaroundthestatecraftofJawaharlalNehruwho,asprimeministerforthefirst,formativeyearsofIndependence,hadaninfluenceonmodernIndiathatwasarguablyasgreatasGandhi’s.In1957aCanadianscholaranddiplomatwroteofNehruthat‘thereisnoonesinceNapoleonwhohasplayedbothsolargearoleinthehistoryofhiscountryandhasalsoheldthesortofplacewhichNehruholdsintheheartsandmindsofhiscountrymen.ForthepeopleofIndia,heisGeorgeWashington,Lincoln,RooseveltandEisenhowerrolledintoone’.3

Nomodernstatesman,notevenWinstonChurchill,wasasmuchofathinkingpoliticianasNehru.LikeChurchill,Nehruhadadeepinterestinhistory;unlikehim,healsohadaninterestinpoliticalideasandideologies(and

henceaspecialfondnessforintellectuals).In1958theBritishwriterE.M.ForsterimaginedVoltairebeingrebornandcomposingaletteronthefateofhumankind.However,thephilosopherdidnotknowwhomtoaddress,sincetherewasnow‘notasinglecrownedheadwhowouldwishtoreceivealetterfromhim’.Forster,andVoltaire,scannedtheworld,toseeonlyamiablebutpoorlyreadmonarchs(suchasQueenElizabethIIwhowas‘socharming,soestimable,butnophilosopher’;sounlikeFrederickofPrussiaorevenCatherineofRussia,‘bothGreats’).Therulersinuniformwereasphilistineasthosewhosatonthrones;VoltairecouldscarcelybringhimselftowritetolivinggeneralssuchasAyubKhanofPakistanorTitoofYugoslavia.Forster,speakingthroughVoltaire,quicklyreachedtheconclusionthat‘onlyoneheadofastatewouldwelcomealetterfromhim,andthatwasPresident[sic]NehruofIndia.Withanexclamationofdelighthetookuphispen’.4

LikeGandhi,Nehru’sideaswerecontroversial,notleastamonghiscountrymen.Ofthefiveother‘Makers’featuredinPartIV,onewasalifelongopponentoftheprimeminister.Asecondwasanadmirer.Theremainingweresometimecolleaguesandfriends.BeforeIndependence,asfellowCongressmentheyhadbeenincarceratedinthesamejailsandforthesamecause;now,withfreedomfinallywon,theypartedwaysonhowbesttoservetheinterestsoftheIndianpeople.

Ofthesethreefriends-turned-rivalsofNehruandtheCongress,onewasthemainideologueofthesocialistleft;asecondthefounderofthepartyofthelibertarianorfree-marketright.Thethirdcriticchosetorejectthepartysystemaltogether,offeringinsteadamodelofgrass-rootsdemocracybasedonvillagecouncils.LikeNehru,allwerethinker-politicians,withthesophisticationoftheirargumentsandthedepthoftheirbeliefsmanifestintheirwritings.

Thelastpartofthebook,likethefirst,foregroundsoneindividualalone.UnlikeRammohanRoy,however,heisquiteobscure,hisnamewhollyunknownoutsideIndiaandunrecognizableeventomosteducatedIndians.But,asIhopetheexcerptschosenfromhisworkshallshow,asthe‘lastmodernist’ofIndianpoliticsheremainsafigureofmuchinterestandrelevance.

IVWhywerethesenineteenthinkerschosen?5Andwhoorwhatgotleftout?OneimportantstrandthatisnotrepresentedhereisMarxism.In1920,afew

radicalexilesinMoscowproclaimedtheformationofaCommunistPartyofIndia(CPI),althoughthepartyactuallystartedoperatinginIndiaonlyin1925.

Eversince,MarxisminoneformoranotherhashadasubstantialpresenceinIndianpolitics.Throughtheinterwaryears,communistswereamongthesharpestcriticsoftheIndianNationalCongress.TheachievementofpoliticalindependenceinAugust1947wasdismissedbythemasasham,ameretransferofpowerbetweenelites,withabrowncompradorbourgeoisiesaidtohavereplacedawhitemetropolitanbourgeoisieastherulingclassofIndia.

InFebruary1948theCPIlaunchedanarmedinsurrectionagainsttheinfantIndianstate.Ittookthebetterpartofthreeyearsfortheinsurrectiontobecontained.Finally,andinpartduetotheinfluenceoftheSovietdictatorJosefStalin(thenkeenfortheSovietUniontobefriendformerWesterncoloniessuchasIndia),therevolutionariescameovergroundandsworeallegiancetotheIndianConstitution.

Throughthe1950s,theCPIfoughtandevenoccasionallywonelections.Then,intheearly1960s,thepartysplitintotwo.Thebreakawaygroup,calledtheCommunistPartyofIndia(Marxist),wishedtocultivateclosetieswithbothRussiaandChina,whereastheparentbodyidentifiedwithRussiaalone.TowardstheendofthedecadetheCPI(M)itselfbrokeupintotwo.Whileonegroupstayed(forthemoment)withinthesystem,theothersoughttooverthrowtheIndianstatebyarmedstruggle.TheirmodelwasMaoistChina;asindicatedinoneoftheirchosenslogans,‘China’sChairmanisourChairman!’

TheIndianMaoistsarecommonlyknownas‘Naxalites’,afterthenorthBengalvillageofNaxalbariwheretheirstrugglebegan.Fromthelate1960s,theyhavebeenactiveincentralandeasternIndia.Inthepastdecadetheyhavegreatlyexpandedtheirreachandinfluence.Attackingpolicestations,beheadingpublicofficials,theNaxalitesremaincommittedtoanarmedrevolutionresultingintheeventualcaptureofstatepowerinNewDelhi.Meanwhile,theCPIandtheCPI(M)liveoninanuneasycompactwithbourgeoisdemocracy.Whiletheyparticipateinelections,andevenrunprovincialgovernments,intheorytheystillsubscribetoanideologythatpromisesIndiaanauthoritarianpoliticalsystemtoberunbyasingleparty,theirown.6

Asidefromitsnotinconsiderablepresenceinpolitics,MarxisminitsvariousformshashadamajorimpactonintellectuallifeinIndia.Thisimpactpersistedthroughthelastcenturyandpromisestocontinuewellintothisone.TheappealofMarxismhasmuchtodowiththepervasiveinequalitiesinIndiansociety.Admittedly,thereisalsoalackofknowledgeof,orawilfulshuttingofone’seyesto,thehorrorsanderrorsofCommuniststatesthemselves.

IhavenotincludedanyIndianMarxistsinthisbookbecausetheirworkhas

beenmostlyderivative.AsAnthonyParelhasremarked,IndianMarxists‘wereandarebentonchangingIndiaonMarx’sterms;theysimplyrefusetochangeMarxismonIndia’sterms’.7Thatistosay,theyhavehopedtocreateonthesubcontinent’ssoilasystemcloselymodelledontheRussianorChineseexperience.Asaconsequence,therehavebeennonovelcontributionsbyIndianthinkers,noexpandingordeepeningoftheideasofMarx,Engels,LeninandMao.

Despitetheirformalabsence,MarxistsandMarxismremainan‘absentpresence’inthisbook.Theirworkandlegacyhaspowerfullyinfluencedtheideasofmanyofthethinkersfeaturedhere,whohavesought,inmoredemocraticandincrementalways,tocontainortranscendthedivisionswithinIndiansociety.

Ishouldalsoexplainafewotheromissions.Atleasttwogreat,iconicleadersoftheIndiannationalmovementarenotincludedhere.TheseareSubhasChandraBoseandVallabhbhaiPatel.Inthecrucialdecadesofthe1930sand1940s,Boseinspiredmanyyoungmenandwomentojointheoppositiontoforeignrule.AsforPatel,hebothbuilttheCongresspartymachinebefore1947andsecuredtheunityoftheIndianstateintheearlyyearsofIndependence.Theywerebothconsiderablefigures,Patelespecially.Ineachcase,thedecisiontoleavethemoutwastakenowingtothepaucityoforiginalideascontainedintheirpublishedwork.Bothwereout-and-out‘doers’,whosewritingswereeitherinsubstantialorhumdrum.8

LikeBoseandPatel,IndiraGandhiwasalsoknownprincipallybyheractions.AsprimeministerofIndiabetween1966and1977andagainbetween1980and1984,shehadaprofoundimpactonthehistoryofhercountry.Herlegacyremainscontroversial—whilesomevenerateherforherqualitiesasawarleaderandherconcernforthepoor,otherscriticizeherauthoritariantendenciesandherpopulism.Atanyrate,thespeechesandwritingsthatcarriedhernamewerewrittenbyherstaff.Inthis(andperhapsotherrespects)shedifferedfromherfather,JawaharlalNehru,whowasawidelypublishedauthorbeforehebecameprimeminister,andwhosespeechesandwritingsasprimeministerwerealmostalwaysdraftedbyhimself.9

Someotherindividualsnotincludedherewereknownprincipallyfortheirwritings.Theseincludetherevolutionary-turned-spiritualistAurobindoGhoseandthephilosopher-turned-publicfigureSarvepalliRadhakrishnan.Bothwroteprodigiously;whileRadhakrishnanwishedtomakeHinduismcompatiblewiththemodernworld,Aurobindosoughttospiritualizeliteratureandpoliticsonthe

basisofclassicalIndianidealsandtraditions.Intheirlifetime,bothhadaconsiderablefollowingamongEnglish-speakingIndians.However,thatinfluenceneverreallyextendedbeyondthemiddleclass;nordiditlastmuchbeyondtheirdeath.10

IhavealsonotincludedspiritualistssuchasSwamiVivekanandaandDayanandSaraswati,whorepresentedamuscularbrandofHinduismthatsoughttomeetthechallengeoftheWestbybreakingdowncastebarriersandconsolidatingthecommunityasone.Bothwere,intheirownday,quiteinfluential;yet(aswithRadhakrishnanandAurobindo)theirinfluencehaspassed.ItcouldalsobesaidthattheyweresupersededbyGandhi,whotookon(anddeepened)theirreformistimpulseswhilepractisingamorecatholicanddialogicformofHinduism.11

VivekanandaandGandhisoughttosaveHinduismwhilereformingthecastesystem.Otherreformersmoredirectlychallengedtheprincipleofcasteitself.Themostfamousoftheseradicals,B.R.Ambedkar,isrepresentedinthisbook.Buttwootherfascinatingandintriguingfiguresarenot.OnewasIyotheeThass,agiftedTamilactivistofUntouchableoriginswholaterembracedBuddhism;theotherwasNarayanaGuru,acharismaticpreacherwhosemobilizationoflowcastesinKeralaliesbehindthatstate’swidelypraisedworkinbringingeducationandhealthcaretotheruralpoor.12

IwasparticularlysorrynottohavefoundspaceforoneofmyfavouriteIndians.ThisisDadabhaiNaoroji,thebusinessman,socialreformer,authorandactivistwhohelpedfoundtheIndianNationalCongress,whobecamethefirstAsianevertobecomeamemberoftheBritishparliament(inthe1890s),wholobbiedfordecadesfortherightsofIndianswiththeBritishgovernment,andwhowasanearlyinfluenceonGandhi.Naorojialsowroteseveralbooks,atleastoneofwhichwaswidelyreadbynationalists.ThebookwascalledPovertyandUn-BritishRuleinIndia;itchastisedtherulersforfocusingondrainingwealthoutofthesubcontinentratherthanonfosteringeconomicdevelopmentwithinit.Thebookanditsthemesaresomewhatdatedinthispost-colonialage,butinhisdayNaorojiwasanimportantfigure.13

ThechurningprovidedbythecolonialencounterledtoarangeofrichandfascinatingwritingsinthevariousIndianlanguages.Someofthisisrepresentedhere,intranslation;butagreatdealcouldnotbe.Onereason,ofcourse,isspace;anotherismyfocusonpoliticsandsocialreform.Contemporaneouswiththeindividualsfeaturedinthisbookwereasetofcreativewriters,operatinginthevariousIndianlanguages,whousedpoetryandfictiontoarticulateandnurture

newwaysofthinkingandfeeling.Thesewriterscultivatedadistinctivelymodernsensibility,whichpaidgreaterattentiontotheindividualselfandtointerpersonalrelations.Thechangestheycollectivelywroughtinthedomainofculturewereprofoundandlong-lasting.Regrettably,theirworkandinfluenceliebeyondthescopeofthisbook.

TheRepublicofIndiahastwenty-eightstates,eachofwhichhaditsownsetofradicalsandreformerswhowroteinsightfullyonpolitics,societyorculture.ThepresentselectioncannoteverhopetosatisfythestronglinguisticandregionalsentimentsprevalentinIndia.Aboutthereceptionofthisbook,Iamcertainonlyaboutonething:thateachregionandlanguagewillhaveitsownspecialgrouseaboutpeopleIhaveleftout.Thatbeingthecase,perhapsitcanprovokeaseriesofvolumes(byotherhands)onthe‘MakersofModernBengal’,the‘MakersofModernTamilNadu’,andsoon.14

Despitetheomissionsacknowledgedandunacknowledged,wehavehereaverydiversebodyofworkindeed.TheindividualsrepresentedherecomefromallpartsofIndia.Borninnorth,south,eastandwest,manyalsotravelledextensivelyinpartsofthecountrythatwerenotoriginallytheirown.Theywroteinvariouslanguages,amongthemGujarati,Hindi,Bengali,Urdu,Tamil,MarathiandEnglish.Theywerebornindifferentcastesanddisplayawidevarietyofreligiousandpoliticalorientations.ThreeareMuslims,whileamongtheHindusthereareBrahmins,Banias,SudrasandformerUntouchables.AtleastfourofthesethinkerswereasmuchshapedbyChristianityasbyHinduism.OnewasbornaHindubutdiedaBuddhist.AnotherwasordainedasaChristianpriestbutlaterleftthechurch,beingattracted,successively,totribalfaithsandtoBuddhism.Severalwereanti-religiousatheistswhoneversaidaprayerorenteredatemple(noramosqueorchurcheither).Thereareonlytwowomen,butatleastsixofthemencampaignedenergeticallyforgenderequality.15

Intermsofconventionalpoliticalcategories,wehaveheretwoconservativeorright-wingthinkers,abouthalfadozenliberalsandasmanysocialists.ThenthereisGandhi,whocannotbecategorizedaccordingtoconventionatall,unlessoneseeshimasbeingatoncesocialist,liberalandconservative.

Thediversityofindividualsandideologiesismatchedbyasuitablediversityofthemes.Thetopicsexploredandanalysedinthesepagesincluderace,religion,caste,gender,tribe,language,nationalism,colonialism,democracy,economicdevelopment,violenceandnon-violence—thatistosay,allthatissignificantandimportantinthehumancondition.

Inthisrespect,itistemptingtocomparethisvolumetoRichardHofstadter’s

magisterialbookontheAmericanpoliticaltradition.ThepoliticianswhoselegaciesHofstadtersoskilfullyanalysedwereallmale,allChristian,andallEnglish-speaking.16Thefargreaterdiversityonofferhereisinpartaproductofthedistinctiveanddifferentexperiencesofmythinker-activists;andinpartaproductoftheheterogeneityoftheirhomeland.Sociologicallyspeaking,onemightviewIndiaashavingthreeprincipalaxesofdiversity,theserepresentedbyreligion,languageandregionrespectively;andassimultaneouslyhavingthreeprincipalaxesofdisparity,theserepresentedbycaste,genderandclass.Intermsofthesesixcategories,thesethinkershadwidelyvaryingbackgroundsandlifeexperiences,whichwerereflectedintheirwritings(aswellasintheirpoliticalchoices).

TheIndiansfeaturedinthisbookallledveryunusuallives.Theytravelledoverseasandlostcastebydoingso.TheyopposedtheBritishrulersandsofoundthemselvesinjail.Later,theyfoughtamongthemselvesandthusfoundthemselvesoutoffavouroroutofoffice.Theylivedintumultuoustimes,whichtheyhelpedsometimestotame,andatothertimestomakeevenmoretumultuous.

AsIworkedthroughthecollectedwritingsofthesethinker-activists,readingstandardworksstillsoldinbookshopsaswellasfugitivepamphletsthatareunavailableeveninthebestlibraries,Iwasstruckbythecongruenceofsubstancewithstyle.ThenineteenindividualsincludedhereallwroteveryfluentlyintheirownlanguagesandatleasthalfadozenwerefluentinEnglishaswell.OnewasaNobelPrize-winningauthor;otherswereeducatedinthegreatuniversitiesofOxford,Cambridge,Columbia,London,WisconsinandBerlin.Mostofthemcouldhave,iftheyhadsochosen,madealivingfromjournalism—indeed,manyrantheirownjournalstofurthertheirsocialandpoliticalcampaigns.

WhatthesenineteenIndianssawandexperiencedwasexcitingandimportantenough.Weareexceptionallyfortunatethattheypresentedwhattheysawandexperiencedinsuchcompellingprose.Whiletheirlanguagewassometimesidiosyncratic,itwasalwaysexpressive.Theeccentricitiesofsyntaxandgrammarnotwithstanding,theargumentsweremadewithclarityanddirectness.

Politicalpartisans,pastandpresent,wouldtendtoforegroundtheworkandcontributionoftheirparticularhero(orheroine).Ihavechoseninsteadtovieweachthinkerandlifeasnestingwithinawiderandlongertraditionofdemocraticdebateanddispute.Viewedindividually,inisolation,theymayprovideconsolationtooneoranothersectorparty;takentogether,theyprovideproofof

thedepthandrobustnessoftheIndianpoliticaltradition.V

AfterthefalloftheBerlinWallin1989,therewasanoutpouringofbooksreflectingupontherivalrybetweentotalitariananddemocraticpoliticalsystems.Someweretriumphalist,seeingthevictoryoftheWestasinevitableandowingtothesuperiorityofitsinstitutionsandvalues.Othersweremoreintrospective,recognizingthatthetwomajorformsoftotalitarianism,fascismandMarxism-Leninism,werethemselvesinventedintheWestandthattheyhad,forlargeswathesofthetwentiethcentury,aprofoundappealforWesternintellectualsandopinion-makers.17

Morerecently,themarketforseriouspoliticalwritinghasbeeninvadedbybooksopposingWesternidealstoIslamicfundamentalism,sincethelatternowappearstohavereplacedseculartotalitarianismasthemajorthreattothedemocraticwayoflife.Oncemore,themoodvaries:wheresomebooksareapocalypticandevenhysterical,viewingIslamasineverywayirreconcilablewithmodernity,othersaremoresoberandaccommodative,seekingtoweanordinaryMuslimsawayfromthegripoffanaticsandintothehomecampofliberaldemocrats.18

Thesebooks,publishedinthewakeoftheliftingoftheIronCurtain,havesoughttodefendWesterndemocracyagainstitsenemiesathomeandabroad.Fromthisperspective,SovietRussiastoodmenacinglyagainsttheWestduringtheColdWar,itsworkaidedbymalignormisguidedfellowtravellerslivingwithindemocraticcapitalistcountries.WithIslamismthethreatislikewiseinternalaswellasexternal.Ontheonehand,therearejihaditerroristswaitingtoattackWesternersandWesterninstitutionseverywhere,aspartofaglobalcampaignfordominance;ontheotherhand,therearethegrowingnumbersofMuslimimmigrantsinWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,whotendtoliveinenclosedghettosratherthanintegratewiththehostsociety.

Tothiswriter,whatisremarkableaboutthissubstantial(andstillgrowing)literatureisthatitlargelyignoresIndia.Somebooksmayhaveapassingreferenceortwotothiscountry,othersdonotevengrantitthatfavour.Yetonewouldthinkthatgivenitssize,diversityandinstitutionalhistory,theRepublicofIndiawouldprovideareservoirofpoliticalexperiencewithwhichtorefineorrethinktheoriesbeingarticulatedintheWest.Forsixdecadesnow,democraticIndiahaslivednextto,andsomehowcopedwith,anevenlargerandmorepopulousnationrunasasingle-partystate.Itsotherneighbourshaveincluded

militarydictatorshipsandabsolutistmonarchies.Forthesameperiodoftime,India,adominantlyHinducountry,hashadasequalcitizensofthenationasubstantialMuslimminority.AsthehistorianW.C.Smithwrotemorethanfiftyyearsago,itwasonlyinmodern,post-colonialIndiathatMuslimslivedinverylargenumberswithoutbeingtherulingpower.Heretheysharedtheircitizenship‘withanimmensenumberofotherpeople.TheyconstitutetheonlysizablebodyofMuslimsintheworldofwhichthisis,oreverhasbeen,true’.19

Thatwascertainlythecasein1957,butnowsomeWesternnationsalsohavelargeMuslimminoritiesoftheirown.ThusIndiaprovidesatestcaseofthechallengestodemocracyfromitscriticsontheleftandtheright;andatestcaseofthechallengetosocialharmonyposedbyamulti-religiouscitizenry.Whichmakesitscurrentirrelevancetomoderndebatesonpoliticsandcitizenshipallthemoresurprising.

TheabsenceofasubstantialliteratureonIndianpoliticalideasmaybeonereasonwhythecountryisrarelyinvokedinwiderdiscussionsondemocracyanditsrivals.Respondingtothisneglect,theeconomistAmartyaSenhaspublishedabookdrawingourattentiontothelonghistoryofintellectualdebateinSouthAsia.Senarguesthatthereexisted,amongscientistsandphilosophersofthesubcontinent,arationalandcriticaltraditionofenquirythatwasoftenasvitalandinfluentialasrivaltraditionsbasedonfaithandmysticism.HefurtherclaimsthatideasofdemocracyandsecularismassociatedwithmodernIndiawereanticipatedbykingswhoruledintheancientandmedievalperiods.20

InspeakingofIndia,orindeedofanyothercountryorcivilization,onemustdistinguishbetweentwoargumentativetraditions—thedistantandtheproximate.BythefirstImeantraditionsofdebatethatweredistinctiveoflong-deadstatesandkingdoms;bythesecond,thosetraditionswhichactuallyshapedthepoliticalandsocialinstitutionsofthepresent.Withoneexception(thepoetRabindranathTagore)Sen’sownfocusisonthinkersoftheremotepast.Thisisfairenough—exceptthatSenthenclaims,onthebasisoflittleevidence,thatthesedistantargumentsshapedtheidealsoftheIndianConstitutionandthepracticesoftheIndiannation-state.21

MakersofModernIndiadealscentrallywiththeargumentsandarguersofthepasttwocenturies.ThechoiceisdictatedinpartbythefactthatIammyselfahistorianofthemodernperiod,andinpartbythefactthattheIndiaweknowtodayhasbeenshapedfarmorebyplebeianswholivedclosertoourtimethanbyancientmonarchs.ThisisabookaimedinthefirstinstanceatthoseinterestedinIndianhistory,whomightwishtoacquireafullerunderstandingofhowthis

unnaturalnationandunlikelydemocracywasarguedintoexistence.However,givenIndia’ssizeandrepresentativeness,Ihopethatthematerialsitcontainsmayyethelpmakethecountrysomewhatlessmarginaltoglobaldebatesonthepoliticalsystem(s)mostappropriatetothetwenty-firstcentury.

PartITheOpeningoftheIndianMind

IntroductiontoPartI

WritingofBritishruleinIndia,KarlMarxremarkedthat‘England,itistrue,incausingasocialrevolutioninHindustan,wasactuatedonlybythevilestinterests,andwasstupidinhermannerofenforcingthem.Butthatisnotthequestion.Thequestionis,canmankindfulfilitsdestinywithoutafundamentalrevolutioninthesocialstateofAsia?Ifnot,whatevermayhavebeenthecrimesofEngland,shewastheunconscioustoolofhistoryinbringingaboutthatrevolution’.

ThevileintereststhatbroughttheBritishtoIndiawerethesearchforgold,spicesandtextiles.OtherEuropeanpowershadthesamemotives—althoughsomewerealsosearchingforChristianconverts.ThePortuguesearrivedonthewestcoastattheendofthefifteenthcentury,withtheDutch,theFrenchandtheBritishfollowingsoonafterwards.IntheeighteenthcenturythefocusoftheEuropeantradersshiftedtotheeastcoastand,inparticular,totheprovinceofBengal,whichhadaflourishingtextileindustryandwasalsothesourceofrichsuppliesofrice,sugarandsaltpetre.

BengalwasthenunderthecontrolofaMuslimprincewhoowedallegiancetotheMughalsinDelhi.In1757theforcesoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanydefeatedthearmyofthisprinceinbattle.Eightyearslater,theMughalstransferredeconomicandpoliticalcontroloftheprovinceofBengaltotheCompany.Theywerenowresponsibleforcollectinglandrevenue,forcontrollingthetrade,forframingthelawsandforrunningthecivilandmilitaryadministration.

BengalprovidedabasefromwhichtheBritishslowlyexpandedtootherpartsofIndia.Attheendoftheeighteenthcentury,theydefeatedTipuSultanofMysoretomaketheirpresencefeltinthesouth.ThedefeatofthePeshwasin1818extendedtheirreachtothewest;thedefeatoftheSikhsofthePunjabinthe1840smadethemsovereignthroughmuchofthenorth.Bythemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,theEastIndiaCompanythuscontrolledvirtuallyallofthesubcontinent,eitherdirectlyorthroughallianceswithsubordinate—andsubservient—maharajasandnawabs.

Britishrulewasenforcedandconsolidatedbyanetworkofnativecollaborators.Themselvesaminusculeminority,theEuropeansreliedonIndianmerchantstohelporganizetheirtrade,Indiansoldierstostafftheirarmies,Indianclerkstokeepaccounts,Indianofficialsandvillageheadmentocollecttaxes.

In1793theBritishinstituteda‘PermanentSettlement’ineasternIndiawhere,followingwhattheyhaddoneinIreland,theypromotedaclassoflarge

landlordsresponsibleforcollectingrevenue.TheimpactofthePermanentSettlementhasbeenmuchdebatedbyhistorians.Thegeneralviewisthatitcreatedaclassofindolentandself-satisfiedexploitersandlefttherealtillersofthelandwithnoincentivetoimproveit.AgriculturalproductivitystagnatedinBengalanditsneighbouringprovinces.Ontheotherhand,inthewestandsouth,wheretheEastIndiaCompanychosetodealmoredirectlywithpeasantproprietors,therewasfarmoreenergyintheruraleconomy.

BritishrulealsochangedtheurbanlandscapeofBengal.Theoldcapital,Murshidabad,declined,whilethenewersettlementofCalcuttaprospered.LocatedontheHooghly,Calcuttaemergedasanactiveportandadministrativecentre.TheruralgentrywhowerethebeneficiariesofthePermanentSettlementflockedheretomaketheirhomes,visitingtheirestatesaterraticintervals.

Bythe1820s,Calcuttahadapermanentpopulationofatleast2,50,000.Therewasawhitetownandablacktown,eachcharacterizedbyspaciousandwell-staffedhouseswherelivedtheEuropeanandtheIndianelite.Inbetweenthetwo,andonthemargins,werea‘scatteredandconfusedchaosofhouses,huts,sheds,streetsandlanes,alleys,windings,gutters,sinksandtanks’wherelivedtheworkersandartisanswhoservicedtheelite.

TheprintingpresswasanotherBritishimportintoBengalthatwasarguablyasconsequentialasthePermanentSettlement.AccordingtothehistorianB.S.Kesavan,thefirstbookprintedintheprovincewasNathanielHalhed’sGrammaroftheBengaliLanguage,whichappearedin1778.Twentyyearslater,theBaptistpriestWilliamCareytransportedaprintingpresstohismissioninSerampore.TheSeramporePressnowissuedasteadystreamofbooksinmanyEuropeanandIndianlanguages.Accordingtoonesource,itprintedmorethan2,00,000itemsinthefirstthirtyyearsofitsexistence,andinasmanyasfortydifferentlanguages.Seramporequicklyfounditsimitators,withotherpressesbeingestablishedtoprintreligioustexts,philosophicalworks,grammarsanddictionaries.

TheconsumersofthisgrowingliteraturewereBengaliaswellasBritish.Theyreadbooksaswellasnewspapers,whichbytheearlynineteenthcenturyhadbecomeapartofthepublicsphereinBengal.Throughtheirreading,educatedIndiansbecameacquaintedwiththeirownsacredtextsaswellaswiththemostrecenttrendsinWesternscienceandphilosophy.Theynowsoughttotakethisknowledgetothenextgeneration.In1817,aCalcuttaSchool-BookSocietywasestablished,whosemembersincludedBengaliHindusandMuslims,aswellasEuropeans.Initsfirstfouryears,thesocietyhadprintedand

distributedsome1,25,000copiesofbookspublishedinhalfadozenlanguages.Thebooksocietywasbutonesignofagrowingassociationalculturein

colonialBengal.SomemembersoftheHinduandMuslimmiddleclasspouredtheircollectiveenergiesintofaith—establishingorrefurbishingtemplesandmosquesandvigorouslycelebratingcommunityfestivals.Otherstookamoresecularturn,startingschools,newspapersanddiscussionsocieties.Thislattergrouphadbeengivenawake-upcallbythenewrulers.TheywerechallengedbyWesternmissionaries,whopouredcontemptontheiridolatryandpracticeofcaste;andbyFrenchEnlightenmentthought,whichaskedwhyHinduandMuslimtraditionpaidsuchlittleattentiontotherightsofindividuals.

OurfirstmakerofmodernIndiaexemplifiedbothkindsofresponsestotheWest.Inseekingtoreformandreinvigoratehissocietyhewas,paceKarlMarx,averyconscioustoolofhistoryindeed.

ChapterOne

TheFirstLiberalRammohanRoy

ArecentbiographyofRammohanRoyissubtitled‘TheFatherofModernIndia’.Thehyperbolemaybeexcused.Roywasunquestionablythefirstpersononthesubcontinenttoseriouslyengagewiththechallengesposedbymodernitytotraditionalsocialstructuresandwaysofbeing.HewasalsooneofthefirstIndianswhosethoughtandpracticewerenotcircumscribedbytheconstraintsofkin,casteandreligion.

RammohanRoy1wasborninthevillageofRadhanagarinBengalin1772.HisfamilywereoftheVaishnavasectofHindus.Moderatelyprosperouslandowners,theyhadservedforseveralgenerationsasrevenueofficialsundertheMughals.Rammohanwasmarriedtwicebeforeheenteredhisteens,thisbeingcustomaryamonghigh-castefamilies,amongwhomchildmarriageandpolygamywerebothverycommon.Accordingtohisearlybiographers,RammohanstudiedBengaliandPersianasaboyandwasthensenttoPatnatolearnArabic,wherehisteachersmadehimreadEuclidandAristotleintranslation.ThelaststoponthismobilecollegewasBanaras,wherehestudiedSanskritwithtraditionalpandits.

ThisversionofRammohanRoy’speripateticeducationhasbeenchallengedbylaterscholars.Whattheydonotdispute,however,isthathewasformidablymultilingual.ItmaybethathelearnttheselanguagesinBengalitself,ratherthanbeingsenttodistanttownstobeeducated.Whatseemsclearisthatthroughhisstudies—whereverthesemayhavebeen—RoybecamelesswillingtoaccepttheclaimsandprejudicesoforthodoxHinduism.Thedisenchantmentwasconfirmedbywhathesawaroundhim.Hiselderbrotherdied,andthewifewasforcedtocommitsati,toRammohan’sdismay.

Afterhehadfinishedwithhisstudies,RammohanRoyworkedwiththeEastIndiaCompanyatvariousplacesinBengal,beforesettlinginCalcuttaintheyearoftheBattleofWaterloo,1815.Bythistimehehadalreadypublishedseveralbooks.Hisfirstbook,writteninPersianwithaprefaceinArabic,wasanattackonidolworship.

AfterhemovedtoCalcutta,Roybecameincreasinglyinvolvedinliteraryandsocialwork.HetranslatedtheUpanishadsfromSanskritintoBengali.HepublishedatractinEnglishagainstsati.HedebatedwithorthodoxscholarsontherightsofHinduwomen.HealsocontestedtheclaimofChristianmissionariesthattheirreligionwassuperiortoallothers.In1815hefoundedanAtmiyaSabhaor‘friendshipassociation’which,amongotherthings,searchedforelementscommontodifferentreligioustraditions.

Royhimselfhadnowcometobelievethatthe‘omnipresentGod,whoisthe

onlyproperobjectofreligiousveneration,isoneandundividedinperson’.HeclaimedthiswasthemessageoftheVedas,andoftheBibleandtheQuranaswell.Seekingtopromoteinter-religiousunderstanding,RoywroteabookonthepreceptsofJesus,andbeganworkonalifeofMuhammad.

RoyandhiscirclewereroundlyabusedbyorthodoxHindus,whoderidedthemassinfulatheistsand‘modernsblindedbypassion’.However,theEuropeanChristiansinIndiadidnotwarmtohimeither.TheycomplainedthatheopposedconversionandthathisadmirationforJesusdidnotextendtoacknowledginghisdivinity.

In1816Royopenedaschoolforboys,whosemediumofinstructionwasEnglish.In1821hestartedaweeklynewspaperinBengali—oneofthefirstsuchinanyIndianlanguage.ThenhestartedapaperinPersian(ofwhich,aswithitsBengalipredecessor,hewroteallthecontents).In1828hefoundedtheBrahmoSamaj(theSocietyofGod),whichpreachedtheworshipoftheOneGodonthebasisofwhatitsfounderclaimedweretheoriginalteachingsoftheVedas.

Whenthepracticeofsatiwaslegallyabolishedin1829,thecreditforitsabolitionwasgiventotheGovernorGeneral,WilliamBentinck.However,asacontemporaryEnglishobserver—herselfawoman—pointedout,thelegislationcouldnothavebeenbroughtabout‘butforthepowerfulthoughunacknowledgedaidofthegreatHinduphilosopherRammohunRoy’.Roy’sgreatcontributiontowardsthisreformwastodemonstratethatsatiwasnotareligiousdutysanctionedorupheldbyHinduscripturaltradition.

Throughthe1820s,Roy’sideaswerebeingpropagatedthroughhisBengalinewspaper,whichwascalledtheSangbadKaumudi,orthe‘MoonofIntelligence’.ThehistorianA.F.SalahuddinAhmedquotestworemarkablecontemporarytestimoniestothispaper’sinfluence.InDecember1921,theCalcuttaJournal,aperiodicalof(andfor)theEnglishinIndia,wroteofRoy’snewspaperthat‘shewillbethemeansofthemoralandintellectualrenovationofIndia’.Nineyearslater,aLondonmagazinedescribedtheSangbadKaumudias‘theMorningChronicleofIndia,advocatingfreedom,civilandreligious,opposedtocorruptionandtyranny,andlabouring,wearehappytosayeffectivelyandextensively,toeradicatetheidolatrousritesoftheBrahmins,andawakentheHindoostoasenseofthedegradationandmiseryintowhichtheyhavebeenplunged’.

Notably,RammohanRoyhadakeeninterestinpoliticsoutsideIndiaaswell.HewelcomedthemovementsthatdeliveredthecountriesofSouthAmericafromSpanishcolonialrule.WithinSpain,hesupportedtheliberaloppositionto

anautocraticmonarchy.HechampionedtheemancipationofCatholicswithintheUnitedKingdom.Thisinternationalistorientationsethimapartfrommoralistsandthinkersofthepast—thus,asC.A.Baylyhasrecentlypointedout,Roy‘wasthefirstIndiantorepresentthegrowthoffreedominIndiaasanessentialpartofawidertransnationalquestofhumanityforself-realization’.

In1830RammohanRoywassentbythenowmuch-weakenedMughalemperortoEngland,topetitiontheKingtoincreasehisallowanceandperquisites.ArrivinginLondoninApril1831,Royspentthenexttwoyearsinthecity.HemetwithofficialsoftheEastIndiaCompany,lobbiedwithmembersofParliament,wasgrantedanaudiencewiththeKingandwroteandpublishedbooksonIndianeconomicsandlaw.HeexchangedviewswithBritishUtilitariansandEnglishSocialistsandalsotravelledtoParis.HisbiographerSophiaDobsonColletremarksthat‘ashehadinterpretedEnglandtoIndia,sonowheinterpretedIndiatoEngland’.InLondon,hewatchedwithinterestfromthesidelinesasParliamentpassedtheReformBillof1831,whichextendedthefranchisetoagreaternumberofBritishmen.

Aftermanymonthsofpatientlobbying,RoywasabletopersuadetheBritishgovernmenttoincreasethestipendoftheMughalemperorby30,000poundsayear.However,heneversawtheemperoragain,norhisnativeBengal.OnavisittoEnglishfriendsinBristol,Roytookillanddiedon27September1833.Hewasburied(therebeingnocremationfacilitiestheninEngland)inBristolitself,withatombstonewhoseinscriptionnoteshisscholarshipandmasteryoflanguages,andhisbeliefintheunityofthegodhead,beforesummarizinghislife’sworkasfollows:

HISUNW[E]ARIEDLABOURSTOPROMOTETHESOCIAL,MORALANDPHYSICALCONDITIONOFTHEPEOPLEOFINDIA,HISEARNESTENDEAVOURSTOSUPPRESSIDOLATRYANDTHERITEOFSUTTEE,ANDHISCONSTANTZEALOUSADVOCACYOFWHATEVERTENDEDTOADVANCETHEGLORYOFGODANDTHEWELFAREOFMAN,LIVEINTHEGRATEFULREMEMBRANCEOFHISCOUNTRYMEN.Andsotheyshould.For,astheexcerptsbelowdemonstrate,whileitis

perhapstoomuchtoclaimthatRammohanRoywasthe‘FatherofModernIndia’,hewasnonethelessitsfirstliberalthinkerofconsequence,withoutwhoseworkandwritingsIndia’sencounterwithmodernitywouldhavebeenevenmoreconflictedandpainfulthanithasbeen.

RelationsBetweenMenandWomenIn1818RammohanRoywroteapamphletinhisnativeBengali,opposing

thepracticeofaskingHinduwidowstoimmolatethemselvesontheirhusbands’funeralpyre.InthesameyearhepublishedanEnglishversionentitled‘AConferencebetweenanAdvocatefor,andanOpponentof,thePracticeofBurningWidowsalive’.Theexcerptsbelowarefromthiswork.The‘you’inthetextistheadvocateofwidow-burning,butRammohanisalsoaddressingtheHindupatriarchmoregenerally.2

…Womenareingeneralinferiortomenonbodilystrengthandenergy;consequentlythemalepartofthecommunity,takingadvantageoftheircorporealweakness,havedeniedtothemthoseexcellentmeritsthattheyareentitledtobynature,andafterwardstheyareapttosaythatwomenarenaturallyincapableofacquiringthosemerits.Butifwegivethesubjectconsideration,wemayeasilyascertainwhetherornotyouraccusationagainstthemisconsistentwithjustice.Astotheirinferiorityinpointofunderstanding,whendidyoueveraffordthemafairopportunityofexhibitingtheirnaturalcapacity?Howthencanyouaccusethemofwantofunderstanding?If,afterinstructioninknowledgeandwisdom,apersoncannotcomprehendorretainwhathasbeentaughthim,wemayconsiderhimasdeficient;butasyoukeepwomengenerallyvoidofeducationandacquirements,youcannottherefore,injusticepronounceontheirinferiority…

Secondly.Youchargethemwithwantofresolution,atwhichIfeelexceedinglysurprised:forweconstantlyperceive,inacountrywherethenameofdeathmakesthemaleshudder,thatthefemale,fromherfirmnessofmind,offerstoburnwiththecorpseofherdeceasedhusband;andyetyouaccusethosewomenofdeficiencyofresolution.

Thirdly.Withregardtotheirtrustworthiness,letuslookminutelyintotheconductofbothsexes,andwemaybeenabledtoascertainwhichofthemisthemostfrequentlyguiltyofbetrayingfriends.Ifweenumeratesuchwomenineachvillageortownashavebeendeceivedbymen,andsuchmenashavebeenbetrayedbywomen,Ipresumethatthenumbersofthedeceivedwomenwouldbefoundtentimesgreaterthanthatofthebetrayedmen.Menare,ingeneral,abletoread,write,andmanagepublicaffairs,bywhichmeanstheyeasilypromulgatesuchfaultsaswomenoccasionallycommit,butneverconsiderascriminalthemisconductofmentowardswomen.Onefaulttheyhave,itmustbeacknowledged,whichis,byconsideringothersequallyvoidofduplicityasthemselves,togivetheirconfidencetooreadily,fromwhichtheysuffermuch

misery,evensofarthatsomeofthemaremisledtosufferthemselvestobeburnttodeath.

Inthefourthplace,withrespecttotheirsubjectiontothepassions,thismaybejudgedofbythecustomofmarriageastotherespectivesexes;foronemanmaymarrytwoorthree,sometimeseventenwivesandupwards;whileawoman,whomarriesbutonehusband,desiresathisdeathtofollowhimforsakingallworldlyenjoyments,ortoremainleadingtheausterelifeofanascetic.

Fifthly.Theaccusationoftheirwantofvirtuousknowledgeisaninjustice.Observewhatpain,whatslighting,whatcontempt,andwhatafflictionstheirvalueenablesthemtosupport!HowmanyKulinBrahminsaretherewhomarrytenorfifteenwivesforthesakeofmoney,thatneverseethegreaternumberofthemafterthedayofmarriage,andvisitothersonlythreeorfourtimesinthecourseoftheirlife.Stillamongstthosewomen,most,evenwithoutseeingorreceivinganysupportfromtheirhusbands,livingdependentontheirfathersorbrothers,andsufferingmuchdistress,continuetopreservetheirvirtue;andwhenBrahmins,orthoseofothertribes,bringtheirwivestolivewiththem,whatmiserydothewomennotsuffer?Atmarriagethewifeisrecognizedashalfofherhusband,but[aftermarriage]theyaretreatedworsethaninferioranimals.Forthewomanisemployedtodotheworkofaslaveinthehouse,suchas,inherturn,tocleantheplaceveryearlyinthemorning,whethercoldorwet,toscourthedishes,towashthefloor,tocooknightandday,toprepareandservefoodforherhusband,fatherandmother-in-law,brothers-in-law,andfriendsandconnections!(ForamongstHindusmorethaninothertribesrelationslongresidetogether,andonthisaccountquarrelsaremorecommonamongstbrothersrespectingtheirworldlyaffairs.)Ifinthepreparationorservingupofthevictualstheycommitthesmallestfault,whatinsultdotheynotreceivefromtheirhusband,theirmother-in-law,andtheyoungerbrothersoftheirhusband!Afterallthemalepartofthefamilyhavesatisfiedthemselves,thewomencontentthemselveswithwhatmaybeleft,whethersufficientinquantityornot…Intheafternoontheyfetchwaterfromtheriverortank;andatnightperformtheofficeofmenialservantsinmakingthebeds.Incaseofanyfaultoromissionintheperformanceofthoselabours,theyreceiveinjurioustreatment.Shouldthehusbandacquirewealth,heindulgesincriminalamourstoherperfectknowledge,andalmostunderhereyes,anddoesnotseeher,perhapsonceamonth.Aslongasthehusbandispoorshesufferseverykindoftroubleandwhenhebecomesrichsheisaltogetherheart-broken.Allthispainandaffliction

theirvirtuealoneenablesthemtosupport.Whereahusbandtakestwoorthreewivestolivewithhim,theyaresubjectedtomentalmiseriesandconstantquarrels.Eventhisdistressedsituationtheyvirtuouslyendure.Sometimesithappensthatthehusband,fromapreferenceforoneofhiswives,behavescruellytoanother.Amongstthelowerclasses,andthoseevenofthebetterclasswhohavenotassociatedwithgoodcompany,thewifeontheslightestfault,orevenonbaresuspicionofhermisconduct,ischastisedasathief.Respecttovirtueandtheirreputationgenerallymakesthemforgiveeventhistreatment.If,unabletobearsuchcruelusage,awifeleavesherhusband’shousetoliveseparatelyfromhim,thentheinfluenceofthehusbandwiththemagisterialauthorityisgenerallysufficienttoplaceheragaininhishands;when,inrevengeforherquittinghim,heseizeseverypretexttotormentherinvariousways,andsometimesevenputsherprivatelytodeath.Thesearefactsoccurringeveryday,andnottobedenied.WhatIlamentis,thatseeingthewomenthusdependentandexposedtoeverymisery,youfeelforthemnocompassionthatmightexemptthemfrombeingtieddownandburnttodeath.

TheFreedomofthePressIn1824theGovernmentofBengal(whichwasinthehandsoftheEastIndia

Company)issuedanordinanceplacingstrictrestrictionsonthepress.Newspapersandjournalshadtoobtainalicencethatcouldbegrantedorwithdrawnatthegovernment’sdiscretion.AmemorialprotestingthismovewasdraftedbyRammohanRoyand,withthesignaturesofseveralotherprominentBengalis,senttothegovernment.Notethedeferentialtoneofthememorial,whichmasksitschallengingandcombativecontents.3

…YourLordshipmayhavelearnedfromtheworksoftheChristianMissionaries,andalsofromothersources,thateversincetheartofprintinghasbecomegenerallyknownamongtheNativesofCalcutta,numerousPublicationshavebeencirculatedintheBengaleeLanguage,whichbyintroducingfreediscussionamongtheNativesandinducingthemtoreflectandinquireafterknowledge,havealreadyservedgreatlytoimprovetheirmindsandamelioratetheircondition.ThisdesirableobjecthasbeenchieflypromotedbytheestablishmentoffourNativeNewspapers,twointheBengaleeandtwointhePersianLanguages,publishedforthepurposeofcommunicatingtothoseresidingintheinteriorofthecountry,accountsofwhateveroccursworthyofnoticeatthePresidencyorinthecountry,andalsotheinterestingandvaluableintelligenceofwhatispassinginEnglandandinotherpartsoftheworld,

conveyedthroughtheEnglishNewspapersorotherchannels…WhileyourMemorialistswereindulgingthehopethatGovernment,froma

convictionofthemanifoldadvantagesofbeingputinpossessionoffullandimpartialinformationregardingwhatispassinginallpartsoftheCountry,wouldencouragetheestablishmentofNewspapersinthecitiesanddistrictsunderthespecialpatronageandprotectionofGovernment,thattheymightfurnishtheSupremeAuthoritiesinCalcuttawithanaccurateaccountoflocaloccurrencesandreportsofJudicialproceedings,theyhavethemisfortunetoobserve,thatonthecontrary,hisExcellencytheGovernorGeneralinCouncilhaslatelypromulgatedaRuleandOrdinanceimposingsevererestraintsonthePressandprohibitingallPeriodicalPublicationsevenatthePresidencyandintheNativeLanguages,unlesssanctionedbyaLicencefromGovernment,whichistoberevocableatpleasurewheneveritshallappeartoGovernmentthatapublicationhascontainedanythingofanunsuitablecharacter.

ThoseNativeswhoareinmorefavourablecircumstancesandofrespectablecharacter,havesuchaninvincibleprejudiceagainstmakingavoluntaryaffidavit,orundergoingthesolemnitiesofanoath,thattheywillneverthinkofestablishingapublicationwhichcanonlybesupportedbyaseriesofoathsandaffidavits,abhorrenttotheirfeelingsandderogatorytotheirreputationamongsttheircountrymen.

AfterthisRuleandOrdinanceshallhavebeencarriedintoexecution,yourMemorialistsarethereforeextremelysorrytoobserve,thatacompletestopwillbeputtothediffusionofknowledgeandtheconsequentmentalimprovementnowgoingon,eitherbytranslationsintothepopulardialectofthiscountryfromthelearnedlanguagesoftheEast,orbythecirculationofliteraryintelligencedrawnfromforeignpublications.AndthesamecausewillalsopreventthoseNativeswhoarebetterversedinthelawsandcustomsoftheBritishNation,fromcommunicatingtotheirfellowsubjectsaknowledgeoftheadmirablesystemofGovernmentestablishedbytheBritish,andthepeculiarexcellencesofthemeanstheyhaveadoptedforthestrictandimpartialadministrationofjustice.AnotherevilofequalimportanceintheeyesofajustRuleris,thatitwillalsoprecludetheNativesfrommakingtheGovernmentreadilyacquaintedwiththeerrorsandinjusticethatmaybecommittedbyitsexecutiveofficersinthevariouspartsofthisextensivecountry;anditwillalsoprecludetheNativesfromcommunicatingfranklyandhonestlytotheirGraciousSovereigninEnglandandhisCouncil,therealconditionofhisMajesty’sfaithfulsubjectsinthisdistantpartofhisdominionsandthetreatmenttheyexperiencefromthelocal

Government;sinceinformationcannotinfuturebeconveyedtoEngland,asithasheretoforebeen,eitherbythetranslationsfromtheNativepublicationsinsertedintheEnglishNewspapersprintedhereandsenttoEurope,orbytheEnglishpublicationswhichtheNativesthemselveshadincontemplationtoestablish,beforethisRuleandOrdinancewasproposed.

Afterthissuddendeprivationofoneofthemostpreciousoftheirrights,whichhasbeenfreelyallowedthemsincetheEstablishmentoftheBritishPower,arightwhichtheydonothave,andcannotbechargedwithhavingeverabused,theinhabitantsofCalcuttawouldbenolongerjustifiedinboasting,thattheyarefortunatelyplacedbyProvidenceundertheprotectionofthewholeBritishNationorthattheKingofEnglandandLordsandCommonsaretheirLegislators,andthattheyaresecuredintheenjoymentofthesamecivilandreligiousprivilegesthateveryBritonisentitledtoinEngland.

YourMemorialistsarepersuadedthattheBritishGovernmentisnotdisposedtoadoptthepoliticalmaximsooftenacteduponbyAsiaticPrinces,thatthemoreapeoplearekeptindarkness,theirRulerswillderivethegreateradvantagesfromthem;since,byreferencetoHistory,itisfoundthatthiswasbutashort-sightedpolicywhichdidnotultimatelyanswerthepurposeofitsauthors.Onthecontrary,itratherproveddisadvantageoustothem;forwefindthatasoftenasanignorantpeople,whenanopportunityoffered,haverevoltedagainsttheirRulers,allsortsofbarbarousexcessesandcrueltieshavebeentheconsequence;whereasapeoplenaturallydisposedtopeaceandease,whenplacedunderagoodGovernmentfromwhichtheyexperiencejustandliberaltreatment,mustbecomethemoreattachedtoit,inproportionastheybecomeenlightenedandthegreatbodyofthepeoplearetaughttoappreciatethevalueoftheblessingstheyenjoyunderitsRule.

EverygoodRuler,whoisconvincedoftheimperfectionofhumannature,andreverencestheEternalGovernoroftheworld,mustbeconsciousofthegreatliabilitytoerrorinmanagingtheaffairsofavastempire;andthereforehewillbeanxioustoaffordeveryindividualthereadiestmeansofbringingtohisnoticewhatevermayrequirehisinterference.Tosecurethisimportantobject,theunrestrainedLibertyofPublicationistheonlyeffectualmeansthatcanbeemployed.Andshoulditeverbeabused,theestablishedLawoftheLandisveryproperlyarmedwithefficientpowerstopunishthosewhomaybefoundguiltyofmisrepresentingtheconductorcharacterofGovernment,whichareeffectuallyguardedbythesameLawstowhichindividualsmustlookforprotectionoftheirreputationandgoodname.

YourMemorialistsconcludebyhumblyentreatingyourLordshiptotakethisMemorialintoyourgraciousconsideration;andthatyouwillbepleasedbynotregisteringtheaboveRuleandOrdinance,topermittheNativesofthiscountrytocontinueinpossessionofthecivilrightsandprivilegeswhichtheyandtheirfathershavesolongenjoyedundertheauspicesoftheBritishnation,whosekindness,andconfidence,theyarenotawareofhavingdoneanythingtoforfeit.

ChunderCoomarTagoreDwarkaNauthTagoreRammohanRoyHurchunderGhoshGowreeChurnBonnergeeProsunnoCommarTagoreWhentheGovernorGeneralrefusedtoheedtheprotest,Rammohanchoseto

appealdirectlytotheKingofEngland.Thissecondmemorial,astheexcerptsbelowshow,wasmoreanalyticalintone,outliningmoralandpoliticalreasonswhythefreedomofthepresshadtobesafeguarded.ThismayverywellhavebeenthefirstcommunicationeveraddressedtoaBritishmonarchbyanIndian.

…AsiaunfortunatelyaffordsfewinstancesofPrinceswhohavesubmittedtheiractionstothejudgmentoftheirsubjects,butthosewhohavedoneso,insteadoffallingintohatredandcontempt,werethemorelovedandrespected,whiletheylived,andtheirmemoryisstillcherishedbyposterity;whereasmoredespoticMonarchs,pursuedbyhatredintheirlifetime,couldwithdifficultyescapetheattemptsoftherebelortheassassin,andtheirnamesareeitherdetestedorforgotten.

MeninpowerhostiletotheLibertyofthePress,whichisadisagreeablecheckupontheirconduct,whenunabletodiscoveranyrealevilarisingfromitsexistence,haveattemptedtomaketheworldimaginethatitmight,insomepossiblecontingency,affordthemeansofcombinationagainsttheGovernment,butnottomentionthatextraordinaryemergencieswouldwarrantmeasureswhichinordinarytimesaretotallyunjustifiable,yourMajestyiswellaware,thataFreePresshasneveryetcausedarevolutioninanypartoftheworldbecause,whilemencaneasilyrepresentthegrievancesarisingfromtheconductofthelocalauthoritiestothesupremeGovernment,andthusgetthemredressed,thegroundsofdiscontentthatexciterevolutionareremoved;whereas,wherenofreedomofthePressexisted,andgrievancesconsequentlyremainedunrepresentedandunredressed,innumerablerevolutionshavetakenplaceinallpartsoftheglobe,orifpreventedbythearmedforceoftheGovernment,the

peoplecontinuedreadyforinsurrection…ItiswellknownthatdespoticGovernmentsnaturallydesirethesuppression

ofanyfreedomofexpressionwhichmighttendtoexposetheiractstotheobloquywhicheverattendstheexerciseoftyrannyoroppression,andtheargumenttheyconstantlyresortto,is,thatthespreadofknowledgeisdangeroustotheexistenceofalllegitimateauthority,since,asapeoplebecomeenlightened,theywilldiscoverthatbyaunityofeffort,themanymayeasilyshakeofftheyokeofthefew,andthusbecomeemancipatedfromtherestraintsofpoweraltogether,forgettingthelessonderivedfromhistory,thatincountrieswhichhavemadethesmallestadvanceincivilization,anarchyandrevolutionaremostprevalent—whileontheotherhand,innationsthemostenlightened,anyrevoltagainstgovernmentswhichhaveguardedinviolatetherightsofthegoverned,ismostrare,andthattheresistanceofapeopleadvancedinknowledge,haseverbeen—notagainsttheexistence—butagainsttheabusesoftheGoverningpower.Canada,duringthelatewarwithAmerica,affordedamemorableinstanceofthetruthofthisargument.Theenlightenedinhabitantsofthatcolony,findingthattheirrightsandprivilegeshadbeensecuredtothem,theircomplaintslistenedto,andtheirgrievancesredressedbytheBritishGovernment,resistedeveryattemptoftheUnitedStatestoseducethemfromtheirallegiancetoit.Infact,itmaybefearlesslyaverred,thatthemoreenlightenedapeoplebecome,thelesslikelyaretheytorevoltagainstthegoverningpower,aslongasitisexercisedwithjusticetemperedwithmercy,andtherightsandprivilegesofthegovernedareheldsacredfromanyinvasion…

WhilethereforetheexistenceofafreePressisequallynecessaryforthesakeoftheGovernorsandthegoverned,itispossibleanationalfeelingmayleadtheBritishpeopletosuppose,thatintwopoints,thepeculiarsituationofthiscountryrequiresamodificationofthelawsenactedforthecontrolofthePressinEngland.First,thatforthesakeofgreatersecurityandtopreservetheunionexistingbetweenEnglandandthiscountry,itmightbenecessarytoenactapenaltytobeinflictedonsuchpersonsasmightendeavourtoexcitehatredinthemindsoftheNativesofIndiaagainsttheEnglishnation.Secondly,thatapenaltyshouldbeinflictedonsuchasmightseditiouslyattempttoexcitehostilitieswithneighbouringorfriendlystates.AlthoughyourMajesty’sfaithfulsubjectsarenotawarethatanythinghasyetoccurredtocallfortheprecautionsthusanticipated,yetshouldsuchoranyotherlimitationsofthelibertyofthePressbedeemednecessary,theyareperfectlywillingtosubmittoadditionalpenaltiestobelegallyinflicted.Buttheymusthumblyentertheirprotestagainsttheinjusticeof

robbingthemoftheirlongstandingprivileges,bytheintroductionofnumerousarbitraryrestrictions,totallyuncalledforbythecircumstancesofthecountry—andwhatevermaybetheirintention,calculatedtosuppresstruth,protectabuses—andencourageoppression…

Thepublicationoftruthandthenaturalexpressionofmen’ssentimentsthroughthemediumofthePress,entailnoburdenontheState,andshoulditappeartoyourMajestyandtheenlightenedmenplacedaboutyourthrone,thatthispreciousprivilegewhichissoessentialtothewell-beingofyourfaithfulsubjects,couldnotsafelybeentrustedtotheNativesofIndia,althoughtheyhavegivensuchunquestionableproofsoftheirloyaltyandattachment,subjectonlytotherestraintswiselyimposeduponthePressbythelawsofEngland,yourfaithfulsubjectsentreatonbehalfoftheircountrymen,thatyourMajestywillbegraciouslypleasedtograntit,subjecttosuchsevererrestraintsandheavierpenaltiesasmaybedeemednecessary;butlegalrestraints,notthoseofarbitrarypower—andpenaltiestobeinflictedaftertrialandconvictionaccordingtotheformsoftheLawsofEngland,notatthewillandpleasureofoneortwoindividualswithoutinvestigationorwithouthearinganydefenceorgoingthroughanyoftheformsprescribedbylaw,toensuretheequitableadministrationofjustice.

NotwithstandingthedespoticpoweroftheMogulPrinceswhoformerlyruledoverthiscountry,andthattheirconductwasoftencruelandarbitrary,yetthewiseandvirtuousamongthemalwaysemployedtwointelligencersattheresidenceoftheirNawabsorLordLieutenants,Akhbar-navees,ornews-writerwhopublishedanaccountofwhateverhappened,andaKhoofea-navees,orconfidentialcorrespondentwhosentaprivateandparticularaccountofeveryoccurrenceworthyofnotice;andalthoughtheseLordLieutenantswereoftenparticularfriendsornearrelationstothePrince,hedidnottrustentirelytothemselvesforafaithfulandimpartialreportoftheiradministration,anddegradedthemwhentheyappearedtodeserveit,eitherfortheirownfaultsorfortheirnegligenceinnotcheckingthedelinquenciesoftheirsubordinateofficers;whichshowsthateventheMogulPrinces,althoughtheirformofGovernmentadmittedofnothingbetter,wereconvincedthatinacountrysorichandsorepletewithtemptations,arestraintofsomekindwasabsolutelynecessary,topreventtheabusesthataresoliabletoflowfromthepossessionofpower.

Thecountrystillaboundsinwealth,anditsinhabitantsarestilladdictedtothesamecorruptmeansofcompassingtheirends,towhichfromhavinglong

livedunderarbitraryGovernment,theyhavebecomenaturallyhabituated;andifitspresentRulershavebroughtwiththempurerprinciplesfromthelandoftheirbirthwhichmaybetterwithstandtheinfluenceoflongresidenceamidthenumeroustemptationstowhichtheyareexposed;ontheotherhand,fromtheseatoftheSupremegovernmentbeingplacedatanimmensedistanceandthechannelofcommunicationentirelyintheirownhands,theyareleftmoreatlibertytofollowtheirowninterests,andlookingforwardtothequietandsecureenjoymentoftheirwealthintheirnativeland,theymaycarelittleforthecharactertheyleavebehindtheminaremotecountry,amongapeopleforwhoseopiniontheyhavenoregard.YourMajesty’sfaithfulsubjects,therefore,humblypresume,thattheexistenceofarestraintofsomekind,isabsolutelynecessarytopreserveyourfaithfulsubjectsfromtheabusesofuncontrolledpower…

Itmightbeurgedontheotherhand,thatpersonswhofeelaggrieved,maytransmitrepresentationstotheCourtofDirectors[oftheEastIndiaCompany],andthusobtainredress;butthenativesofthiscountryaregenerallyignorantofthismodeofproceeding;andwithneitherfriendsinEnglandnorknowledgeofthecountry,theycouldentertainnohopeofsuccess,sincetheyknowthatthetransmissionoftheirrepresentations,dependsinpointoftime,uponthepleasureofthelocalGovernment,whichwillprobably,inordertocounteracttheirinfluence,accompanythemwithobservations,thenatureofwhichwouldbetotallyunknowntothecomplainants,discouragementswhichinfacthaveoperatedascompletepreventives,sothatnoinstanceofsucharepresentationfromtheNativesofBengalhaseverbeenknown.

Inconclusion,yourMajesty’sfaithfulsubjectshumblybeseechyourMajesty,first,tocausetheRuleandOrdinanceandRegulationbeforementioned,whichhasbeenregisteredbytheJudgeofyourMajesty’sCourt,toberescinded;andprohibitanyauthorityinthiscountryfromassumingthelegislativepower,orprerogativesofyourMajestyandtheHighCounciloftheRealm,tonarrowtheprivilegesanddestroytherightsofyourMajesty’sfaithfulsubjects,whoclaimyourprotection,andarewillingtosubmittosuchlaws,asyourMajestywiththeadviceofyourCouncil,shallbegraciouslypleasedtoenact.

Secondly,yourMajesty’sfaithfulsubjectshumblypray,thatyourMajestywillbepleasedtoconfirmtothemtheprivilegetheyhavesolongenjoyed,ofexpressingtheirsentimentsthroughthemediumofthePress,subjecttosuchlegalrestraintsasmaybethoughtnecessaryorthatyourMajestywillbegraciouslypleasedtoappointacommissionofintelligentandindependent

Gentlemen,toinquireintotherealconditionofthemillionsProvidencehasplacedunderyourhighprotection.

YourMajesty’sfaithfulsubjectsfromthedistanceofalmosthalftheglobe,appealtoyourMajesty’sheartbythesympathywhichformsapaternaltiebetweenyouandthelowestofyoursubjects,nottooverlooktheircondition;theyappealtoyoubythehonourofthatgreatnationwhichunderyourRoyalauspiceshasobtainedtheglorioustitleofLiberatorofEurope,nottopermitthepossibilityofmillionsofyoursubjectsbeingwantonlytrampledonandoppressed;theylastlyappealtoyoubythegloryofyourCrownonwhichtheeyesoftheworldarefixed,nottoconsignthenativesofIndiatoperpetualoppressionanddegradation.

TheNeedForModernEducationOurfinalselection,writteninDecember1823,makesanurgentpleaforthe

introductionofmoderneducationinIndia.ItisaddressedtotheGovernorGeneral.IhaveretainedthesometimesarchaicspellingsofIndianwords,suchas‘Sangscrit’for‘Sanskrit’.4

ToHisExcellencytheRightHon’bleWilliamPitt,

LordAmherst.MyLord,HumblyreluctantasthenativesofIndiaaretoobtrudeuponthenoticeof

Governmentthesentimentstheyentertainonanypublicmeasure,therearecircumstanceswhensilencewouldbecarryingthisrespectfulfeelingtoculpableexcess.ThepresentRulersofIndia,comingfromadistanceofmanythousandmilestogovernapeoplewhoselanguage,literature,manners,customs,andideasarealmostentirelynewandstrangetothem,cannoteasilybecomesointimatelyacquaintedwiththeirrealcircumstances,asthenativesofthecountryarethemselves.Weshouldthereforebeguiltyofagrossderelictionofdutytoourselves,andaffordourRulersjustgroundofcomplaintatourapathy,didweomitonoccasionsofimportancelikethepresenttosupplythemwithsuchaccurateinformationasmightenablethemtodeviseandadoptmeasurescalculatedtobebeneficialtothecountry,andthussecondbyourlocalknowledgeandexperiencetheirdeclaredbenevolentintentionsforits

improvement.Theestablishmentofanew…SchoolinCalcuttaevincesthelaudabledesire

ofGovernmenttoimprovetheNativesofIndiabyEducation…WhenthisSeminaryoflearningwasproposed,weunderstoodthattheGovernmentinEnglandhadorderedaconsiderablesumofmoneytobeannuallydevotedtotheinstructionofitsIndianSubjects.WewerefilledwithsanguinehopesthatthissumwouldbelaidoutinemployingEuropeanGentlemenoftalentsandeducationtoinstructthenativesofIndiainMathematics,NaturalPhilosophy,Chemistry,AnatomyandotherusefulSciences,whichtheNationsofEuropehavecarriedtoadegreeofperfectionthathasraisedthemabovetheinhabitantsofotherpartsoftheworld.

Whilewelookedforwardwithpleasinghopetothedawnofknowledgethuspromisedtotherisinggeneration,ourheartswerefilledwithmingledfeelingsofdelightandgratitude;wealreadyofferedupthankstoProvidenceforinspiringthemostgenerousandenlightenedoftheNationsoftheWestwiththegloriousambitionsofplantinginAsiatheArtsandSciencesofmodernEurope.

WenowfindthattheGovernmentareestablishingaSangscritschoolunderHindoopunditstoimpartsuchknowledgeasisalreadycurrentinIndia.Thisseminary(similarincharactertothosewhichexistedinEuropebeforethetimeofLordBacon)canonlybeexpectedtoloadthemindsofyouthwithgrammaticalnicetiesandmetaphysicaldistinctionsoflittleornopracticableusetothepossessorsortosociety.Thepupilswillthereacquirewhatwasknowntwothousandyearsago,withtheadditionofvainandemptysubtletiessinceproducedbyspeculativemen,suchasisalreadycommonlytaughtinallpartsofIndia.

TheSangscritlanguage,sodifficultthatalmostalifetimeisnecessaryforitsperfectacquisition,iswellknowntohavebeenforagesalamentablecheckonthediffusionofknowledge;andthelearningconcealedunderthealmostimperviousveilisfarfromsufficienttorewardthelabourofacquiringit.Butifitwerethoughtnecessarytoperpetuatethislanguageforthesakeoftheportionofthevaluableinformationitcontains,thismightbemuchmoreeasilyaccomplishedbyothermeansthantheestablishmentofanewSangscritCollege;fortherehavebeenalwaysandarenownumerousprofessorsofSangscritinthedifferentpartsofthecountry,engagedinteachingthislanguageaswellastheotherbranchesofliteraturewhicharetobetheobjectofthenewSeminary.Thereforetheirmorediligentcultivation,ifdesirable,wouldbeeffectuallypromotedbyholdingoutpremiumsandgrantingcertainallowancestothose

mosteminentProfessorswhohavealreadyundertakenontheirownaccounttoteachthem,andwouldbysuchrewardsbestimulatedtostillgreaterexertions.

Fromtheseconsiderations,asthesumsetapartfortheinstructionoftheNativesofIndiawasintendedbytheGovernmentinEnglandfortheimprovementofitsIndiansubjects,Ibegleavetostate,withduedeferencetoyourLordship’sexaltedsituation,thatiftheplannowadoptedbefollowed,itwillcompletelydefeattheobjectproposed;sincenoimprovementcanbeexpectedfrominducingyoungmentoconsumeadozenofyearsofthemostvaluableperiodoftheirlivesinacquiringthenicetiesoftheByakurunorSangscritGrammar.Forinstance,inlearningtodiscusssuchpointsasthefollowing:Khadsignifyingtoeat,khaduty,heorsheoriteats.Query,whetherdoesthewordkhadutitakenasawhole,conveythemeaninghe,she,oriteats,orareseparatepartsofthismeaningconveyedbydistinctportionsoftheword?AsifintheEnglishlanguageitwereasked,howmuchmeaningisthereintheeat,howmuchinthes?Andisthewholemeaningofthewordconveyedbythosetwoportionsofitdistinctly,orbythemtakenjointly?

Neithercansuchimprovementarisefromsuchspeculationsasthefollowing,whicharethethemessuggestedbytheVedant:-Inwhatmanneristhesoulabsorbedintothedeity?Whatrelationdoesitbeartothedivineessence?NorwillyouthsbefittedtobebettermembersofsocietybytheVedanticdoctrines,whichteachthemtobelievethatallvisiblethingshavenorealexistence;thatasfather,brother,etc.,havenoactualentity,theyconsequentlydeservenorealaffection,andthereforethesoonerweescapefromthemandleavetheworldthebetter.Again,noessentialbenefitcanbederivedbythestudent…fromknowingwhatitisthatmakesthekillerofagoatsinlessonpronouncingcertainpassagesoftheVedsandwhatistherealnatureandoperativeinfluenceofpassagesofVed,etc.

Againthestudent…cannotbesaidtohaveimprovedhismindafterhehaslearnedintohowmanyidealclassestheobjectsintheUniversearedivided,andwhatspeculativerelationthesoulbearstothebody,thebodytothesoul,theeyetotheear,etc.

InordertoenableyourLordshiptoappreciatetheutilityofencouragingsuchimaginarylearningasabovecharacterized,IbegyourLordshipwillbepleasedtocomparethestateofscienceandliteratureinEuropebeforethetimeofLordBacon,withtheprogressofknowledgemadesincehewrote.

IfithadbeenintendedtokeeptheBritishnationinignoranceofrealknowledgetheBaconianphilosophywouldnothavebeenallowedtodisplace

thesystemoftheschoolmen,whichwasthebestcalculatedtoperpetuateignorance.Inthesamemanner,theSangscritsystemofeducationwouldbebestcalculatedtokeepthiscountryindarkness,ifsuchhadbeenthepolicyoftheBritishLegislature.ButastheimprovementofthenativepopulationistheobjectoftheGovernment,itwillconsequentlypromoteamoreliberalandenlightenedsystemofinstruction,embracingmathematics,naturalphilosophy,chemistryandanatomy,withotherusefulscience[s]whichmaybeaccomplishedwiththesumproposedbyemployingafewgentlemenoftalentsandlearningeducatedinEurope,andprovidingacollegefurnishedwiththenecessarybooks,instrumentsandotherapparatus.

InrepresentingthissubjecttoyourLordshipIconceivemyselfdischargingasolemndutywhichIowetomycountrymenandalsotothatenlightenedSovereignandLegislaturewhichhaveextendedtheirbenevolentcarestothisdistantland,actuatedbyadesiretoimproveitsinhabitants,andIthereforehumblytrustyouwillexcusethelibertyIhavetakeninthusexpressingmysentimentstoyourLordship.

Calcutta,Ihaveetc.,

RAMMOHUNROY

PartIIReformersAndRadicals

IntroductiontoPartII

Britishruleinthesubcontinentwasbynomeansuncontested.Indianchiefsandarmieshadtobesubduedandconqueredthroughaseriesofmilitaryoffensives,extendingoverthebetterpartofacentury.Betweenthe1770sandthe1850s,therewerealsomanysmall-scalerebellions,wherepeasants,tribalsandpreachersprotestedagainstcolonialpoliciesastheserelatedespeciallytolandandnaturalresourcesontheonehand,andtoreligiouspracticesontheother.

TheselocalizedprotestshadnorealchanceofoverthrowingtheBritish.Arebellionwhichcarriedthispotentialbeganintheearlymonthsof1857.Thisisreferredtobysome(usuallyBritish)writersasthe‘SepoyMutiny’andbyother(alwaysIndian)writersasthe‘FirstWarofIndependence’.Infact,itwasmuchmorethantheformer,yetsomewhatshortofthelatter.ItsoriginslayinthedisaffectionofsoldiersintheemployoftheEastIndiaCompany.Themutiniesinthebarrackssoonmergedwiththecontinuingdiscontentofthepeasantrywithregardtocolonialagrarianpolicies.ThearroganceofChristianmissionariesandthefearthatthestatewaspromotingconversionalsocontributedtothedisaffection.Stokingthefiresfurtherwereprincesandnobleswhohadbeendispossessedorrenderedimpotentbytheneworder.

Thisuprisingwasunderpinnedneitherbyasenseofacommonnationalitynorbyamodernideaoffreedom.Haditsucceeded,itwouldnothavecreatedanewIndiannation-state.Rather,itwouldhaveledtotherestorationofapre-colonialpoliticalorder,withaMughalemperorinDelhiexercisinguncertaincontroloverregionalsatrapsandchiefs.Victoryfortherebelswaslikelytohaveledtolow-levelconflictandeconomicstasisratherthantopeaceandeconomicdevelopment.

Thatsaid,therebellionhadagenuinelypopularbase,aswellasaverywidereach.BeginninginarmycampsnearCalcuttaandDelhi,itsoonspreadintothecountryside,gatheringsupportasitwentalong.TherewerebitterandcontinuingclashesbetweentherebelsandtroopswhohadstayedloyaltotheBritish.Largepartsofnorth,eastandcentralIndiawerecaughtintheconflict.Therewerehorribleatrocitiesbybothsides.Thedeathtollranintothehundredsofthousands.Manymoreperishedthroughstarvationanddisease.

Itwasonlytowardsthemiddleof1858thattheEastIndiaCompanywasabletorestoresomesemblanceoforder.Theold,weakandsomewhatdecadentMughalemperorinDelhi,BahadurShahZafar,wasfoundguiltyofaidingtherebelsandexiledtoRangoon.Thegovernmentofthemiddle-agedandrathermoreauthoritativeQueeninLondon,Victoria,nowassumedresponsibilityfor

theaffairsofthesubcontinent.IndianswerehenceforthtobesubjectsoftheBritishEmpire,ratherthanoftheEastIndiaCompany.AmajorreorganizationoftheGovernmentofIndiatookplace,withthecreationofaprofessionalcivilservicewhosememberswouldserveasmagistratesandtaxcollectorsinthedistrictsandoverseethedepartmentsoffinance,home,educationandpublicworksintheprovincialandcentralsecretariats.Theorganizationofthecolonialarmywasalsostreamlined,andamassiveexpansionoftherailwaynetworksetinmotion,tofacilitatespeedytroopmovementsincaseofafutureuprisingagainstBritishrule.

Therebellionof1857isatopicofcontinuinginterest,nottosayenchantment,tohistoriansaswellasthelaypublic.Onehundredandfiftyyearslater,asteadystreamofbookscontinuestoappear,whichmemorializeafreshthevictoriesanddefeats,theheroesandthevillains,ofbothsides.However,lessrememberednowisaneventofperhapsevengreatersignificanceinIndianhistory,whichlikewisetookplacein1857.ThiswastheestablishmentofthefirstuniversitiesinIndia.

FoundedinthesameyearastheMutiny/WarofIndependence,theuniversitiesofCalcutta,BombayandMadraswerethecruciblesofmodernityinIndia.AsthesociologistAndréBéteillehaspointedout,theseuniversities‘openednewhorizonsbothintellectuallyandinstitutionallyinasocietythathadstoodstillinaconservativeandhierarchicalmouldforcenturies’.Theseuniversitieswere‘amongthefirstopenandsecularinstitutionsinasocietythatwasgovernedlargelybytherulesofkinship,casteandreligion’.Thus‘theage-oldrestrictionsofgenderandcastedidnotdisappearintheuniversities,buttheycametobequestionedthere’.

TheBengal,BombayandMadrasPresidencieswerethethreemainterritoriesunderBritishcontrol.EachwasthesizeofalargeEuropeancountryandeachwashometoadiverseaswellasdividedpopulation.ThefirstuniversitieswerelocatedinthecapitalsofthesethreePresidencies.TheseweresoonfollowedbytheAllahabadUniversity,intheUnitedProvinces,andthePunjabUniversity,locatedinthatprovince’scapitalandmaincity,Lahore.Dozensofcollegeswerealsofoundedinthesmallertowns;thesewereaffiliatedtothenewuniversities,whichsettheircurriculaandcertifiedtheirdegrees.

Althoughopentoallcastesandcommunities,atleastinthefirstdecadesoftheirexistence,IndianuniversitieswerepatronizedmostactivelybyBrahmins.Scribes,scholarsandadviserstopre-colonialregimes,thishighestcasteofHindusnowsoughttoserveinthesamecapacityunderthenewrulers.Inastudy

ofwesternIndia,thesocialhistorianRavinderKumarobservesthatalthoughBrahminsweremerely5percentofthepopulation,inthe1880stheyconstituted80percentofalluniversitystudentsandgraduates.Thisturntomoderneducationwaspartlydisinterested—agenuinesearchforknowledge—butmostlyinstrumental,namely,ameanstoemploymentinthecolonialadministrationasclerks,teachers,taxandrevenueofficialsandsubordinatejudges.BrahmindominanceintheacademiesquicklytranslatedintoBrahminpreponderanceinthemiddlerungsofthecolonialadministration.Forexample,of384IndianofficialsintheBombaycivilservicesintheyear1886–87,328wereHindus,ofwhichasmanyas211wereBrahmins.Thebulkofthesebelongedtothesub-casteofChitpavanBrahminsfromthewestcoast.

WhilesomeBrahminswerecontentwithloyalservicetotheRaj,othershadhigherambitions.TheywerereadingBurke,Mill,BenthamandotherEuropeanthinkersaspartoftheiruniversityeducation;thisinculcatedthedesiretoworkforanIndiawhoseleadersandlawmakerswouldbeIndians,ratherthanEnglishmen.ThehistorianB.R.Nandathusremarksthat‘thankstoWesterneducation,thethoughtsoftheChitpavanBrahmanswereturningnottowardsaviolentupheaval,buttowardsgreaterparticipationinthegovernmentoftheirowncountrythroughrepresentativeinstitutions’.ContemporaryBritishhistoriansputitlessdispassionately,thegovernorofBombay,RichardTemple,writingin1879that‘neverhaveIknowninIndiaanationalandpoliticalambitionsocontinuous,soenduring,sofarreaching,andsoutterlyimpossibleforustosatisfy,asthatoftheBrahminsofWesternIndia’.

Thesereform-minded,Western-educatedIndiansformedclubsandassociationsintheirrespectivetownsandprovinces.Itwasafar-sightedEnglishman,AllanOctavianHume,whofirstsuggestedthattheseassociationsbebroughttogetherinanall-Indiabodywitharepresentativecharacter.InDecember1885,someeightyeducatedmenfromalloverthecountrymettoformwhatwasatfirstcalledthe‘IndianNationalUnion’,butwhichwassoonrenamedthe‘IndianNationalCongress’.Onespeakersaidthatwiththisgathering‘wenowbegintoperceivethatnotwithstandingtheexistingdifferencesinourmothertongue,socialhabitsandmanners,wepossessthetrueelementsofnationalityaboutus’.Anothersaidthatfromthismeetingonwards,‘wecanwithgreaterpropensitythanheretoforespeakofanIndiannation,ofnationalopinionandnationalaspirations’.

Theseaimsmighthavebeensincere,butinactualfactthenewbodywaslessthanrepresentativeofthenation-in-the-making.Thehistorianofthatfirst

Congress,BritonMartin,Jr.,pointsoutthatonlytwoofitsdelegateswereMuslims.Notunexpectedly,therewerefarmoreBrahminsthantheirproportionintheIndianpopulationwouldwarrant.TherewasasprinklingofparticipantsfromotherhighcastessuchasRajputs,BaniasandKayasths,fourrepresentativesoffarmingcastes,andapparentlynoUntouchables.However,‘thisreligiousandcastedistributiondidnotmeannecessarilythatspecificreligiousandcasteinterestsweregivenpoliticalrepresentationorexpression.’Rather,thespeechesanddebatesattheCongressstressedthenon-parochialandinclusiveaimsoftheneworganization.

TheIndianNationalCongresswastomeeteveryyearhereafter,themeetingscirculatingamongthemajorcitiesofthesubcontinent.Therebellionof1857,theestablishmentoftheuniversitiesinthesameyearandtheformationoftheCongressarethethreeframingeventsofPartIIofthisbook.Thefive‘Makers’featuredherealllivedandwroteagainstthebackgroundoftheseevents.

Fouroftheseindividualscamefromasingleregion,westernIndia.AllhadMarathiastheirmothertongue.TwowereBrahmins,twowerenot.TherehadbeenalonghistoryofcontestationbetweendifferentcastesinwesternIndia.LocalBrahminshadrefusedtoofficiateatthecoronationofthewarrior-chiefShivaji(1630–80)onthegroundsthatthecasteofMarathas,towhichthekingbelonged,werenotreallyKshatriyas,butSudras,thatistosay,fromthefourth(orpeasant)ratherthanthesecond(orwarrior)strataoftheHinduhierarchy.Brahminsfromthenorthcametolegitimizetheruler—ataprice—buttheslightwasnotforgottenbyShivaji’skinsmen.ThePeshwas,whoruledMaharashtraafterShivajibutbeforetheBritish,wereBrahmins,andtendedtofavourtheirkinsmeninmattersofpoliticsandeconomics.

Despitethesedivisionsbycaste,thereremainedastrongsenseofregionalidentityinMaharashtra.FromShivajionwards,therewasatraditionoflocalresistancetotheMughalsinDelhi.Throughthemedievalperiod,theregionhadgivenbirthtomanyfinepoetsintheBhaktitradition,whosoughttofinessecastehierarchiesbysuggestingthatallwereequalbeforeGod.IntheabsenceofaBengal-stylePermanentSettlement,therewasathrivingagrarianeconomy,withenterprisingandoutward-lookingpeasant-cultivators.Finally,theemergenceofBombayasamajorcentreofcommerceandculturepromotedagrowingandincreasinglyself-awaremiddleclass.NorwasBombaytheonlyurbancentreofconsequence—therewasalsoPoona,theoldcapitalofthePeshwas,wheresomeofthebestmoderncollegesweresituatedandwherethemostactiveMarathinewspaperswerebased.

Insum,MaharashtrawastothelatenineteenthcenturywhatBengalhadbeentotheearlynineteenthcentury—theepicentreofcriticalthinkingandsocialreformamongIndianscomingtotermswithmodernityandalienrule.

ChapterTwo

TheMuslimModernistSyedAhmadKhan

AnearlybiographerofSyedAhmadKhanclaimedthatasayoungboy,KhanhadseveraltimesseenRammohanRoyinthecourtoftheMughalemperor.Thisisnotaltogetherimplausible—forKhan’sfamilywascloselyassociatedwiththerulingfamilyofDelhi,inwhoseserviceRoyhadalsobeen.Couldthissightinghavebeenin1828or1829,whenRoycalledontheemperorenroutetoLondontopleadhiscase?Andwouldthis(admittedlytenuous)acquaintancewiththemodernizeroftheHindushavebeenaprecociousinfluenceonthefirstmodernizerofIndianIslam?Itisanintriguingthought.

SyedAhmadKhan1wasborninDelhiin1817.HisgrandfatherhadservedbrieflyasprimeministertooneoftheMughalemperors.Thefamilywasnotorthodox—theypatronizedmusiciansandmysticsandmayalsohaveallowedtheconsumptionofwine.Therewasatraditionofscholarship:amongSyedAhmad’sforebearsweresomekeenmathematicians.

SyedAhmadwaseducatedathomebyhismotherandlatersenttoatraditionalschool.ThelanguagehegrewupwithwasUrdu,thelinguafrancaofthecourtandofthecitybeyond.InhisstudieshelearntArabicandPersian.Attheageoftwenty,hedepartedfromtraditionbyjoiningtheserviceoftheEastIndiaCompany.HisfamilyofMughalloyalistswerenotbestpleasedbut,byidentifyingwiththerulers-to-be,theyoungmanhadaccuratelyreadthefuture.HeservedasaclerkandthenajudgeinvarioustownsinnorthIndia,risingsteadilyuptheCompany’shierarchy.

LikeRammohanRoy,Khan’sfacilityinEnglishwasacquiredthroughkeepingcompanywithEnglishmen.LikeRoyagain,hewroteprolificallyinmorethanonelanguage.Hisfirstbook,inUrdu,wasanarchaeologicalhistoryofDelhi.AnotherearlybookexamineddoctrinaldisputesinearlyIslam.HealsopublishedaneditionoftheAin-i-Akbari,thegreatworkbythescholarAbulFazlonthereignoftheMughalemperorAkbar.

Duringtheuprisingof1857,SyedAhmadKhanwaspostedinthetownofBijnor,inthewesternpartoftheUnitedProvinces.Inaquietbutdeterminedway,hetookthesideofhismasters,andhelpedshepherdseveralEnglishfamiliestosafety.However,hewasdeeplyaffectedbytherevoltandworriedaboutitsconsequencesforhisfellowMuslimsinparticular.AbookhewroteshortlyafterwardschallengedthetheorythattheuprisingwasplannedbydisaffectedMuslimswhoopposedBritishrule.HepointedoutthatasmanyHindusasMuslimshadtakenpartintherevolt;andthatmoreMuslimshadstayedloyaltotheBritish.HerejectedthetheoriesthattherebelswereeggedonbyRussiaorPersia.Inhisview,theprotestswereneitheraconspiracynora

crusade.Rather,theywerearesponsetothearroganceofChristianpreachersandtothefailureoftheCompanytoadmitIndianmembersintotheLegislativeCouncil.

Khan’sbookonthe1857revoltwasfollowedbyanotherwhosetitlegaveacluetoitscontents,viz.TheLoyalMohammedansofIndia.ThisdocumentedthevariousactsofloyaltybyMuslimofficialsandsubjectsduringtheuprising.ItsauthorwasconvincedthatthewayforwardfortheMuslimsnowwastoembracemoderneducation,whichwouldservetodispeltheideathattheywereinherentlynostalgicordisloyal,whilebringingthemonparwiththeHinduswhoweretakingadvantageoftheopportunitiesaffordedbyBritishrule.In1864hestartedaScientificSocietyforMuslims,whosememberswouldstudymodernworksofhistory,scienceandpoliticaleconomy,inEnglishandintranslation.Twoyearslater,thesocietystartedajournaleditedandlargelywrittenbyKhanhimself.

TheparallelswiththeendeavoursofRammohanRoyarequitestriking.Thesemaynothavebeenentirelyaccidental.ThebiographerwhoclaimedKhanasayoungboyhadseenRoywastheUrdupoetandwriterAltafHusainHali.Haliwritesthatafterthe1857mutiny,Khan‘realizedthatthefuturewell-beingofhisfellowMuslimsdependedontwomajorfactors—WesterneducationandanabilitytounderstandandmixfreelywiththeBritish;otherwiseitseemedtohimthattheMuslimsstoodlittlechanceofmakingprogressorofretainingaplaceofhonourandrespectinIndia’.ComparethiswithwhatRammohanRoywroteinDecember1829:‘Frompersonalexperience,IamimpressedwiththeconvictionthatthegreaterourintercoursewithEuropeangentlemen,thegreaterwillbeourimprovementinliterary,socialandpoliticalaffairs;afactwhichcanbeeasilyprovedbycomparingtheconditionofthoseofmycountrymenwhohaveenjoyedthisadvantagewiththatofthosewhounfortunatelyhavenothadthatopportunity…’

InApril1869KhantravelledtoEnglandhimself.Hewasthenalmostexactlythesameage(fifty-seven)asRammohanRoyhadbeenwhenhemadehisjourneytothecentreofimperialpower.LikeRoy,hemetwithBritishnotables;likehim,hepublishedbooksinEnglishforanEnglishaudience(inhiscase,abookofessaysonMuhammad,whichsoughttorefutethebeliefthatIslamwasareligionofthesword).Likehisgreatpredecessor,KhantravelledtoEnglandtolearnmoreaboutthelandoftheconquerorandtoplacebeforehimtheproblemsandaspirationsofhispeople,whoweretheMuslimsofthesubcontinent.

ItwaswhilehewasinEnglandthatKhandecidedhemuststartacollegefor

Muslimmendesirousofmoderneducation.OnhisreturntoIndiainOctober1870,hesetaboutraisingfundsfortheenterprise.HevisitedthetownsheknewintheUnitedProvinces,butalsoventuredfurtherafield;tothecapitalofthePunjab,Lahore,andtothegreatprincipalityintheDeccan,Hyderabad,whoseruler,theNizam,wasreputedtobeoneoftherichestmenintheworld.Aftermakingdozensofspeechesandtravellingthousandsofmiles,hehadfinallycollectedenoughmoneytoformallyinauguratehisproject.TheMohammedanAnglo-OrientalCollege(asitwasfirstcalled)wasfoundedon24May1875inAligarh.Classescommencedthreeyearslater.

Inlateryears,KhancontinuedtotravelacrossIndiatoraisefundsforhiscollege,andtoencourageMuslimfamiliestosendtheirchildrenthere.Inaspeechof1893hewarnedthatthegapbetweenHindusandMuslimsonthis,theeducationalfront,wasverywideindeed.Forexample,inBengal,whereMuslimsconstituted45.9percentofthepopulation,onlyonegraduateinthirtywasMuslim;inMadras,whereMuslimsconstitutedsome7percentofthepopulation,theyhadlessthan1percentofthegraduates.Theoneprovincewhichcounteredthetrendwashisown,andlargelybecauseofhisefforts.ThusintheUnitedProvinces,whereMuslimswere11.2percentofthepopulation,theysupplied17.25percentofthegraduates.

KhandiedintheyearofQueenVictoria’sDiamondJubilee,1897.In1920theMohammedanAnglo-OrientalCollegewasrenamedtheAligarhMuslimUniversity(AMU).Ninetyyearslater,itremainstheuniversityofchoiceformanyyoungMuslimsinIndia—withschoolsofmedicine,lawandengineering,ithas(andKhanwouldhaveapproved)anespeciallywell-regardeddepartmentofhistory.TheAMU,nowwellintoitssecondcentury,isthechiefinstitutionallegacyofSyedAhmadKhan.Aflavourofhisintellectualandpoliticallegacyiscapturedintheexcerptsthatfollow.

EducatingtheMuslimsIn1882theviceroy,LordRipon,appointedacommissiontoreviewthestate

ofprimaryandsecondaryeducationinBritishIndia.ThiscommissionwaschairedbythecivilservantandscholarW.W.Hunter.ExcerptsfromSyedAhmadKhan’stestimonytotheEducationCommissionfollow.Here,thephrase‘ournation’referstotheMuslimsofIndia.Notealsothenowsomewhatarchaicpreferencefor‘Muhammadans’over‘Muslims’.2

Question:WithreferencetoEnglishschoolsforprimary,middle,highandcollegiateeducation,doyouconsiderthatEnglisheducationisessentiallyrequisitefortheinterestsofthecountry,andforthepeopleintheirdailyaffairsoflife?Ifso,towhatstandard?

Answer:Aboutthirtyyearshavenowelapsedsincethedispatchof1854.3DuringthisperiodtheconditionofIndiahasundergoneaconsiderablechange.Railwayshaveuniteddistantprovinces,andhavefacilitatedintercoursetoagreatextent.Telegraphiclineshavebeenextendedalloverthecountry,andhaveprovidedfacilitiesfordistantpersonstotalkwithoneanotherasiftheywereinthesameroom.Theseverythingshave[infused]anewlifeintocommercialbusiness,andhavegivenafreshimpulsetoeverysortofenterprise.

In1854,whentheabove-nameddispatchwaswritten,Indiawascertainlyinaconditionwhichmightjustifyourthinkingthattheacquisitionofknowledgethroughthemediumofthevernacularsofthecountrywouldbeenoughtomeetourimmediatewants.Butnowsuchisnotthecase.Vernaculareducationisnomoreregardedassufficientforourdailyaffairsoflife.Itisonlyofusetousinourprivateanddomesticaffairs,andnohigherdegreeofproficiencythanwhatisacquiredinprimaryandmiddlevernacularschoolsisrequisiteforthatpurpose;norismorewantedbythecountry.ItisEnglisheducationwhichisurgentlyneededbythecountryandbythepeopleintheirdailylife.ItwillbeuselesstorealizethetruthofwhatIhavesaidbyanytheoreticalargumentwhenwepracticallyfindsomanyproofsofiteveryday.Weseethatanordinaryshopkeeper,whoisneitherhimselfacquaintedwithEnglishnorhasanyEnglishknowingpersonsinhisemployment,feelsitis[a]serioushindranceintheprogressofhisbusiness.Eventheitinerantpedlarsandboxwalas,whogofromdoortodoorsellingtheirarticles,keenlyfeelthenecessityofknowingatleasttheEnglishnamesoftheircommodities,andofbeingabletotelltheirpricesinEnglish.Agentlemanwhovisitsamerchant’sorachemist’sshoptomakenecessarypurchases,butisneitherhimselfacquaintedwithEnglishnoris

accompaniedbyapersonknowingthatlanguage,feelshispositionasoneofrealperplexity.Inconsequenceofthefacilitiesaffordedfortravelling,respectablemenareoftenunderthenecessityofsendingandreceivingtelegraphicmessages,andtheirignoranceofEnglishprovesaserioushardshiptothem.AfewmonthsagoarespectableNativegentlemansenthiswifebyrailwayfromonestationtoanother,telegraphingtoarelationofhisatthelatterstationtobepresentattherailwaystationwithaconveyanceforthelady,whowasofcourseapardahnashin.Themessagereachedhimintime,buthewasunhappilynotacquaintedwithEnglish.HewasyetinsearchofanEnglish-knowingpersonwhomightexplaintohimtheimportofthecommunication,whenthetrainreachedthestationandtheladywasnecessarilycompelledtoleavethecarriageandtowaitoutside.ThestateofaffairshasthereforebeensoalteredduringthelastthirtyyearsthatanecessityforEnglisheducationisasmuchfeltasthatforaVernacularone…

Question:HaveallclassesofthepeoplebenefitedfromthestudyofWesternsciencesandliteratureinGovernmentorotherinstitutions,andhavetheMuhammadansalsoderivedthisbenefitasreadilyasthecommunities?Ifnot,towhatcausesmaytheirforbearancebeattributed?

Answer:OfallthesectionsoftheIndiancommunitytheMuhammadanshavederivedtheleastbenefitfromEuropeansciencesandliterature.ItisevidentfromtheannualreportsonpublicinstructionthatinGovernmentandmissionaryschoolsandcolleges,whichmayberegardedastheonlymeansofdisseminatingWesternscienceandliteratureinthiscountry,thenumberofMuhammadansisextremelylimited…

IhavemyselfearnestlyendeavouredforyearstotracethecausestowhichthisshortcomingoftheMuhammadansmaybeascribed.Andin1871myhumbleendeavoursresultedintheformationofacommitteetheobjectofwhichwastoinvestigatethecauseswhichpreventedourcommunityfromtakingadvantageofthesystemestablishedbyGovernment,andtosuggestmeansbywhicheducationcouldbespreadamongstthem.AsameansofreceivingaidintheirenquiriesthecommitteeofferedthreeprizesforthebestessaysbyeducatedMuhammadangentlemenonthesubjectofMuhammadaneducation,andnolessthanthirty-twoessaysweresentin.TheviewsexpressedintheseessayswerefullydiscussedatalargemeetingofrespectableandeducatedMusalmans,andthecommitteearrivedattheconclusionthatMuhammadanshadstrongfeelingsofdisliketowardsmoderneducation,andthattheirantagonismtotheGovernmenteducationalsystemwasnotamerematterofchance.

ThisaversionoftheMusalmancommunityisduetothefactthatwheninthereignsoftheCaliphsofBaghdadtheGreeksciencesoflogic,philosophy,astronomy,andgeography,weretranslatedintoArabic,theywereacceptedbythewholeMuhammadanworldwithouthesitation,and,withslightmodificationandalterations,theygraduallyfoundtheirwayintothereligiousbooksoftheMuhammadans,sothatincourseoftimethesescienceswereidentifiedwiththeirveryreligion,andacquiredapositionbynomeansinferiortothatofthesacredtraditionsofthefaith.Afewspuriousbutwell-knownforeignaswellasindigenoustraditionswhichreferredtoremotehistoricalevents,andtowhichtimehadlentacharm,werelikewiseadoptedandacceptedlikeotherreligiousdoctrines.

Europeanlearning,whichwasfoundedontheresultsofmoderninvestigations,differedwidelyinprinciplefromtheseAsiaticisedGreekdogmas,andtheMuhammadanscertainlybelievedthatthephilosophyandlogictaughtintheEnglishlanguagewereatvariancewiththetenetsofIslam,whilethemodernsciencesofgeographyandastronomywereuniversallyregarded,andarestillregardedbymany,asaltogetherincompatiblewiththeMuhammadanreligion.Historywasviewedinnobetterlight,inasmuchasitdifferedfromtheiradoptedtraditions.Asregardsliterature,itmustbeadmittedthatitisasubjectwhichisalwaysmoreorlessconnectedwiththereligionofthenationtowhichitbelongs:assuchbeingthecase,theMuhammadans,asamatterofcourse,viewedthisbranchofknowledge,too,inanythingbutafavourablelight.TheirantipathywascarriedsofarindeedthattheybegantolookuponthestudyofEnglishbyaMusalmanasalittlelessthantheembracingofChristianity,andtheresultwasthatMuhammadansgenerallykeptalooffromtheadvantagesofferedbyGovernmentinstitutions.TherearestillsomeMusalmanswhodenouncethestudyofEnglishintheseverestterms,andthosewhopursueorendeavourtopromotethatstudyarepositivelypronouncedtobeChristians.Butthisprejudicehasoflatedecreasedtoagreatextent,andisnotentertainedbysolargeaportionoftheMuhammadancommunityasformerly.ThismaybesaidtobethemaincauseoftheabstentionoftheMuhammadansfromthestudyofEuropeanscienceandliterature.

Question:Canyousuggesthowthecauses,whichmayhavehithertooperatedinexcludingtheMuhammadansfromthisbenefit,mightberemoved?

Answer:TheverynatureofthecauseswhichhaveoperatedinexcludingtheMuhammadansfromthebenefitofEnglisheducation,makesitimpossibleforGovernmenttobringabouttheirremoval.Governmentcouldinnowayinterfere

withormakeanattempttoexposethefallacyofthoseviewswhichtheMuhammadanshadrightlyorwronglybelievedtobetheirreligiousdoctrines.TherewasnoremedybutthatsomemembersoftheirowncommunitymightundertakethearduoustaskofimpressingontheMuhammadanstheadvantagesaccruingfromEnglisheducation,andofprovingbyargumentandreasonthatsucheducationwasinnowayinconsistentwiththetenetsoftheirreligion,andthatthefancifultheoriesofArabicisedGreekscienceandphilosophywhichtheadvanceofmodernscienceandenlightenmenttendedtosubvert,hadnoconnectionwiththedoctrinesofIslam.NumerousdiscouragingcircumstancesandserioussocialdangerslayinthepathofthoseadvancedMuhammadanswhoundertookthetask,odiousasitseemedtothedetractorsofmoderncivilisationamongMuhammadans.Theadvocatesofreformandenlightenmentweresuretobemadetheobjectoffuriousandfranticabuse,andtobedenouncedasatheists,apostates,andNazarenes[i.e.,Christians].ButtheywerefullyconvincedthattheMuhammadannationcouldneverbeabletogetridofthoseillusiveideasandprejudices,untilsomemembersoftheircommunitypreparedthemselvestoincurtheodiumwhichfanaticismandbigotryarealwaysreadytooffertotheadvocatesatenlightenedreform.Iwasanhumbleparticipatorintheendeavoursofthosewhodeterminedtodevotethemselvestothisunpleasanttaskforthewell-beingoftheirco-religionists.Withthisobjectaperiodical,namedtheMuhammadanSocialReformer,wasissued,inwhichthemoreadvancedMuhammadansfromtimetotimewrotearticlesonthesubjectofeducationandsocialreform,and,inspiteofthevigorousoppositionfromthebigotedandconservativeMuhammadans,madepublicspeechesinvariouspartsofUpperIndiatorousetheMuhammadanstomakeexertionstoeducatethemselvesandtorealisetheirdutiesascitizens.Theadvocatesofthecauseofreformandenlightenmenthad,ofcourse,anticipatedtheoppositionwithwhichtheyhadtocontendbeforeundertakingsomomentousataskandhadpreparedthemselvesfortheworstconsequencestotheirpersonalpopularityamongthecommonpeople.Theydidnotmindthedifficultiesandobstacleswhichbigotryandignoranceplacedintheirway,butperseveredintheirendeavours;andIamgladtonoticethatmyco-religionistshavenowbeguntoyieldtoreasonandtoacknowledgeandamendtheirerrors.ThenumberofMuhammadanstudentsinEnglish-teachinginstitutionsisnowmuchgreaterthanwhatitwastenyearsago.TheMuhammadanAnglo-OrientalCollegeatAligarhhassometwohundredandtwenty-fiveMuhammadanpupilsatpresent,mostofwhombelongtogoodfamilies,andhavetravelledfromvariouspartsofIndiatostudyEuropean

scienceandliteraturealongwiththeirownreligion,languages,andliterature.TheMusalmansarenoweverywhererelaxingtheirundueprejudices,andreconcilingthemselvestomodernthoughtsandconditionsoflife.Timeisnodoubtagreatreformer,butIthinktheendeavoursabovealludedto,whichhavebeengoingonforthelasttwelveyears,haveinnosmalldegreecontributedtothepresentstateofthings.TheremedythereforeliesinnohandsbutthoseoftheMuhammadansthemselves,andtheevilscanberemovedbytheireffortsalone…

AModernCurriculumContinuingonthethemeofeducation,Khannowoffersanup-to-date

readinglistforhisfellowMuslims.TheseparagraphsarefromatalkdeliveredtotheMohammedanLiterarySociety,Calcutta,in1884.4

Ihavenowafewwordstoofferinconnectionwiththebusinesstobeentereduponfromto-day—thebusinessoftheSociety.ThemostimportantandthemostdifficultsubjectwhichyougentlemenoftheDirectingCouncilwillberequestedtodeliveryouropinionson,istheselectionofbookstobetranslatedandpublishedasacommencement.Lookingatthestateofmyfellow-countrymen’sminds,Ifindthat,fromtheirignoranceofthepasthistoryoftheworldatlarge,theyhavenothingtoguidethemintheirfuturecareer.Fromtheirignoranceoftheeventsofthepast,andalsooftheeventsofthepresent—fromtheirnotbeingacquaintedwiththemannerandmeansbywhichinfantnationshavegrownintopowerfulandflourishingones,andbywhichthepresentmostadvancedoneshavebeatentheircompetitorsintheraceforpositionamongthemagnatesoftheworld—theyareunabletotakelessons,andprofitbytheirexperiences.Throughthisignorance,also,theyarenotawareofthecauseswhichhaveunderminedthefoundationsofthosenationsoncethemostwealthy,themostcivilized,andthemostpowerfulinthehistoryoftheirtime,andwhichhavesincegraduallygonetodecayorremainedstationaryinsteadofadvancingwiththeage.If,in1856,thenativesofIndiahadknownanythingofthemightypowerwhichEnglandpossesses—apowerwhichwouldhaveimpressedthemisguidedmenoftheBengalarmywiththeknowledgehowfutiletheireffortstosubverttheempireofherMajestyintheEastwouldbe—thereislittledoubtbutthattheunhappyeventsof1857wouldneverhaveoccurred.Fortheabovereasons,Iamstronglyinfavourofdisseminatingaknowledgeofhistory,ancientandmodern,fortheimprovementofmyfellow-countrymen.Therearecertainlyseveralworksonhistoryextant,writtenbyourownauthors;buttheydonotcontainthatinformationwhichisnecessarytoimprovethecivilizationandmoralityofmen.Theirviewsoftheageinwhichtheywrotewereentirelythoseoftheirrulers;andtheirworksaboundedinflatteryofthosesamerulers,aswritingthetruth,inmanycases,wouldhavedoomedthemtodeathortorture.Thus,muchthatwasevilandtyrannicalinthegovernorsofourcountryhasneverbeentransmittedtous.Theyneverenlightenedthepeopleofthiscontinentonthosesubjectsofwhich,asIhavestatedabove,theywereignorant.SirCharlesTrevelyan5hasofferedaprizeof500rupeesforthebestessayonacomparisonoftheinfluence

oftheGreekliteratureontheArabsundertheAbbasideCaliphsofBagdad,andtheOmmizadeCaliphsofCordova,withthesubsequentinfluenceofArabicliteratureonEurope.Thisisastepintherightdirection,andthiscountryoughttobeverygratefultoSirCharlesTrevelyanforhisliberality.VarioussmalleditionsofworksonhistoryhavebeentranslatedbytheDepartmentofPublicInstructionfortheuseofschools;butthesedonotcontainthatcopiousnessofdetail,thatfulldescriptionofthemorals,virtues,andvicesofnations,which,inmyopinion,arenecessaryinordertoconferanyrealbenefitonthenativemind.Thebookwhich,Ithink,wouldbeverysuitableforourSocietytocommencewith,isonewrittenbyM.Rollinontheancientraces,inwhichareadmirablydescribedtheirdiscoveryof,andimprovementson,theartsandsciences;asalsotheirlivesandsystemsofgovernment,togetherwiththeirvirtuesandvices.Thisbookisequallyadaptedtooldandyoung,andis,Ithink,admirablyadaptedforthetrainingofthenativemind.Thishistoryisthatoftheancientnations.AtpresentthenativesofIndiafirmlybelievethattheartsandscienceswereperfectedbytheGreeks.NowIdonotmeantodenythatnation’sability.IquiteagreewithM.Rollinthat,whetherweregardtheirsplendidarmy,theirwiselaws,ortheirintroductionof,andimprovementson,variousartsandscience,wemustallowthattheybroughtallthesetoaveryhighpitchofperfection.WemaywithtruthdesignatetheGreeksastheschoolmastersoftheworldintheirownandalsoinsucceedingages.ButweinIndiaknownothingoftheirformerstateofbarbarism,ofthemeansbywhichtheyraisedthemselvestothepositionwhichweknowtheyattained,andwearealsoutterlyignorantofwhatconducedtobringingabouttheprosperityofEurope,whichnowsofarexcelstheGreeceofancientdays…

Again,gentlemen,withregardtoworksonnaturalphilosophy.Allthosewhohaveanythingtodowiththeinternalmanagementofdistrictsarewellawarehowtheproducingcapabilitiesofthesoilaregraduallydecreasing.Onegreatreasonforthisevil,which,ifnotremedied,willsomedayseriouslyaffectthefinancesofIndia,isthatthenativeshaveneverevenheardoftheprinciplesonwhichthecultivationofthesoiloughttobeconducted,orofthemanynewinventionsforimprovingtheiracres.Thebasisoftheseprinciplesisnaturalphilosophy,bythestudyofwhichweacquireaknowledgeofthevariouspropertiesofbodies,andbywhichwelearnhowtomakeuseofthesame.Steam,whichwethoughtofnousewhatever,isrevealedtousinallitsusefulnessbytheabovescience.ThoseamonguswhohavebeentoRoorkee6willhaveobservedhowwonderfularetheusestowhichasolitaryshaftsetin

motionbysteamisturned—howbyitmanyworksaresetinmotion,andmanyandvariedarticlesturnedout;andatfirstyouhavedoubtlessthoughtthatallthiswasdonebysomethingmorethanhuman.TheworksatRoorkee,greatastheyare,aresmallcomparedwiththemanywonderfulonesinEngland.Iwouldthereforestronglyadvocatethetranslationofsmallworksonnaturalphilosophyinseparateseries.Wemight,forexample,translateasmalloneonsteam,oneonthepropertiesofwater,oroneonelectricity.

AnotherworkwhichismostnecessaryforIndiatoreadisoneonpoliticaleconomy.Politicaleconomywasformerlyknowntous,butnoneoftheworksonitofourancientauthorsarenowextant…Besides,eveniftheywere[available],Europehassoperfectedthisscienceastohavemadethemcomparativelyuseless.Fromawantofknowledgeofit,thenativesofIndiaareutterlyinthedarkastotheprinciplesonwhichthegovernmentoftheircountryiscarriedon.Theydonotknowthattherevenueiscollectedfortheirownbenefit,andnotforthatofGovernment.Millionsareundertheideathattherupees,asfastastheyarecollected,arehurriedonboardship,andcarriedofftoEngland!Whyisthis?Onlythroughtheirignoranceofpoliticaleconomy.Theirownimmediateprosperityisalsoseriouslyimpairedbythisignorance.Theydonotknowhowtomanagetheiraffairs,howtosoapplytheirpresentwealththatitmayincreasetenfold,andatthesametimerelieveothercountriesbylettingloosetheircapital,andnotburyingitintheirhouses.Iwouldthereforerecommendthetranslatinglittlebylittle,soasnottointerferewithsmallerworks,ofMill’s‘PoliticalEconomy.’Thereisthistobesaidagainstit,thatitisveryvoluminous;but,gentlemen,thisisalsoanargumentinitsfavour,asunlessaworkbevoluminous,thisimportantsciencecannotbetreatedofasitdeserves.Again,againstitmightbeadvancedthattherearecertainportionsofitwhicharenotapplicabletothiscountry,butonlytoEnglandorEurope.Butthisisexactlywhatoughttobeputclearlybeforeusnatives,inorderthatwemaycomprehendwhatEuropeisdoing…

TheTwoEyesofIndiaInJanuary1883SyedAhmadKhandeliveredaspeechinPatna,

emphasizingtheneedforcordialrelationsbetweenHindusandMuslims.Excerptsfromthisspeechfollow.7

Friends,inIndiatherelivetwoprominentnationswhicharedistinguishedbythenamesofHindusandMussulmans.Justasamanhassomeprincipalorgans,similarlythesetwonationsareliketheprincipallimbsofIndia.TobeaHinduoraMuslimisamatterofinternalfaithwhichhasnothingtodowithmutualrelationshipandexternalconditions.Howgoodisthesaying,whoevermaybeitsauthor,thatahumanbeingiscomposedoftwoelements—hisfaithwhichheowestoGodandhismoralsympathywhichheowestohisfellow-being.HenceleaveGod’ssharetoGodandconcernyourselfwiththesharethatisyours.

Gentlemen,justasmanyreputedpeopleprofessingHindufaithcametothiscountry,sowealsocamehere.TheHindusforgotthecountryfromwhichtheyhadcome;theycouldnotremembertheirmigrationfromonelandtoanotherandcametoconsiderIndiaastheirhomeland,believingthattheircountryliesbetweentheHimalayasandtheVindhiyachal.8Hundredsofyearshavelapsedsincewe,inourturn,leftthelandsofourorigin.Werememberneithertheclimatenorthenaturalbeautyofthoselands,neitherthefreshnessoftheharvestsnorthedeliciousnessofthefruits,norevendoweremembertheblessingsoftheholydeserts.WealsocametoconsiderIndiaasourhomelandandwesettleddownhereliketheearlierimmigrants.ThusIndiaisthehomeofbothofus.WebothbreathetheairofIndiaandtakethewateroftheholyGangesandtheJamuna.WebothconsumetheproductsoftheIndiansoil.Wearelivinganddyingtogether.BylivingsolonginIndia,thebloodofbothhavechanged.Thecolourofbothhavebecomesimilar.Thefacesofboth,havingchanged,havebecomesimilar.TheMuslimshaveacquiredhundredsofcustomsfromtheHindusandtheHindushavealsolearnedhundredsofthingsfromtheMussulmans.Wemixedwitheachothersomuchthatweproducedanewlanguage—Urdu,whichwasneitherourlanguagenortheirs.ThusifweignorethataspectofourswhichweowetoGod,bothofus,onthebasisofbeingcommoninhabitantsofIndia,actuallyconstituteonenation;andtheprogressofthiscountryandthatofbothofusispossiblethroughmutualcooperation,sympathyandlove.Weshallonlydestroyourselvesbymutualdisunityandanimosityandill-willtoeachother.Itispitiabletoseethosewhodonotunderstandthispointandcreatefeelingofdisunityamongthesetwonationsand

failtoseethattheythemselveswillbethevictimsofsuchasituation,andinflictinjurytothemselves.Myfriends,IhaverepeatedlysaidandsayitagainthatIndiaislikeabridewhichhasgottwobeautifulandlustrouseyes—HindusandMussulmans.Iftheyquarrelagainsteachotherthatbeautifulbridewillbecomeuglyandifonedestroystheother,shewillloseoneeye.Therefore,peopleofHindustanyouhavenowtherighttomakethisbrideeithersquinteyedoroneeyed.

Undoubtedly,whattosayofHindusandMussulmans,aquarrelamonghumanbeingsisanaturalphenomenon.WithintheranksoftheHindusorMussulmansthemselves,orevenbetweenbrothersasalsobetweenfathersandsons,mothersanddaughterstherearedissensions.Buttomakeitperennialisasymptomofdecayofthefamily,thecountry,andofthenation.Howblessedarethosewhorepent,andstepforwardtountietheknotwhichhasbychance,marredtheirmutualrelationsanddonotallowittogetdisrupted.O!God,letthepeopleofIndiachangetothiswayofthinking.

PoliticsandDiscordTwoyearsaftertheabovespeech,theIndianNationalCongresswas

founded.SyedAhmadKhanwasfromthefirstsuspiciousoftheCongress,whichhethoughtwouldpromoterivalrybetweencommunitieswhilealienatingIndiansfromtheBritish.TheactivitiesoftheCongressweretoradicallyalterhisviewsonHindu—Muslimrelations,aswitnessthenextexcerpt,fromaspeechdeliveredtoaMuslimaudienceinMeerutinMarch1888.Provincialrivalrieswerealsoatworkhere—asanativeofDelhi,andaresidentoftheUnitedProvinces,KhanhadreservationsabouttheBengaliswhothendominatedtheCongress.9

IthinkitexpedientthatIshouldfirstofalltellyouthereasonwhyIamabouttoaddressyouonthesubjectofto-night’sdiscourse.Youknow,gentlemen,that,fromalongtime,ourfriendstheBengalishaveshownverywarmfeelingsonpoliticalmatters.Threeyearsagotheyfoundedaverybigassembly,whichholdsitssittingsinvariousplaces,andtheyhavegivenitthename‘NationalCongress.’Weandournation10gavenothoughttothematter.AndweshouldbeverygladforourfriendstheBengalistobesuccessfulifwewereofopinionthattheyhadbytheireducationandabilitymadesuchprogressasrenderedthemfitfortheclaimstheyputforward.Butalthoughtheyaresuperiortousineducation,yetwehaveneveradmittedthattheyhavereachedthatleveltowhichtheylayclaimtohaveattained.Nevertheless,Ihavenever,inanyarticle,orinanyspeech,oreveninconversationinanyplace,putdifficultiesordesiredtoputdifficultiesinthewayofanyoftheirundertakings.Ithasneverbeenmywishtoopposeanypeopleoranynationwhowishtomakeprogress,andwhohaveraisedthemselvesuptothatranktowhichtheywishtoattainandforwhichtheyarequalified.ButmyfriendstheBengalishavemadeamostunfairandunwarrantableinterferencewithmynation,andthereforeitismydutytoshowclearlywhatthisunwarrantableinterferencehasbeen,andtoprotectmynationfromtheevilsthatmayarisefromit.ItisquitewrongtosupposethatIhavegirdedupmyloinsforthepurposeoffightingmyfriendstheBengalis:myobjectisonlytomakemynationunderstandwhatIconsiderconducivetoitsprosperity.ItisincumbentonmetoshowwhatevilswouldbefallmynationfromjoiningintheopinionsoftheBengalis:Ihavenootherpurposeinview…

Gentlemen,whatIamabouttosayisnotonlyusefulformyownnation,butalsoformyHindubrothersofthese[United]Provinces,whofromsomewrongnotionshavetakenpartinthisCongress.Atlasttheyalsowillbesorryforit,

althoughperhapstheywillneverhaveoccasiontobesorry;foritisbeyondtheregionofpossibilitythattheproposalsoftheCongressshouldbecarriedoutfully.ThesewrongnotionswhichhavegrownupinourHindufellow-countrymen,andonaccountofwhichtheythinkitexpedienttojointheCongress,dependupontwothings.Thefirstthingisthis:thattheythinkthatasboththeythemselvesandtheBengalisareHindus,theyhavenothingtofearfromthegrowthoftheirinfluence.Thesecondthingisthis:thatsomeHindus—IdonotspeakofalltheHindusbutonlyofsome—thinkthatbyjoiningtheCongressandbyincreasingthepoweroftheHindustheywillperhapsbeabletosuppressthoseMohammedanreligiousriteswhichareopposedtotheirown,and,byalluniting,annihilatethem.ButIfranklyadvisemyHindufriendsthatiftheywishtocherishtheirreligiousritestheycanneverbesuccessfulinthisway.Iftheyaretobesuccessful,itcanonlybebyfriendshipandagreement.Thebusinesscannotbedonebyforce;andthegreatertheenmityandanimositythegreaterwillbetheirloss.IwilltakeAligarhasanexample.ThereMohammedansandHindusareinagreement.TheDasehraandMoharrumfelltogetherforthreeyears,andnooneknowswhattookplace.Itisworthnoticehow,whenanagitationwasstartedagainstcow-killing,thesacrificeofcowsincreasedenormously,andreligiousanimositygrewonbothsides,asallwholiveinIndiawellknow.Theyshouldunderstandthatthosethingswhichcanbedonebyfriendshipandaffectioncannotbedonebyanypressureorforce.IftheseideaswhichIhaveexpressedabouttheHindusoftheseProvincesbecorrectandtheirconditionbesimilartothatoftheMohammedans,thentheyoughttocontinuetocultivatefriendshipwithus.LetthosewholiveinBengaleatuptheirownheads.Whattheywanttodo,letthemdoit.Whattheydon’twanttodo,letthemnotdoit.Neithertheirdispositionnortheirgeneralconditionresemblesthatofthepeopleofthiscountry.Thenwhatconnectionhavethepeopleofthiscountrywiththem?AsregardsBengal,thereis,asfarasIamawareinLowerBengal,amuchlargerproportionofMohammedansthanBengalis…ThoseMohammedansarequiteunawareofwhatsortofthingtheNationalCongressis.NoMohammedanRais11ofBengaltookpartinit;andtheordinaryBengaliswholiveinthedistrictarealsoasignorantofitastheMohammedans.InBengaltheMohammedanpopulationissogreatthatiftheaspirationsofthoseBengaliswhoaremakingsoloudanagitationbefulfilled,itwillbeextremelydifficultfortheBengalistoremaininpeaceeveninBengal.TheseproposalsoftheCongressareextremelyinexpedientforthecountrywhichisinhabitedbytwodifferentnations,whodrinkfromthesamewell,

breathetheairofthesamecity,anddependoneachotherforitslife.Tocreateanimositybetweenthemisgoodneitherforpeace,norforthecountry,norforthetown.

Afterthislongpreface,Iwishtoexplainwhatmethodmynation,nay,ratherthewholepeopleofthiscountry,oughttopursueinpoliticalmatters.IwilltreatinregularsequencethepoliticalquestionsofIndia,inorderthatyoumayhavefullopportunityofgivingyourattentiontothem.Thefirstofallisthis—InwhosehandsshalltheAdministrationandtheEmpireofIndiarest?Now,supposethatalltheEnglishandthewholeEnglisharmyweretoleaveIndia,takingwiththemalltheircannonandtheirsplendidweaponsandeverything,thenwhowouldberulersofIndia?Isitpossiblethatunderthesecircumstancestwonations—theMohammedansandtheHindus—couldsitonthesamethroneandremainequalinpower?Mostcertainlynot.Itisnecessarythatoneofthemshouldconquertheotherandthrustitdown.Tohopethatbothcouldremainequalistodesiretheimpossibleandtheinconceivable.AtthesametimeyoumustrememberthatalthoughthenumberofMohammedansislessthanthatoftheHindus,andalthoughtheycontainfarfewerpeoplewhohavereceivedahighEnglisheducation,yettheymustnotbethoughtinsignificantorweak.Probablytheywouldbebythemselvesenoughtomaintaintheirownposition.Butsupposetheywerenot.ThenourMussalmanbrothers,thePathans,wouldcomeoutasaswarmoflocustsfromtheirmountainvalleys,andmakeriversofbloodtoflowfromtheirfrontieronthenorthtotheextremeendofBengal.Thisthing—whoafterthedepartureoftheEnglishwouldbeconquerors—wouldrestonthewillofGod.Butuntilonenationhadconqueredtheotherandmadeitobedient,peacecannotreignintheland.Thisconclusionisbasedonproofssoabsolutethatnoonecandenyit.Now,supposethattheEnglisharenotinIndiaandthatoneofthenationsofIndiahasconqueredtheother,whethertheHindustheMohammedans,ortheMohammedanstheHindus.AtoncesomeothernationofEurope,suchastheFrench,theGermans,thePortuguese,ortheRussians,willattackIndia.Theirshipsofwar,coveredwithironandloadedwithflashingcannonandweapons,willsurroundheronallsides.AtthattimewhowillprotectIndia?NeitherHinduscansavenorMohammedans;neithertheRajputsnormybravebrothersthePathans.Andwhatwillbetheresult?Theresultwillbethis—thatforeignerswillruleIndia,becausethestateofIndiaissuchthatifforeignpowersattackher,noonehasthepowertoopposethem.Fromthisreasoningitfollowsofnecessitythatanempire,notofanyIndianrace,butofforeigners,willbeestablishedinIndia.Now,willyoupleasedecide

whichofthenationsofEuropeyouwouldliketoruleoverIndia?IaskifyouwouldlikeGermany,whosesubjectsweepforheavytaxationandthestringencyoftheirmilitaryservice?WouldyouliketheruleofFrance?Stop!Ifancyyouwould,perhaps,liketheruleoftheRussians,whoareverygreatfriendsofIndiaandofMohammedans,andunderwhomtheHinduswillliveingreatcomfort,andwhowillprotectwiththetenderestcarethewealthandpropertywhichtheyhaveacquiredunderEnglishrule?(Laughter).EverybodyknowssomethingorotheraboutthesepowerfulkingdomsofEurope.Everyonewilladmitthattheirgovernmentsarefarworse,nay,beyondcomparisonworse,thantheBritishGovernment.Itis,therefore,necessarythatforthepeaceofIndiaandfortheprogressofeverythinginIndiatheEnglishGovernmentshouldremainformanyyears—infactforever!…

ChapterThree

TheAgrarianRadicalJotiraoPhule

RunningthroughSyedAhmadKhan’sworktomodernizeMuslimswasanundercurrentofrivalry:withtheHindus,whohadtakenearlierandinlargernumberstoWesterneducationandtoemploymentintheschools,colleges,offices,lawcourtsandfactoriesthatwereestablishedundercolonialrule.ThepointofdepartureforournextmakerofmodernIndiawasnotsomuchtheadvance,undertheRaj,ofHindusingeneral,butofupper-casteHindusinparticular.

JotiraoPhule1wasbornin1827,lessthanadecadeaftertheadventoftheEastIndiaCompanyinhisnativeMaharashtra.HebelongedtothecasteofMalis,whohadtraditionallycultivatedfruitsandvegetables.Phule’sfamilyhadsuppliedflowerstothecourtofthePeshwas,thesegrownonaholdingofthirty-fiveacresgrantedthembytherulers.Theywerethusnotpoor,butnotreallyaffluenteither.

JotiraostudiedinaschoolinthetownofPoona(nowcalledPuné),runbyScottishmissionaries.Herehemixedwithboysofothercastes,includingUntouchables.Asayoungman,hevisitedandwaspowerfullyimpressedbyaschoolforgirlsrunbyAmericanmissionariesinthetownofAhmednagar.Theseexperiencesinspiredhim,thenstillinhistwenties,tostartaschoolforgirlsoflowcasteshimself.Healsoopenedseveralotherschools,whichadmittedchildrenfromtheUntouchablecastesofMangsandMahars.

Anautodidact,PhuleseemstohavebeeninfluencedbyThomasPaineasayoungman.In1855hewroteaplayabouttheinequitiesofthecastesystem.(InviewofthedominanceofBrahminsoverbookproductionandpublishinginwesternIndia,theplaywaspublishedonlyaftertheplaywright’sdeath.)BynowPhulewasconvincedthatWesterneducation,withitsrationalistoutlook,couldplayakeyroleintheemancipationofthelowcastesandtheconcomitantunderminingofBrahminpower.

Althoughhisteachersseemtohaveseenapotentialconvert,PhuleresistedthepressuretobecomeaChristian.AswithRammohanRoy,theencounterwithmissionarieshelpedhimfashionacritiqueoforthodoxHinduism.LikeRoy,again,hecametoprofessadeismwhichheldthattherewasasingleCreatorwhoprovidedthemoraltouchstoneforsocietyasawhole.

Fromthe1860s,Phule’sinterestshiftedfrommanaginghisschoolstowiderprogrammesofsocialreform,suchaswidowremarriage.Meanwhile,hewasalsoactiveinbusiness,sellinghardwaretofactoriesinandaroundPoona.Hewasalsosuccessfulasacontractorforroadworksandbridges.Themoneyhemadefromtheseenterpriseswasploughedbackintohissocialactivities.

Bythe1870s,PhulewasafigureofsomeinfluenceandimportanceinMaharashtra.Hisprofilewasenhancedbyaseriesofpowerfultractsthathepublished,whichspokeoutagainstthestrangleholdofBrahminsoverthesocial,economic,politicalandspirituallifeofwesternIndia.Theseweresometimeswrittenintheformofadialoguebetweenthereformerandoneofhisadversaries.ThroughinnovativereadingsofHindulegends,hepresentedtheBrahminasawilyandunscrupulousoperatorwhoactedalwaystoexploitandsuppressthepeasantandthelabourer.Likewise,inareinterpretationofthecareerofthewarrior-kingShivaji,herepresentedthewarriorasrelying,inhiscampaignsandforhisvictories,onhispeasantarmiesratherthan(astheconventionalhistoriographyhadit)onhisBrahminministersandadvisers.

In1873PhulehelpedfoundtheSatyashodakSamaj,theSocietyofTruth-Seekers.Toqualifyasamember,anindividualhadtogetfiftylettersofsupportandnomination.Someoftherulesofthesocietyweretypicalofreformersofthetime—thevownottoconsumealcohol,forexample.Othersweredaringlyprecocious,suchastheobligationtospreadeducationamongwomenandlowcastes.ThesamajalsopromotedmarriagesthatwouldtakeplacewithouttheinvolvementofBrahminpriests.

Phule’sstatusandachievementswererecognizedbyhisnominationtotheMunicipalCouncilofPoonain1876.He,inturn,lookedwithfavourupontheBritishRaj,whichheldthebalanceofpowerbetweenthedifferentcommunities,andwhich—sohethought—couldbepersuadedtorecognizethatitwasnottheBrahminsbutthemorenumerouscultivatingcasteswhoweretherealrepresentativesofIndiansocietyandtherealcarriersofitshistory.

UnderPhule’sdirection,theSatyashodakSamajlobbiedthegovernmenttopromotepoliciesthatwouldbenefitthefarmersandlabourerswhocameunderthecastecategoryof‘Shudras’.Asthesamaj’sfirstpublishedreportputit,theorganizationwasfounded‘inordertofreetheShudrapeoplefromslaverytoBrahmans,Bhats,Joshis,priestsandothers.Forthousandsofyears,thesepeoplehaveheedlesslydespisedandexploitedtheShudras,withtheaidoftheircunningly-devisedbooks.Thisactionwastaken,therefore,sothatthroughgoodadviceandthespreadofeducation,theShudrasmightbegottounderstandtheirrealrights,andfreedbothinreligiousandmoregeneralmattersfromthefalseandself-interestedbooksoftheBrahmans’.TheBritish,believedPhule,hadahistoricmission‘toliberatethedisabledShudrasfromtheslaveryofthecraftyAryas[i.e.,uppercastes]’.

JotiraoPhulewasaremarkablesocialactivistaswellasagiftedwriter.By

thetimeofhisdeathin1890,hehadpublishedpolemics,plays,songsandballads.Ofthetwoexcerptsfromhisoeuvrebelow,thefirstwaswritteninthelanguageoftherulers;thesecondinhismothertongue.Theeditorofthelatterwork,G.P.Deshpande,writesthat‘itisimpossibletotranslatethevigourandruggednessofhisMarathi’.Thisseemsundulymodest;for,asourreproductionofthetranslationbyDeshpandeandhiscollaboratorsdemonstrates,thepowerandintensityofPhule’sideasarebynomeansentirelylostwhenrenderedintoEnglish.

EducatingtheMassesOurfirstexcerptfromJotiraoPhule’swritingsisfromhisevidencetothe

sameEducationCommissionof1882towhichSyedAhmadKhanalsotestified.LikeKhan,hesawaccesstomoderneducationascrucialtotheadvancementofhispeople,whowerethepeasantmassesofwesternIndia.Khan,inturn,hadbeenprovokedandinspiredbytheworkofRammohanRoy.RoythoughtthatbymeansofmoderneducationHinduswouldcomeonparwiththeBritish;KhanhopedthesameinstrumentwouldbringMuslimsonparwithHindus;Phule,thatitwouldbringnon-BrahminsonparwithBrahmins.Theparallelsarestriking.2

…IwrotesomeyearsagoaMarathipamphletexposingthereligiouspracticesoftheBrahmins,andincidentallyamongothermatters,advertedthereintothepresentsystemofeducation,which,byprovidingamplerfundsforhighereducation,tendedtoeducateBrahminsandthehigherclassesonly,andtoleavethemasseswallowinginignoranceandpoverty.IsummarizedtheviewsexpressedinthebookinanEnglishprefaceattachedthereto,portionsofwhichIreproduceheresofarastheyrelatetothepresentenquiry:—

PerhapsapartoftheblameinbringingmatterstothiscrisismaybejustlylaidtothecreditoftheGovernment.Whatevermayhavebeentheirmotivesinprovidingamplerfundsandgreaterfacilitiesforhighereducation,andneglectingthatofthemasses,itwillbeacknowledgedbyallthatinjusticetothelatter,thisisnotasitshouldbe.ItisanadmittedfactthatthegreaterportionoftherevenuesoftheIndianEmpirearederivedfromtheryot’slabour—fromthesweatofhisbrow.Thehigherandricherclassescontributelittleornothingtothestateexchequer.Awell-informedEnglishwriterstatesthatourincomeisderived,notfromsurplusprofits,butfromcapital;notfromluxuries,butfromthepoorestnecessaries.Itistheproductofsinandtears.

ThatGovernmentshouldexpendprofuselyalargeportionofrevenuethusraised,ontheeducationofthehigherclasses,foritistheseonlywhotakeadvantageofit,isanythingbutjustorequitable.Theirobjectinpatronizingthisvirtualhighclasseducationappearstobetopreparescholarswho,itisthought,wouldintimevendlearningwithoutmoneyandwithoutprice.Ifwecaninspire,saythey,theloveofknowledgeinthemindsofthesuperiorclasses,theresultwillbeahigherstandard,ofmoralsinthecasesoftheindividuals,alargeamountofaffectionfortheBritishGovernment,andunconquerabledesiretospreadamongtheirowncountrymentheintellectualblessingswhichtheyhavereceived…

Itisproposedbymenwhowitnessthewondrouschangesbroughtaboutin

theWesternworld,purelybytheagencyofpopularknowledge,toredressthedefectsofthetwohundredmillionsofIndia,bygivingsuperioreducationtothesuperiorclassesandtothemonly.WeaskthefriendsofIndianUniversitiestofavouruswithasingleexampleofthetruthoftheirtheoryfromtheinstanceswhichhavealreadyfallenwithinthescopeoftheirexperience.Theyhaveeducatedmanychildrenofwealthymenandhavebeenthemeansofadvancingverymateriallytheworldlyprospectsofsomeoftheirpupils.Butwhatcontributionhavethesemadeto[the]greatworkofregeneratingtheirfellowmen?Howhavetheybeguntoactuponthemasses?Haveanyofthemformedclassesattheirownhomesorelsewhere,fortheinstructionoftheirlessfortunateorlesswisecountrymen?Orhavetheykepttheirknowledgetothemselves,asapersonalgift,nottobesoiledbycontactwiththeignorant[and]vulgar?Havetheyinanywayshownthemselvesanxioustoadvancethegeneralinterestsandrepaythephilanthropywithpatriotism?Uponwhatgroundsisitassertedthatthebestwaytoadvancethemoralandintellectualwelfareofthepeopleistoraisethestandardofinstructionamongthehigherclasses?…

OneofthemostglaringtendenciesofGovernmentsystemofhighclasseducationhasbeenthevirtualmonopolyofallthehigherofficesunderthembyBrahmins.Ifthewelfareoftheryotisatheart,ifitisthedutyofGovernmenttocheckahostofabuses,itbehovesthemtonarrowthismonopolydaybydaysoastoallowasprinklingoftheothercastestogetintothepublicservices.PerhapssomemightbeinclinedtosaythatifGovernmentlooksalittlelessafterhighereducationwhichisabletotakecareofitselfandmoretowardstheeducationofthemassestherewouldbenodifficultyintrainingupabodyofmeneverywayqualifiedandperhapsfarbetterinmoralsandmanners.

MyobjectinwritingthepresentvolumeisnotonlytotellmyShudrabrethrenhowtheyhavebeendupedbytheBrahmins,butalsotoopentheeyesofGovernmenttothatpernicioussystemofhigh-classeducation,whichhashithertobeensopersistentlyfollowed…IsincerelyhopethatGovernmentwillerelongseetheerroroftheirways,trustlesstowritersormenwholookthroughhigh-classspectacles,andtakethegloryintotheirownhandsofemancipatingmyShudrabrethrenfromthetrammelsofbondagewhichtheBrahminshavewovenaroundthemlikethecoilsofaserpent.ItisnolessthedutyofeachofmyShudrabrethrenashavereceivedanyeducation,toplacebeforeGovernmentthetruestateoftheirfellowmenandendeavourtothebestoftheirpowertoemancipatethemselvesfromBrahminthraldom.LettherebeschoolsfortheShudrasineveryvillage;butawaywithallBrahminschoolmasters!TheShudras

arethelifeandsinewsofthecountry,anditistothemalone,andnottotheBrahmins,thatGovernmentmusteverlooktotideovertheirdifficulties,financialaswellaspolitical.IftheheartsandmindsoftheShudrasaremadehappyandcontented,theBritishGovernmentneedhavenofearfortheirloyaltyinthefuture.

Phulenowturnstowhatthestatemustdotoimproveeducationatdifferentlevels.

Primaryeducation…WithregardtothefewGovernmentprimaryschoolsthatexistinthe

Presidency,Ibegtoobservethattheprimaryeducationimpartedinthemisnotatallplacedonasatisfactoryorsoundbasis.Thesystemisimperfectinsofarasitdoesnotprovepracticalandusefulinthefuturecareerofthepupils.Thesystemiscapableofbeingdevelopeduptotherequirementofthecommunity,ifimprovementsthatwillresultinitsfutureusefulnessbeeffectedinit.Boththeteachingmachineryemployedandthecourseofinstructionnowfollowed,requireathoroughremodelling.

(a)TheteachersnowemployedintheprimaryschoolsarealmostallBrahmins;afewofthemarefromthenormaltrainingcollege,therestbeingalluntrainedmen.Theirsalariesareverylow,seldomexceedingRs.10,andtheirattainmentsalsoverymeagre.Butasaruletheyareallunpracticalmen,andtheboyswholearnunderthemgenerallyimbibeinactivehabitsandtrytoobtain[government]service,totheavoidanceoftheirhereditaryorotherhardyorindependentprofessions.Ithinkteachersforprimaryschoolsshouldbetrained,asfaraspossible,outofthecultivatingclasses,whowillbeabletomixfreelywiththemandunderstandtheirwantsandwishesmuchbetterthanaBrahminteacher,whogenerallyholdshimselfaloofunderreligiousprejudices.Thesewould,moreover,exerciseamorebeneficialinfluenceoverthemassesthanteachersofotherclasses,andwhowillnotfeelashamedtoholdthehandleofaploughorthecarpenter’sadzewhenrequired,andwhowillbeabletomixthemselvesreadilywiththelowerordersofsociety.Thecourseoftrainingforthemoughttoinclude,besidestheordinarysubjects,anelementaryknowledgeofagricultureandsanitation.Theuntrainedteachersshould,exceptwhenthoroughlyefficient,bereplacedbyefficienttrainedteachers.Tosecureabetterclassofteachersandtoimprovetheirposition,bettersalariesshouldbegiven.TheirsalariesshouldnotbelessthanRs.12andinlargervillagesshouldbeatleastRs.15or20.Associatingtheminthevillagepolityasauditorsofvillageaccountsorregistrarsofdeeds,orvillagepostmastersorstampvendors,wouldimprovetheirstatus,andthusexertabeneficialinfluenceoverthepeopleamongwhomtheylive.Theschoolmastersofvillageschoolswhopassalargenumberofboysshouldalsogetsomespecialallowanceotherthantheirpay,asanencouragementtothem.

(b)Thecourseofinstructionshouldconsistofreading,writing…andaccounts,andarudimentaryknowledgeofgeneralhistory,generalgeography,andgrammar,alsoanelementaryknowledgeofagricultureandafewlessonsonmoraldutiesandsanitation.Thestudiesinthevillageschoolsmightbefewerthanthoseinlargervillagesandtowns,butnotthelesspractical.Inconnectionwithlessonsinagriculture,asmallmodelfarm,wherepracticalinstructiontothepupilscanbegiven,wouldbeadecidedadvantageand,ifreallyefficientlymanaged,wouldbeproductiveofthegreatestgoodtothecountry.Thetext-booksinuse…requirerevisionandrecastingasmuchastheyarenotpracticalorprogressiveintheirscope.Lessonsontechnicaleducationandmorality,sanitationandagriculture,and

someusefularts,shouldbeinterspersedamongtheminprogressiveseries…(c)Thesupervisingagencyovertheseprimaryschoolsisalsoverydefectiveandinsufficient.The

DeputyInspector’svisitonceayearcanhardlybeofanyappreciablebenefit.Alltheseschoolsoughtatleasttobeinspectedquarterlyifnotoftener.Iwouldalsosuggesttheadvisabilityofvisitingtheseschoolsatothertimesandwithoutanyintimationbeinggiven.Noreliancecanbeplacedonthedistrictorvillageofficersowingtothemultifariousdutiesdevolvingonthem,astheyseldomfindtimetovisitthem,andwhentheydo,theirexaminationisnecessarilyverysuperficialandimperfect.[A]EuropeanInspector’ssupervisionisalsooccasionallyverydesirable,asitwilltendtoexerciseaveryefficientcontrolovertheteachersgenerally.

(d)Thenumberofprimaryschoolsshouldbeincreased—1)Byutilizingsuchoftheindigenousschoolsasshallbeorareconductedbytrainedandcertificatedteachers,bygivingthemliberalgrants-in-aid.2)Bymakingoveronehalfofthelocalcessfundforprimaryeducationalone.3)Bycompelling,underastatutoryenactment,municipalitiestomaintainalltheprimaryschoolswithintheirrespectivelimits.4)Byanadequategrantfromtheprovincialorimperialfunds…

HighereducationThecryoverthewholecountryhasbeenforsometimepastthatGovernment

haveamplyprovidedforhighereducation,whereasthatofthemasseshasbeenneglected.Tosomeextentthiscryisjustified,althoughtheclassesdirectlybenefitedbythehighereducationmaynotreadilyadmitit.Butforallthisnowell-wisherofhiscountrywoulddesirethatGovernmentshould,atthepresenttime,withdrawitsaidfromhighereducation.Allthattheywouldwishis,thatasoneclassofthebodypolitichasbeenneglected,itsadvancementshouldformasanxiousaconcernasthatoftheother.EducationinIndiaisstillinitsinfancy.AnywithdrawalofStateaidfromhighereducationcannotbutbeinjurioustothespreadofeducationgenerally.

Atasteofeducationamongthehigherandwealthyclasses,suchastheBrahminsandPurbhoos,especiallythoseclasseswholivebythepen,hasbeencreated,andagradualwithdrawalofStateaidmaybepossiblesofarastheseclassesareconcerned;butinthemiddleandlowerclasses,amongwhomhighereducationhasmadenoperceptibleprogress,suchawithdrawalwouldbeagreathardship.Intheeventofsuchwithdrawal,boyswillbeobligedtohaverecoursetoinefficientandsectarianschools,muchagainsttheirwish,andthecauseofeducationcannotbutsuffer.Norcouldanypartofsucheducationbeentrustedtoprivateagency.Foralongtimetocometheentireeducationalmachinery,bothministerialandexecutive,mustbeinthehandsofGovernment.BoththehigherandprimaryeducationrequireallthefosteringcareandattentionwhichGovernmentcanbestowonit.

ThewithdrawalofGovernmentfromschoolsorcollegeswouldnotonlytendtocheckthespreadofeducation,butwouldseriouslyendangerthatspiritof

neutralitywhichhasallalongbeentheaimofGovernmenttofoster,owingtothedifferentnationalitiesandreligiouscreedsprevalentinIndia.Thiswithdrawalmay,toacertainextent,createaspiritofself-relianceforlocalpurposesinthehigherandwealthyclasses,butthecauseofeducationwouldbesofarinjuredthatthespiritofself-reliancewouldtakeyearstoremedythatevil…

Withregardtothequestionastoeducatednativesfindingremunerativeemployments,itwillberememberedthattheeducatednativeswhomostlybelongtotheBrahminicalandotherhigherclassesaremostlyfondofservice.Butasthepublicservicecanaffordnofieldforalltheeducatednativeswhocomeoutfromschoolsandcolleges,andmoreoverthecourseoftrainingtheyreceivebeingnotofatechnicalorpracticalnature,theyfindgreatdifficultyinbetakingthemselvestoothermanualorremunerativeemployments.Hencethecrythatthemarketisoverstockedwitheducatednativeswhodonotfindanyremunerativeemployment.Itmay,toacertainextent,betruethatsomeoftheprofessionsareoverstocked,butthisdoesnotshowthatthereisnototherremunerativeemploymenttowhichtheycanbetakethemselves.Thepresentnumberofeducatedmenisverysmallinrelationtothecountryatlarge,andwetrustthatthedaymaynotbefardistantwhenweshallhavethepresentnumbermultipliedahundred-fold,andallbetakingthemselvestousefulandremunerativeoccupationsandnotbelookingafter[government]service.

Inconclusion,IbegtorequesttheEducationCommissiontobekindenoughtosanctionmeasureforthespreadoffemaleprimaryeducationonamoreliberalscale.

PoonaJoteeraoGovindraoPhooley,19thOctober1882MerchantandCultivatorandMunicipalCommissioner,PethJoonaGanja

TheConditionofthePeasantryIn1883PhulewroteShetkaryachaAsud(TheCultivator’sWhipcord),a

powerfulandstillresonantdescriptionoftheplightandpovertyofthemajorityofIndianswhowereagriculturists.Thisisacontinuoussagaofwoe,thestreamofconsciousnessstyleandthelackofparagraphsheighteningtheintensityandimpact.Ipresentthreeexcerptsfromarecenttranslationofthebook.Thefirstexcerptisanaccountofthedailylifeandtroublesofthepeasant.3

OnedayafarmerwaswalkingtowardshisvillagefromtheCollector’s4tentinthebreezymangrovebesidetheriver,stridinginangerandgrindinghisteeth.Heseemedaboutfortyandalittledemoralised.Hehadawhitetwistedturbanonhishead,whichwastieddownwithacloth,hewaswearingadoublehalf-shirtmadeofkhadiandoldcurledSataraboots…Thebootheelswerestrongandthick,buthewaswalkingalittleoddlybecausetheyhaddevelopedcracksinafewplaces.Hehadabeardandmoustache,whichwerehidinghisfrontteeth.Theforeheadandeyeswerelargeandthepupilsweregrey.Hewasfairandreasonablypleasanttolookat.Thefacewasalittleroundedthough.Afterreachinghomearoundtwointheafternoon,hewenttothekitchenandtakingasheetoffthepeg,hespreaditonthegroundandwitharolledupblanketunderhishead,laydowntosleep,coveringhisfacewithahandkerchief.Buthecouldnotsleep,thinkingofhismeetingwiththeCollector—‘Hewasstillbusywithhisbreakfastandtea,andhedidnotlistentothetruththatIwastellinghim,anddidnotallowmetopaymyinstalmentlater.’Hecouldnotsleep,andputtinghishandsonhischest,asifalittlecrazed,hestartedtalkingtohimselfthus:

‘Unlikeothervillagers,Ihavenotwarmedthehandsofthebhat[upper-caste]servantsandsotheyhavespokentothewhiteofficeranddoubledmytax,andinthesameyeartherainwasindifferentandmyfieldsandgardenswereburntout,andthensuddenlyFatherdied.Therewerealotofexpensesfortherituals.Sointhefirstyear,Iassuredthegarden-plottotheBrahmanmoneylender,registereditinhisnameaswell,forthemoneytopaythetaxeswith.Laterhecalculatedtheinterest,doublingandtriplingit,andtookovermygarden-plot.Themoneylender’suncleisaclerkintherevenueoffice,hiscousinistheCollector’ssecretary,hisbrother-in-lawisthemunsifandhisfather-in-lawthetaluk’spoliceofficer,andmoreover,mostofthepeopleinthegovernmentofficesarehiscasterelations,soifIhadarguedwithhim,theywouldhavetroubledmenoendandreducedmetoadrysummer,onthesmallestexcuses.Thusinthesecondyear,Isoldoffthefewornamentswomenofmyhousehad

ontheirbodiesandputallthatmoneyintopayingthetaxesandlaterborrowedmoneyeveryyearfromGujar[ati]andMarwadi5moneylenderstopayforthat.Nowtheyhavefiledsuitsagainstme,whichhavebeenlyinginthecourtforsomanyyears.Ihavepaidsomuchinbribestothecourtofficers,peons,scribes,lawyersandall,thatIamattheendofmytether.Nowsometimesonefindsgovernmentservantswhodonottakebribes,buttheyareevenmoreuselessthanthosewhodo,becausetheyarenonchalantanddonotcareaboutthepoorfarmeratall,andthecleverlawyerstakemoneyfromus,inthenameoftheseservantsandputthebiteonusregularly.Andifwedonotdothatthenwehavetoaccepttheorderssecuredbythemoneylenders.Nownomoneylenderletsmestandathisdoor!Ipaidoffthetaxinstalmentslastyearwithmynewly-marriedelderdaughter’sornamentsandnowherfather-in-lawdoesnotletherliveinhishouse.Oh,howunfortunateIamthatIsoldoffherornamentstoavoidacalamityandruinedhermarriageintheprocess!Andnow,howdoIpaythisyear’stax?Thereisnomoneytobuynewmot,6theoldonesaretornandthesugarcaneisdryingup.Thecornhasalsogonetowaste.Thecattle-feedisabouttofinish,asisallthedriedgrassandfodder.Thebullocksareweakbecausetheydonotgetenoughtoeat.Thewomen’sclothesareintattersandtheyareforcedtowearancientbedsheetsboughtformarriage.Thechildrenhavetogoabouthalf-nakedandfeelashamedofmeetingpeople.Becausethegraininthehouseisnearlyover,wearesurvivingonsweetradishes.Idonothaveenoughmoneytofeedourmotherwithgoodfoodasshepreparestodie.WhatshallIdo?HowwillIbeabletotillthelandifIsellthebullock?IcannotthinkofstartingabusinessbecauseIcannotreadorwriteatall.IfIleavemyprovinceandgotoalienplaces,Ihavenoskillwhichwillhelpmefillmybelly.IfIswallowapotionmadeofroots,theablechildrenmightbeabletosurvivesomehow,butwhowilllookaftertheoldwomanandalongwithmylittleones,lookaftermywife?Atwhosedoorscantheyknockiftheyneedhelp?Wherewilltheybeg?’Thusfinallysighing,hefellasleepweeping.LaterwhenIcomeout,wipingmytearsandlookaround,Iseethathishouseissingle-storeyedandtile-roofed.Besidethehouse,thereisacoveredshedforcattle.Therearetwoorthreebullocks,oldandruminatingandafewlargeemptycontainersarepushedintoacornerandoutside,inthecourtyard,therestandsanoldcartforeightbullocks.Onit,thereisabrokenbasket.Ontheleft,asquareplatformismade…andbesideit,thereisplaceforstoringwaterandonthatthereareafewclaypotsfilledwithwaterandbesideit,thereisacrudelytiledbathingplace,withahalf-wallonthreesides.Outsideit,waterhascollectedinasmallditchanditisfilled

withinsectsandworms.Beyond,underthewhitechafatree,thereareafewchildrendancing,half-naked,withallmannerofstainsontheirbodies,nosesrunning,sweatingandstinking,playingwithlumpsofmud.Oneofthemisplayingatbeingashopkeeper,withankletsofseedsonherfeet,pretendingtosellarrack[countryliquor].Manyofthechildrengivingherpebblesandseedsascoins…areshufflingabout,fallingoneachother,pretendingtobedrunk.Behindthehousestandsacattleshedmadewithwoodenbeamsandpillars.Initliesabuffalowhohasjustcalvedandawretchedmare.Thereareallmannerofinsectsstickingtothewalls.Inthecracksoftheroofknotsofhairarestuckallover,collectedfromtheheadwhilecombing.Besidethis,isachicken-run…Thereisawaste-heapbeyondandlargegreenfliesarebuzzingoveritbecauselittlechildrenhavebeenshittingthere.Besidethat,becausetheheapsofgrassandfodderarefinished,liesmallheapsofleaves.Intheothercornercow-patsarestacked,besideit,underthetree,therearebrokenimplementslyingaboutandavilayatidhatturagrowsunderthem,andamangybitchwho’sjustlitteredliesthere,growlingatpassers-by.Besideitliesaheapofwastefodder,andintheremainingareasitsayoungishwoman,withherbacktothehouse,arrangingcow-pats.Sheisuptoherkneesinthedung,poundingitwithherfeet.Inthekitchenitselfthereisunevenflooringandoneseesthewastefromgrindingandcleaningandcleanedvegetableslyingabouthereandthere.Hereisaheapofpiththrownabout,andthereaheapofrottingonions.Astalestinkrisesfromthem.Inthemiddle,anancientwomanislyingonasheet,groaning.Besideherheadliesaplateoffood—abowlofcrushedbhakrisoftenedintheliquidofthedal,and[a]jugofwater.Inthecradlealittlebabyisweepingloudly.Besidesallthis,atplacesonefindsalineofachild’spiss,atsomeotherplaceapatchofwhiteashwhereachild’sturdhasbeencleanedup.Severalcornersofthehouseareredanddarkfromtobaccospit.Inonecornersitsalargegrinder,tobedrawnbythreeorfourwomen,inanotherthereisalargemortarandpestleandinthecornernearthedoorunderthebroom,allthedirtpushedthereaftersweepingthefloor,andontop,aragwhichwasusedtocleanababy’sarse.Therebesidethecookingfirestandsadirtyfryingpanandthemilkpot.Besideit,thecathascoveredupitsshitwithash.Thewallsarecoveredwithstainsleftfromsquishingbugsandinsectsonthem,andfingerswipingoffsnot.Inasmallcabinetistheoilpot,toothpowder,ahorncomb,aricketymirror,andonaledgethreeorfourstonelampsarestackedforthenight.Anoilstainspreadsfromthemontotheground.Maybeonceinayearallthegreaseisscrapedaway.Inanothercabinetbesidetheflourbasketareplacedpiecesofstalebhakri,ina

thirdcabinettherearegreenchillies,garlic,coriander,andbasketsofmangoes,onwhichflieseatfromonesideandexcretefromtheother.Andinthefourthstandsaheapofoldandtornfootwear.Aflintstoneliesbesidethem.Oldandwornbedsheetshangfromonepeg,andonanother,bedcovers…Ifyoulookupyoucanseethatthetilesoftheroofhavenotbeenchangedforthreeorfouryears,andwithgrassropesratshavemadeholesinit.Therearenowindowsorventilatorsofanykindanywhereinthewholehousetoletinfreshair.Thebeamsandcornersandsupportsandpillarsaretarredwithblacksmoke,andinmostemptyspacesspidershave[woven]mostartisticanddelicatewebs,likemosquitonets,onwhichathousandbabyspidersareplaying.Ontheundergirdoftheroof,onthebeams,onpillarsthepoisonousshellsofinsectsandspidersaresticking,andespeciallyonwoodenspacesthereareheapsofdustmixedwithratshitandcockroachshitandforyearsabroomhasnottouchedthemforlackoftime.Suddenly,thekindofduststormwhichrisesbecauseoftheheatbeforethesummerrains,sweptthroughthehouse,andasthedustroseandfilledthehousewiththewindstreaminginthroughthegapsintherooftiles,thepoisonousdustfilledthesnoringfarmer’sopenmouth,andhewokeupcoughing.Thepoisonouscoughsotroubledhimthathenearlyfaintedandhestartedmoaningandthrashingabout.Hissickoldmothersomehowmanagedtostumbleuptohim,andputtingablanketrollunderhishead,cuppinghischin,staringintohiseyes,said,‘Ohlord!,pleaseopenyoureyes.SomanytimeshaveIgivenmoneyto[God]sothat[theDevil]shouldnotharmyou,andthattoosometimeswithoutyourknowledge,sellingoffgrain,andhavemadetheBrahmansitwithhisrosaryinfrontof[thedeity]andfedsomanybrahmanwomen!!Dearchild,somanytimeshaveIspentmoneywithouttellingyousothatthegodswillbepleasedwithyou.WhydidnotthatgodspeakthroughtheCollector’smouthtoday,andallowyoutopaythetaxesininstalments?…Oyoucunningbrahmans,fromtheverybirthofmydearchildyouhavethreatenedmewithill-favouredstarsandtakenmoneyfromme,whereisallthevirtuethatyoucollected?O,youhavecheatedmesomuchinthenameofdharmathatwiththatmoneyIcouldhavesavedmychild’sneck!…

Phulenowturnsfromethnographytosocialcritique,fromdescribingtheplightofthefarmertoanalysingitscauses.

Nowletusturntothepresentconditionofthefarmer.Sinceourgenerousandkindgovernmentbegantoruleinthisbrahmanicnation,theyhavestartedkillingbullocksandcowsandcalves,withoutanyproperritual,andhavestartedeatingthem…Oneoftheimportantresourcesofthefarmerisdiminishing.On

topofthat,becauseofthelackofraintherewasadrought,andthecattleweredestroyedbylackoffodder.Secondly,becauseoftherulesoftheForestDepartmentandtheinadequacyofpastures,thecattlecouldnotbefed,theiroff-springbecameweakandcattlewasseizedbydiseases,andthousandsdied,andthefarmershadtouproottheirpegs.Next,becausetherewasnotenoughcattletolabourontheirfarms,thefarmercouldnottakepropercareofhisfields,andtheyieldhasdecreased.Moreover,ourcunninggovernment,throughitsbrahmanemployees,hascarriedoutsurveyseverythirtyyearsandhaveestablishedleviesandtaxesastheywilled,andthefarmer,losinghiscourage,hasnotproperlytilledhislands,andthereforemillionsoffarmershavenotbeenabletofeedthemselvesorcoverthemselves.Asthefarmersweakenedfurtherbecauseofthis,theystarteddyingbythethousandsinepidemics.Therewasdroughttoaddtothemisery,andthousandsoffarmersdiedofstarvation,butinspiteofallthis,theirnumbersdidincrease,andthatledtothetillingofthesamelandsinincreasingproportion,andthelandscouldnotberested.Sotheyieldofthelandsdecreased.Moreover,everyyearvastamountsofgrain,cotton,leather,woolwerebeingexportedtoaliencountries,andbecauseoftheinadequateinformationorbecauseoftheirownroughnatureitself,thewhiteengineersanddoctorsandemployeeswastedlargeamountsofmanureintothesea,andnowmostofthelandsareclosetobeingfallow.O,theseforeignwhiteengineers,incahootswithwhitedoctorsdeviseschemestomakemoney,andsellthegoodsmanufacturedbycraftsmenfromtheirowncountries,wasteunlimitedamountsoflocalpeople’smoney,andthenmakesurethattherearebuildingsnamedafterthem.Laterifallthelocalcitizensareruinedalongwiththesebuildings,whyshouldtheycare?Havingmademoneyandacquiredfame,theyaredone.Sometimesitdoesnotrainoneyearandthereisnotenoughcrop.Sometimesbecausetherearenotenoughbullocks,thecropsuffers.Sometimesbecausethemoneylenderdoesnotlendmoneyintimetobuyfreshseedsorsometimesbecausethefarmerusesseedsboughtlastyear,thecropsuffers.Iffortheseheavenlyorearthlyreasons,thefarmerdoesnotgetasufficientyield,andgoesalonetothebrahmanemployee’shousetotellhimofhisconditionandofhiscrops,hefindsthebrahman,newlybathed,sittingwithstripesofholyashonhisbody,envelopedinincense-smoke,engrossedinworship,someother[brahman]sittingwithanoldanddirtybook,readingit,andsomeoneelsecountingthebeads,whilethinkingofwomen.Hearinghisfootsteps,withoutopeninghiseyesthebrahmanasks,‘Whoisit?’Farmer:‘Mylordit’sme,afarmer.’Brahman:‘Whyhaveyoucomeatthisholyhour?Ifyouhavebroughtvegetablesandstuff,

handitininside,withouttouchingthechildren.Cometotheofficeintheafternoonandmakeanapplicationinyourname,thenIwilltalktotheofficermyself.Nowgo.’ThenthefarmerturnsandwalksstraighttotheCollector’stentinthemangrove,andsalutingthebutlers,thejamadar[sergeant]andthesepoy,andstandingatadistancefromthetent-door,whatheseesisthatsomewhiteofficerdressedinaMughalmanner,withavelvetcarpetunderhisfeet,bathedinlavenderperfume,isbusyeating,someotherislyingfacedownonacouchandisbusyreadingrosydescriptionsinabookandisthereforedisinterested,sothesepoysrudelyturnthefarmerbackandhecannoteventellhiswoesandplaintstothewhiteofficers.Thereforethereisnotanymannerinwhichthefarmercanconveyhisconditiontothewhiteofficers,whoareinuredintheircustomaryluxury,status,attendants;ortoblackofficerswhoareengrossedintheirwealth,theirhighercasteandcolour,andtheirritualsofpurity(neitheristhereanyinteractionbetweenthewomenandchildrenofwhiteandblackofficersandtheignorantwomenandchildrenofthefarmers’housestoestablishacommunication).Boththeseofficersaresocompletelydifferentfromthefarmer,andsuchalienpeoplewillsurveythefarmer’slands,andgivehimrelief?Orhowelse?…Letthatbe.Butwhentheignorantfarmerborrowsmoneytopaythetaxes,thesebrahmansdressupasbhats[priests]andblockinghispath,givehimallmannerofblessingsandsurelyextractsomemoneyfromhim.Ifthereistimelyrainfall,andthefarmergetsareasonablecrop,sincethecowardlyemployeesofourbravegovernmenthavedisalloweduseoffirearmsandotherweaponstothefarmer,hecannotprotecthiscropfromwildboarandpigs.Oftheremainingcrop,thebrahman,theMarwadimoneylenders,Gujaratitradersandbrokersfromothercasteskeepaneyeonthecropandgrabwhatevertheycanofit.Notonlythis,buteventheGujaratibrahmancooksintraders’householdshavestartedclaimingsomeamountofjaggery.Letthatbe.Eventuallywhenthefarmerreturnsfromthemarketandentersthetowngate,afewhoodlumsandthepatil[headman]demandtobegivendrink,andifhedoesnot,thenwecanbesurethatafterafewdays,hewillreceiveasummonsofsomekindorother.Whatajustkingdomthisis,wealthyinknowledge!Butinthisjustkingdom,therewasatimewhenitwaspossibletotravelfromthesouthernmostpointtothenorthernmost,carryinggold,withoutbeingchallenged.Butatpresent,thegoddessofwealthcannotfindfoodandclothesinthehousesofthefarmer,deprivedofeducationandclothes,andhasthereforegoneawaytoherfather,theocean,andbeyondtheseas,theEnglishpeoplehaveshedlaziness,followingherwishes,andhavebecomeindustriousandhard

working,andhavestartedtreatingallwomenyoungandoldwithequality,soshehasnotbecomeadomesticservantintheirhouses.Andnoweventhoughtheyspeaksweetlytoallthefarmers,andcollectmoneyastheywill,theyavoideducatingthefarmer.Themainreasonbehindthismustbethattheyrealizethatthemomentthefarmereducateshimselfandacquiresknowledge,hewillcarryhiswhiponhisshoulder,andhewillbringthegoddessofwealthbacktohisownhome,andmakeherstaytherehappily.Becauseifthiseverhappens,theEnglishwillhavetoscreamandyell,andtraveltoAmerica,andsomehowmanagetofilltheirbelliesbyworkingharddayandnight…

Phuleendshistractwithapositiveagendaforagrarianreform,addressedtothehighestofficialsoftheBritishRaj.

NowIwillgotothecoolmountainsof[theimperialsummercapital]Simla,andrestingthereforsometime,Iwillcalluponourgovernmentbeyondtheseas,andinthepresenceofoursupremelykindGovernor,suggestmeasuresforimprovingthefarmers’condition:

Nowourgoodandlaw-abidinggovernmentshouldkeepasidethegreedofmoneyandappointdetectivedoctorstokeepaneyeonthefarmer’sbehaviour,andifthefarmermisbehavesandloseshishealth,orbeginstostealanddoothersinfulthings,thenarrangementsmustbemadeforproperpunishment,withoutthattheywillnotbecomemoral.Unlesslawsarepassedforbiddingthefarmerfrommarryingmorethanonewomanandforbiddinghimfrommarryinghischildrenatanearlyage,theiroff-springwillnotturnoutstrong.Becausethewhiteemployeesareillinformedthereisadisproportionatenumberofbhatbrahmansappointed,andthereforetheydonothavetoslaveinthefarms,andtheirwomendonothavetofilltheirbelliesbyfrequentingthemarketwithproduce.Moreover,becausethefarmerisignorant,thebhatbrahmansbenefitimmenselyfromcastedistinctionsandhierarchies.Thusthebrahmans,employedingovernmentjobs,andthemythologists,storytellers,teachersinschoolsstrivedayandnight,usingalltheircunning,topreventthebreakdownofthesedistinctionsandhierarchies.Thereforeuntilthefarmers’childrenbecomeableenoughtomanagepositionsingovernment,notmorethantheproportionatenumberofbrahmansshouldbeemployedingovernmentjobs,andtheremainingpostsshouldbegiventoMussalmanor[non-brahman]HinduorBritons.Itisonlythenthatthey[thebrahmans]willstopobstructingtheeducationofthefarmer.This,theirartifice,hasbecomeinvisibletowhiteeyesbecauseinmostgovernmentdepartments,itisthebrahmanswhoareemployed.Thusthebrahmancastebecomesmoreandmoreeducated,andwealthy,whereasthe

farmerbecomespoorerandeventuallypauperised,andsometimestakespartinthebrahman’srebellionsandloseshislife.Moreoverthebrahmanshavesoimpressedtheircunningreligiononthemindsofthefarmersthattheythinkitvirtuoustopleadguiltyformurdersthattheyhavecommittedonthesayofthebrahmans.ThiswastestheenergiesandlabourofthepoliceandtheJusticeDepartment.Thereforeinordertoeducatethefarmers’children,thereshouldbeteachersfromtheirowncastes,whocanholdtheploughproperly,weedthefarmanddootherthingsaswell.Alawshouldbemadewhichwillensurethatchildrenaresenttotheschoolsrunbysuchteachers,andforthefirstfewyears,somelowerandeasierdivisionsshouldbecreated,enticingthemwithdegreesequaltothoseofbrahmans,andunlessothercastesarepreventedfromforcingthefarmertoperformritualsintheirmarriages,thefarmers’childrenwillnotbeinterestedineducation…Andwhentherearesucheducatedandqualifiedpatils[headmen]inallvillages,thecunningbhatkulkarnis[Brahminaccountants]willnotbeabletomakethefarmersfightamongstthemselvesandfilecasesagainsteachother,andthatwillbenefitourgovernmentimmensely,sinceinashorttimethefarmerwillbeabletopaymoretaxthannow,andtheunjustifiableswellingsinthepoliceandjusticedepartmentscanthenbereduced.Also,thegovernmentshouldforatimebelievethattherearenobhatbrahmanstobeemployed,andascapablepeoplecomeupfromamongstthefarmers,theyshouldbeemployed…inothergovernmentofficesinbigandsmallpositions,andtrainedtodothesejobs.Untilthishappens,thefarmers’feetwillnotfindtheground,andthegovernment’srevenuewillneverincrease…

Letthatbe.NowIwillsuggestmeasuresforimprovingthelandsofthefarmer,whichareincreasinglybecomefallow—

Thebenevolentgovernmentshouldeducateallthefarmers,anduntiltheybecomematureenoughtousemachinestodotheusualthingsonthefarmslikeEuropeanfarmers,allthewhitepeopleandtheMussalmansshouldslaughtergoatsandsheepinsteadofslaughteringcowsandoxen;ortheyshouldimportcattleandslaughterandeatthemhere,becauseotherwisetherewillnotbesufficientsupplyofcattleforthefarms,andtherewillnotbeenoughcompostandotherfertilizeraswell,andsoneitherthefarmer,northegovernmentwillbenefit.Theessencesofleaf,grass,flower,deadinsectsandanimals,iswashedawaybysummerrain,thereforeourindustriousgovernmentshould,asandwhenconvenient,usethewhiteandblacksoldiersandtheextramanpowerinthepolicedepartmenttoconstructsmalldamsandbundsinsuchawaythatthiswaterwouldseepintotheground,andonlylatergoandmeetstreamsandrivers.

Thiswouldmakethelandveryfertile,andthesoldiersingeneral,havinggotusedtoworkingin[the]openair,willalsoimprovetheirhealthandbecomestrong.Eveniftheylabourtothevalueofoneannaeveryday,thiswillmeananincreaseinthegovernment’searningstothetuneoftwenty-fivelakh[rupees]peryear,becauseourcarefulgovernmenthas,includingthepolicedepartment,atleasttwolakhsepoys.Similarlythegovernmentshould,inallthehillsandvalleys,buildlakeswhereverpossible,sothatthesmalldamsinthelowerareaswillfillwithwater,andthewellstoowillhaveasupplyofwaterandthelandforfruitandflowerandvegetableswillbeused,andthegovernmenttoowillbenefitalongwiththefarmer.Thereforethegovernmentshouldmaintainthesebundsingoodcondition,especiallyinthebackwaters.Thegovernmentshouldconductsurveysofallthelandsinitsterritory,employingwaterspecialists,andwhereveritisfoundthatthereisenoughwatertobedrawnfrommorethanonesource,theseplacesshouldbeclearlymarkedinthemapsofthetowns,andthegovernmentshouldgivesomeawardstofarmerswhodigwellswithoutitsassistance.Also,thegovernmentshouldallowthefarmertocollectallthesiltandotherthingsextractedfromriversandlakes,asintheoldentimes,anditshouldalsoreturnallthecowpasturestothevillages,whichithasincludedinits‘forest’;itshould,however,makesurethatnofirewoodiscollected,orlandtilledintheareasthatbelongtoit,anditshouldalsoforbidthecuttingofwoodforsellingaswoodforconstructionanddestroytheoppressiveForestDepartment.Ourowngovernmentshould,spendingmoneyfromitsowncoffers,purchasebreedsofgoodsheepfromseveralcountries,bringthemhere,andwhentheyarebredhere,theirdroppingswillmakeforagoodsupplyoffertilizerandtheirwoolwillbenefittheshudrafarmer.Ifthegovernmentdoesnothavethecouragetoallowthefarmertopossessoldgunsinordertoprotecthisfarmsfromwildbeasts,thenthegovernmentshouldassignthatjobtoourcleanblackpolicedepartment,andifafarmer’scropisdevastatedbywildboar,thenthelossshouldbemadeupfromthesalariesoftheseniorofficersorfromthegovernment’scoffers—anduntilsuchalawispassed,thefarmerwillnotbeabletosleeppeacefullyatnightandhewillnotbeabletolabourfullyonhisfarmduringtheday.Ifthegovernmentsincerelywishestoimprovetheconditionoftheignorantshudrafarmer,andincreaseitsownyield,itshouldholdannualtestsandcompetitionsofgreatestyieldandgreatestskill,andgiveawardstothebestfarmers.Calculatingtheyieldaverageeverythreeyears,thebestfarmersshouldbegiventitles,andiftheeducatedchildrenofthefarmer,alongwithgoodmaintenanceoftheirownfarms,alsolearnsomeiron-workandcarpentryand

giveexamsinthosesubjects,thegovernmentshouldtakethemabroad,forthemtoseetheagriculturalschoolsthere,sothatthefarmerwillimmediatelyimprovehisfarmingandbehappy…Ingeneral,theshudraandatishudra[Untouchable]farmerisslavingonhisfarms,alongwithwomenandchildren,dayandnight,untilheisexhausted,andpayingthevarioustaxes,funds,etc.,butourcharitablegovernmentdoesnoteventhinkofeducatingthefarmers’childrenenoughtoenablethemtoreadabookonfarmingorrelevantnoticesinnewspapers,andwhilelakhsoffarmersdonothaveenoughclothandenoughfood,ourgovernmentspendsinordinateamountsofmoneyonthesalariesandpensionsofpeopleinthearmy,thepolice,thejusticedepartments,whoareemployedtoprotectandensurethefarmer’shappinessandsecurity.Whatshouldwesaytothis!!!Ourgovernmentgivespensionsworthhundredsofrupeespermonthtomanyoftheseapplesoftheireyes,whiteandblackemployeeshavingworkedonafatpermonthsalaryofthirtyorthirty-five[rupees].Manyoftheblackandwhiteemployeesbecometooweakandblindtoworkforthegovernment,andcheatingevensomeverygoodEuropeandoctors,managetogetpensions,thewhiteemployeesescapetoEngland,andfromamongsttheblackemployees,manybecomesuddenlyyoung,asifJesusChristhimselfhasrousedthemfromthedead,andpolishingtheirmoustacheswithwaxandblacking,findemploymentinmunicipalitiesorinofficesofbigtradersandearnthousandsofrupees.Ourwatchfulgovernmentshould,withoutchangingthesalariesofanyofthearmycarriagebearers,orconstructionworkers,iron-workers,carpenters,thecasualemployeeetc.,slowlyreducealltheinordinatelyincreasedsalariesofalltheblackandwhiteemployeesandslowlyreducethepensionsaswell.Unlessthethingswrittenabovearethoughtof,thefoundationsofthegovernmentwillnotbestrengthened,andthefarmers’fatedpenurywillnotchange,andthedaysofhisstarvationwillneverend…

ChapterFour

TheLiberalReformerGopalKrishnaGokhale

JotiraoPhule’sSatyashodakSamajwasinpartareactiontothefoundingofthePoonaSarvajanikSabhain1870.Foundedbythescholar,juristandreformerMahadevGovindRanade,thisorganizationstood,asitsnameimplied,fortheinterestsofallpeople,‘sarvajan’.However,itsleadershipwasalmostexclusivelyfromtheBrahmincaste.RanadewasaBrahmin,aswashisremarkableprotégé,GopalKrishnaGokhale.

Gokhalewasbornin1866inavillageincoastalMaharashtra,thesonofapolicesub-inspector.Helearnthislettersinaruralschool,beforeproceedingtotheinlandtownofKolhapur,wherehecompletedhismatriculation.HewasthenadmittedtotheDeccanCollegeinPoona,fromwhereheshiftedtoBombay’sElphinstoneCollege.OnbeingawardedhisBA,hebegantocoachstudents,topaybacktheloanshisfamilyhadincurredtosendhimtocollege.

In1884,twobrilliantyoungBrahminreformers,GopalGaneshAgarkarandBalGangadharTilak,foundedtheDeccanEducationSociety.Thefollowingyear,Gokhalejoinedoneofthesociety’sschoolsasateacher.In1889,RanadeappointedhimeditorofthequarterlyjournalofthePoonaSarvajanikSabha.InthesameyearheattendedhisfirstsessionoftheIndianNationalCongress.ThenextyearGokhalejoinedthefacultyofFergussonCollegeinPoona,whereheworkedforthenexttwodecades,teachingEnglishliterature,mathematicsandpoliticaleconomy.Bynow,hehadacquiredatasteforBritishwritersandthinkers,amongthemEdmundBurkeandJohnStuartMill.

Bythetimehewasinhismid-twenties,GokhalewasaregularfixtureattheannualmeetingsoftheCongress.AttheCalcuttasessionin1890,forexample,hespokeontheinequitiesofthesalttax.In1897,havingjustturnedthirty,GokhalemadethefirstofseveraltripstoLondon,whereheusuallystayedattheNationalLiberalClub.Onthisvisit,hetestifiedtoaRoyalCommissiononpovertyandfaminesinhishomeland.Meanwhile,inaspeechintheseasidetownofHastings,hecomparedtherelationshipbetweenBritainandIndiatothatbetweenagiantandadwarf,where‘everythingwenttothegiantandwhatwasleftwenttothedwarf’.

GokhalewasnowarisingstarinIndianpolitics.HewaselectedtotheBombayLegislativeCouncilin1899,andtoitsall-Indiacounterpart,theImperialCouncil,twoyearslater.Between1902and1906hesimultaneouslyservedasthepresidentofthePoonamunicipality.Allthiswhile,hecontinuedtakingclassesinFergussonCollege.

Asbefittingateacher,Gokhale’sspeecheswererichinfactsandsubtleinargument.Favouritesubjectsincludedtheexcessivetaxburdenonthepeasantry

andtheneedformoreandbetterschoolstoprovidefreeandcompulsoryeducationforallregardlessofcaste,religion,orgender.HedemandedmoreseatsforIndiansintheImperialCouncilandaskedalsothattheannualbudgetoftheGovernmentofIndiabeopenforscrutinyandamendmentinthelightofcriticism.

Meanwhile,throughhisworkfortheCongress,GokhalehadacquaintedhimselfwithdifferentpartsofIndia.HisoutlookwasfurtherbroadenedbyavisittoSouthAfrica,tostudytheconditionoftheIndiandiasporainthatcountry.

In1905GokhalefoundedtheServantsofIndiaSociety,whosemembersdedicatedthemselvestoservingthenation-in-the-making.These‘ServantsofIndia’wererequiredto‘workfortheadvancementofall[Indians],regardlessofcasteorcreed’.HevisitedtheUnitedKingdomagainthesameyear.WhenhespokeatCambridge,ayoungJohnMaynardKeynestoldanIndianfriendthatGokhale‘hasfeeling,butfeelingguidedandcontrolledbythought,andthereisnothinginhimwhichremindsusoftheusualtypeofpoliticalagitators’.Theyear1905endedforGokhalewithhimpresidinginDecemberovertheCongressmeetinginBanaras.

AsaleaderoftheCongress,GokhaletriedhardtoreachouttotheMuslims.Hewaswhollyfreeofsectarianprejudicehimself.However,hewasregardedasexcessivelypro-BritishbymilitantssuchasBalGangadharTilak.Hiswastheclassicalliberaldilemma—toomoderatefortheradicals,yettooextremefortheEstablishment.Oneviceroy,LordHardinge,calledGokhale‘themostdangerousenemyofBritishruleinthiscountry’.

In1914Gokhaleturneddowntheofferofknighthood.Hediedthefollowingyear,notyetfifty.Hehadalreadydoneagreatdealforhiscountry,thenstillacolony,andshownhiscompatriotsmanynewdirections.Summinguphislife’swork,hisbiographerB.R.NandaremarksthatGokhale‘hatedforeignrule,buthedidnotblamealltheillsfromwhichIndiasufferedontheBritish.Hewantedhertoshakeofftheshacklesofsocialandeconomicbackwardnessaswellasofpoliticalsubjection.HewantedtoturntheencounterwiththeRajintoanopportunityforbuildingasecular,modernanddemocraticsociety’.

ElevatingtheDepressedClassesOurfirstexcerptisfromaspeechmadebyGokhaletoameetingofthe

SocialConferenceinDharwadin1903,wherehefocusedontheplightofthelowestcastes,alsoknownastheDepressedClasses.1

Mr.PresidentandGentlemen,thepropositionwhichhasbeenentrustedtomerunsthus:-

ThatthisConferenceholdthatthepresentdegradedconditionofthelowcastesisinitselfandfromthenationalpointofviewunsatisfactory,andisofopinionthateverywell-wisherofthecountryshouldconsiderithisdutytodoallhecantoraisetheirmoralandsocialconditionbytryingtorouseself-respectintheseclassesandplacingfacilitiesforeducationandemploymentwithintheirreach.

Gentlemen,IhopeIamnotgiventotheuseofunnecessarilystronglanguageandyetImustsaythatthisresolutionisnotasstronglywordedasitshouldhavebeen.Theconditionofthelowcastes—itispainfultocallthemlowcastes—isnotonlyunsatisfactoryasthisresolutionsays—itissodeeplydeplorablethatitconstitutesagraveblotonoursocialarrangements;and,further,theattitudeofoureducatedmentowardsthisclassisprofoundlypainfulandhumiliating.Idonotproposetodealwiththissubjectasanantiquarian;Ionlywanttomakeafewgeneralobservationsfromthestandpointofjustice,humanity,andnationalself-interest.Ithinkallfair-mindedpersonswillhavetoadmitthatitisabsolutelymonstrousthataclassofhumanbeings,withbodiessimilartoourown,withbrainsthatcanthinkandwithheartsthatcanfeel,shouldbeperpetuallycondemnedtoalowlifeofutterwretchedness,servitudeandmentalandmoraldegradation,andthatpermanentbarriersshouldbeplacedintheirwaysothatitshouldbeimpossibleforthemevertoovercomethemandimprovetheirlot.Thisisdeeplyrevoltingtooursenseofjustice.Ibelieveonehasonlytoputoneselfmentallyintotheirplacetorealizehowgrievousthisinjusticeis.Wemaytouchacat,wemaytouchadog,wemaytouchanyotheranimal,butthetouchofthesehumanbeingsispollution!Andsocompleteisnowthementaldegradationofthesepeoplethattheythemselvesseenothinginsuchtreatmenttoresent,thattheyacquiesceinitasthoughnothingbetterthanthatwastheirdue.

IrememberaspeechdeliveredsevenoreightyearsagobythelateMr.RanadeinBombay,undertheauspicesoftheHinduUnionClub.ThatwasatimewhenpublicfeelingranhighinIndiaonthesubjectofthetreatmentwhichourpeoplewerereceivinginSouthAfrica.Ourfriend,Mr.Gandhi,hadcomehereonabriefvisitfromSouthAfricaandhewastellingushowourpeople

weretreatedinNatalandCapeColonyandtheTransvaal—howtheywerenotallowedtowalkonfoot-pathsortravelinfirst-classcarriagesontherailway,howtheywerenotadmittedintohotelsandsoforth.Publicfeeling,inconsequence,wasdeeplystirred,andweallfeltthatitwasamockerythatweshouldbecalledBritishsubjects,whenweweretreatedlikethisinGreatBritain’scolonies.Mr.Ranadefeltthisjustaskeenlyasanyoneelse.Hehadbeenanever-failingadviserofMr.Gandhi,andhadcarriedonaregularcorrespondencewithhim.ButitwasMr.Ranade’speculiargreatnessthathealwaysutilizedoccasionsofexcitementtogiveaproperturntothenationalmindandcultivateitssenseofproportion.Andso,wheneveryonewasexpressinghimselfinindignanttermsaboutthetreatmentwhichourcountrymenwerereceivinginSouthAfrica,Mr.Ranadecameforwardtoaskifwehadnosinsofourowntoanswerforinthatdirection.Idonotexactlyrememberthetitleofhisaddress.Ithinkitwas‘Turnthesearch-lightinwards,’orsomesuchthing.ButIrememberthatitwasagreatspeech—oneofthegreatestthatIhaveeverbeenprivilegedtohear.Hebeganincharacteristicfashion,expressingdeepsympathywiththeIndiansinSouthAfricainthestruggletheyweremanfullycarryingon.HerejoicedthatthepeopleofIndiahadawakenedtoasenseofthepositionoftheircountrymenabroad,andhefeltconvincedthatthisawakeningwasasignofthefactthatthedeadbonesinthevalleywereonceagainbecominginstinctwithlife.Butheproceededtoask:-Wasthissympathywiththeoppressedanddown-troddenIndianstobeconfinedtothoseofourcountrymenonlywhohadgoneoutofIndia?Orwasittobegeneralandtobeextendedtoallcaseswheretherewasoppressionandinjustice?Itwaseasy,hesaid,todenounceforeigners,butthosewhodidsowereboundincommonfairnesstolookintothemselvesandseeiftheywereabsolutelyblamelessinthematter.HethendescribedthemannerinwhichmembersoflowcasteweretreatedbyourowncommunityindifferentpartsofIndia.Itwasadescription,whichfilledtheaudiencewithfeelingsofdeepshameandpainandindignation.AndMr.RanadeveryjustlyaskedwhetheritwasforthosewhotoleratedsuchdisgracefuloppressionandinjusticeintheirowncountrytoindulgeinallthatdenunciationofthepeopleofSouthAfrica.Thisquestion,therefore,isinthefirstplaceaquestionofsheerjustice.

Next,asIhavealreadysaid,itisaquestionofhumanity.Itissometimesurgedthatifwehaveourcastes,thepeopleintheWesthavetheirclasses,andafterall,thereisnotmuchdifferencebetweenthetwo.Alittlereflectionwill,however,showthattheanalogyisquitefallacious.TheclassesoftheWestarea

perfectlyelasticinstitution,andnotrigidorcast-ironlikeourcastes.Mr.Chamberlain,whoisthemostmasterfulpersonageintheBritishEmpireto-day,2wasatonetimeashoemakerandthenascrew-maker.Ofcourse,hedidnotmakeshoeshimself,butthatwasthetradebywhichhemademoney.Mr.Chamberlainto-daydineswithRoyalty,andmixeswiththehighestinthelandontermsofabsoluteequality.WillashoemakereverbeabletoriseinIndiainthesocialscaleinasimilarfashion,nomatterhowgiftedbynaturehemightbe?Agreatwriterhassaidthatcastesareeminentlyusefulforthepreservationofsociety,butthattheyareutterlyunsuitedforpurposesofprogress.AndthisIthinkisperfectlytrue.Ifyouwanttostandwhereyouwereathousandyearsago,thesystemofcastesneednotbemodifiedinanymaterialdegree.If,however,youwanttoemergeoutofthesloughinwhichyouhavelongremainedsunk,itwillnotdoforyoutoinsistonarigidadherencetocaste.Moderncivilizationhasacceptedgreaterequalityforallasitswatchword,asagainstprivilegeandexclusiveness,whichweretheroot-ideasoftheoldworld.Andthelargerhumanityofthesedaysrequiresthatweshouldacknowledgeitsclaimsbyseekingtheameliorationofthehelplessconditionofourdown-troddencountrymen.

Finally,gentlemen,thisisaquestionofNationalSelf-interest.Howcanwepossiblyrealizeournationalaspirations,howcanourcountryeverhopetotakeherplaceamongthenationsoftheworld,ifweallowlargenumbersofourcountrymentoremainsunkinignorance,barbarism,anddegradation?Unlessthesemenaregraduallyraisedtoahigherlevel,morallyandintellectually,howcantheypossiblyunderstandourthoughtsorshareourhopesorco-operatewithusinourefforts?Canyounotrealizethatsofarastheworkofnationalelevationisconcerned,theenergy,whichtheseclassesmightbeexpectedtorepresent,issimplyunavailabletous?Iunderstandthatthatgreatthinkerandobserver—SwamiVivekananda—heldthisviewverystrongly.Ithinkthatthereisnotmuchhopeforusasanationunlessthehelpofallclasses,includingthosethatareknownaslowcastes,isforthcomingfortheworkthatliesbeforeus.Moreover,isit,Imayask,consistentwithourownself-respectthatthesemenshouldbekeptoutofourhousesandshutoutfromallsocialintercourseaslongastheyremainwithinthepaleofHinduism,whereasthemomenttheyputonacoatandahatandapairoftrousersandcallthemselvesChristians,wearepreparedtoshakehandswiththemandlookuponthemasquiterespectable?Nosensiblemanwillsaythatthisisasatisfactorystateofthings.Ofcourse,nooneexpectsthattheseclasseswillbeliftedupatoncemorallyandintellectuallytoaposition

ofequalitywiththeirmore-favouredcountrymen.Thisworkisboundtobeslowandcanonlybeachievedbystrenuous

exertionsforgivingthemeducationandfindingforthemhonourableemploymentinlife.And,gentlemen,itseemstomethat,inthepresentstateofIndia,noworkcanbehigherorholierthanthis.Ithinkifthereisonequestionofsocialreformmorethananotherthatshouldstirtheenthusiasmofoureducatedyoungmenandinspirethemwithanunselfishpurpose,itisthisquestionofthedegradedconditionofourlowcastes.Cannotafewmen—fivepercent,fourpercent,three,two,evenonepercent—ofthehundredsandhundredsofgraduatesthattheUniversityturnsouteveryyear,takeituponthemselvestodedicatetheirlivestothissacredworkoftheelevationoflowcastes?Myappealisnottotheoldorthemiddle-aged—thegroovesoftheirlivesarefixed—butIthinkImaywelladdresssuchanappealtotheyoungmembersofourcommunity—tothosewhohavenotyetdecidedupontheirfuturecourseandwhoentertainthenobleaspirationofdevotingtoaworthycausetheeducationwhichtheyhavereceived.Whatthecountryneedsmostatthepresentmomentisaspiritofself-sacrificeonthepartofoureducatedyoungmen,andtheymaytakeitfrommethattheycannotspendtheirlivesinabettercausethanraisingthemoralandintellectualleveloftheseunhappylowcastesandpromotingtheirgeneralwell-being.

OnHindu-MuslimCooperationIn1906theMuslimLeaguewasformedasapartyindependentoftheIndian

NationalCongress.Threeyearslater,theprincipleofseparateelectorateswasconceded,wherebyaproportionofseatsintheLegislativeCouncilweresetasideforMuslimselectedbyotherMuslims.Inthebackgroundofthesepotentiallypolarizingevents,GokhaleurgedforbetterrelationsbetweenHindusandMuslims.TheexcerptsthatfollowarefromareportofaspeechoriginallydeliveredinMarathiinJuly1909.3

…Afterglancingbrieflyatthepasthistoryofthetwocommunitiesandthecontributionsmadebythemtotheprogressoftheworld,Mr.GokhaleproceededtoconsidertheirrespectivepositionsatthepresentdayinIndia.TheMahomedanminority,whowerealittleoverone-fifthofthewholepopulation,wasveryunequallydividedamongthedifferentProvinces.InthePunjabandEastBengaltheyactuallyformedamajorityofthepopulation,beingalittleoverone-halfinthePunjabandaboutthree-fifthsinEastBengal.InBombay,ontheotherhand,theywereonlyone-fifth,inWestBengalbetweenone-fifthandone-sixth,intheUnitedProvincesone-seventh,inMadrasaboutone-sixteenth,andintheCentralProvinceslessthanone-twentieth.ThebulkoftheMahomedansdidnotdifferfromtheHindusinrace,buttheyhadtorememberthatreligionwasamostpowerfulfactorinlifeanditmodifiedandsometimesprofoundlymodifiedracecharacteristics.Innumbers,inwealth,ineducationandpublicspirit,theadvantageatpresentlaywiththeHindus.TheyhadalsosofarcontributedfarmorethantheothercommunitytothepresentnationalawakeninginIndia.Buttheyweregreatlyhamperedbycaste,andbytemperamenttheyweremildandpassive.Ontheotherhand,theMahomedanswereburdenedwithfewerdivisions,theirsocialstructurerestedonamoredemocraticbasis,theyhadmorecohesionamongthem,andtheyweremoreeasilyrousedtoaction.TheworstofthesituationwasthatoverthegreaterpartofIndiathetwocommunitieshadinheritedatraditionofantagonism,which,thoughitmightordinarilyliedormant,brokeforthintoactivityatthesmallestprovocation.Itwasthattraditionthathadtobeovercome.Andthoughtherewerecertainspecialdifficultiesintheirwayandthetaskattimesappearedwell-nighimpossible,itwasnomoreimpossiblethanwhatEuropehadtofaceformorethantwocenturiesinthefierceantagonismbetweenProtestantsandCatholics.Spreadofeducation,awideandefficientperformanceofcivicduties,growthofnationalaspirationsandaquickeningofnationalself-respectinbothcommunitieswereamongtheforceswhichwouldultimatelyovercomethetradition.Theprogress

inthatdirectionwasboundtobeslowandthereweresuretoberepeatedset-backs.Buttheymustbelieveinfinalsuccesswithalltheirwillandpersevereceaselesslyagainstallodds.Itwasacommon-placeofIndianpoliticsthattherecouldbenofutureforIndiaasanation,unlessaspiritofco-operationofasufficientlydurablecharacterwasdevelopedandestablishedbetweenthetwogreatcommunitiesinallpublicmatters.Theycouldnotgetoverthat,nomatterhowangrytheymightbeattimeswithoneanother.Andthoseamongthemwhowishedtodevotethemselvestothepromotionofsuchco-operationhadnochoicesbuttorefrainasfaraspossiblefromjoiningincontroversieslikelytoembittertherelationsbetweenthetwosides,andexercisingforbearanceandself-restraintthemselvestocounselitinothers.ThespeakerwasofopinionthataspecialresponsibilitylayinthematterwiththeHindus,whohadanadvantageovertheothercommunityinregardtothespreadofeducationandwhowerethereforeinabetterpositiontoappreciatetheneedsofagrowingnationality.TheycouldalsodoagreatdealtowardstheestablishmentofbetterrelationsifsomeofthemdevotedthemselvestoeducationalandotherusefulworkamongMahomedansforthespecialbenefitofthatcommunity.Suchworkcouldnotincourseoftimefailtobeappreciated,anditwouldpowerfullyhelpingraduallysubstitutingconfidenceandgoodwillandco-operationinplaceofthepresentdistrustandsuspicionandaloofness.

HavingthusdealtwiththegeneralpositionMr.Gokhaleproceededtoexpresshisviewofthecontroversythathadagitatedthecountryduringthelastsixmonths.Muchoftheexcitement,hesaid,hadbeenduetoamisapprehensionofthecharacterandscopeofthenewreforms.Mr.Gokhalestatedhisownpositionin[the]matterquitefrankly.Hehadallalongbeeninfavourofspecialseparateelectoratesforimportantminoritiesbuthewantedsuchelectoratestoprovidenotthewholeoftherepresentationtowhichthecommunitieswereentitledbutonlysomuchofitaswasnecessarytoredressthedeficienciesandinequalitiesofgeneralelections;andhewantedthesametreatmenttobeextendedtootherimportantminoritiesthanMahomedanswherenecessary.Mr.Gokhaleheldstronglythatinthebestinterestsoftheirpubliclifeandforthefutureoftheirlandtheymustfirsthaveelectionsonaterritorialbasisinwhichallcommunitieswithoutdistinctionofraceorcreedshouldparticipateandthenspecialseparatesupplementaryelectionsshouldbeheldtosecurethefairandadequaterepresentationofsuchimportantminoritiesashadreceivedlessthantheirfullshareinthegeneralelections…

[W]henanyonesaidthathiscommunitywasimportantandshouldreceive

fairandadequaterepresentation,theclaimwasentitledtothesympatheticconsiderationofall.Butwhenanyoneurgedthathiscommunitywasspeciallyimportantandshouldthereforereceiverepresentationinexcessofitsfairshare,theundoubtedandirresistibleimplicationwasthattheothercommunitieswerecomparativelyinferiorandshouldreceivelessthantheirfairshare.Thatwasapositiontowhichnaturallytheothercommunitiescouldnotassent.Britishrulewasbasedonequaltreatmentforallcommunities,andthespeakertrustedthattheGovernmentwouldneverbesoweakastoleanforsupportonanyonecommunityinparticular.ItwasurgedthattheMahomedanshadruledinIndiaforfivecenturies.ItmustnothoweverbeforgottenthattheHindushadruledforcountlesscenturiesbeforethemandevenafterwards,beforetheBritishcameonthescene,theMahomedanpowerhadbeenbrokenanddisplacedovernearlythewholecountrybyarevivalofHindurule.ThenitwassaidthattherewerelargeMahomedanpopulationsinothercountries—someofthemself-governingcountries—andthatinvestedtheMahomedansofIndiawithspecialimportance.Mr.GokhalecouldnotseehowthatmatteredindeterminingtheextentoftherepresentationwhichtheGovernmentofIndiashouldgranttoitsownsubjects,unlessitwasontheassumptionthatintheadministrationofthiscountry,thosewhoseheartwasnotwithIndiaweretohavepreferenceoverthosewhosewas.MoreoverthesamegroundcouldwithequalreasonbeurgedbyIndianChristiansandbyBuddhists.Lastly,asregardsthehighertraditionalloyaltyofMahomedanstoBritishrule,theclaimwasnothistoricallytenable.AndevenduringthelasttwoorthreeyearsMahomedannameshadnotbeenaltogetherabsentfromthelistsofthosespeakersandwritersagainstwhomtheGovernmenthadthoughtitnecessarytoproceed,thoughitmustbeadmittedthatthenumberofsuchnameshadbeenextremelysmall.BeforeconcludingMr.GokhalereferredtothespeechrecentlymadebyHisHighnesstheAgaKhan.Hesaidthathereadportionsofthatspeechwithconsiderableastonishment,andhecouldnothelpregrettingthatsowellinformedandbroad-mindedagentlemanasHisHighnessshouldhavebeenlabouringundersomuchmisapprehension.HisHighnesshadsaidthatunlesslargerconcessionsweremadetotheMahomedans,theHinduswouldbeexultantandtriumphant.AllthatMr.GokhalecouldsayaboutthiswasthatHisHighnesswasevidentlynotintouchwithHindufeelinginthematter.NotonlywastherenodispositionamongtheHindustoexultortofeeltriumphantbuttherewasactuallyasullenfeelingofresentmentthroughoutthecountry,afeelingdailygrowingdeeperandstrongerthattheGovernmenthadnotheldthebalanceevenandthatithadalreadyleanedtoomuchonthe

Mahomedanside.HisHighnesshadfurthersaidthatunlessadditionalconcessionsweremadetoMahomedans,itwouldmeanamonopolyofpoliticalpowertotheHindus.Mr.Gokhalesaidthatherubbedhiseyesashereadthatstatement.SurelytheAgaKhancouldnotbeundertheimpressionthatwhattheGovernmentproposedtodowastohandovertheadministrationofthecountrytoelectedCouncilswithHindumajorityinthem.No,evenwiththeCouncilsreconstitutedasproposedthelastwordwouldstillbewiththeofficials.TheenlargementsoftheCouncilsandtheincreaseintheproportionofelectedmemberswerenodoubtimportantmatters,buttheywerenotsoimportantastoaffordtoanycommunityashadowofanopportunitytoobtainamonopolyofpoliticalpowerinthecountry.Asthespeakerhadoftenpointedout,themostimportantandthevaluablepartofthereformofLegislativeCouncilswasthepowerproposedtobeconferredonmemberstoraisediscussionsonadministrativematters.Thispower,ifwiselyexercised,wouldgraduallygivethecountryanadministrationconductedinthelightofdayandunderthescrutinyofpublicdiscussioninplaceofthepresentadministrationcarriedoninthedarkandbehindthebacksofthepeople.Forthispurposewhatreallymatteredwasthecapacity,thepublicspirit,andthesenseofresponsibilityofthemembers.Howmanymemberswerereturnedbyanyparticularcommunitywasnotofmuchconsequence,andamemberortwomoreorlessonthissideorthatwouldnotmakethesmallestdifferenceinpractice.Mr.GokhaleearnestlytrustedthatGovernmentwouldsoonclosethequestioninadefinitemannerandhewasconfidentthatbeforelongthepresentsorenessoffeelingwoulddisappearandnormalrelationsagainreturnbetweenthetwocommunities.WhenoncethenewCouncilscommencedtoworkitwouldberealizedthattherewasnodemandorscopethereforworkonsectarianlinesandthemanwhoworkedforallwouldfindhisserviceappreciatedbyallcommunities.Controversieslikethepresentwereoccasionallyinevitable,butiftheytookcarenottoemploywordsorexpresssentimentswhichwouldleavesorenessbehind,theymightsucceedinavertingtheinjurywhichotherwisewaslikelytoresulttothebestinterestsoftheirgrowingnationality.Theywereallofthemtrusteesofthoseinterests,andtheworldandtheirownposteritywouldjudgethembythemannerinwhichtheydischargedthattrust.

ACalltoServiceThislastexcerptcomesfromaspeechdeliveredbyGokhaleat

Pachaiyappa’sCollege,Madras,in1904,whereheurgedtheyoungmenintheaudiencetodevotethemselvestosomeformofnationalservice.Typically,heasksthemtoservetheircountrymeningeneralratherthanenrolspecificallyinhisownServantsofIndiaSociety.4

…Gentlemen,itisnownearly20yearssinceIfirstenrolledmyselfasamemberofabodyofmenatPoonawhohadcomeforwardtoundertaketheresponsibilityofspreadinghighereducationamongourcountrymen.Theyhadcomeforwardtotakeupthiswork,becausetheyfeltconvincedthatthefutureofthiscountrywasboundupwiththespreadofhighereducationintheland,andthattheresourcesofnoGovernment,howeverliberallydisposed,couldcopesingle-handedwiththeproblemofpubliceducation.Well,Ithrewinmylotwiththesemen,20yearsago,andalthoughmyactiveparticipationinthatworkhasnowcometoanend,myinterestinthewelfareofstudents,inallthatconcernstheirpresentandfuture,isaswarmasever.Duringthese20yearsofmylife,thegreaterpartofmytimehasbeenspentinthesocietyofstudents.Withthemsomeofmyhappiesthourshavebeenspent.Tothemmybestwork,suchasitwas,wasgiven,andonthemmydearesthopesforthefutureofthislandarebased.Itis,therefore,naturalthatIshouldrejoicewheneverthereisanopportunityformetomeetstudents,andIamsincerelypleasedthatthestudentsofthisCollegeshouldhavegivenmethisopportunitytomeetthem…

Gentlemen,IhopethatthestudentsofthisCollegerealizeadequatelythecharacteroftheworkinwhichtheyareengagedwithinthewallsofthisCollege.ItistruethatourCollegesandUniversities,eventheoldestofthem,arecomparativelyofrecentgrowth,andsothatvenerabletraditionwhichsurroundstheancientseatsoflearningintheWestandwhichexercisessopowerfulaholdonthemindsandimaginationofthestudentsthere—thatvenerabletraditionhasyettogrowroundourinstitutions.ButinonesensetheverynewnessofthisCollegelearningyouseek,marksyouofffromtherestofthepeopleofthisland;marksyouoff,Ihopenotinsympathiesandinterests—thatwouldbeamisfortune—butmarksyouoffasmentowhomaspecialtrustisgiven,marksyouoffaspersonswhohaveenteredanewbrotherhoodwithspecialaimsandaspirationsinlife.Iwantyoutoseethatinproportionasyourealizethis;inthatproportionthepurposewhichthosegreatpersonswhointroducedWesterneducationinthiscountryhadinview,wouldbeaccomplished.

InonerespectIthinkitisbesttomakeanadmissionatonce.Oneofthefirst

objectsoftheUniversitiesallovertheworldistoproduceaclassofmenwhowoulddevotethemselvestoresearchandscholarshiponthehighestplane.Ifearthisisnotpossibleinthiscountry,atanyratenotpossibleonalargescaleforsometimetocome.Inthefirstplacetheatmospheremustcomeintoexistenceonlyslowly.Thenourmendonotenjoythoseopportunitiesoflearnedleisurewhicharenecessaryforsuchworktobedone.Further,thosematerialequipmentsthatareessentialintheshapeoflibrariesandlaboratoriesarehereofthepoorest.Youcannot,therefore,expectmuchworkonthishighestplaneinthiscountryforsometimetocome,andthatshouldbeadmittedatonce.

Thereis,however,otherworkperhapsnotsodignifiedinappearance,butnotlessusefulfortheimmediatewelfareofthecountry,thatcanbedonebyoureducatedmen.Youcanrecognizethiseducationasanewfactorinyourlife,asanennoblinginfluenceunderwhichyouhavenowplacedyourself.AndthatmeansthatyourstudiesshouldnotendwhenyourCollegecareerisover.Forifthisinfluenceisrecognizedbyyouasanennoblinginfluence,youcanneverhavetoomuchofit.ItisareproachthatissometimesjustlyurgedagainstyouthatyourstudiesendwithyourCollegecareer,andthisreproachyoumusttrytowipeaway.Andifyoudothat,youwillattainahighermeasureofculture,ahigherdegreeofrefinementandyouwillhavequalifiedyourselvesbetterevenfortheordinarydutiesoflifethanifyougiveupyourstudiesthemomentyouleaveyourCollege.Thisisoneofthedirectionsinwhichallcantakeadvantageoffacilitiesthatareplacedattheirdisposalthoughyoumaynotbeabletodomuchworkonthehighestplane.

Inotherdirectionstooyoumaymakeyourselvesuseful.Thereisthecallofdutyonallsides,whicheverwayweturn.Thereisagreatdealofworktobedoneinthisancientland.Idonotstandheretopreachonesetofviewsinpreferencetoanother,butIsimplypointouttheresponsibilitiesthatlieonyou.Youwillsoonbesurroundedbydutiesofapressingcharacter.Thereisworktobedoneforthemassofyourcountrymenwhoareplungedinignoranceandsuperstition.Thismasshasbeenkeptatalowerlevelofexistence,fromwhichlevelithasgottoberaised.Thenthereisworktobedonefortheelevationofthestatusofthewomankindoftheland.Awholesexshutoutfromtheintellectuallifeofapeople—thisisnotgoodforanycountry.Inreligionmanyoftheoldinstitutionsareexistingonlyinformandthespiritseemstohavefledfromthem.Youhavegottorecognizethatthereisworktobedoneinthatdirectionaswell.Further,thewholecountryisonalowlevelinregardtopoliticalexistenceandthatmeansarduousworkforthosewhointerest

themselvesinthatquestion.Lastly,theindustrialdevelopmentofthecountryneedstobeurgentlyattendedto.Inallthesedirectionsthereisworktobedone.Itistruethatitisnoteveryonewhocanundertakesuchwork,butafairproportionmightbereasonablyexpectedtotakesomeinterestinthisworkinoneoranotherofthevariousfieldsthatIhavementioned.ThisisthecallofthedutywhichyouwillhavetorecognizewhenyouleaveCollegeandtakeyourplaceinlife.

Evenifyouareunabletodoanythingdistinctiveinthisconnection,thereisoneotherdirectioninwhichyoucanallshowyourselvesworthyoftheeducationyouhavereceived.Eachoneofyoucandoyourdutyallthebetterfortheeducationyouhavereceived,canshowthatyourecognizetheresponsibilitiesthatdevolveuponyoubetteronaccountoftheeducationthatyouhavereceived.Manyofusareapttoimaginethatthosewholoomlargelyintheeyesofthepublicaretheonlyonesthatleadreallyusefullives.Wesometimestalkandwriteasthoughonlyoneortwoindividualswerereallydoingusefulworkandtherestonlyvegetating.Itis,however,amistaketothinkso.Anation’struegreatnessdependsuponitsaveragemanandwoman.

SevenyearsagoIwasprivilegedtogotoEngland.Therewere,ofcourse,greatstatesmen,greatgeneralsandmenofgreatlearning,menofgreatwealthbutwhatstruckmemostwasthatthegreatnessofEnglandwasduetothefactthattheaveragemenandwomenthereledmoreearnestlives,recognizedtheirresponsibilitiesbetterthanwedo,endeavouredtoprovemoreserviceabletosocietythanisthecasehere.Itisinthelife,thoughtsandactionsoftheaveragemanandwomanthatthesolidstrengthofanationreallylies.Youmaynotbeprivilegedtomakeanylargecontributiontotheworld’sknowledgebyresearchandscholarship,buteveryoneofyoucanleadbetter,moreearnestlivesonaccountoftheeducationyouhavereceived.Ifyoudothatinyourownpersons,youwillhavesetahighexampletothosewhocomeafteryou,andyouwillalsohavelargelyaddedtothemoralenergyofthenation.Ithereforeaskyoutorealizethis,thatitisinthepowerofeveryeducatedmantoshowthatheisworthyoftheeducationhehasreceived,firstbycontinuinghisinterestinhisstudies,secondly,bytryingtobeofservicetohiscountrymeninanyofthefivefieldsIhavejustreferredto,andthirdly,byleadinginhisownparticularsphereabetter,amoreearnest,andamoredutifullife…

ChapterFive

TheMilitantNationalistBalGangadharTilak

Inthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,theIndianNationalCongresswasdividedintotwocamps,referredtoas‘Moderates’and‘Extremists’respectively.GopalKrishnaGokhalewasthepreeminentspokesmanforthefirstcamp.ThesecondcampwasmosteloquentlyrepresentedbyGokhale’sfellowChitpavanBrahmin,fellownativeofRatnagiri,andfellowresidentofPoonacity,BalGangadharTilak.

TilakwasborninJuly1856,thesonofaschoolteacherandpettylandowner.ThefamilymovedtoPoonawhenhewasten.Hecompletedhighschool,thengraduatedfromDeccanCollegewithfirst-classhonours.ApartfromhisnativeMarathi,hewasformidablyfluentinSanskritandEnglish.In1880hestartedteachinginaschool.Thenextyear,hebeganpublishingtwonewspaperswithhisfriendGopalGaneshAgarkar,oneinEnglish,theotherinMarathi.Thepolemicaltoneoftheirarticlesattractedmuchcommentaswellasseverallibelsuits.In1882bothTilakandAgarkarweresentencedtofourmonthsinprisonfordefamingthediwan(chiefminister)oftheprincelystateofKolhapur.

AgarkarandTilakfoundedtheDeccanEducationSocietyin1884.Sixyearslater,Tilakleftthesocietyformoreopenlypoliticalwork.TheriftbetweenAgarkarandTilakwasalsorelatedtotheirdifferentattitudestogenderrelations—whereasAgarkar(andGokhale)thoughtthatHinduwomenshouldgetamoderneducation,Tilakhadamoreconservativeview,believingthattheywerehome-makerswhohadtosubordinatethemselvestotheneedsoftheirhusbandsandchildren.Bythelate1880sTilakwasalsoinvolvedinthecow-protectionmovement,whichsoughttobantheeatingofbeefbyMuslimsonthegroundsthatitoffendedHindusentiments.

Tilak’sfirstmajorworkwasanattempttoestablishtheantiquityoftheRigVeda,todemonstratethattheHinduswerecivilizedandsophisticatedwhiletherestofhumanity,andespeciallytheEuropeans,werestillilliteratebarbarians.In1893hisrevivalismtookamoreformalshape,throughhispromotionofafestivaldevotedtotheworshipofthegodGanapati,orGanesh.Previouslyaprivatedomesticaffair,observedinhomesandtemples,TilakturnedthefestivalintoamasscelebrationonthestreetsofthetownsandcitiesofwesternIndia,featuringprocessionswherethedeitywasledalongbyyoungmen.Tilakalsobegananotherfestival,tocelebratethememoryandachievementsofthemedievalwarrior-chieftainShivaji.

TilakwasmuchmorehostiletoBritishrulethanGokhale.HesawitasleadingtothedeclineandemasculationofIndiaandIndians.Herejectedtheideathat‘thepeopleofAsiawillalwaysremainslavesoftheforeigners’.In

1897TilakwassentencedtoeighteenmonthsinprisonforpreachingdisaffectionagainsttheRaj.AfterhisreleasehetravelledthroughsouthIndia,CeylonandBurma.FromthesejourneysheconcludedthattherewasacommonHinducoretosocialpracticeandcustomsthroughoutthesubcontinent,andthat(asheputitinaspeechattheGanapatifestivalin1900)‘Hinduismisofhigherworththanotherreligions’.

Inthesameyear,1900,theviceroy,LordCurzon,notedwithsatisfactionthattheCongresshadsettledintoaplacidannualroutineofearnestanddullspeechesbywell-meaningbutineffectualpeople.‘Oneofmyardentdesires,’remarkedCurzon,‘istoassistit[theCongress]toapeacefuldemise.’Tilakplayedacrucialroleininvalidatingthisprophecy.HewashelpedbyCurzonhimself,inparticularbytheviceroy’sdecisiontopartitiontheprovinceofBengalin1905,withaviewtoweaningtheMuslimsoftheeasternpartoftheprovinceawayfromtheCongresscause.TheoppositiontothepartitionwascombinedwiththeSwadeshimovement,whichopposedtheimportofforeigngoodsintoIndia.Inthesestruggles,Tilakplayedaleadingpart.Hedemandedatariffof10percentonimportstopromoteIndianenterpriseandcalledforacommonlanguagetopromotenationalunity.

WhereModerateslikeGokhaleaskedyoungmentoserve,Tilakaskedthemtoprotestandifnecessary,gotoprison.Inthisrespect,thesarcasmandsharpnessofTilak’swritingsareincontrasttotheunderstatedreasonablenessofGokhale.AsthePoonamilitantputitinaspeechof1897,‘GodhasnotconferreduponforeignersthegrantinscribedonacopperplatetothekingdomofIndia.’InaspeechinCalcuttain1906Tilakinsistedthat‘loveofnationisone’sfirstduty.Nextcomesreligion…’Claimingthat‘nonationcanequalIndia’intheantiquityofitshistoryandthedepthofitsculturaltraditions,hetendedtobelievethatIndiawas(ashisbiographerStanleyWolpertputsit)‘God’schosennation’.

In1908TilakwaschargedagainwithseditionandwithintensifyingracialanimositybetweenIndiansandtheBritish.HewasdefendedbythebrilliantBombaylawyerMuhammadAliJinnah.ThedefencecouldnotcompletelyannultheevidencecontainedinTilak’spolemicalarticles.Intheevent,hewassentencedtosixyearsinprisonanddeportedtoBurma.Whentheyheardofthesentence,thetextileworkersofBombaydownedtoolsinaspontaneousstrikethatshutdownseventymills.WhileinMandalayprison,TilakwroteamajorandstillinfluentialworkonthemeaningsoftheBhagavadGita.

Tilakcameoutofjailin1914,run-downinhealthandspirit.Thefireofhis

earlyyearswasnowmuchattenuated.HewasmoreaccommodativeofBritishrule:wherehehadoncethunderedthat‘swarajismybirthrightandIshallhaveit’,hewaswillingtosettleforDominionstatuswithintheBritishEmpire,ratherthanfullindependence.However,hecontinuedtobeactiveinpolitics,formingaHomeRuleLeaguein1916.Thesameyearhewaschargedoncemorewithsedition.HewasdefendedonceagainbyJinnah,thistimesuccessfully,andacquittedofthecharges.

Tilakwasamilitant,populistleader,whodidagreatdealtoencourageyoungIndianstojointhenationalmovement.(Onthenegativeside,theHindutenorofhisspeechesandwritingsmayhavealienatedIndianMuslims.)Formuchofhiscareer,heinsistedthatpoliticalfreedommusttakeprecedenceoverallelse,includingorevenespeciallysocialreform.Thiscredoismanifestinanexcerptfromaspeechof1916,whichcarriesonalong-runningdebatewiththerecentlydeceasedGokhale:‘Ifthereisnosvarajyathereisnouselabouringforthespreadoffemaleeducation,thereisnousetryingtosecureindustrialdevelopmentandsocialreformalsocanavailbutlittle…Poweristheprimarynecessityandwherethereispower,therealoneresideswisdom;wisdomneverresidesapartfrompower.’

BalGangadharTilakdiedinBombayinAugust1920.

TheNeedforANationalHeroInthisessay,writtenastheSwadeshimovementwasgatheringmomentum,

TilakwritesofhowtheMarathawarriorShivajicouldserveasanexemplarandmodelfortheIndianpatriotopposingBritishrule.1

Hero-worshipisafeelingdeeplyimplantedinhumannature;andourpoliticalaspirationsneedallthestrengthwhichtheworshipofaSwadeshiheroislikelytoinspireintoourminds.ForthispurposeShivajiistheonlyherotobefoundinIndianhistory.Hewasbornatatimewhenthewholenationrequiredrelieffrommisrule;andbyhisself-sacrificeandcourageheprovedtotheworldthatIndiawasnotacountryforsakenbyProvidence.ItistruethattheMahomedansandtheHinduswerethendivided;andShivaji,whorespectedthereligiousscruplesoftheMahomedans,hadtofightagainsttheMogulrulethathadbecomeunbearabletothepeople.Butitdoesnotfollowfromthisthat,nowthattheMahomedansandtheHindusareequallyshornofthepowertheyoncepossessedandaregovernedbythesamelawsandrules,theyshouldnotagreetoacceptasaheroonewhoinhisowndaystookaboldstandagainstthetyrannyofhistime.ItisnotpreachednorisittobeatallexpectedthatthemethodsadoptedbyShivajishouldbeadoptedbythepresentgeneration…NooneeverdreamsthateveryincidentinShivaji’slifeistobecopiedbyanyoneatpresent.ItisthespiritwhichactuatedShivajiinhisdoingsthatisheldforthastheproperidealtobekeptconstantlyinviewbytherisinggeneration.Noamountofmisrepresentationcansucceedinshuttingoutthisviewofthequestionfromourvision;andwehopeandtrustthatourMahomedanfriendswillnotbemisledbysuchwilymethods.WedonotthinkthattheAnglo-Indian2writerswillobjecttoEnglandworshippingNelsonorFranceworshippingthegreatNapoleanonthegroundthatsuchnationalfestivalswouldalienatethesympathiesofeithernationfromtheother,orwouldmaketheexistenceofamicablerelationsbetweenthetwonationsanimpossibilityinfuture.AndyetthesameadviceisadministeredtousinapatronizingtonebytheseAnglo-Indiancritics,beingunmindfulofthefactthatwehavenowbecomesufficientlyacquaintedwiththeirtacticstotaketheirwordforgospeltruth.TheShivajifestivalisnotcelebratedtoalienateoreventoirritatetheMahomedans.Timesarechanged,and,asobservedabove,theMahomedansandtheHindusstandinthesameboatoronthesameplatformsofarasthepoliticalconditionofthepeopleisconcerned.CanwenotbothofusderivesomeinspirationfromthelifeofShivajiunderthesecircumstances?Thatistherealquestionatissue;andifthiscanbeansweredintheaffirmativeit

matterslittlethatShivajiwasborninMaharashtra…WearenotagainstafestivalbeingstartedinhonourofAkbaroranyotherherofromoldIndianhistory.Suchfestivalswillhavetheirownworth;butthatofShivajihasapeculiarvalueofitsownforthewholecountry,anditisthedutyofeveryonetoseethatthischaracteristicofthefestivalisnotignoredormisrepresented.Everyhero,beheIndianorEuropean,actsaccordingtothespiritofhistimes;andwemustthereforejudgeofhisindividualactsbythestandardprevalentinhistime.IfthisprinciplebeacceptedwecanfindnothinginShivaji’slifetowhichonecantakeexception.Butasstatedaboveweneednotgosofar.WhatmakesShivajianationalheroforthepresentisthespiritwhichactuatedhimthroughoutandnothisdeedsassuch.HislifeclearlyshowsthatIndianracesdonotsosoonlosethevitalitywhich[has]giventhemableleadersatcriticaltimes.ThatisthelessonwhichtheMahomedansandtheHindushavetolearnfromthehistoryofthegreatMahrattaChief;andtheShivajifestivalisintendedtoemphasizethesamelesson.ItisasheermisrepresentationtosupposethattheworshipofShivajiincludesinvocationstofighteitherwiththeMahomedansorwiththeGovernment.ItwasonlyinconformitywiththepoliticalcircumstancesofthecountryatthetimethatShivajiwasborninMaharashtra.ButafutureleadermaybebornanywhereinIndiaandwhoknows,mayevenbeaMahomedan.Thatistherightviewofthequestion,andwedonotthinkthattheAnglo-Indianwriterscansucceedindivertingourattentionfromit.

TheNecessityforAMilitantNationalismTheSwadeshimovementof1905–07broughttotheforeasplitbetweentwo

tendencieswithintheIndianNationalCongress—knownastheModeratesandtheExtremists.InthisspeechdeliveredinCalcuttainJanuary1907,TilakmakesaneloquentcasefortheExtremisttendency.Notethatthespeechsinglesout,forspecialandsarcasticattention,Tilak’srivalandfellowtownsman,GopalKrishnaGokhale.3

Twonewwordshaverecentlycomeintoexistencewithregardtoourpolitics,andtheyareModeratesandExtremists.Thesewordshaveaspecificrelationtotime,andthey,therefore,willchangewithtime.TheExtremistsofto-daywillbeModeratesto-morrow,justastheModeratesofto-daywereExtremistsyesterday.WhentheNationalCongresswasfirststartedandMr.Dadabhai’s[Naoroji]views,whichnowgoforModerates,weregiventothepublic,hewasstyledanExtremist,sothatyouwillseethatthetermExtremistisanexpressionofprogress.WeareExtremiststo-dayandoursonswillcallthemselvesExtremistsandusModerates.EverynewpartybeginsasExtremistsandendsasModerates.Thesphereofpracticalpoliticsisnotunlimited.Wecannotsaywhatwillorwillnothappen1,000yearshence—perhapsduringthelongperiod,thewholeofthewhiteracewillbesweptawayinanotherglacialperiod.Wemust,therefore,studythepresentandworkoutaprogrammetomeetthepresentcondition.

Itisimpossibletogointodetailswithinthetimeatmydisposal.Onethingisgranted,viz.,thatthisGovernmentdoesnotsuitus.Ashasbeensaidbyaneminentstatesman—theGovernmentofonecountrybyanothercanneverbeasuccessful,andthereforeapermanent,Government.ThereisnodifferenceofopinionaboutthisfundamentalpropositionbetweentheOldandNewschools.OnefactisthatthisalienGovernmenthasruinedthecountry.Inthebeginning,allofusweretakenbysurprise.Wewerealmostdazed.WethoughtthateverythingthattherulersdidwasforourgoodandthatthisEnglishGovernmenthasdescendedfromthecloudstosaveusfromtheinvasionofTamerlaneandChengisKhan,and,astheysay,notonlyfromforeigninvasionsbutfrominternecinewarfare,ortheinternalorexternalinvasions,astheycallit.Wefelthappyforatime,butitsooncametolightthatthepeacewhichwasestablishedinthiscountrydidthisasMr.Dadabhaihassaidinoneplace—thatwewerepreventedfromgoingateachother’sthroats,sothataforeignermightgoatthethroatsofusall.PaxBritannicahasbeenestablishedinthiscountryinorderthataforeignGovernmentmayexploitthecountry.ThatthisistheeffectofthisPax

Britannicaisbeinggraduallyrealizedinthesedays.Itwasanunhappycircumstancethatitwasnotrealizedsooner.WebelievedinthebenevolentintentionsoftheGovernment,butinpoliticsthereisnobenevolence.Benevolenceisusedtosugar-coatthedeclarationsofself-interest,andwewereinthosedaysdeceivedbytheapparentbenevolentintentionsunderwhichrampantself-interestwasconcealed.Thatwasourstatethen.Butsoonachangecameoverus.Englisheducation,growingpoverty,andbetterfamiliaritywithourrulers,openedoureyesandourleaders;especially,thevenerableleaderwhopresidedovertherecentCongress4wasthefirsttotellusthatthedrainfromthecountrywasruiningit,andifthedrainwastocontinue,therewassomegreatdisasterawaitingus.SoterriblyconvincedwasheofthisthathewentoverfromheretoEnglandandspenttwenty-fiveyearsofhislifeintryingtoconvincetheEnglishpeopleoftheinjusticethatisbeingdonetous.Heworkedveryhard.HehadconversationsandinterviewswithSecretariesofState,withMembersofParliament—andwithwhatresult?

Hehascomehereattheageofeighty-twototellusthatheisbitterlydisappointed.Mr.Gokhale,Iknow,isnotdisappointed.HeisafriendofmineandIbelievethatthisishishonestconviction.Mr.GokhaleisnotdisappointedbutisreadytowaitanothereightyyearstillheisdisappointedlikeMr.Dadabhai.

Heisyoung,youngerthanmyself,andIcanverywellseethatdisappointmentcannotcomeinasingleinterview,frominterviewswhichhavelastedonlyforayearorso.IfMr.Dadabhaiisdisappointed,whatreasonistherethatMr.Gokhaleshallnot,aftertwentyyears?ItissaidthereisarevivalofLiberalism,buthowlongwillitlast?Nextyearitmightbe,theyareoutofpower,andarewetowaittillthereisanotherrevivalofLiberalism,5andthenagainifthatgoesdownandathirdrevivalofLiberalismtakesplace;andafterallwhatcanaLiberalGovernmentdo?IwillquotetheobservationofthefatheroftheCongress,Mr.A.O.Hume.Thiswasmadein1893.LettheGovernmentbeLiberalorConservative,restsurethattheywillnotyieldtoyouwillinglyanything.ALiberalGovernmentmeansthattheGovernmentorthemembersoftheGovernmentareimbuedwithliberalprinciplesbecausetheywanttohavetheadministrationoftheircountryconductedonthoseprinciples.TheyareLiberalsinEngland,butIhaveseenLiberalsinEnglandcomeouttoIndiatogetintoconservativeways.Manyofthecivilianofficersfromschoolsandcolleges,whentheycomeoutareverygoodLiberals.ComingincontactwithAnglo-Indianwomen,theychangetheirviews,andbythetimetheyleaveIndiatheyare

conservatives.Thishasbeentheexperienceallover.Soliberalorconservative,thepointis,isanyonepreparedtogiveyouthoserightsandconcessionswhichintellectuallyaphilosophermayadmittobefittobeconcededorgrantedtoasubjectnationincourseoftime?Itisintellectualperception.Aphilosopherandstatesmancannotbeforcedtodoit.IlaughedwhenIreadtheproceedingsofthemeetinginCalcutta,congratulatingpeopleontheappointmentofMr.[John]MorleytotheSecretaryshipofStateforIndia.PassageswerereadfromMr.Morley’sbooks.Mr.MorleyhadsaidsoandsoinMr.Gladstone’slife;6Mr.Morleyhadsaidthisandhadsaidthat;hewastheeditorofacertainpaperthirtyyearsago,andhesaidsoandso.IaskedmyselfifitwouldnothavebeenbetterthatsomeofthepassagesfromtheBhagavadGitaweresoquoted.ThepersonstowhomIreferaregentlemenforwhomIhavethehighestrespect.ButwhatIsayis,thattheyutterlymisunderstoodthepositionorabsolutelyignoredthedistinctionbetweenaphilosopherandastatesman.Astatesmanisboundtolooktothepresentcircumstancesandseewhatparticularconcessionsareabsolutelynecessary,andwhatistheoreticallytrueorwrong.Hehastotakeintoconsiderationboththesides.TherearetheinterestedAnglo-IndiansandtheSecretaryofStateistheheadoftheAnglo-Indianbureaucracywhosemouth-pieceheis.Doyoumeantosaythatwhenthewholebureaucracy,thewholebodyofAnglo-Indians,isagainstyou,theSecretaryofStatewillsetasidethewholebureaucracyandgiveyourights?Hashethepower?Ifhedoes,willhenotbeaskedtowalkaway?SothenitcomestothisthatthewholeBritishelectoratemustbeconverted.Soyouaregoingtoconvertallpersonswho[have]arighttovoteinEngland,soastogetthemajorityonyourside,andwhenthisisdoneandwhenbythatmajoritytheLiberalPartyisreturnedtoParliamentbentupondoinggoodtoIndiaanditappointsaSecretaryofStateasgoodasMr.Morley,thenyouhopetogetsomethingbytheoldmethods.ThenewPartyhasrealizedthisposition.ThewholeelectorateofGreatBritainmustbeconvertedbylectures.Youcannottouchtheirpocketorinterest,andthatmanmustbeafoolindeedwhowouldsacrificehisowninterestonhearingaphilosophicallecture!Hewillsay,‘Itisaverygoodlecture;butIamnotgoingtosacrificemyinterest.’Iwilltellyouastory.OneofmyfriendswhohadbeenlecturinginEnglanddeliveredalectureonthegrievancesofIndia.Amanfromtheaudiencecameandaskedhimhowmanyofthemtherewere.Thelecturerreplied,‘thirtycrores’.Theinquirerreplied,‘Thenyoudonotdeserveanything.’ThatistheattitudewithwhichanEnglishworkmanlooksatthequestion.YounowdependontheLabourParty.Labourershavetheirowngrievances,buttheywon’ttreat

youanybetter.Onthecontrarytheywilltreatyouworse,becauseBritishlabourersobtaintheirlivelihoodbysendingustheirgoods.Thisistherealposition.Thispositionisgraduallyrecognized.YoungerpeoplewhohavegonetoEnglandlikeMr.Gokhalearenotsodisappointedthoughthosewhowentwithhimwere,likeMr.LalaLajpatRai.7IamenteringintopersonalitiesbutIcannotplacethesefactsinanintelligentmanner,ifIdonotgivethenames,althoughallofthemaremyfriends.Thisisthenthestateofthings.Thenewpartyperceivesthatthisisfutile.ToconvertthewholeelectorateofEnglandtoyouropinionandthentogetindirectpressuretobearuponthemembersofParliament,theyintheirturntoreturnacabinetfavourabletoIndiaandthewholeParliament,theLiberalPartyandthecabinettobringpressureonthebureaucracytoyield—wesaythisishopeless.Youcannowunderstandthedifferencebetweentheoldandthenewparties.Appealstothebureaucracyarehopeless.Onthispointboththenewandoldpartiesareagreed.TheoldpartybelievesinappealingtotheBritishnationandwedonot.Thatbeingourposition,itlogicallyfollowswemusthavesomeothermethod.Thereisanotheralternative.Wearenotgoingtositdownquiet.Weshallhavesomeothermethodbywhichtoachievewhatwewant.Wearenotdisappointed,wearenotpessimists.Itisthehopeofachievingthegoalbyourowneffortsthathasbroughtintoexistencethisnewparty.

Thereisnoempirelostbyafreegrantofconcessionsbytherulerstotheruled.Historydoesnotrecordanysuchevent.Empiresarelostbyluxury,bybeingtoomuchbureaucraticorover-confidentorfromotherreasons.Butanempirehasnevercometoanendbytherulersconcedingpowertotheruled.

YougottheQueen’sproclamation.8ButitwasobtainedwithoutaCongress.Theywantedtopacifyyou,asyouhadgrowntooturbulent,andyougotthatproclamationwithoutademand,withoutCongressandwithoutconstitutionalagitation.Thatisaverygoodandgenerousdeclarationindeed.TheQueenwasveryanxiousthatitshouldbecouchedinsuchtermsaswouldcreatehopesinyou.Now,allthatanxietydidnotproceedfromconstitutionalagitation.Itwasafter1858thatconstitutionalagitationbegan.Theresultwas,theproclamationremainedadeadletter,becauseyoucouldnotgetitenforced,theconditionsunderwhichitwasmadehavingdisappeared.Apromisewasmadebutyouprovedtooweaktohaveitenforced.Thatisthereasonwhyitwasnotenforced.Thebureaucracygottheupperhandandtheyestablishedasystemofadministrationinwhichitmadeitimpossiblefortheproclamationtobeactedupto…IsMr.Morleygoingtofulfilit?Theexplanationoftheproclamationisnotthequestion.Thequestioniswhatwillcompelhimtofulfilit.Thisisthepointat

issue.Iadmitthatwemustask;butwemustaskwiththeconsciousnessthatthedemandcannotberefused.Thereisgreatdifferencebetweenaskingandpetitioning…Yourindustriesareruinedutterly,ruinedbyforeignrule;yourwealthisgoingoutofthecountryandyouarereducedtothelowestlevelwhichnohumanbeingcanoccupy.Inthisstateofthings,isthereanyotherremedybywhichyoucanhelpyourself?Theremedyisnotpetitioningbutboycott.Wesayprepareyourforces,organiseyourpower,andthengotoworksothattheycannotrefuseyouwhatyoudemand.AstoryinMahabharatatellsthatSriKrishnawassenttoeffectacompromise,butthePandavasandKauravaswerebothorganizingtheirforcestomeetthecontingencyoffailureofacompromise.Thisispolitics.Areyoupreparedinthiswaytofightifyourdemandisrefused?Ifyouare,besureyouwillnotberefused;butifyouarenot,nothingcanbemorecertainthanthatyourdemandwillberefused,andperhaps,forever.Wearenotarmed,andthereisnonecessityforarmseither.Wehaveastrongerweapon,apoliticalweapon,inboycott.Wehaveperceivedonefact,thatthewholeofthisadministration,whichiscarriedonbyahandfulofEnglishmen,iscarriedonwithourassistance.Weareallinsubordinateservice.ThewholeGovernmentiscarriedonwithourassistanceandtheytrytokeepusinignoranceofourpowerofco-operationbetweenourselvesbywhichthatwhichisinourownhandsatpresentcanbeclaimedbyusandadministeredbyus.Thepointistohavetheentirecontrolinourhands.Iwanttohavethekeyofmyhouse,andnotmerelyonestrangerturnedoutofit.Self-Governmentisourgoal;wewantacontroloverouradministrativemachinery.Wedon’twanttobecomeclerksandwillinginstrumentsofourownoppressioninthehandsofanalienGovernment,andthatGovernmentisrulingoverusnotbyitsinnatestrengthbutbykeepingusinignoranceandblindnesstotheperceptionofthisfact…EveryEnglishmanknowsthattheyareamerehandfulinthiscountryanditisthebusinessofeveryoneofthemtobefoolyouinbelievingthatyouareweakandtheyarestrong.Thisispolitics.Wehavebeendeceivedbysuchpolicysolong.Whatthenewpartywantsyoutodoistorealizethefactthatyourfuturerestsentirelyinyourownhands.Ifyoumeantobefree,youcanbefree;ifyoudonotmeantobefree,youwillfallandbeforeverfallen.Somanyofyouneednotlikearms;butifyouhavenotthepowerofactiveresistance,haveyounotthepowerofself-denialandself-abstinenceinsuchawayasnottoassistthisforeignGovernmenttoruleoveryou?Thisisboycottandthisiswhatismeantwhenwesay,boycottisapoliticalweapon.Weshallnotgivethemassistancetocollectrevenueandkeep[the]peace.Weshallnotassistthemincarryingonthe

administrationofjustice.Weshallhaveourowncourts,andwhentimecomesweshallnotpaytaxes.Canyoudothatbyyourunitedefforts?Ifyoucan,youarefreefromto-morrow.Somegentlemenwhospokethiseveningreferredtohalfbreadasagainstthewholebread.IsayIwantthewholebreadandthatimmediately.ButifIcannotgetthewhole,don’tthinkthatIhavenopatience.

Iwilltakethehalftheygivemeandthentryfortheremainder.Thisisthelineofthoughtandactioninwhichyoumusttrainyourself.Wehavenotraisedthiscryfromamereimpulse.Itisareasonedimpulse.Trytounderstandthatreasonandtrytostrengthenthatimpulsebyyourlogicalconvictions.Idonotaskyoutoblindlyfollowus.Thinkoverthewholeproblemforyourselves.Ifyouacceptouradvice,wefeelsure,wecanachieveoursalvationthereby.Thisistheadviceofthenewparty.Perhapswehavenotobtainedafullrecognitionofourprinciples.Oldprejudicesdieveryhard.NeitherofuswantedtowrecktheCongress,sowecompromised,andweresatisfiedthatourprincipleswererecognised,thoughonlytoacertainextent.Thatdoesnotmeanthatwehaveacceptedthewholesituation.Wemayhaveastepinadvancenextyear,sothatwithinafewyearsourprincipleswillberecognised,andrecognisedtosuchanextentthatthegenerationswhocomeafterusmayconsiderusModerates.Thisisthewayinwhichanationprogresses.Thisisthewaynationalsentimentprogresses,andthisisthelessonyouhavetolearnfromthestrugglenowgoingon.Thisisalessonofprogress,alessonofhelpingyourselfasmuchaspossible,andifyoureallyperceivetheforceofit,ifyouareconvincedbythesearguments,thenandthenonlyisitpossibleforyoutoeffectyoursalvationfromthealienruleunderwhichyoulabouratthismoment…

ChapterSix

TheSubalternFeministTarabaiShinde

Intheprologuetothisbook,IobservedthatitwouldattractcomplaintsfromadmirersofthoseIhadleftout.Someoftheexclusionswillbecontroversial;so,perhaps,shallbesomeinclusions.Thischapterfeaturesanindividualwhowasobscureinhertimeandremainssoinours.Butherwriting,ifnotherlife,compelsourseriousattention.Herclaimtobea‘makerofmodernIndia’restsontheliteraryqualityandpoliticalresonanceoftheonlybookshepublished.ThisspeaksacrossthedecadesandcenturiesandremainsoneofthemostpowerfulpiecesofsocialcriticismeverwrittenbyanIndian.

WeknowlittleaboutthelifeandupbringingofTarabaiShinde.Borninthe1830s,shelivedintotheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury.Sheisknownprincipallythroughatractshepublishedin1882comparingthesituationofmenandwomenintheMaharashtra,andIndia,ofhertime.ThepamphletmayhavebeenprovokedbythecaseofayoungBrahminwidowwhobecamepregnantandthenkilled—orwasforcedtokill—thebaby.Thewidowwasarrestedandsentencedtobehangedforthecrime(onappeal,thesentencewasmodifiedtotransportationforlife).

TarabaiwasborninaMarathafamilyinthetownofBuldana,intheBerarregionofthepresent-daystateofMaharashtra.HerfamilyownedsomelandandherfatherworkedasaseniorclerkintheofficeofthedeputycommissionerofBuldana.Hewasapparentlyalsoamember,althoughonedoesnotknowhowactiveamember,inJotiraoPhule’sSatyashodakSamaj.Withnogirls’schoolsinthearea,Tarabaiwouldhavelearntherlettersathome.ShereadandwroteinMarathi,butmayalsohaveknownsomeEnglish.Shewasmarriedwhenquiteyoung;however,sinceherhusbandmovedintoherparents’home,Tarabaiwasperhapslessconfinedthanshemightotherwisehavebeen.

UnlikesomeotherpartsofIndia,Maharashtrahadalongtraditionofwomenwhowereactiveinpubliclife.Asprincessesandqueens,womenhadadvisedtheirroyalkinsmenandsometimesevenruledinplaceofamalekingwhowasnotyetanadult.AmongtheleadingBhaktipoetsofthemedievalperiodweresomewomen.ThedaughtersofBrahminswereoftenlearnedandliterate.Bythelatenineteenthcentury,ahandfulofBrahminwomenhadbecomedoctorsandteachersinMaharashtra.Thesepioneerscalledfortheemancipationofwomenfromoppressionwithinthehousehold.In1877aMarathiperiodicalforwomenhadbeenstarted,cateringchieflytowivesanddaughtersofBrahminfamilies.TofindlearningamongMarathagirls,however,waslesscommon.EvenmoreunusualwasthedirectlanguageinwhichTarabaiShindequestionedthepresumedsuperiorityofmen.Throughthenineteenthcentury,menandwomen

hadcalledforwidowremarriage,fortheeducationofyounggirlsandfortheabolitionofpracticessuchassati.Theseefforts,sincereandwell-intentionedthoughtheyundoubtedlywere,couldallbecategorizedunderthelabelof‘women’suplift’.WhatTarabaiShindecalledfor,however,wasaltogetherdifferentandmoreradical—namely,forequalityorparitybetweenmenandwomen.Noonebeforeherhadsodirectlychallengedthesocialarrangementsandculturalprejudiceswhichunderpinnedpatriarchyandmaledomination.

ThetranslatorofTarabai’stext,theBritishhistorianRosalindO’Hanlon,alsohappenstobetheforemostauthorityonthelifeandworkofJotiraoPhule.O’Hanlonnotesthatwhilethetwomayormaynothavemet,PhulecertainlyknewandadmiredTarabai’swritings.Theirapproacheswerecomplementary:‘ForPhule,brahmanicreligionoppressedlowercastepeople,becauseithadbeendevisedbybrahmans;forTarabai,itoppressedwomenbecauseithadbeendevisedbymen.’PhulereferredtoTarabaiaschiranjivini,ordeardaughter,andcommendedhertracttohiscolleaguessothattheycouldunderstandandsuitablyrespondtoherchargesofthesystematicill-treatmentofwomenbymen.

LikePhule,TarabaiwasabrilliantstylistinMarathi,usingsarcasmandsatiretopuncturethepretensionsofthepowerful.HerbookiscompellinglyreadableinEnglish;onewondershowmuchbetteritmustbeintheoriginal.

AComparisonofMenandWomenTheoneworkthatTarabaiShindepublishedwasoffifty-twopages.Itwas

printedinPoonain1882andpricedatnineannas,oralittleoverhalfarupee.Theexcerptsbelowspeakforthemselves.ButwemustatleastflagthefeministinterpretationoftheHinduepics,wherebyrenouncersandgodsareseenaslustfulpredatorsalwaysinsearchofprettywomen.1

…Afatherandmothermakeyouthegiftoftheirdaughteronceandforall,theypourthewateroveryourhandsandthat’stheendofit.Thensheleavesandshe’slosttothem.Oh,thepityofit—fromthedayofherbirth,thefatherandmotherhavefollowedtheirnaturalfeelingsandraisedherupfromchildtoadultwithpraiseandlove,eachasbesttheycould.Seehowhardthey’veworkedtogetheraplacethat’sgoodandhappy,topleasehernewfamilyofin-lawsinthehopethey’llloveherandtreatherkindly.Ifgoodluck’sonherside,everything’sfine.Butwhatifitisn’t?Allherlifelong,hermotherandfatherhavecherishedher,dearaslifeitself.Whatmustitbelikeforher,whosefatherandmothernevergaveherthelightestslap,whenshefeelsthesharpblowsofyourfistonherback?Whatmustherparentsfeel?IfIwrotedowntherawtruthitwouldfillupabookasbigastheRamayana.Andwhenyoudotreatawomanwell,it’susuallyonlyjustforshow.You’relikesomeonewhowearsawonderfulbitofredandgoldsilkbrocadeonhistophalf,andatatteredoldblanketbelow.Youcanevencoverherwithgoldornamentsandputherinahousesetwithjewels.Butifyou’renotkindandloving,she’llstillfeelnothingbutmisery—whichyoucan’tjustdescribe,youhavetoexperienceit.

Womeninthisworldareforeverputtingupwithallsortsofhardtoil,difficulty,hungerandthirst,harassmentandbeatings—andalltheyaskisakindlywordfromyou.It’strue,yougooutandearnthemoney.Butshehastoseetotherunningofthehouse,hastodoexactlyasyoutellher,perpetuallyobedient,keptinignorance,toilingatthemostexhaustingworktillherbody’spleasurebreaksintolittlepieces,herboneswasteawayandherbloodturnstowater—hereyesalwaysonyourface.You’veonlygottoglanceatherapprovinglyandflashyourteethinasmile,andshefeelsit’sajoydivine!Thisencourageshertotakeuptheburdenoflabouragain,tolearnanddoevenmorekindsofwork.Lookatitfromwhatyouknowalready.There’sasayingofyours,‘Ahusband’spraiseislikenectarandambrosia’.Let’ssayshebringssomebeautifulpieceofsewingtoshowyou,orservesupanicelypreparedlittledelicacy,andyoutellher‘Wellnow,lookatthis!Didyoureallymakeityourself?Looknow,don’tworksohard!You’llgiveyourselfbackache;you

mighthurtyoureyes.Wedon’twantthechildrentosufferforit,andwemustkeepyououtofthehandsofthedoctor!Youjusttakeiteasynow’.Orifyou’rewithyourfriendsandyousay,‘Youknow,I’msolucky,Idon’thavetoworryaboutanythingathome.Let’sjustgoofftomyplaceanddosomethingthere.It’dbehardtofindahomeasgoodasours’.

Assoonasshehearsthesewordsofloveandpraise,sheforgetsallthepainshe’ssufferedsincechildhood,allthetimesthatyou’vekickedandpunchedandswornather.Withthispraisefromherlordandmaster,shetellsherselfshe’stheluckiestpersononearth.Herheartoverflowswithaffection.Sotheresheis,eagerlylookingtoyouforthesmallestsignoflove—andyoustillgooncallingherallsortsofinsultingnames.There’snodenyingit—thisiswhatherfatereallyis…

Sothefirstpoint…you’restrongerthanherwhenitcomestobrains.Isthereanythingyouhaven’tdonewiththosegreatbrainsofyours,asinglemonstrousdeedintheworldyouhaven’tcommitted?Whatstrengthhavewomengotnexttoyouandyourhugepower?They’vegotnothingatall.

Inthesecondplace,it’struewomenarewhirledaboutbymanywhims!Butit’sbecausethey’reuneducatedthateverykindofwhimmakesitshomeintheirminds.Evenso,theirsonlygoasfarastheirownfamilies.Butifwelookatyourminds,allthewhimstheregoroundsofastwecanhardlyseethem.Yourmindsareconstantlychurnedupwithallsortsofcunningschemes,todowiththingsnativeandforeign,imaginaryandpractical.Todayyoumightsay,perhapsweshouldtricksomemoneylenderandfleecehimofathousandrupees.Wecouldpassinformationtoaparticularjagirdarandtakehimforfourorfivehundred.Iknow,you’llsay,todaylet’stellthesahibsuchandsuch,andgetthatcasedecidedonsomechap’sbehalf.Anotherday,andit’s‘Maybeweshouldbringalongthatfalsetitle-deedforcopyingandentry’.Butdoyoueverfindwomenscheming,‘Thatwoman,youknow,sheactssosuperior—you’dthinkshehadtopeelonionswithhernose!Weoughttosetatrapforthelittlesnobandgetridofherforgood!’Whimslikethisneverevencomeintowomen’sminds.Allwomenonthisearthdon’tshineasbrightlyasthelightofthesun,ofcoursenot.NoraretheyallpurerthanGangeswaterinsideandout.Butifyouaddedupallthewomenintheworld,you’dfindonlyteninahundredwithmindsgoingroundandroundlikeyours,whenthereisn’tasingleoneofyouthat’sfreefromit.

Thirdly,then:thatwomenaretheveryabodeofdebauchery.Youthinkyourkindarebetter,doyou?Ifyouweigheditup,thescaleswouldsinkdownahundred,ahundredandahalftimesheavieronyourside.

Inthefourthplace,theideathatwomenareaverycityofthoughtlessness.Butdoesthoughtlessnessonlycomefromwomen’shands?Andyou,whoaremeanandfaithless,whomakepromisestoothersthencuttheirthroatsbehindamaskofkindness—areyouneverthoughtless?Ohyes,you’reabsolutetemplesofthought,let’scongratulateyou!You’remeanttobesowonderfullylearnedandthoughtful,butyou’veactuallycommittedactsofthoughtlessnesslikewe’veneverseenbefore,andsoyoucarryoneveryday.Yetyoucallyourselvessuchgreatthinkers—soIwonderwhatweshouldcallyou?

Womenareignorant,justlikefemalebuffaloesinapen.Theymaynotbeabletoreadorwrite,butdoesthatmeanGodnevergavethemanyintelligenceatall?Theymaybethoughtless,butthey’restillmuchbetterthanyou.Youmenareallveryclever,it’strue.Butyoujustgoandlookinoneofourprisons—you’llfinditsostuffedfullofyourcountrymenyouhardlyputyourfootontheground.Ohyes,they’reallverycleverthere,aren’tthey?One’sthereformakingcounterfeitnotes,anotherfortakingbribes.Anotherforrunningoffwithsomeoneelse’swife,anotherfortakingpartinarebellion,anotherforpoisoning,anotherfortreason,anotherforgivingfalseevidence,anotherforsettingupasarajaanddestroyingthepeople,yetanotherfordoingamurder.Ofcourse,it’sthesegreatworksofthoughtthatmakethegovernmentofferyouaroomsoreverentlyinitspalatialprisons!Whatwomendothingslikethese?Howmanyprisonsarefilledwithwomen?Foreverytwoorthreethousandsofyou,youwon’tfindevenahundredwomen.Ifweaskourselveswhat’stheworstthoughtlessnesswomencanbeguiltyof,itwouldbeadultery…Butwhoevercauseditshouldgettheblame.Whenawomangetsintoadultery,whoisitwhotakesthefirststepsbyplantingbaddesiresinhermind?Heroryou?Howevershamelessawomanmightbe,she’llneverforceherarmsroundaman’sneck,that’sforcertain.Becausewhat’sthegreatesthappinessintheworldforawoman?Inthefirstplace,it’sahusbandwhosuitsherandreallylovesher.Ifheandsheareofonemind,shecanbeeversopoor,liveinahutshortoffoodandclothes,putupwithallsortsofsufferingandtrouble,gooffandliveinthejungle—butshe’llstillonlyhaveeyesforonemanandregardallhertrialsashappiness.Lefttoherselfawomanwouldneverturntoadultery…

Thefifthpoint,then—thatwomenarethestorehouseofallguilt.Infact,it’stheotherwayround—whenwomengowrongit’salwaysbecauseofyou.Seenow.Manyfathersmarryofftheirdaughtersoftenoreleven,girlswhoshinelikelittlestars,theymarrythemforafatwadofrupeestosomericholdmanofeightyorninety.Theyeyetheoldman’swealthandsay,‘Well—itwon’treally

matterifhedoesdie,willit?She’llneverwantformoney,afterall.Inacoupleofdays,she’llbebacktoeatinganddrinking,puttingonornaments,dressingasusualandsoon.Whatdoesitmatterifthere’snohusband?’Withwordslikethattheyhandherovershamelessly,likeagoattothetiger.Oh,butthehusbandhasgonewhowouldhavebeenherrealhappinessandlove,whowouldhavetakenpleasureinherornamentinganddressingup,whowouldhavepraisedherandcherishedhermorethanlifeitself.Withhimgone,thewholeworldisjustawildernesstoher.What’sthepointofthisemptyceremonyforher?Intheolddays,awomanusedtogoassati—thatwasgood.Shecouldturnherselftoashesalongwithhim,anditwasalloverwith.

Apartfromhermother,noonewilleverloveherasmuchasahusband,that’scertain.Whenshe’slostboth,where’sshegoingtogetstrengthtopullonthroughherdays,withtheflamingcoalsofyouthburninginherbreast?Thisisthepositionofgirlsgivenawayjustformoney.

Somepeoplegiveawaytheirdaughtersassecondwives.Butthere’snoweaponthatpiercesawomansopainfullyasthethornofbeinggivenassecondwife.Awife’sbloodboilsifherhusbandjustlooksabitcloselyatanotherwoman.Andthat’sjustlooking.Sohowcanshebearitifhegoesandmarriessomeoneelse,ortakesanotherwomanontheside,whetherithappensinsidethehouseornot?You’llnevereverfindtwowomenlivinghappilyinthesamehouse.Youcantreatthemasequallyasyoulikeinthingslikejewelleryandclothes.Buthowcanyoulovetwointhesamewayasone?Loveisn’tlikeamangooraguava—youcan’tcutitupandshareitout.Loveislikemilk.Onceit’sgonesour,youcan’tmakeitgoodagain,nomatterhowmuchyoustiritabout.Onceit’sseparated,youcan’tputitbacktogether.Yes,it’sonlynaturalforpeopletoprefernewthingsovertheold,itdoesn’tmatterwhoitis.Butaman’swifehasonlytolookatsomeoneelsewithabitofinterestandhe’llworkhimselfupintothemostfuriousrage.Thenherfamilyhastosufferindisgraceandshegetsbeaten,lockedupandharassed.Whydoesn’tanyofthisapplytoyou?

Ifyoucan’tbearherjustlooking,willshestanditwhenitfeelslikeaburningpanrightonherchest?Whydopeoplegivetheirgirlsawayassecondwives?Ifsomeonehaslotsofdaughters,oftenthey’lljustgivethemtoanyhusbandthatcomesalong.Itdoesn’tmatterwhathe’slike—somepushtheirdaughtersoffontoamanwho’llquiteplainlydestroyhisfamily.Amancanbeasuglyasyoulike,fullofvices,pitilessandcruel,fondofbeatingandharassing,who’llevenkeephisfamilyshortoffoodanddrink.Butpeoplestill

givetheirgirlstosuchbringersofmisery,handingthemoverlikecowstoabutcher.Awholecartloadofpaperwouldn’tbeenoughifItriedtodescribeitallhere.Sowhosefaultisitthen,ifwomenrunawaybecauseofit?Thefather’sorthedaughter’s?…

Nowforthesixthpoint.Whichofusisreallysoakedahundredtimesoverindeceit?You’renumberonehere.Howcanwedescribeyourdeceit?Everystepandthere’sanexample.Lookatallthedisguisesyougetyourselfupin—youcouldevenpaintyourbodyblackandyellowstripedandchangeintoatiger.Youturnyourselvesintogosavis,fakirs,haridasas,brahmacharis,sadhus,dudharais,giripuris,bharatis,nanaks,kanphotas,jogis,jatadharis,nanges,youpretendyou’verenouncedthewholeworld,smearashesonyourbodies,growyourhairmattedandgoofftoliveinthejungle—yougorounddeceivingalltheworldwithyourtricks.Who’sthat,it’saramgiribuva,thatoneashastribuva,anotherparadesasGanpatibuvaPhaltankarthegreatsadu,anotherasananakpanthi.Whatqualitiestheyallhave!Whatcanwesay?They’vegotallthepropermerits,they’resodetached,theyhandoutholymantras.Theyonlyhavetotellusandwebelievethem.Asthebuva’sfamespreadshetakestostuffinghimselfwithrichdelicaciesandgrowssleekandshinylikeatomcat,thensomehowhisreligiousdutiesgetforgotten.Hesitsthereasthewomencometotakehisdarshanandpraysonverydifferentbeads.Hepicksoutsomespeciallywhoareyoungandfreshlynubile,andtherehesits,meditatingandrepeatingtohimself,thisone’snice,thatone’spretty!NotawordaboutyourShivaorHari,they’reallforgotten!Theonlynameonhislipsisthatgirl’swholooksjustlikethemilkmaidRadha.Theonlythinghe’sgoteyesforisthatfreshyoungflower’sprettylaughingface,andinsideit’sMrMoneyhe’smeditatingon!Hemightlookasthoughhe’scrazy—butit’scrazylikeafox!…

Ohyes,youputstringsofsacredtulsibeadsaroundyournecks,yougoroundrecitingthevirtuesofVitthal,posingasservantsofHari,famousbeggars,youtakeyourselvesofftoKashi.Butdoyouthinkyoucanwipeitallcleanbygoingoffthereandshavingyourbeardandmoustachesaspenance?

Youcanofferupyourmoustachesandthrowthemonthewatersofthe[Ganga],butdoyouthinkyoucanbundleupyourvicesanddothesamewiththem?Ofcourseyoucan’t—thatwayyouonlygetmoreprideandbaddesires.Outsideyoumakeasifyou’retheholiestofholymen—butcaneven[theGanga’s]watersputouttheflamingtorchofdeceitinsideyou?

So,youtakethesanyasivow,doyou?Thenyoushouldgiveupallyourhopesanddesires.Thereyouare,withyoursaffronrobes,yourstaffandwater-

potinyourhand,honouringalltheworldanditscreatureslikeNarayanhimself.Butlet’slookatwhathappensonthebanksoftheGanges,whenyou’rewashingandpurifyingyourselfonthebeautifulstonesteps,smearingpoundafterpoundofashesonyourbody,sittingthererepeatingthename,ParamatmaSheshashayiShrinarayan,andtellingprayerbeadswiththegomukhionyourhand.Whenyourearscatchthesoundoffeetonthefirststepoftheghat,youreyesdartup,theglovefallsfromyourhand,ourbuva’sthrownintoconfusionandNarayanrunsrightoutofhismouth.WhatsortofaNarayanisitcomingnow?It’soneintheformofawoman,andnowit’sshewhogoesandsitsinthebuva’sgomukhi.‘Outsidetheyparadeinsaffronrobes;insidetheulcerofevilthoughts’.Whoreallyseeswhat’sgoingon?It’scollectmoneyfromalmsandofftoawhorewithit—that’swhatabandoningtheworldmeanshere!

Thegodsthemselvesbringdestructiononwomen,soisitanywonderyoudothesame?WhenKrishnagotArjunatodisguisehimselfasabigholymanandstealSubhadraaway,theYadavas’sonssaidtoeachother‘Aholyman’scarriedAuntyoff!’Butdoyoueverhearoftheauntcarryingofftheholyman?TherewasthetimewhennoonecouldstandupagainstRavanaandhewentaboutharassingallthethreeworlds.Everywherepeoplewerecryingandgroaning,IndraputwasdesertedandthegodsandrishiswentrunningtoSheshashayiBhagavanatKshirasagar,shoutingforpity,‘Stopthatdeviltormentingusandmakingushisslaves’.Thatall-powerfulgodcouldraisethewholeworldordestroyitinaninstant,justashewished.WhatwasRavanaworthagainstthatinfinitepower?Butthatisn’thowpeopleinterpretitnow.RavanastoleSitaaway,sothemonkeyarmyhadtogoafterthemtohiskingdominthesouthanddestroyit—thatwaswhatreallyhappened.Butnowpeoplesay,‘Oh,nevermindallthatotherstuff;itwasthatwhorewhoreallyruinedRavana.Seewhatthesewretchedwomengetupto,destroyinghomesandkingdoms’.

Whathavewegot,then?It’sallwomen’sfaultagain.Sitaeventookthefireordeal,butpeoplestillwentonblamingher.DidthatmakeRamchandraallthegreaterorsomething?Whatwonderfulgodsyou’vegot!You’retheshadowsofthem:theyshowuponce,butyoureallyshowupdouble.Howcanwetellaboutthisdeceitofyours?There’soneofyoupretendingtobejustlikeabrothertosomeone,andallthetimesecretlyhopingsomethingbadwillhappentohim;anotherwhopretendstobelikeafather,andreallyhopeshisfriendwillsufferaloss;andanotherofyouwhomakesasifhe’satruefriend,andallthewhilehiseye’soneverythingfromhisfriend’swifetohisdog.Hardlyanymenarepureoutsideaswellasin.Fiveorsixofyoucharactersgettogetherandthenwhat?

‘Thatchap,youknow,hereallyflasheshismoneyaround,it’dbegoodtoseehisnosepulleddownforonce!’Or:‘Thatfellow’sdoneallrightforhimself,whatamarvel!Heneverevenusedtogetenoughtoeat,butnowthatsonofawhoreridesroundinatwohorsebuggy!’That’sworktoyou—you’relikealotofcrows,headsfullofdirtytricksandyou’repeckingholesinotherpeoplefortheirsecretfollies.Tellusthen,goon—dowomeneverdothat?Hasawomaneverdressedupasagosaviorsadhuandgotamantorunawaywithher?Showus,then,ifyoucanfindevenonesingleexample?…

Nowfortheseventhpoint,thatwomenarethebeginningofallwickedness.No—wickednessstartsoffwithyouandyoualone.Youdesertyourowndharmaandcarryonjustasyouplease,gettingdrunkandrollingintheroad,goingroundlookingatyoungboysintamashas,gambling,smokingganja,keepingwhores,allsortsofbadnessandfilth.Tellmethisnow,whatisawhore?Doyouthinkshe’ssomeformoflifethatwasn’tmadeinthesamewayastherestofcreation?WasitsomeotherGodwhomadeher?Infact,whoresarejustsomeofthosewomenyou’veseducedandluredawayfromtheirhomes.Takeanywomanyoulike.Herhomecanbeanagony,adangertoherverylife,shecanbetrapped,onewellinfrontofherandanotherbehind,shecanloseherlife.Butshecan’tsurvivewithoutsomeonetoleanon—nomatterhowbravesheis,shecan’tstandonherownlegseveninherownhouse’scourtyard.Thereasonisshe’salwaysbeenlockedup,strictlyconfinedtothesamehouse,neverabletoputevenafootoutside.Sohoweverboldandshamelessshemaybe,she’dnevergochasinganothermanonherown.It’syouthatstartsitoff,givingherlittlehintsofyourownbaddesires,andonceshe’stastedthemit’senough.Afterthat,shedoesn’tneedateachertoshowherwhatwickednessis.

PartIIINurturingANation

IntroductiontoPartIII

ThenineteenthcenturyinEuropewasacenturyofnationalismslargeandsmall,defensiveaswellasassertive.CountriessuchasFrance,Italy,GermanyandGreatBritainconsolidatedtheirboundaries,standardizedtheirofficiallanguages,andmodernizedtheirpoliticalsystemsandtheirarmies.AmonglesspopulouspeoplessuchasthePolesandCzechs,therearoseasimilardesiretocreateanationoftheirown,whosecitizenswouldadheretoacommonflagandacommoncurrency.Inpursuitofthisaimtheyfoughtvaliantly,ifnotalwayssuccessfully,againsttheempiresthatruledoverthem.

The‘national’intheIndianNationalCongresswasclearlyinspiredbytheseEuropeanprecedents.Butitwasinspiredalsobythedevelopmentofself-governinginstitutionsinBritishcoloniessuchasAustraliaandCanada.Thesewerenotfull-fledgednationsbutBritish‘Dominions’.AformalconnectionwiththeMotherCountryremained—theBritishmonarchwasstillheadofstateandhis(orher)representativeservedasGovernorGeneral.However,inday-to-daymattersofgovernanceandadministrationtheBritishgovernmentrarelyinterfered.AustraliaandCanadawereadministeredbyAustraliansandCanadians,notbyEnglishmen.

Withregardtothewhitedominions,Indianaspirationspresentedaproblem—thatIndianswerenotwhite.Racialprejudicewasrarelyexpressedopenly,butitwasnonethelessbelievedbyamajorityoftheBritishinIndiathatbrown(andblack)mencouldnotbetrustedtotakecareoftheirownaffairs.DominionstatuswasallrightforthewhitesinCanadaandAmerica,butnothere.Oratleastnotyet.Themorebroad-mindedcolonialadministratorsofthenineteenthcenturywerepreparedtoallowthat,perhapsinafewhundredyears,theIndianswouldhavesufficientlymaturedunderBritishtutelagetobetrustedtoruntheirowngovernment.

WithregardtotheEuropeannations,Indianaspirationspresentedanevengreaterproblem—thatIndianswereverydiverseanddivided.ThenationsoftheWesthadbeenforged—orsoughttobeforged—onthebasisofacommonlanguageandasharedfaith.Atongueotherthanthenationallanguagewaspermittedinthehomeandinprivateconversations,butcouldnotintrudeintothepublicdomainandcertainlynotinthebusinessofthestate.Minorityreligionswerelikewisepermittedinsmalldosesandbehindcloseddoors.Thus,BritainwasunitedonthebasisthatitscitizensallspokeEnglish,whilethemarriagebetweenfaithandstatewasmadeformalbythemonarchalsoactingastheheadoftheChurchofEngland.Similarly,tobeacitizenoftheexistingorputativenationofPolandyouhadtospeakPolish.Italsohelpedenormouslyifyouwere

simultaneouslyamemberoftheCatholicChurch.FranceandGermanywereequallyinsistentonlinguisticuniformity,ifslightlymorelaxonthequestionofreligion.

TherepresentativenessinthisrespectoftheIndianNationalCongresswaschallengedveryearlyinitsexistence.Aswehaveseen,SyedAhmadKhandidnotbelievethattheCongresscouldorshouldspeakforMuslims.AlthougheveryCongressmeetinghadasprinklingofMuslimsattending,onthewholetheMuslimelitefollowedSyedAhmad’sadviceandstayedawayfromit.ButamongtheHindustheorganizationcontinuedtogainground.Itsleaderswereintelligentandarticulate,andtheyhadaprogramme.ThestatusoftheCongressgrewasaresultoftheSwadeshimovementof1905onwards.Theboycottofforeignclothwasseen,bytheyoungespecially,asapreludetotheattainmentofself-governmentitself.

TheriseoftheCongresswasnotwelcomedbytheBritishrulers.TheirmisgivingsweresharedbyMuslimnotables,agroupofwhommettheviceroy,LordMinto,inOctober1906,toaskforgreaterrepresentationfortheirco-religionistsingovernmentandforseparateelectoratesaswell.Theviceroyandhisadvisersviewedthesedemandswithsympathy,seeingthemasameansofstemmingtheadvanceoftheCongress.InDecember1906theAll-IndiaMuslimLeaguewasformed,toprovideaseparateanddistinctplatformforMusliminterestsandaspirations.

ReligiousdivisionsexistedinEuropeaswell.GermanyhadbothProtestantsandCatholics,butbythelatenineteenthcentury,reconcilingthetwoseemedwithintheboundsofpossibility.Hindu—MuslimunityinIndiawasagreaterchallenge.AddingtothedifficultyweretheexistenceofotherrobustreligiouscommunitiesinBritishIndia,suchastheSikhs,theChristians,theParsisandtheJains.

AnequallygreatchallengetoasingleIndiannationalitywasdivisionsbylanguage.TheEnglishhad,withintheirnationalborders,successfullypromotedtheirownlanguageattheexpenseofWelshandCeltic.ButthemajorIndianlanguageswerespokenbytensofmillionsofpeople.Eachwaswritteninadifferentscript;eachhadaveryoldandveryrichliterarytradition.Howcouldasinglecommonlanguagebemadeacceptabletoall?

Addingtothediversitiesoffaithandlanguagewerethedivisionsofcaste,classandgender.Andyetthemovementforacommonnationpersisted.BythetimeoftheFirstWorldWar,therehadbeenthirtyannualmeetingsoftheIndianNationalCongress.Theorganizationremainedlargelymale,largelyHinduand

largelyupper-caste.Ontheotherhand,ithadsomeexceptionalindividuals,aswellasinstitutionalstayingpower.AnditwasactiveinmostcitiesandtownsofBritishIndia.

ThreeeventsoutsideIndiahelpedenergizetheCongressfurther—theIrishHomeRuleBillof1914,theBolshevikRevolutioninRussiain1917,andtheVersaillesConferenceof1919.SincetheIrishwereconcededself-governmentbytheBritish,IndiansdemandedthesamefromtheBritish.(Unsurprisingly,variousHomeRuleLeaguessprangupinthesubcontinentsoonafterwards.)ThevictoryoftheBolshevikswaswidelyseenasavictoryfortheunderdog,whichnaturallyincludedsubjectpeoples.AndinVersaillesin1919theAmericanpresident,WoodrowWilson,hadspokensympatheticallyoftherightsofthosewholivedincolonies,evenifheusedtheeuphemism‘autonomousdevelopment’ratherthan‘independence’or‘nationalsovereignty’.

BytheendoftheFirstWorldWar,theIndianNationalCongresswasnolongeragentleman’sdebatingclubbutagenuinemassmovement.LessthanahundreddelegateshadattendedthefirstCongressinBombayin1885;over7,000attendedtheAmritsarCongressof1919,whilemorethan14,000cametotheNagpurCongressthenextyear.Eachdelegaterepresentedorspokeforthousandsofordinarypartyworkers.ThehistorianGopalKrishnahasestimatedthatby1921,theCongresshadmorethan1.5millionmembers,whocamefromallpartsofIndia.

TheCongresshadreachedbeyondtheanglicizedelitetothevernacularmiddleclass;anditwassoontopenetrateevendeeper.Thepopularcampaignsitorganizedinthe1920sand1930sresonateddeeplywithpeasantsacrossthecountry,whoparticipatedinlargenumbersinthesemovements.(Admittedly,theywereattractednotsomuchbyabstractidealssuchas‘nationalism’and‘freedom’butbytheopportunitytodemandconcreteconcessionsfromtherulers,suchaslowertaxesandthefreedomoftheforest.)

TheBritishnowrealizedthattheyhadtoprogressivelydevolvepowertoIndians.Themoredie-hardimperialists(suchasWinstonChurchill),whothoughtthatthesunwouldneversetontheBritishEmpire,foundthemselvesinaminority.Theclimateofthetime,withinandoutsideIndia,wasinfavourofself-government.Tobesure,therulerscouldstilldelayanddilutetheprocess.Thus,Indianrepresentationingovernmentbodieswasincreasedinsmalldosesandwithspecialprovisionsforminorities.TheintentionwastomaintainBritishcontrolatthehigherlevelsofgovernmentforaslongaspossible.Throughaseriesofreformsinthe1920sand1930s,Indianswereelectedtolegislative

councilsandallowedtoformministriesintheprovinces,theseworkingundertheclosesupervisionofBritishgovernorsandwiththeimplementationoftheirpoliciesinthehandsofBritishcivilservants.

Meanwhile,thepoliticalawarenessofIndianswasbeingintensifiedbythegrowthoftertiaryeducationandbyaveryactivepress.Newcollegesanduniversitieswereestablished,whoseproductscomparedandcontrastedEuropeanidealsoflibertywithconditionsinthecolonies.Theinterwarperiodalsowitnessedamassiveexpansioninthepublicationofnewspapersandmagazines.Thereweredailynewspaperspublishedineverycity,andineverylanguage,thesereadbytheever-growingnumbersofliterates.Thebetterjournalswereverygoodindeed.Apartfromon-the-groundreportage,theycarriedanalyticaleditorialsandpaidcloseattentiontopopularculture.

Ihavecalledthispartofthebook‘NurturingaNation’.From1917,whenheorganizedhisfirstcampaign,to1947,whenhiscountryfinallybecameindependent,onemanwasatthecentreofdebatesaboutthenation-in-the-making,namely,MohandasK.Gandhi.Naturally,hedominatesthepagesthatfollow,whichjuxtapose,againstGandhi’swritingsonmajorquestionsofpoliticsandsocialreform,thewritingsofhiscriticsandcontemporaries.

ChapterSeven

TheMultipleAgendasofM.K.Gandhi

InJanuary1915MohandasK.GandhireturnedtohishomelandaftertwodecadesinSouthAfrica.BornonthewestcoastofIndiain1869,GandhistudiedlawinLondonandbrieflypractisedasalawyerinBombayandRajkotbeforeleavingforDurbanin1893.HelivedinthatcityandinJohannesburg,fightingcasesforhisIndianclientsandincreasinglybeingdrawnintosocialactivism.In1896hepublishedalongpamphletontheconditionofIndianimmigrantsinSouthAfrica.Thiswasthefirstofmanyinterventionsagainstlawsthatrestrictedthefreedomofmovementandthefreedomtotradeforthosewhowerenotwhites.Gandhi’sprotestsagainstracialdiscriminationtooktheformofnewspaperarticlesandeditorials,petitionstogovernment,casesincourtandmasscampaignsofnonviolentprotest,orsatyagraha.

InSouthAfrica,GandhiwasadiasporicleaderwhosereachandinfluencewasrestrictedtothehundredthousandorsoIndianswholivedthere.Withinfouryearsofhisreturn,however,Gandhihadbecomethemostfamous—aswellasmostcontroversial—personinasubcontinentwhosepopulationwasintheregionof300million.In1917and1918heledlocalizedprotestsagainstspecificgrievancesofpeasantsandworkers;in1919heorganizedsatyagrahasinthemajorcitiesofBritishIndiaagainstarestrictivenewlegislationknownastheRowlattAct;andin1920helaunchedacountrywidecampaignof‘non-co-operation’againstBritishcolonialrule.

GandhilikedtorefertoGopalKrishnaGokhaleashis‘guru’.HehadcertainlybeeninfluencedbythePoonareformer,whoseprogrammesofHindu—Muslimunityandtheupliftofthedepressedcasteshealsomadehisown.GokhalehadtakenakeeninterestinGandhi’sworkinSouthAfricaandevenvisitedhiminthatcountry.Gandhiwassuitablygrateful;atthesametime,hewaskeenlyawareofthepotentialoftheapproachofGokhale’smainrival,BalGangadharTilak.Fortuitously,GandhiwasinBombaywhenTilakdiedin1920andabletoaccompanythebodytothecremation.Thiswasseenbysome,notunreasonably,asapassingofthebaton.ForhispenchantformassactionwasnotunlikeTilak’s;andhewaslikewiseamilitantopponentofcolonialrule.

Gandhiwasinfluenced,andpossiblyinspired,bybothGokhaleandTilak.Likethem,heowedacloseallegiancetotheIndianNationalCongress.Heborrowedfromeach,yethisownprogrammewasbynomeansameremixtureofTilak’sandGokhale’s.Thetheoryandpracticeofsatyagrahahedevelopedwhollyonhisown.Again,whereGokhaleandTilakwereessentiallyurbanleadersfromwesternIndia,Gandhi’sappealcutacrossboundariesofcaste,class,regionandlanguage.Hisadoptionofadressmadeofhomespuncotton

andhisgenerallyfrugallifestyleallowedhimtocomemuchclosertothepeasantswhoformedthebulkofIndia’spopulation.Atthesametime,GandhialsodidfarmorethanhispredecessorstodeepentheorganizationalbaseoftheCongress,drawinginmanynewmembers,amongthemyoungmenandwomen,andextendingtheparty’sreachtovirtuallyallpartsofthecountry,theprincelystatesnotexcluded.ThedemocratizationoftheCongresswasfacilitatedbyakeyinnovationofGandhi’s,whichwastoencourageregionalcommitteesbasedonlanguage,suchthattheproceedingsattheprovinciallevelwereconductednotinEnglishbutinthemothertongue.

Gandhiledandorganizedthreemajorcampaignsagainstcolonialrule.Thesewerethenon-cooperationmovementofthe1920s,thecivildisobediencemovementofthe1930s(whosehighlightwashismarchtotheseatomakesalt,thenastatemonopoly)andtheQuitIndiamovementofthe1940s.Throughthesecampaigns,Gandhicametospendextendedperiodsinjail,thesufferingandsacrificefurtherincreasinghispopularity.Themovementswereimportant,butnotnecessarilymoresothanGandhi’sprogrammesofsocialreformandeconomicrenewal.Amonghisabidingconcernsweretheabolitionofuntouchability;thepromotionofHindu—Muslimharmony;theupliftofwomen;andtherevivalofthevillageandartisanaleconomy.InhisashramsinAhmedabad(wherehewasbasedbetween1915and1930)andnearWardha(wherehemovedin1934),hetrainedhundredsofmenandwomentotaketheseprogrammesfurther.

TheanthologistofGandhi’swritingsisspoiltforchoice.TheCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhiruntomorethanninetyvolumes,inawell-annotatedserieseditedbyateamofscholarsheadedbyaformerprofessorofEnglishliterature,K.Swaminathan.Allhislife,whilehewasthinkingandacting,Gandhiwasalsowriting.HisfirstappearanceinprintwasinthejournaloftheVegetarianSocietyofLondon,whichin1890publishedasix-partseriesbyhimonIndianfoodhabits.In1903hefoundedhisownjournal,IndianOpinion,muchofwhichhewrotehimself.OnhisreturntoIndiaheeditedajournalcalledYoungIndia(publishedbetween1919and1932)andthenanothercalledHarijan,whichheranfrom1933untilhisdeath.Gandhialsowroteextensivelyinhismothertongue,Gujarati,andpublishedseveralbooks,amongthemtwovolumesofautobiography.Herepliedtoeveryletterhereceived,oftenatlength.Hisspeechesweretranscribedverbatimandofcourse,theolderandmorefamoushebecame,themoreinterviewshegavetothepress.

InbothGujaratiandEnglish,Gandhiwroteaclear,direct,unadornedprose.

AshiseditorK.Swaminathanpointsout,‘Gandhi’sliterarystyleisanaturalexpressionofhisdemocratictemper.Thereisnoconsciousornamentation,noobtrusivetrickofstylecallingattentiontoitself.Thestyleisablendofthemodernmannerofanindividualsharinghisideasandexperienceswithhisreaders,andtheimpersonalmanneroftheIndiantraditioninwhichthethoughtismoreimportantthanthepersonexpoundingit.ThesenseofequalitywiththecommonmanisthemarkofGandhi’sstyleandtheburdenofhisteaching.TofeelandappreciatethisessenceofGandhitheman,inhiswritingsandspeeches,isthebesteducationfortruedemocracy.’

MohandasK.GandhiwasmurderedbyaHindufanaticon30January1948.

ThePowerofNonViolenceIn1909GandhiwroteacritiqueofcolonialismandWesterncivilization

calledHindSwaraj(IndianHomeRule).Perhapsthemostvaluableandenduringpartsofthispolemicrelatetothetheoryandpracticeofnonviolence.Intheexcerptthatfollows,Gandhiistheeditor,whoanswersthequeriesanddoubtsofareader.1

READER:Isthereanyhistoricalevidenceastothesuccessofwhatyouhavecalledsoul-forceortruth-force?Noinstanceseemstohavehappenedofanynationhavingrisenthroughsoul-force.Istillthinkthattheevil-doerswillnotceasedoingevilwithoutphysicalpunishment.

EDITOR:…Theforceofloveisthesameastheforceofthesoulortruth.Wehaveevidenceofitsworkingateverystep.Theuniversewoulddisappearwithouttheexistenceofthatforce.Butyouaskforhistoricalevidence.Itis,therefore,necessarytoknowwhathistorymeans.TheGujaratiequivalent[oftheEnglishword‘history’]means:‘Itsohappened.’Ifthatisthemeaningofhistory,itispossibletogivecopiousevidence.But,ifitmeansthedoingsofkingsandemperors,therecanbenoevidenceofsoul-forceorpassiveresistanceinsuchhistory.Youcannotexpectsilver-oreinatin-mine.History,asweknowit,isarecordofthewarsoftheworld,andsothereisaproverbamongEnglishmenthatanationwhichhasnohistory,thatis,nowars,isahappynation.Howkingsplayed,howtheybecameenemiesofoneanother,andhowtheymurderedoneanotherisfoundaccuratelyrecordedinhistory,and,ifthiswereallthathadhappenedintheworld,itwouldhavebeenendedlongago.Ifthestoryoftheuniversehadcommencedwithwars,notamanwouldhavebeenfoundalivetoday.Thosepeoplewhohavebeenwarredagainsthavedisappeared,as,forinstance,thenativesofAustralia,ofwhomhardlyamanwasleftalivebytheintruders.Mark,please,thatthesenativesdidnotusesoul-forceinself-defence,anditdoesnotrequiremuchforesighttoknowthattheAustralianswillsharethesamefateastheirvictims.Thosethatwieldtheswordshallperishbythesword.Withus,theproverbisthatprofessionalswimmerswillfindawaterygrave.

Thefactthattherearesomanymenstillaliveintheworldshowsthatitisbasednotontheforceofarmsbutontheforceoftruthorlove.Therefore,thegreatestandmostunimpeachableevidenceofthesuccessofthisforceistobefoundinthefactthat,inspiteofthewarsoftheworld,itstillliveson.

Thousands,indeedtensofthousands,dependfortheirexistenceonaveryactiveworkingofthisforce.Littlequarrelsofmillionsoffamiliesintheirdailylivesdisappearbeforetheexerciseofthisforce.Hundredsofnationslivein

peace.Historydoesnot,andcannot,takenoteofthisfact.Historyisreallyarecordofeveryinterruptionoftheevenworkingoftheforceofloveorofthesoul.Twobrothersquarrel;oneofthemrepentsandre-awakensthelovethatwaslyingdormantinhim;thetwoagainbegintoliveinpeace;nobodytakesnoteofthis.But,ifthetwobrothers,throughtheinterventionofsolicitorsorsomeotherreason,takeuparmsorgotolaw—whichisanotherformoftheexhibitionofbruteforce—theirdoingswouldbeimmediatelynoticedinthepress,theywouldbethetalkoftheirneighbours,andwouldprobablygodowntohistory.Andwhatistrueoffamiliesandcommunitiesistrueofnations.Thereisnoreasontobelievethatthereisonelawforfamiliesandanotherfornations.History,then,isarecordofaninterruptionofthecourseofnature.Soul-force,beingnatural,isnotnotedinhistory.

READER:Accordingtowhatyousay,itisplainthatinstancesofthiskindofpassiveresistancearenottobefoundinhistory.Itisnecessarytounderstandthispassiveresistancemorefully.Itwillbebetter,therefore,ifyouenlargeuponit.

EDITOR:Passiveresistanceisamethodofsecuringrightsbypersonalsuffering;itisthereverseofresistancebyarms.WhenIrefusetodoathingthatisrepugnanttomyconscience,Iusesoul-force.Forinstance,thegovernmentofthedayhaspassedalawwhichisapplicabletome.Idonotlikeit.If,byusingviolence,Iforcethegovernmenttorepealthelaw,Iamemployingwhatmaybetermedbody-force.IfIdonotobeythelaw,andacceptthepenaltyforitsbreach,Iusesoul-force.Itinvolvessacrificeofself…

READER:Youwouldthendisregardlaws—thisisrankdisloyalty.Wehavealwaysbeenconsideredalaw-abidingnation…

EDITOR:…Amanwhohasrealizedhismanhood,whofearsonlyGod,willfearnooneelse.Man-madelawsarenotnecessarilybindingonhim.Eventhegovernmentdonotexpectanysuchthingfromus.Theydonotsay:‘Youmustdosuchandsuchathing’buttheysay:‘Ifyoudonotdoit,wewillpunishyou.’Wearesunksolow,thatwefancythatitisourdutyandourreligiontodowhatthelawlaysdown.Ifmanwillonlyrealizethatitisunmanlytoobeylawsthatareunjust,noman’styrannywillenslavehim.Thisisthekeytoself-ruleorhome-rule…

READER:Fromwhatyousay,Ideducethatpassiveresistanceisasplendidweaponoftheweak,butthat,whentheyarestrong,theymaytakeuparms.

EDITOR:Thisisgrossignorance.Passiveresistance,thatis,soul-force,ismatchless.Itissuperiortotheforceofarms.How,then,canitbeconsidered

onlyaweaponoftheweak?Physical-forcemenarestrangerstothecouragethatis[required]inapassiveresister…Whatdoyouthink?Whereiniscouragerequired—inblowingotherstopiecesfrombehindacannonorwithasmilingfacetoapproachacannonandtobeblowntopieces?Whoisthetruewarrior—hewhokeepsdeathalwaysasabosom-friendorhewhocontrolsthedeathofothers?Believemethatamandevoidofcourageandmanhoodcanneverbeapassiveresister.

This,however,Iwilladmit:thatevenamanweakinbodyiscapableofofferingthisresistance.Onemancanofferitjustaswellasmillions.Bothmenandwomencanindulgeinit.Itdoesnotrequirethetrainingofanarmy;itneedsnoJiu-jitsu.Controloverthemindisalonenecessary,and,whenthatisattained,manisfreelikethekingoftheforest,andhisveryglancewitherstheenemy.

Passiveresistanceisanall-sidedsword;itcanbeusedanyhow;itblesseshimwhousesitandhimagainstwhomitisused.Withoutdrawingadropofblood,itproducesfar-reachingresults…Itisstrangeindeedthatyoushouldconsidersuchaweapontobeaweaponmerelyoftheweak.

READER:YouhavesaidthatpassiveresistanceisaspecialityofIndia.HavecannonsneverbeenusedinIndia?

EDITOR:Evidently,inyouropinion,Indiameansitsfewprinces.Tome,itmeansitsteemingmillions,onwhomdependstheexistenceofitsprincesandourown.

Kingswillalwaysusetheirkinglyweapons.Touseforceisbredinthem.Theywanttocommand,butthosewhohavetoobeycommands,donotwantguns;andtheseareinamajoritythroughouttheworld.Theyhavetolearneitherbody-forceorsoul-force.Wheretheylearntheformer,boththerulersandtheruledbecomelikesomanymadmen,but,wheretheylearnsoul-force,thecommandsoftherulersdonotgobeyondthepointoftheirswords,fortruemendisregardunjustcommands.Peasantshaveneverbeensubduedbythesword,andneverwillbe.Theydonotknowtheuseofthesword,andtheyarenotfrightenedbytheuseofitbyothers.Thatnationisgreatwhichrestsitsheadupondeathasitspillow.Thosewhodefydeatharefreefromallfear.Forthosewhoarelabouringunderthedelusivecharmsofbruteforce,thispictureisnotover-drawn.Thefactisthat,inIndia,thenationatlargehasgenerallyusedpassiveresistanceinalldepartmentsoflife.Weceasetocooperatewithourrulerswhentheydispleaseus.Thisispassiveresistance.

Irememberaninstancewhen,inasmallprincipality,thevillagerswereoffendedbysomecommandissuedbytheprince.Theformerimmediatelybegan

vacatingthevillage.Theprincebecamenervous,apologizedtohissubjectsandwithdrewhiscommand.ManysuchinstancescanbefoundinIndia.Realhomeruleispossibleonlywherepassiveresistanceistheguidingforceofthepeople.Anyotherruleisforeignrule.

READER:Fromwhatyousay,then,itwouldappearthatitisnotasmallthingtobecomeapassiveresister,and,ifthatisso,Iwouldlikeyoutoexplainhowamanmaybecomeapassiveresister.

EDITOR:Tobecomeapassiveresisteriseasyenough,butitisalsoequallydifficult.Ihaveknownaladoffourteenyearsbecomeapassiveresister;Ihaveknownalsosickpeopledoinglikewise;andIhavealsoknownphysicallystrongandotherwisehappypeoplebeingunabletotakeuppassiveresistance.Afteragreatdealofexperience,itseemstomethatthosewhowanttobecomepassiveresistersfortheserviceofthecountryhavetoobserveperfectchastity,adoptpoverty,followtruth,andcultivatefearlessness.

Chastityisoneofthegreatestdisciplineswithoutwhichthemindcannotattainrequisitefirmness.Amanwhoisunchastelosesstamina,becomesemasculatedandcowardly.Hewhosemindisgivenovertoanimalpassionsisnotcapableofanygreateffort.Thiscanbeprovedbyinnumerableinstances.What,then,isamarriedpersontodo,isthequestionthatarisesnaturally;andyetitneednot.Whenahusbandandwifegratifythepassions,itisnolessananimalindulgenceonthataccount.Suchanindulgence,exceptforperpetuatingtherace,isstrictlyprohibited.Butapassiveresisterhastoavoideventhatverylimitedindulgence,becausehecanhavenodesireforprogeny.Amarriedman,therefore,canobserveperfectchastity…Severalquestionsarise:Howisonetocarryone’swifewithone?Whatareherrights,andothersuchquestions?Yetthosewhowishtotakepartinagreatworkareboundtosolvethesepuzzles.

Justasthereisnecessityforchastity,soisthereforpoverty.Pecuniaryambitionandpassiveresistancecannotwellgotogether.Thosewhohavemoneyarenotexpectedtothrowitaway,buttheyareexpectedtobeindifferentaboutit.Theymustbepreparedtoloseeverypennyratherthangiveuppassiveresistance.

Passiveresistancehasbeendescribedinthecourseofourdiscussionastruth-force.Truth,therefore,hasnecessarilytobefollowed,andthatatanycost.Inthisconnection,academicquestionssuchaswhetheramanmaynotlieinordertosavealife,etc.,arise,butthesequestionsoccuronlytothosewhowishtojustifylying.Thosewhowanttofollowtrutheverytimearenotplacedinsuchaquandary,and,iftheyare,theyarestillsavedfromafalseposition.

Passiveresistancecannotproceedastepwithoutfearlessness.Thosealonecanfollowthepathofpassiveresistancewhoarefreefromfear,whetherastotheirpossessions,falsehonour,theirrelatives,thegovernment,bodilyinjuries,death.

Non-CooperationWiththeRajIn1919aBritishgeneralorderedhistroopstofireonagroupofunarmed

protestersinthePunjabtownofAmritsar.Morethan400peoplewerekilled.ThismassacrelentgreatmomentumtoGandhi’scampaignagainstcolonialrule.Bythistime,hehadmadecommoncausewithMuslimsupsetovertheabolition,underBritishdirection,oftheIslamicCaliphate(orKhilafat).GandhinowcalledfortherestorationoftheKhilafatandfornon-cooperationwiththerulers.Thenextexcerpt,fromaspeechonthebeachinMadrasinAugust1920,outlinesthisnewpoliticalcredo.Acrowdof50,000heardthisspeech—manymorewouldhaveheardofitthroughwordofmouthorreadaboutitinthenewspapers.2

…Whatisthisnon-co-operationaboutwhichyouhaveheardmuch,andwhydowewanttoofferthisnon-co-operation?Iwishtogoforthetimebeingintothewhy.Therearetwothingsbeforethiscountry.ThefirstandtheforemostistheKhilafatquestion.OnthistheheartoftheMussulmansofIndiahasbecomelacerated.Britishpledges,givenafterthegreatestdeliberationbythePrimeMinisterofEnglandinthenameoftheEnglishnation,havebeendraggedintothemire.ThepromisesgiventoMoslemIndia,onthestrengthofwhichtheconsiderationthatwasacceptedbytheBritishnationwasexacted,havebeenbrokenandthegreatreligionofIslamhasbeenplacedindanger.TheMussulmanshold—andIventuretothinktheyrightlyhold—thatsolongasBritishpromisesremainunfulfilledsolongisitimpossibleforthemtotenderwholeheartedfealtyandloyaltytotheBritishconnection;and,ifitistobeachoiceforadevoutMussulmanbetweenloyaltytotheBritishconnectionandloyaltytohisCodeandProphet,hewillnotrequireasecondtomakehischoiceandhehasdeclaredhischoice…

Itisaquestion,then,fortherestoftheIndianpopulationtoconsiderwhethertheywanttoperformaneighbourlydutybytheirMussulmancountrymenand,iftheydo,theyhaveanopportunityofalifetimewhichwillnotoccurforanotherhundredyears,toshowtheirgoodwill,fellowshipandfriendshipandtoprovewhattheyhavebeensayingforalltheselongyearsthattheMussulmanisthebrotheroftheHindu.IftheHinduregardsthatbeforetheconnectionwiththeBritishnationcomeshisnaturalconnectionwithhisMoslembrother,thenIsaytoyouthatifyoufindthattheMoslemclaimisjust,thatitisbaseduponrealsentiment,andthatatitsbackgroundisthisgreatreligiousfeeling,youcannotdootherwisethanhelptheMussulmansthroughandthroughsolongastheircauseremainsjustandthemeansforattainingtheendremainsequallyjust,

honourableandfreefromharmtoIndia…ItisthenforHindusandMussulmanstoofferaunitedfronttothewholeoftheChristianpowersofEuropeandtellthemthatweakasIndiais,Indiahasstillgotthecapacityofpreservingherself-respect,shestillknowshowtodieforherreligionandforherself-respect.

ThatistheKhilafatinanutshell;butyouhavealsogotthePunjab.ThePunjabhaswoundedtheheartofIndiaasnootherquestionhasforthepastcentury.IdonotexcludefrommycalculationtheMutinyof1857.WhateverhardshipsIndiahadtosufferduringtheMutiny,theinsultthatwasattemptedtobeofferedtoherduringthepassageoftheRowlattlegislation,andthatwhichwasofferedafteritspassage,wereunparalleledinIndianhistory.ItisbecauseyouwantjusticefromtheBritishnationinconnectionwiththePunjabatrocities,youhavetodevisewaysandmeansastohowyoucangetthisjustice.TheHouseofCommons,theHouseofLords,Mr.Montagu,3theViceroyofIndia,everyoneofthemknowswhatthefeelingofIndiaisonthisKhilafatquestionandonthatofthePunjab;thedebatesinboththeHousesofParliament,theactionofMr.MontaguandthatoftheViceroyhavedemonstratedtoyoucompletelythattheyarenotwillingtogivethejusticewhichisIndia’sdueandwhichshedemands.IsuggestthatourleadershavegottofindawayoutofthisgreatdifficultyandunlesswehavemadeourselvesevenwiththeBritishrulersinIndia,andunlesswehavegainedameasureofself-respectatthehandsoftheBritishrulersinIndia,noconnectionandnofriendlyintercourseispossiblebetweenthemandourselves.I,therefore,venturetosuggestthisbeautifulunanswerablemethodofnon-co-operation.

Ihavebeentoldthatnon-co-operationisunconstitutional.Iventuretodenythatitisunconstitutional.Onthecontrary,Iholdthatnon-co-operationisajustandreligiousdoctrine;itistheinherentrightofeveryhumanbeinganditisperfectlyconstitutional.AgreatloveroftheBritishEmpirehassaidthatundertheBritishConstitution,evenasuccessfulrebellionisperfectlyconstitutionalandhequoteshistoricalinstanceswhichIcannotdenyinsupportofhisclaim.Idonotclaimanyconstitutionalityforarebellionsuccessfulorotherwisesolongasthatrebellionmeansintheordinarysenseofthetermwhatitdoesmean,namely,wrestingjusticebyviolentmeans.Onthecontrary,Ihavesaiditrepeatedlytomycountrymenthatviolence,whateverenditmayserveinEurope,willneverserveusinIndia…

AssoonasIndiaacceptsthedoctrineofthesword,mylifeasanIndianisfinished.ItisbecauseIbelieveinamissionspecialtoIndia,anditisbecauseIbelievethattheancientsofIndia,aftercenturiesofexperience,havefoundout

thatthetruethingforanyhumanbeingonearthisnotjusticebasedonviolencebutjusticebasedonsacrificeofself,justicebasedonyajnaandkurbani4—IclingtothatdoctrineandIshallclingtoitforever…Ibelievethatamanisthestrongestsoldierfordaringtodieunarmedwithhisbreastbarebeforetheenemy.Somuchforthenonviolentpartofnon-cooperation.I,therefore,venturetosuggesttomylearnedcountrymenthatsolongasthedoctrineofnon-co-operationremainsnonviolent,solongthereisnothingunconstitutionalinthedoctrine.

Iaskfurther,isitunconstitutionalformetosaytotheBritishGovernment,‘Irefusetoserveyou’?…IsitunconstitutionalforanyparenttowithdrawhischildrenfromaGovernmentoraidedschool?Isitunconstitutionalforalawyertosay,‘Ishallnolongersupportthearmofthelawsolongasthatarmoflawisusednottoraisemebuttodebaseme’?Isitunconstitutionalforacivilservantorforajudgetosay,‘IrefusetoserveaGovernmentwhichdoesnotwishtorespectthewishesofthewholepeople’?Iask,isitunconstitutionalforapolicemanorforasoldiertotenderhisresignationwhenheknowsthatheiscalledtoserveaGovernmentwhichtraducesitsowncountrymen?Isitunconstitutionalformetogotothekrishak,totheagriculturist,andsaytohim,‘Itisnotwiseforyoutopayanytaxes,ifthesetaxesareusedbytheGovernmentnottoraiseyoubuttoweakenyou’?IholdandIventuretosubmitthatthereisnothingunconstitutionalinit…

Isubmitthatinthewholeplanofnon-co-operationthereisnothingunconstitutional.ButIdoventuretosuggestthatitwillbehighlyunconstitutional…forthepeopleofIndiatobecomeweakandtocrawlontheirbelly—itwillbehighlyunconstitutionalforthepeopleofIndiatopocketeveryinsultthatisofferedtothem;itishighlyunconstitutionalforthe70millionsofMohammedansofIndiatosubmittoaviolentwrongdonetotheirreligion;itishighlyunconstitutionalforthewholeofIndiatositstillandcooperatewithanunjustGovernmentwhichhastroddenunderitsfeetthehonourofthePunjab;Isaytomycountrymen:‘Solongasyouhaveasenseofhonourandsolongasyouwishtoremainthedescendantsanddefendersofthenobletraditionsthathavebeenhandedtoyouforgenerationsaftergenerations,itisunconstitutionalforyounottonon-co-operateandunconstitutionalforyoutocooperatewithagovernmentwhichhasbecomesounjustasourGovernmenthasbecome.’

Iamnotanti-English;Iamnotanti-British;Iamnotanti-anygovernment;butIamanti-untruth—anti-humbugandanti-injustice…SolongastheGovernmentspellsinjustice,itmayregardmeasitsenemy,implacableenemy

…YoumayconsiderthatIhavespokenthesewordsinangerbecauseIhaveconsideredthewaysofthisGovernmentimmoral,unjust,debasinganduntruthful.Iusetheseadjectiveswiththegreatestdeliberation.IhaveusedthemformyowntruebrotherwithwhomIwasengagedinabattleofnon-co-operationforfull13years,andalthoughtheashescovertheremainsofmybrother,ItellyouthatIusedtotellhimthathewasunjustwhenhisplanswerebaseduponimmoralfoundation.Iusedtotellhimthathedidnotstandfortruth.Therewasnoangerinme.ItoldhimthishometruthbecauseIlovedhim.InthesamemannerItelltheBritishpeoplethatIlovethemandthatIwanttheirassociationbutIwantthatassociationonconditionswelldefined.Iwantmyself-respectandIwantmyabsoluteequalitywiththem.IfIcannotgainthatequalityfromtheBritishpeople,IdonotwanttheBritishconnection.IfIhavetolettheBritishpeoplegoandimporttemporarydisorderanddislocationofnationalbusiness,IwillratherfavourthatdisorderanddislocationthanthatIshouldhaveinjusticefromthehandsofagreatnationsuchastheBritishnation…

Idenybeingavisionary.Idonotaccepttheclaimofsaintliness.Iamoftheearth,earthly,acommongardenermanasmuchasanyoneofyou,probablymuchmorethanyouare.Iampronetoasmanyweaknessesasyouare.ButIhaveseentheworld.Ihavelivedintheworldwithmyeyesopen.Ihavegonethroughthemostfieryordealsthathavefallentothelotofman.Ihavegonethroughthisdiscipline.IhaveunderstoodthesecretofmyownsacredHinduism.Ihavelearntthelessonthatnon-co-operationisthedutynotmerelyofthesaintbutitisthedutyofeveryordinarycitizen,whonotknowingmuch,notcaringtoknowmuch,butwantstoperformhisordinaryhouseholdfunctions.ThepeopleofEuropeteacheventheirmasses,thepoorpeople,thedoctrineofthesword.ButtherishisofIndia,thosewhohaveheldthetraditionsofIndia,havepreachedtothemassesofIndiathedoctrine,notofthesword,notofviolencebutofsuffering,ofself-suffering…

IamaskingmycountrymeninIndiatofollownoothergospelthanthegospelofself-sacrificewhichprecedeseverybattle.Whetheryoubelongtotheschoolofviolenceornonviolence,youwillstillhavetogothroughthefireofsacrificeandofdiscipline.MayGodgrantyou,mayGodgrantourleadersthewisdom,thecourageandthetrueknowledgetoleadthenationtoitscherishedgoal!MayGodgrantthepeopleofIndiatherightpath,thetruevisionandtheabilityandthecouragetofollowthispath,difficultandyeteasy,ofsacrifice.

TheAbolitionofUntouchabilityGandhioftensaidthatIndianswouldnotbedeservingoffreedomfrom

Britishruleunlesstheyhadridthemselvesoftheevilofuntouchability.Heconsistentlyarticulatedthispositionthroughthe1920sand1930s,aswitnesstheexcerptsthatfollow.Thefirstisfromaspeechhedeliveredata‘SuppressedClassesConference’inAhmedabadinApril1921.5

…Hinduismhassinnedingivingsanctiontountouchability.Ithasdegradedus,madeusthepariahsoftheEmpire.EventheMussulmanscaughtthesinfulcontagionfromus,andinS[outh]Africa,inE[ast]AfricaandinCanada,theMussulmansnolessthanHinduscametoberegardedaspariahs.Allthisevilhasresultedfromthesinofuntouchability.

Imayhererecallmyproposition,whichisthis:SolongastheHinduswilfullyregarduntouchabilityaspartoftheirreligion,solongasthemassofHindusconsideritasintotouchasectionoftheirbrethren,Swarajisimpossibleofattainment…

Weareguiltyofhavingsuppressedourbrethren;wemakethemcrawlontheirbellies;wehavemadethemrubtheirnosesontheground;witheyesredwithrage,wepushthemoutofrailwaycompartments—whatmorethanthishasBritishruledone?…Weoughttopurgeourselvesofthispollution.ItisidletotalkofSwarajsolongaswedonotprotecttheweakandhelpless,orsolongasitispossibleforasingleSwarajisttoinjurethefeelingsofanyindividual.SwarajmeansthatnotasingleHinduorMuslimshallforamomentarrogantlythinkthathecancrushwithimpunitymeekHindusorMuslims.UnlessthisconditionisfulfilledwewillgainSwarajonlytoloseitthenextmoment.Wearenobetterthanthebrutesuntilwehavepurgedourselvesofthesinswehavecommittedagainstourweakerbrethren…

ThenextexcerptisfromanarticlewrittenbyGandhiinJanuary1926entitled‘TheCrimeofCaste’.6

InSouthAfricaitisthecrimeofcolourandraceforwhichwe[Indians]arebeingpunished.InIndiaweHinduspunishourcoreligionistsforthecrimeofcaste.Thefifthcaste—thePanchama7—isthegreatestoffenderdeservingthepunishmentofuntouchability,unapproachability,invisibilityandwhatnot.AnextraordinarycasethatwastriedinaMadrasPresidencycourtbringsvividlytolightthesadplightofoursuppressedcountrymen.AsimplecleanlydressedPanchamaenteredatempleinaperfectlydevotionalspiritwithouttheslightestintentionofhurtinganybody’sfeelingorinsultinganyreligion.Hehadbeenin

thehabitofpayinghisrespectsatthistempleeveryyearthoughhedidnotenterit.Butlastyearinhisecstaticmoodheforgothimselfandenteredthetemple.Thepriestinchargecouldnotdistinguishhimfromtheothersandthereforeacceptedhisoffering.Butwhenheregainedself-possession,hewasterrifiedtofindhimselfinaprohibitedplaceandranawayfromthetemple.ButsomewhoknewhimcaughthimandhandedhimtothePolice.Thetempleauthoritieswhentheydiscoveredthecrime,hadthetempledulypurified.Thenfollowedatrial.AHinduMagistrateconvictedhimandimposedafineofRs75oronemonth’srigorousimprisonmentforinsultinghisownreligion!Anappealwasfiled.Therewasanelaborateargumentoverit.Judgementhadtobereserved!Andwhenconvictionwassetaside,itwasnotbecausethecourtheldthatthepoorPanchamahadarighttoenterthetemplebutbecausetheprosecutioninthelowercourthadforgottentoprovetheinsult.Thisisnotriumphofjusticeortruthorreligionormorality…

Itisacurioussituation.Weresent,andproperly,thetreatmentmetedouttoourcountrymeninSouthAfrica.WeareimpatienttoestablishSwaraj.ButweHindusrefusetoseetheincongruityintreatingafifthofourowncoreligionistsasworsethandogs.Fordogsarenotuntouchables.Someofusnowadaysevenkeepthemasdrawing-roompets.

Whatplaceshallthe‘untouchables’occupyinourschemeofSwaraj?IftheyaretobefreefromallspecialrestraintsanddisabilitiesunderSwaraj,whycanwenotdeclaretheirfreedomnow?Andifwearepowerlesstoday,shallwebelesspowerfulunderSwaraj?Wemayshutoureyesandstuffourearstothesequestions.ButtheyareofthehighestimportancetothePanchamas.SurelyjudgementwillbepronouncedagainstHinduism,ifweasabodydonotriseasonemanagainstthissocialandreligiousatrocity.

Muchhasnodoubtbeendonetoremovethisevil.Butitisalltoolittlesolongascriminalprosecutionsfortempleentryarepossibleandsolongasthesuppressedclassescontinuetobedeniedtherightofenteringtemples,usingpublicwells,andsendingtheirchildrenfreelytonationalschools.WemustyieldtothemthesamerightsaswewouldhavetheEuropeansconcedetoourcountrymeninSouthAfrica…

Intheearly1930s,thelawyerandactivistB.R.AmbedkaremergedasaleadingspokesmanfortheUntouchables.AmbedkarwasabittercriticofGandhiandtheCongress.Inresponse,Gandhiredoubledhiseffortstoabolishuntouchability.Notably,inthisefforthewasopposednotjustbyAmbedkarites—whothoughthewasgoingtooslow—butalsobyorthodoxHindus—who

thoughtthatuntouchabilityhadadivinesanctionandGandhihadnobusinesstochallengeit.TheUntouchableshadbeenknownvariouslyasDepressedandSuppressedClasses—Gandhinowgavethemanewappellation,‘Harijan’,orChildrenofGod.HealsoformedaHarijanSevakSangh,orSocietyfortheServiceofHarijans.In1933–34Gandhiwentonanall-IndiatourtopressforgreaterrightsforHarijans.TheexcerptthatfollowsisfromhisreplytoadeputationofHarijanswhomhemetinthesouth-easterntownofRajahmundryinDecember1933.8

OneimportantquestionthatyouhaveraisedisthattheHarijanSevakSanghshouldbeprincipallymannedandmanagedbyyou.ThatshowsthatyouhavenotfollowedthepagesoftheHarijan.ThatshowsalsothatyouhavenotunderstoodtheoriginoftheBoard.TheBoardhasbeenformedtoenablesavarna[uppercaste]Hindustodorepentanceandreparationtoyou.ItisthusaBoardofdebtors,andyouarethecreditors.Youowenothingtothedebtors,andtherefore,sofarasthisBoardisconcerned,theinitiativehastocomefromthedebtors.Youhavetocertifywhetherthedebtorsdischargetheirobligationornot.Whatyouhavetodoistoenableandhelpthemtodischargetheirobligations;thatistosay,youcantellthemhowtheycandischargetheirobligation,youcantellthemwhatinyouropinionwillsatisfythegreatbodyofHarijans.Theymayormaynotacceptyouradvice.Iftheydonot,naturallytheyruntheriskofincurringyourdispleasure.Adebtormaygotoacreditorandsaytohim,‘Ihavebroughtsomuchmoney,willyoutakeit?’Thecreditormaysay.‘Offyougo;Iwantfullpaymentornone.’Orthecreditormaysay,‘Whatyouhavebroughtisnotpartpayment,butworse.’Allthesethingsyou,creditors,cando.Andso,whenthisBoardwasestablishedandsomeHarijanfriendswrotetome,ItoldthemthatHarijansshouldformthemselvesintoadvisoryboardsorboardsofinspection.Iwantyoutounderstandthisdistinctionthoroughly.Youwillpleaseseethatthereisnodesirenottoacceptyouradviceorcooperationorhelp.Iamonlyputtingbeforeyouthetrueandlogicalposition.ThisisaperiodofgracethatGodhasgiventocasteHindus,anditisduringthisperiodofgracethattheyhavetoprovetheirsincerity.AndIammovingheavenandearthandamgoingaboutfromplacetoplace,simplyinorderthatthisobligationonthepartofsavarnaHindusmaybefullydischarged.

Thisnextexcerptisfromanarticleentitled‘OurShame’.ItisstrikinghowGandhireproduces,inextensoandinhisownjournal,thesesharpcriticismsofhisworkandmission.Hewasneveronetounderestimatetheuphilltaskofthereformer.9

ReferencehasalreadybeenmadeinthesecolumnstoamemorandumwhichwasreceivedbymeatCoonooronbehalfof‘Adi-HindusofTamilDistricts’.10Itissignedbythirty-sixrepresentativessomeofwhomaremembersofmunicipalcouncilsortaluqboards.Fromthis,Icondensebelowthecatalogueoftheirdisabilities.IncondensingitIhavenotmateriallychangedtheirlanguage.Criticisminterspersedwiththerecitalhasbeenremovedasbeingsuperfluous.Thelistisotherwiseuntouched.

1. Wehavenoaccesstoeating-houses,laundries,shavingsaloons,coffeeandteaclubs,restaurants,choultries[hotels],schools,agraharams[Brahminneighbourhoods],wells,tanks,water-taps,springs,postoffices(locatedinvillages)andotherplacesofpublicresort,nottospeakoftemplesinseveralplaces.

2. Insomeplaces,holdingumbrellas,wearingsandals,wearingdhotisbelowthekneesareconsideredasagreatcrime.WearingjewelsmadeofgoldbyourwomenfolkandusingcleanclothovertheirbodywouldberegardedasanillomenbysomecasteHindus.

3. Wearenotallowedtocarryourdeadwithinparticularunionboardareasalongsidethehighway,simplybecausethereisatempleofadeityontheroad-side.Wearecompelledtocarrythedeadbodythroughapaddyfieldevenwhenthereisknee-deepmireduring[the]rainyseason.

4. TheHeadmanoftheso-calleduntouchableswithinaparticularunionboardareaisnotallowedbythecasteHindustogetonhorsebackandpassalongthehighwayduringhisinvestitureceremonyasHeadmanofthesaidclasses.

5. Insomevillagebazaars,bleachedclothcannotbetouchedbyuswhenwearedesirousofbuyingitforfestivals.

6. Ifcookedbreadorothereatablesaretouchedinbazaarsknowinglyorunknowingly,thewholecostofthefood-stuffwillbeextractedfromourpeopleforthesinoftouchingthem.

7. Sinceaveryhighpercentageofourpeoplelivinginruralareashavenohabitationoftheirowninmostofthedistrictsofthepresidency,butareallowedbysufferancetoliveonthelandsoftheland-owningclasses,anydemandforwagesforworkcontributedbyourpeopleintheirlandsishighlyresentedbytheirmasters.Theydonotgetlivingwagesandthehoursofworkareunlimited.Theseareoftenpaidinunwholesomegrainin

shortmeasures.8. Formarriageoccasionsorprocessionsofourdeity,wecannotgetthe

servicesofcasteHindumusicianswhenwecannotfindsomeamongus.9. Youngmenofourcommunityridingonbicyclesarebeingregarded

withseveredispleasure.Inremotestvillages,jutkas(horsecabs)cannotplyforus,asthecasteHinduownersrefusetotakeus.Thesameisthecasewithmotorbuses.

10. Inpubliclatrines,builtoutofpublicfundsinaparticularmunicipalarea,theso-calleduntouchablesareactivelypreventedfromusingthem.Afteragooddealofassertion,theywereprovidedwithseparatelatrines.

11. Insomeofthedispensariesrununderthecontrolofparticularlocalbodies,ourpeopledonotgetpropertreatmentatthehandsofcasteHindusemployedthere.

12. Inthetemporarywater-shedserectedbycasteHindusduringthehotseason,thedistinctionmadebytheminpouringwatertotheAdi-Hindusfordrinkingpurpose[s]ishighlyintolerableandoffensive.

13. WhenourpeoplegetintolocalbodiesandpanchayatstheorthodoxcasteHindusresigntheirseatsbywayofprotest,andinsomecasesourpeoplearegivenseparateseats.

14. WhenanAdi-Hindurestsonthepial[veranda]infrontofhishouse,heshouldgetupandbowhisheadbeforeacasteHinduandworshiphimwithduevenerationwhenthecasteHinduhappenstopassthatway.IfthiscustomisneglectedbytheAdi-Hindus,theywillbetakentotaskseverelybythecasteHindus.Weareoftenaskedtosetourownhouseinorder.Thisissimplybeggingthequestion.WheretheHindusocietyisonevastsystemofgradationsanddegradationsbasedoncasteandbirth,thereisnouseinaccusingtheso-calleduntouchablesofbeingdividedamongthemselves.Afterall,theso-calleduntouchablesarethemselvesvictimsofcircumstances.

15. Inmunicipalareas,separatewater-tapsaremaintainedwherevercasteHindusobject.

16. Toruralelementaryschoolsmaintainedoutofpublicfundsourchildrenhavenofreeaccess.Whentheyareadmitted,theyaregivenseparateseats,ortheyareaskedtositonthefloor.IfthepupilsapproachthecasteHinduorthodoxteachersemployedthere,knowinglyorunknowingly,toclearsomedoubts,theyarepushedbackbytheteacherswiththehelpofslatesorsticksforfearofpollution.Insomecases,ourchildrenaremadetostand

outsidethemainschoolpremisesinallseasons,inordertoreceiveinstructionthroughthewindow,andhenceourchildrencannotevenseetheblackboard.Whenthelowerelementarycourseiscompletedintheseparateschoolsestablishedforourchildren,wearenotadmittedinthehigherelementaryschoolsrununderthepublicmanagementinthesamevillage.Eventrainedteachersbelongingto[the]Adi-Hinducommunityarenotappointedinsuchhigherelementaryschools.Ourchildrencannotusethecommonlatrine.Itisagreatpitythatevenourrepresentativesservingondifferentlocalbodiesdonotpaysurprisevisitstosuchschools,wherecasteHinduspredominate,forfearofmolestationandendlesstrouble…Inhighschoolsourstudentscannottakedrinkingwaterfromthepotsusedthereduring[the]hotseason;buttheymustdependuponsomecasteHindustudentstopourwaterforouryoungmenandgirls.Evenvesselsarenotgiventoourstudents,butthestudentshavetouseonlytheirhandsasvesselsfordrinking.Tothecommontiffin[eating]roomsourstudentshavenofreeaccess.

17. Inpostofficeslocatedininaccessibleplaces,wecannotpostlettersstraightawayortransactanyotherbusiness.Evenforbuyingpostcards,coversorstamps,wewillhavetostandatagreatdistancefromsuchpostofficesandbegsomecasteHindupassers-bytocomplywithourrequest.Therearetwothingsinvolvedinthis.Firstly,wecannotpassthroughthepublicpathway.Secondly,wearepreventedfromtransactingbusinessstraightawayinthepostoffice.

18. WefeelsorrythatyouraugustpersonhasnottakenbirthintheAdi-Hinducommunitytorealizeourpracticaldifficulties.[emphasisinoriginal.]

Thisisaformidablecatalogue.Thereisnoexaggerationinit,ifoneortwomentalreservationsareunderstood.Everystatementistrueofsomeplace.Nodisabilityisuniversal.Somearerare.Andallarebeingabatedbyvoluntaryeffort…TheshameofcasteHinduswillcontinuesolongasthesedisabilitiesarepracticedinthenameofreligion,nomattertohowlittleorgreatanextent.Itisthecleardutyofsanatanists[orthodoxHindus]socalledtodenouncethedisabilitiesintheseverestpossiblelanguageandjoinhandswiththereformersinprotectingHarijansfromhumiliationheapeduponthemunderthesanctionofreligiouscustom.TheeighteenthgrievancewhichthesignatorieshavespeciallyunderlinedIregardasacomplimentpaidbythemtome.Yes,itisquitepossible

thatIwouldhavefelttheforceoftheseterriblegrievancesmuchmore,hadIbeenbornanAdi-Hindu.Nothavinghadthatluck,Ihavebecomeonebyadoption.Therewillbenorestformenorsociety,solongasuntouchabilitypersists.

WenowexcerptanarticlewhereGandhicontraststwoapproachestoHarijanemancipation,templeentryandeconomicuplift.11

OneseessometimesinthepublicPresscriticismonthetemple-entryquestion.Itisdouble-barrelled,beingdirectedontheonehandbyHarijansandontheotherbysanatanists.SomeoftheHarijanssay,‘Wedonotwanttemple-entry;donotbuildtemples,butuseallyoureceiveforeconomicuplift.’Somesanatanistssay,‘Giveupthetemple-entryquestionaltogether.YouarehurtingourfeelingsbyforcingHarijansintotemples.’Botharewronginsubstance.Notonesinglepiceoutofthepursehasbeenorwillbespentforbuildingtemples.AttemptisbeingmadeonlytohavepublictemplesopenedtoHarijansonthesametermsonwhichtheyareopentotheotherHindus.ItisamatterofchoicefortheHarijanstovisitornottovisitthem;savarnaHindushavetoliftthebaragainstHarijans.Forthosemillionswhoregardtemplesastreasure-chestsofspiritualwealth,theyarelivingrealitieswhichtheyholddearaslifeitself.IftheyaretrulyrepentanttowardsHarijans,theymustsharethesetreasureswiththelatter.IknowwhattheopeningoftemplesmeanstoHarijans.Onlylastweek,betweenDharwarandBelgaum,IopenedthreetemplestoHarijansinthepresenceofcrowdsofsavarnaHindusandHarijans.IfcriticshadbeenpresentattheopeningandnoticedthepleasureonthecountenancesoftheHarijanspresentastheybowedbeforetheimageandreceivedtheprasad,theircriticismwouldhavebeensilenced.Harijancriticswouldhaverealizedthat,apartfromthemselves,Harijansatlargediddesiretemple-entry.Sanatanistcriticswouldhaverealizedthattemples,wherevertheywereopened,werebeingopenedwiththefullestconcurrenceofthetemple-goersconcernedandinthepresenceofcrowdsofthem.Nohole-and-corneropeningcandoanygoodwhatsoevertoHinduism.Tobeofspiritualoranyvalueatall,theopeninghastobeperformedwithduepublicity,solemnityandthewillingconsentoftheexistingtemple-goers,andnotofsuchself-styledreformersashavenofaithorinterestintemplesandforwhomtemplesmayevenbeasuperstition.Temple-entryagitationrequiresnofinancialoutlay,itdoesnotlenditselftoagitationexceptbyafewworkerswhohavefaithintemplesandwhosewordwouldcommandattentionfromthemasssavarnamind.Itis,therefore,aquestionthatcanonlybeandisbeinggentlyandcautiouslyhandled.Theonlyinsistenceisontheright

andthedutyofthebelievingreformeradvocatingtemple-entryandshowingthatwithoutitthereformationwillnotonlybeincompletebutfruitless.For,withouttemplesbeingfreelyopentoHarijans,untouchabilitycouldnotbesaidtohavebeenremovedrootandbranch.

Asfortheeconomicuplift,itisaltogetherwrongtoputitinoppositiontotemple-entry.Temple-entrycanonlyhelpsuchuplift.For,whenHarijansarefreelyadmittedtotemples,alltheavenuestoeconomicbettermentmustbeautomaticallyopentoHarijansastoothers.Sofarasthemoneysreceivedareconcerned,theywillallbeusedonlyforeconomicuplift,ifitisadmittedthateducationalupliftalsomeanseconomic,inthatitmakestheeducatedHarijanfitterforrunninglife’srace.Iamawarethateducationamongthesavarnashasoftenrenderedthemlessfitfortherace.Butthathasbeenso,becausetheireducationhasmeantcontemptforlabour.ThereisnotmuchdangerofsuchamishapwiththegeneralbodyofHarijansforsometimetocomeatleast.Andthedangercanbeavertedaltogether,ifthosewhoareinchargeofthemovementwilltakecaretopurgeHarijaneducationoftheevilsofthecurrentmethod,whichignoresthetechnicalsideforthemostpart,ifnotaltogether.

Hindu-MuslimUnityandInter-FaithDialogueGandhihadgonetoSouthAfricaattheinvitationofaMuslimmerchant.In

thatcountry,hismainclients,andintimehismainsupporters,wereMuslims.Fromthefirst,hewasdeeplycommittedtofosteringbetterrelationsbetweenHindusandMuslims.ThiscommitmenthecarriedoverintohisworkinIndia.InApril1919hedraftedthis‘vowofHindu—MuslimUnity’,hundredsofthousandsofcopiesofwhichwereprintedanddistributedasa‘satyagrahaleaflet’.12

…IftheHinduandMuslimcommunitiescouldbeunitedinonebondofmutualfriendship,andifeachcouldacttowardstheotherevenaschildrenofthesamemother,itwouldbeaconsummationdevoutlytobewished.Butbeforethisunitybecomesareality,boththecommunitieswillhavetogiveupagooddeal,andwillhavetomakeradicalchangesinideasheldheretofore.Membersofonecommunitywhentalkingaboutthoseoftheotherattimesindulgeintermssovulgarthattheybut[ex]acerbatetherelationsbetweenthetwo.

InHindusocietywedonothesitatetoindulgeinunbecominglanguagewhentalkingoftheMahomedansandviceversa.ManybelievethataningrainedandineradicableanimosityexistsbetweentheHindusandMahomedans.Inmanyplacesweseethateachcommunityharboursdistrustagainsttheother.Eachfearstheother.Itisanundoubtedfactthatthisanomalousandwretchedstateofthingsisimprovingdaybyday…Buttheobjectoftakingavowisspeedilytobringabout,bythepowerofself-denial,astateofthingswhichcanonlybeexpectedtocomeinthefullnessoftime.Howisthispossible?MeetingsshouldbecalledofHindus—ImeantheorthodoxHindus—wherethisquestionshouldbeseriouslyconsidered.ThestandingcomplaintoftheHindusagainsttheMussulmansisthatthelatterarebeef-eatersandthattheypurposelysacrificecowsontheBakr-i-Idday.NowitisimpossibletounitetheHindusandMahomedanssolongastheHindusdonothesitatetokilltheirMahomedanbrethreninordertoprotectacow.ForIthinkitisfutiletoexpectthatourviolencewillevercompeltheMahomedanstorefrainfromcow-slaughter.Idonotbelievetheeffortsofourcow-protectionsocietieshaveavailedintheleasttolessenthenumberofcowskilledeveryday.Ihavehadnoreasontobelieveso.IbelievemyselftobeanorthodoxHinduanditismyconvictionthatnoonewhoscrupulouslypracticestheHindureligionmaykillacow-killertoprotectacow.ThereisoneandonlyonemeansopentoaHindutoprotectacowandthatisthatheshouldofferhimselfasasacrificeifhecannotstanditsslaughter.EvenifaveryfewenlightenedHindusthussacrificedthemselves,Ihavenodoubtthat

ourMussulmanbrethrenwouldabandoncow-slaughter…[I]fIwantmybrothertoredressagrievance,Imustdosobytakinguponmyheadacertainamountofsacrificeandnotbyinflictinginjuryonhim.Imaynotdemanditasofright.MyonlyrightagainstmybrotheristhatIcanoffermyself[as]asacrifice.

ItisonlywhentheHindusareinspiredwithafeelingofpureloveofthistypethatHindu—Muslimunitycanbeexpected.AswiththeHindus,sowiththeMussulmans.TheleadersamongthelattershouldmeettogetherandconsidertheirdutytowardstheHindus.Whenbothareinspiredbyaspiritofsacrifice,whenbothtrytodotheirdutytowardsoneanotherinsteadofpressingtheirrights,thenandthenonlywouldthelong-standingdifferencesbetweenthetwocommunitiescease.Eachmustrespecttheother’sreligion,mustrefrainfromevensecretlythinkingilloftheother.Wemustpolitelydissuademembersofboththecommunitiesfromindulginginbadlanguageagainstoneanother.Onlyaseriousendeavourinthisdirectioncanremovetheestrangementbetweenus.OurvowwouldhavevalueonlywhenmassesofHindusandMussulmansjoinintheendeavour.IthinkIhavenowmadesufficientlycleartheseriousnessandmagnitudeofthisvow.Ihopethatonthisauspiciousoccasionandsurelytheoccasionmustbeauspiciouswhenawaveofsatyagraha[nonviolentresistance]issweepingoverthewholecountry—wecouldalltakethisvowofunity.ForthisitisfurthernecessarythatleadingHindusandMahomedansshouldmeettogetherandseriouslyconsiderthequestionandthenpassaunanimousresolutionatapublicmeeting.Thisconsummationwillcertainlybereachedifourpresenteffortsarevigorouslycontinued.IthinkthevowmaybetakenindividuallyevennowandIexpectthatnumerouspeoplewilldosoeveryday.Mywarningshavereferencetothetakingofthevowpubliclybymassesofmen.Ifitistakenbythemasses,itshould,inmyhumbleopinion,beasfollows:

‘WithGodaswitnessweHindusandMahomedansdeclarethatweshallbehavetowardsoneanotheraschildrenofthesameparents,thatweshallhavenodifferences,thatthesorrowsofeachshallbethesorrowsoftheotherandthateachshallhelptheotherinremovingthem.Weshallrespecteachother’sreligionandreligiousfeelingsandshallnotstandinthewayofourrespectivereligiouspractices.Weshallalwaysrefrainfromviolencetoeachotherinthenameofreligion.’

Gandhi’sconcernwithinter-religiousharmonywentbeyondHindusandMuslims.ThenextexcerptisfromaspeechdeliveredtoanaudienceofChristians,inCalcuttainAugust1925.13

Mr.ChairmanandFriends:You,Sir,havejustsaidthatprobablythisisfor

thefirsttimeIamprivilegedtoaddressameetingofIndianChristiansonly.Ifyourefertomypresentvisit,youareperfectlycorrect.ButifyoureferorhavereferredtothewholeofthetimethatIhavebeeninIndiasincemyreturnfromSouthAfrica,thenIhavetoinformyouthatIhadsuchaprivilegein1915.ButmyconnectionwithIndianChristiansdatesbackto1893.ThatwasthetimewhenIwenttoSouthAfricaandfoundmyselfinthemidstofalargeChristianIndiancommunity.Iwasagreeablysurprisedtofindsomanyyoungmenandyoungwomenwho,whilsttheyweredevotedChristians,wereequallydevotedtothemotherland,anditgavemegreaterpleasurewhenIdiscoveredthatmostoftheyoungmenandyoungwomenhadneverseenIndia.ThemajorityofthemwereborninNatal;someoftheminMauritius,becauseitwasfromMauritiusthatthefirstbatchoffreeIndiansettlersfoundtheirwaytoSouthAfrica.Theyweremostofthemchildrenofindenturedparents.IndenturedIndianswerethosewhohadgonetoworkonthesugarestatesofNatalunderanindissolublecontracttoworkonthoseestatesforatleastfiveyearsand,astheyhadgoneunderthiscontract,otherwisecalledindenture,theywerecalledIndenturedIndians.TheirstatewasdescribedduringhislifetimebythelateSirWilliamHunter14asastateveryneartoslavery…

Itgoeshardwithpeoplewhohavetosufferthedisabilitiesthatourcountrymen,whomIhavejustnowdescribedtoyou,havetolabourunder,tounderstandthattherecanbeanysuchthingas‘BrotherhoodofMan’.IfyouarereadersofnewspapersandifyoutakeanyinterestinwhatgoesonoutsidethefourcornersofIndia,youmayknowthat,today,inSouthAfricaanattemptisbeingmadebytheGovernmentofthecountrytodriveawaytheIndians,or,asithasbeenwellputbyoneofthenewspapershere,English-owned,tostarvethemoutofSouthAfrica;andinthisschemeofstarvationareincludedsomeoftheseverymenIhavedescribedtoyou.Whetherultimatelythisthingwillcometopass,whetherultimatelytheGovernmentofIndiawillsanctionortoleratethisthing,remainstobeseen.ButtheconnectioninwhichImentionthisthingtoyouis,asIhavealreadytoldyou,thatitisdifficultforsuchmentorealizethemeaningofbrotherhood;andyetIhaveundertakentospeaktoyouonbrotherhoodatthistimebecauseitisinsuchtimesofstressanddifficultythatone’sspiritofbrotherhoodisreallytested…

Brotherhooddoesnotmeanlovingorsympathizingwiththose,extendingthehandoffellowshiptothosewhowillinreturnloveyou.Thatisabargain.Brotherhoodisnotamercantileaffair.Andmyphilosophy,myreligionteachesmethatbrotherhoodisnotconfinedmerelytothehumanspecies;thatis,ifwe

reallyhaveimbibedthespiritofbrotherhood,itextendstotheloweranimals.InoneofthemagazinesissuedinEnglandbythosegreatphilanthropicsocieties30or35yearsago,Irememberhavingreadsomebeautifulverses.IthinkthetitleofthoseverseswasMyBrotherOx.Inthemthewriterbeautifullydescribedhowonamanwholovedhisfellowmenitwasobligatorytolovehisfellow-animalsalso,takingthewordanimalstomeanthesub-humanspecies.Thethoughtstruckmemostforcibly.Atthattime,IhadlearntverylittleofHinduism.AllIknewaboutitwaswhatIhadimbibedfrommysurroundings,frommyparentsandothers.ButIrealizedtheforceofthatwriting.However,Idonotintendtodwelluponthisbroadestbrotherhood.Ishallconfinemyselfto‘BrotherhoodofMan’.Ihavebroughtthisthinginordertoillustratethatourbrotherhoodisamockeryifwearenotpreparedtoloveevenourenemies.Inotherwords,onewhohasimbibedthespiritofbrotherhoodcannotpossiblyallowittobesaidofhimthathehasanyenemyatall.Peoplemayconsiderthemselvestobeourenemies,butweshouldrejectanysuchclaim…

Thequestionthenarises:howisitpossibletolovethosewhoconsiderthemselvestobeourenemies?Almosteveryweek,IreceiveletterseitherfromHindusorfromMussalmans,sometimesfromChristians,combatingthisfundamentalpositionthatIhavetakenup.IfitisaHinduwhowrites,thenheasksme,‘HowisitpossibleformetoloveaMussalmanwhokillsthecow,whichisdeartomeasmylife?’OrifitisaChristianwhowritestome,heasks,‘HowisitpossibletoloveHinduswhosoill-treatthosewhomtheycalluntouchables,Hinduswhohavesuppressedafifthoftheirownnumbers?’;andifitisaMussalmanwhowrites,heasks,‘HowisitpossibletoextendthehandofbrotherhoodorfellowshiptoHinduswhoareworshippersofstockandstone?’Isaytoallthesethree:‘Yourbrotherhoodisofnovaluetomeifyoucannotlovetherespectivepartiesthatyouhavedescribed.’Butwhatdoestheattitudesignifyafterall?Doesitnotsignifycowardlyfearorintolerance?IfallofusareGod’screation,whyshouldwefearoneanotherorhatethosewhodonotholdthesamebeliefthatwedo?AHinduwillaskme,ishetositorlookon,whileaMussalmanisdoingsomethingwhichismostrepugnanttohim?Mybrotherhoodreplies,‘Yes’.AndIadd,‘Youmustsacrificeyourself,orinthelanguageyouhavejustlistenedto,youmustbearthecross.Ifyouwanttodefendonewhoisdeartoyou,youmustdiewithoutkilling.’Ihavepersonalexperienceofsuchoccurrences.

Ifyouhavethecouragetosufferlovingly,youmeltthestoniestheart.Youmayraiseyourhandagainstonewhomyouregardasaruffian,buthowifhe

overpowersyou?Willnottheruffianbemoreferociousbecauseofhisvictoryoveryou?Doesnothistoryshowthatevilfeedsonresistance?Historyalsofurnishesinstancesofmenhavingtamedthefiercestmanwiththeirall-embracinglove.ButIadmitthatsuchnon-resistancerequiresfargreatercouragethanthatofasoldierwhoreturnstwoblowsagainstone.Ialsoadmitthatifamanhasangerinsteadofloveinhimfortheevil-doer,itisbetterforhimtofightcleanratherthan,inacowardlymanner,tositstillforfearofdying.Cowardiceandbrotherhoodarecontradictoryterms.IknowthattheworlddoesnotacceptthefundamentalpositionthatIhaveendeavouredtoplacebeforeyou.IknowthatinChristianEurope,thisdoctrineofnon-retaliationispooh-poohed.

Atthepresentmoment,IamprivilegedtoreceivepreciouslettersfromfriendsalloverEuropeandAmerica,someofthemaskingmetostillfurtherexpoundthedoctrineofnon-resistance.Someothersarelaughingatmeandtellingme:‘ItisallrightforyoutotalkthesethingsinIndia,butyoudarenotdosoinEurope.’Yetotherstellme:‘OurChristianityisawhitewash,wedonotunderstandthemessageofJesus,ithasgottobestilldeliveredtous,sothatwecanunderstandit.’Allthesethreepositionsaremoreorlessrightfromthestandpointofthewriters.ButIventuretotellyouthatthereisnopeaceforthisworld,andtotakethenameofbrotherhoodisablasphemy,untilwearriveatthisfundamentalposition.Mentherearewhoaskandsoalsowomenwhoask:‘Isithumantorefrainfromretaliation?’Isayitishuman.Uptonowwehavenotrealizedourhumanity,wehavenotrealizedourdignity;wearesupposedtobe,ifDarwinistobebelieved,thedescendantsofmonkeys,andIamafraidthatwehavenotyetshedouroriginalstate.

ThelateDr.AnnaKingsford15inoneofherbookswroteonce:‘AsIwalkaboutthestreetsofParis,Iseemtoseebeforemediverselionsandsnakespersonified.’Shesaystheseanimalshaveonlythehumanformbutnomore.Man,torealizehisfullstature,hastobecomeabsolutelyfearless.Thishewilldonotbybeingarmedfromheadtofoot,butbygeneratingforcefromwithin.AKshatriyaisonewhodoesnotflyfromdanger,heisnotonewhostrikesablowforablow.TheMahabharatasaysalsothatforgivenessisthequalityofabraveman.Thereisastatueerected,Iamtold,inthememoryofthelateGeneralGordon.16Thesculptordoesnotputaswordinhishands,heputsonlyastick.Itisconsideredtobeabeautifulworkofart.IfIwasbornasculptorandIhadtheorder,IwouldnothaveputevenastickinthehandsofGeneralGordon,butIwouldhavepicturedhimasonewithfoldedarms,withhischestputforward,inallhumilitytellingtheworld:‘Come,allofyou,whowanttothrowyourdarts,

hereisGeneralGordontoreceivethemwithoutflinching,withoutretaliation.’Thatismyidealofasoldier.Suchsoldiershavelivedontheearth.

Christianityundoubtedlyhasgivenbirthtosuchsoldiers,andsohasHinduism,sohasIslam.Inmyopinion,itisnottruetosaythatIslamisareligionofthesword.Historydoesnotbearthatout.ButIamjustnowspeakingtoyouofindividualinstances,andwhatistrueoftheindividualcanbetrueofnationsorofgroupsofindividuals;notallatonce,Iadmit,butintheprocessofevolution,whenmenaftermenlivethistruthintheirlivesbeforeourveryeyes,theycannotbutaffectus.SuchisthehistoryofQuakers.SuchisthehistoryofDukhoborswhomTolstoyhasdescribed.Idonotknowhowfarthelatter,afterhavinggonetoCanada,arecarryingouttheiroriginalresolution,butthefactstandsthattheyhavelivedthislifeofnon-resistanceasacommunity.I,therefore,feelthatwearetriflingwiththatsacredname,BrotherhoodofMan,unlessanduntilweareruledbythisfundamentalfactinlife.

WhatIamjustnowcombatingisthepositionthatistakenupbysomeofthefinestwritersinEuropeandbysomeofthefinestwriterseveninIndia:thatman,asaclass,willneverbeabletoarriveatastagewhenhecandowithoutretaliation.Ihaveafundamentalquarrelwiththatposition.Onthecontrary,Isaythatman,asman,willnotrealizehisfulldestiny,andhisfulldignity,untilhehasbeensofareducatedastobeabletorefrainfromretaliation.Whetherwelikeitorwhetherwedonotlikeit,wearebeingdrawntoit.Itwouldbetoourcreditif,insteadofbeingdriventotheposition,wewilltakeourselvestoit,andIhavecomeherethiseveningtoaskyoutoexercisethisprivilege,theprivilegeofvoluntarilytakingupthisideainpractice.Indeed,IoughtnottohavetobespeakingtoaChristianaudienceonthis,becausesomeofmyfriendstellmethatIamreallyaChristian,whenItalkaboutnon-retaliation.LittledotheyknowthatIhavegottostrivewiththeChristians,asIhavetowithHindusandmyMuslimfriends.IdonotknowmanyChristianswhohaveadoptedthisthingasaruleoftheirlife.SomeoftheverybestChristiansthatIknowdonotadmitthatthisistheteachingofChrist.IdobelievethatitistheteachingofChrist.Theysayitwasmeantmerelyforhistwelvedisciples,notmeantfortheworld,andtheyquotesomepassagesfromtheNewTestamentinsupportoftheircontention.Theopponentsofnonviolenceasaruleoflifesaythatitcanonlybreedaraceofcowards,andifIndiatakesupthismessageofnon-retaliation,sheisadoomedcountry.Onthecontrary,thefundamentalpositionthatIplacebeforeyouis,thatunlessIndiatakesupthisposition,sheisadoomednationandwithherallthenationsoftheworld.Indiaisacontinent,andwhenIndiatakes

upthedoctrineofforce,asEuropetodayseemstohavetakenitup,thenIndiabecomesoneoftheexploitersoftheweakerracesoftheworld.Justimaginewhatitmustmeantotheworld…

ThePositionofWomenAmodernfeministwouldhaveambivalentfeelingsaboutGandhi.Shemight

deplorehisoppositiontocontraceptionandhislackofenthusiasmforwomenintheworkforce,butperhapsadmirehisabilitytobringwomenintosocialmovementsandhiscriticismsofthetreatmentofwidowsinHindusociety.ThefollowingexcerptsuccinctlystatesGandhi’sviewsonthepositionofwomen,past,presentandfuture.17

Afairfriend,whohashithertosuccessfullyresistedthematrimonialtemptation,writes:

Therewasawomen’sconferenceyesterdayattheMalabariHall[inBombay],atwhichmanysoundspeechesweremadeandmanyresolutionspassed.ThequestionoftheeveningwastheSardaBill.18Wearesogladyouupholdtheageof18forgirls.Anotherimportantresolutiondealtwiththelawsofinheritance.Whatahelpitwouldbe,ifyouwroteastrongarticleonthissubjectinNavajivanandYoungIndia?Whyshouldwomenhaveeithertobegortofightinordertowinbacktheirbirthright?Itisstrange—andalsotragicallycomic—tohearmanbornofwomantalkloftilyof‘theweakersex’andnoblypromising‘togive’usourdue!Whatisthisnonsenseabout‘giving’?Whereisthe‘nobility’and‘chivalry’inrestoringtopeoplethatwhichhasbeenunlawfullywrestedfromthembythosehavingbrutepowerintheirhands?Whereinarewomenlessimportantthanmen?Whyshouldtheirshareofinheritancebelessthanthatofmen?Whyshoulditnotbeequal?Wewerediscussingthisveryheatedlywithsomepeopleacoupleofdaysago.Aladysaid,‘Wedon’tneedanychangeinthelaw.Wearequitecontent.Afterall,itisbutfairthattheson,whocarriesonthenameandfamilytraditions,shouldhavethegreatershare.Heisthemainstayofthefamily.’Wesaid,‘Andwhataboutthegirl?’‘Oh,’intervenedastrappingyoungmanwhowasthere,‘theotherfellowwilllookafterher!’Thereyouare.The‘otherfellow’!Alwaystheotherfellow!Thisotherfellowisanabsolutenuisance!Whyshouldtherebeanotherfellow?Whyshoulditbetakenforgrantedthattherewillbeanotherfellow?Theytalkasthoughagirlwereabaleofgoodstobetoleratedintheparentalhouseuntil‘theotherfellow’comesround,andthencoollyhandedovertohimwithasighofrelief.Reallywouldn’tyoubewild,ifyouwereagirl?Idonotneedtobeagirltobewildoverman’satrocitiestowardswoman.I

countthelawofinheritanceamongtheleastinthelist.TheSardaBilldealswithanevilfargreaterthantheonewhichthelawofinheritanceconnotes.ButIamuncompromisinginthematterofwoman’srights.Inmyopinionsheshouldlabourundernolegaldisabilitynotsufferedbyman.Ishouldtreatthedaughtersandsonsonafootingofperfectequality.Aswomenbegintorealizetheirstrength,astheymustinproportiontotheeducationtheyreceive,theywillnaturallyresenttheglaringinequalitiestowhichtheyaresubjected.

Buttoremovelegalinequalitieswillbeamerepalliative.Therootoftheevilliesmuchdeeperthanmostpeoplerealize.Itliesinman’sgreedofpowerandfame,anddeeperstillinmutuallust.Manhasalwaysdesiredpower.Ownershipofpropertygivesthispower.Manhankersalsoafterposthumousfamebasedonpower.Thiscannotbehad,ifpropertyisprogressivelycutupinpieces,asitmustbeifalltheposteritybecomeequalco-sharers.Hencethedescentofpropertyforthemostpartontheeldestmaleissue.Mostwomenaremarried.Andtheyareco-sharers,inspiteofthelawbeingagainstthem,intheirhusbands’powerandprivileges.Theydelightinbeingladiesthisandwhatnotsimplyforthefactofbeingthewivesofparticularlords.Though,therefore,theymayvoteforradicalreforminacademicdiscussionsoverinequalities,whenitcomestoactinguptotheirvotetheywillbefoundtobeunwillingtopartwiththeprivileges.

Whilst,therefore,Iwouldalwaysadvocatetherepealofalllegaldisqualifications,IshouldhavetheenlightenedwomenofIndiatodealwiththerootcause.Womanistheembodimentofsacrificeandsuffering,andheradventtopubliclifeshould,therefore,resultinpurifyingit,inrestrainingunbridledambitionandaccumulationofproperty.Letthemknowthatmillionsofmenhavenopropertytotransmittoposterity.Letuslearnfromthemthatitisbetterforthefewtohavenoancestralpropertyatall.Therealpropertythataparentcantransmittoallequallyishisorhercharacterandeducationalfacilities.Parentsshouldseektomaketheirsonsanddaughtersself-reliant,wellabletoearnanhonestlivelihoodbythesweatofthebrow…Muchofthepresentimbecilityofthechildrenofthewealthywillgo,ifthelattercanbutsubstitutetheworthyambitionofeducatingtheirchildrentobecomeindependentfortheunworthyambitionofmakingthemslavesofancestralproperty,whichkillsenterpriseandfeedsthepassionswhichaccompanyidlenessandluxury.Theprivilegeoftheawakenedwomenshouldbetospotanderadicateage-longevils.

Thatmutuallusttoohasplayedanimportantpartinbringingaboutthedisqualificationsofthefairsexhardlyneedsanydemonstration.Womanhascircumventedmaninavarietyofwaysinherunconsciouslysubtleways,asmanhasvainlyandequallyunconsciouslystruggledtothwartwomaningainingascendancyoverhim.Theresultisastalemate.Thusviewed,itisaseriousproblemtheenlighteneddaughtersofBharatMataarecalledupontosolve.TheymaynotapethemanneroftheWest,whichmaybesuitedtoitsenvironment.TheymustapplymethodssuitedtotheIndiangeniusandIndianenvironment.Theirsmustbethestrong,controlling,purifying,steadyinghand,

conservingwhatisbestinourcultureandunhesitatinglyrejectingwhatisbaseanddegrading…

Thesubjectofthisnextexcerptiscontainedinitsperhapsuncharacteristicallystridenttitle,namely,‘TearDownthePurdah’.19

WheneverIhavegonetoBengal,BiharortheUnitedProvinces,Ihaveobservedthepurdahsystemmorestrictlyfollowedthanintheotherprovinces.ButwhenIaddressedameetingatDarbhangalateatnightandamidcalmsurroundingsfreefromnoiseandbustleandunmanageablecrowds,Ifoundinfrontofmemen,butbehindmeandbehindthescreenwerewomenofwhosepresenceIknewnothingtillmyattentionwasdrawntoit.Thefunctionwasinconnectionwiththelayingofthefoundation-stoneofanorphanage,butIwascalledupontoaddresstheladiesbehindthepurdah.Thesightofthescreenbehindwhichmyaudience,whosenumbersIdidnotknow,wasseatedmademesad.Itpainedandhumiliatedmedeeply.IthoughtofthewrongbeingdonebymentothewomenofIndiabyclingingtoabarbarouscustomwhich,whateveruseitmighthavehadwhenitwasfirstintroduced,hadnowbecometotallyuselessandwasdoingincalculableharmtothecountry.Alltheeducationthatwehavebeenreceivingforthepast100yearsseemstohaveproducedbutlittleimpressionuponus,forInotethatthepurdahisbeingretainedevenineducatedhouseholdsnotbecausetheeducatedmenbelieveinitthemselvesbutbecausetheywillnotmanfullyresistthebrutalcustomandsweepitawayatastroke.Ihavetheprivilegeofaddressinghundredsofmeetingsofwomenattendedbythousands…IamquiteawareoftheveryhighcultureofthesethousandsofsisterswhomIgettheprivilegeofaddressing.Iknowthattheyarecapableofrisingtothesameheightthatmenarecapableof,andIknowtoothattheydohaveoccasionstogoout.Butthisisnottobeputdowntothecreditoftheeducatedclasses.Thequestionis,whyhavetheynotgonefurther?Whydonotourwomenenjoythesamefreedomthatmendo?Whyshouldtheynotbeabletowalkoutandhavefreshair?

Chastityisnotahot-housegrowth.Itcannotbesuperimposed.Itcannotbeprotectedbythesurroundingwallofthepurdah.Itmustgrowfromwithin,andtobeworthanythingitmustbecapableofwithstandingeveryunsoughttemptation.ItmustbeasdefiantasSita’s.Itmustbeaverypoorthingthatcannotstandthegazeofmen.Men,tobemen,mustbeabletotrusttheirwomenfolk,evenasthelatterarecompelledtotrustthem.Letusnotlivewithonelimbcompletelyorpartiallyparalysed.RamawouldbenowherewithoutSita,freeandindependentevenashewashimself.Butforrobustindependence

Draupadiisperhapsabetterexample.Sitawasgentlenessincarnate.Shewasadelicateflower.Draupadiwasagiantoak.ShebentmightyBhimahimselftoherimperiouswill.Bhimawasterribletoeveryone,buthewasalambbeforeDraupadi.ShestoodinnoneedofprotectionfromanyoneofthePandavas.ByseekingtodaytointerferewiththefreegrowthofthewomanhoodofIndiaweareinterferingwiththegrowthoffreeandindependent-spiritedmen.Whatwearedoingtoourwomenandwhatwearedoingtothe‘untouchables’recoilsuponourheadswithaforcethousandtimesmultiplied.Itpartlyaccountsforourownweakness,indecision,narrownessandhelplessness.Letusthenteardownthepurdahwithonemightyeffort.

ChapterEight

TheRootedCosmopolitanRabindranathTagore

ThecollectedworksofRabindranathTagoreruninto18,000printedpagesinBengali.Thebulkconsistsofpoems,plays,songs,shortstoriesandnovels;buttherearesomesignificantworksofnon-fictionaswell.AlthoughbestrememberedasacreativewriterwhotransformedtheBengalilanguageandbecamethefirstAsiantowintheNobelPrizeinliterature,Tagorewasalsoafineessayist,whohadinterestingandoriginalthingstosayaboutthesocietyandpoliticsofIndiaandtheworld.

RabindranathTagorewasbornin1861,intoafamilyofscholars,socialreformersandentrepreneurs.HisgrandfatherwasacloseassociateofRammohanRoy.ThefamilywereamongtheearliesttojoinRoy’sBrahmoSamaj.LatermembersoftheTagorefamilystartedschools,wroteontheUpanishadsandranthelargeandprofitablefamilyestatesineasternIndia.

Asthefourteenthandyoungestchildofarich,cultivatedman,Rabindranathwaseducatedathomeandthroughhistravels.Hespentholidayswithabrotherinthecivilservice,whoseofficialdutiestookhimtopartsofIndiaverydistantandinaculturalsenseverydifferentfromBengal.TheboyalsomaderegulartripstoEurope.HewasadmittedtoaschoolinEngland,butsoondroppedouttoresumehisself-education.

Beginninginthe1880s,Tagorepublishedasteadystreamofpoems,storiesandnovels.ThesehadaprofoundimpactinhisnativeBengal,butwerelittleknownoutside.In1912hecarriedsometranslationsofhispoemstoEngland;thesewereshowntotheIrishpoetW.B.Yeats,whohelpedrefinethemand,moreimportantly,gavethemhisendorsement.Thetranslations,publishedunderthetitleGitanjali,wereagreatsuccess,goingintotenprintingswithinsixmonths.WhentheawardoftheNobelPrizefollowed,theBengaliwriterhadbecomeaworldfigure.Hisappealwasenhancedbyhisappearance—withahandsomeovalfaceandpiercingeyes,framedbyaflowingwhitebeard,anddressedinlongcolourfulrobes,helookedeveryinchtheOrientalguru.

Tagorewasapatriotwithoutquitebeinganationalist.Hewasnoapologistforcolonialrule;afterBritishsoldiersfiredonanunarmedcrowdinAmritsarin1919,hereturnedhisknighthoodtotheKing.Atthesametime,hewasdismayedbythexenophobictendenciesofthepopulistedgeoftheIndiannationalmovement.HethoughtthatIndiahadmuchtolearnfromothercultures,including(butnotrestrictedto)theWest.

Tagore’sunderstandingofcountriesotherthanhisownwasdeepenedbyhisextensivetravelsabroad.HemadefourtripstotheUnitedStatesandmanymoretoEurope.HevisitedJapanseveraltimes,wenttoChina,travelledthroughWest

andSoutheastAsiaandalsowenttoSouthAmerica.In1930,touchingseventy,hespentseveralweeksintheSovietUnion.Throughthesetripshedeepenedanalreadysubstantialinterestinaesthetics,musicandliterature.HewascatholicenoughtoadmireboththemedievalPersianpoetHafizandtheAnglo-AmericanmodernistT.S.Eliot.

TagorewasthemostwidelytravelledIndianofhisgeneration.Fromwhathesawathomeandabroad,hearrivedatanunderstandingofIndia’splaceintheworldthatwasmorenuanced,morelayered,morecomplexandmoreprofoundthanthatarticulatedbyanyofhiscompatriots.Hesoughttogivethisvisionaninstitutionalform,foundingauniversityin1921onlandhisfamilyownedinruralBengal.Thecurriculumhedevelopedherebridgedscienceandthehumanities.MusicandartwerealsotaughtandtherewasaspecialfocusonthestudyofJapanandChina,thetwocivilizationswithwhichIndiamight,inTagore’sview,sharemutuallybeneficialinteractionsinapost-colonialfuture.ThecampuswherethesemyriadactivitiestookplacewasnamedSantiniketan,theAbodeofPeace;withtheuniversitycallingitselfViswa-Bharati,orIndiaintheWorld.Toforestallcriticismthatthiswasanelitistor‘ivorytower’visionoflearning,Tagoresimultaneouslystartedaninstituteofruralreconstruction.

Tagorediedin1941.Sevendecadeslater,hissongsarestillsunginBengal.HisstoriesandpoemsarenowavailableindecentEnglishtranslations.OnepoemservesasthenationalanthemofIndia;another,asthenationalanthemofBangladesh.Inhisownlifetime,TagorehadaprofoundimpactonGandhiandJawaharlalNehru,whoarecommonly(andrightly)regardedasthetwomostinfluentialindividualsinmodernIndianhistory.RabindranathTagorethepoetandnovelistwouldhaveprideofplaceinanyhistoryofIndianliterature;but,asIthinktheexcerptsbelowdemonstrate,RabindranathTagorethethinkerandprophetisbynomeansoutofplaceinananthologyofIndianpoliticalwriting.

IndiaandtheWestDismayedbythexenophobiaoftheSwadeshimovement,Tagorewrotea

seriesofessaysinBengaliin1909–10advocatingamorenuancedunderstandingofrelationsbetweenEastandWest.ExcerptsfromalaterEnglishtranslationfollow.1

…WhetherIndiaistobeyoursormine,whetheritistobelongmoretotheHindu,ortotheMoslem,orwhethersomeotherraceistoassertagreatersupremacythaneither,thatisnottheproblemwithwhichProvidenceisexercised.Itisnotasif,atthebarofthejudgmentseatoftheAlmighty,differentadvocatesareengagedinpleadingtherivalcausesofHindu,MoslemorWesterner,andthatthepartywhichwinsthedecreeshallfinallyplantthestandardofpermanentpossession.Itisourvanitywhichmakesusthinkthatitisabattlebetweencontendingrights—theonlybattleistheeternalonebetweenTruthanduntruth…

OflatetheBritishhavecomeinandoccupiedanimportantplaceinIndia’shistory.Thiswasnotanuncalledfor,accidentalintrusion.IfIndiahadbeendeprivedoftouchwiththeWest,shewouldhavelackedanelementessentialforherattainmentofperfection.Europenowhasherlampablaze.Wemustlightourtorchesatitswickandmakeafreshstartonthehighwayoftime.Thatourforefathers,threethousandyearsago,hadfinishedextractingallthatwasofvaluefromtheuniverse,isnotaworthythought.Wearenotsounfortunate,northeuniverse,sopoor.Haditbeentruethatallthatistobedonehasbeendoneinthepast,onceforall,thenourcontinuedexistencecouldonlybeaburdentotheearth,andsowouldnotbepossible…

TheEnglishmanhascomethroughthebreachinourcrumblingwalls,asthemessengeroftheLordoftheworld-festival,totellusthattheworldhasneedofus;notwherewearepetty,butwherewecanhelpwiththeforceofourLife,torousetheWorldinwisdom,loveandwork,intheexpansionofinsight,knowledgeandmutuality.UnlesswecanjustifythemissiononwhichtheEnglishmanhasbeensent,untilwecansetoutwithhimtohonourtheinvitationofwhichheisthebearer,hecannotbutremainwithusasourtormentor,thedisturberofourquietism.SolongaswefailtomakegoodthearrivaloftheEnglishman,itshallnotbewithinourpowertogetridofhim.

TheIndiatowhichtheEnglishmanhascomewithhismessage,istheIndiawhichisshootinguptowardsthefuturefromwithintheburstingseedofthepast.ThisnewIndiabelongstohumanity.Whatrighthavewetosaywhoshallandwhoshallnotfindaplacetherein?Whoisthis‘We’?Bengali,Marathior

Panjabi,HinduorMussalman?Onlythelarger‘We’inwhomallthese—Hindu,MoslemandEnglishman,andwhosoeverelsetherebe—mayeventuallyuniteshallhavetherighttodictatewhoistoremainandwhoistoleave.

Onusto-dayisthrowntheresponsibilityofbuildingupthisgreaterIndia,andforthatpurposeourimmediatedutyistojustifyourmeetingwiththeEnglishman.Itshallnotbepermittedtoustosaythatwewouldratherremainaloof,inactive,irresponsive,unwillingtogiveandtotake,andthustomakepoorertheIndiathatistobe.

SothegreatestmenofmodernIndiahaveallmadeittheirlife’sworktobringaboutanapproachmentwiththeWest.ThechiefexampleisRammohanRoy.HestoodaloneinhisdayfortheunionofIndiawiththeworldonthebroadbaseofhumanity.Noblindbelief,noancestralhabitwasallowedtoobscurehisvision.WithawonderfulbreadthofheartandintellectheacceptedtheWestwithoutbetrayingtheEast…RammohanRoydidnotassistIndiatorepairherbarriers,ortokeepcoweringbehindthem,—heledheroutintothefreedomofSpaceandTime,andbuiltforherabridgebetweentheEastandWest.Thatiswhyhisspiritstillliveswithus,hispowerofstimulatingIndia’screativeenergiesisnotyetexhausted.Noblindhabitofmind,nopettinessofracialpride,wereabletomakehimcommitthefollyofrebellionagainstthemanifestpurposeoftime…

WhatthenarewetomakeoftheantagonismwhichhasarisenoflatebetweentheEnglishmanandtheIndian,educatedaswellasuneducated?Istherenothingrealinthis?Isitonlythemachinationofafewconspirators?IsthisantagonismessentiallydifferentinpurposefromtheconstantactionandreactionofmakingandbreakingwhichareatworkinthemakingofIndianHistory?Itisverynecessaryforustocometoatrueunderstandingofitsmeaning…

Webeganwithablind,foolish,insensatebeggingatthedoorofEurope,withourcriticalsenseentirelybenumbed.Thatwasnotthewaytomakeanyrealgain.Whetheritbewisdom,orpoliticalrights,theyhavetobeearned,thatistosaytobeattainedbyone’sownshaktiafterasuccessfulstruggleagainstobstructingforces.Iftheybeputintoourhandsbyothers,bywayofalms,theydonotbecomeoursatall.Totakeinaformwhichisderogatorycanonlyleadtoloss.HenceourreactionagainstthecultureofEuropeanditsideals.Afeelingofwoundedself-respectispromptingustoreturnuponourselves…

RammohanRoywasabletoassimilatetheidealsofEuropesocompletelybecausehewasnotoverwhelmedbythem:therewasnopovertyorweaknessonhisside.Hehadgroundofhisownonwhichhecouldtakehisstandandwhere

hecouldsecurehisacquisitions.ThetruewealthofIndiawasnothiddenfromhim,forthishehadalreadymadehisown.Consequentlyhehadwithhimthetouchstonebywhichhecouldtestthewealthofothers.Hedidnotsellhimselfbyholdingoutabeggar’spalms,butassessedthetruevalueofwhateverhetook.

Thisshaktiwhichwasnaturaltoourfirstgreatleader,issteadilydevelopingitselfamongstusthroughconstantlyconflictingstressesandstrains,actionsandreactions.Pendulum-wisedoourmovementstouchnowthisextreme,nowtheother.Anundueeagernessofacceptanceandanunduetimidityofrejectionassailusbyturns…

TheWesthascomeasIndia’sguest;wecannotsendawaythevisitorwhiletheobjectofhisvisitremainsunfulfilled;hemustbeproperlyaccommodated.But,whateverbethereason—whetheritbesomedefectinourpowerofrecognition,orthemiserlinessoftheWestinrevealingitselfinitstruth—iftheflowofthisgreatpurposeofTimeshouldreceiveacheck,thereisboundtobeadisastrousirruption.

Ifwedonotcomeintotouchwithwhatistrue,whatisbest,intheEnglishman;ifwefindinhimmerelyamerchant,oramilitaryman,orabureaucrat;ifhewillnotcomedowntotheplaneinwhichmanmaycommunewithmanandtakehimintoconfidence;—if,infine,theIndianandtheEnglishmanneedsmustremainapart,thenwilltheybetoeachotheraperennialsourceofunhappiness.Insuchcasethepartywhichisinpowerwilltrytomakepowerlessthedissatisfactionoftheweakerbyrepressivelegislation,butwillnotbeabletoallayit.Norwilltheformerfindanysatisfactioninthesituation;andfeelingtheIndianonlytobeasourceoftroubletheEnglishmanwillmoreandmoretrytoignorehisveryexistence…

Allthetroublethatweseenow-a-daysiscausedbythisfailureofEastandWesttocometogether.Boundtobeneareachother,andyetunabletobefriends,isanintolerablesituationbetweenmanandman,andhurtfulwithal.Thereforethedesiretoputanendtoitmustbecomeoverwhelmingsoonerorlater.Sucharebellion,beingarebellionoftheheart,willnottakeaccountofmaterialgainsorlosses;itwillevenriskdeath.

Andyetitisalsotruethatsuchrebelliousnesscanonlybeatemporaryphase.InspiteofallretardingfactorsourimpactwiththeWestmustbemadegood—therecanbenoescapeforIndiauntilshehasmadeherownwhatevertheremaybeworththetakingfromtheWest.Untilthefruitisripeitdoesnotgetreleasedfromthestem,norcanitripenatallifitinsistsonuntimelyrelease…

ThoseofuswhogototheEnglishman’sdurbarwithbowedheadsandfolded

hands,seekingemolumentsofofficeorbadgesofhonour,weonlyattracthispettinessandhelptodistorthistruemanifestationinIndia.Those,again,whoinablindfuryofpassionwouldviolentlyassailhim,succeedinevokingonlythesinfulsideoftheEnglishman’snature.If,then,itbetruethatitisourfrailtywhichexciteshisinsolence,hisgreed,hiscowardiceorhiscruelty,whyblamehim?Rathershouldwetaketheblameonourselves.

InhisowncountrytheEnglishman’slowernatureiskeptundercontrolandhishighernaturerousedtoitsfullestcapacitybythesocialforcesaroundhim.Thesocialconsciencethere,beingawake,compelseachindividual,withallitsforce,totakehisstandonahighlevelandmaintainhisplacetherewithunceasingeffort.Inthiscountryhissocietyisunabletoperformthesamefunction.Anglo-IndiansocietyisnotconcernedwiththewholeEnglishman.Itiseitherasocietyofcivilians,orofmerchants,orofsoldiers.Eachofthesearelimitedbytheirownbusiness,andbecomeencasedinahardcrustofprejudiceandsuperstition.Sotheydevelopintothorough-goingcivilians,ormeremerchants,orblatantsoldiers.Wecannotfindthemaninthem…

Ontheotherhand,thedecayandweaknessoftheIndianSamajitselfisalsoabartotherousingofthetrueBritishspirit,whereforebotharelosers.Itisourownfault,Irepeat,thatwemeetonlyBurraSahebsandnotgreatEnglishmen.Andtothisweoweallthesufferingsandinsultswithwhichwehavetoputup.Wehavenoremedybuttoacknowledgeoursinandgetridofit…

Neithertalltalknorviolence,butonlysacrificeandservicearetruetestsofstrength.UntiltheIndiancangiveuphisfear,hisself-interest,hisluxury,inhisquestforthebestandthehighest,inhisserviceoftheMotherland,ourdemandingfromtheGovernmentwillbutbeemptybeggingandwillaggravatebothourincapacityandourhumiliation.Whenweshallhavemadeourcountryourownbysacrificeandestablishedourclaimtoitbyapplyingourownpowersforitsreclamation,thenweshallnotneedtostandabjectlyandtheEnglishmanneednotlowerhimself.Thenmaywebecomecolleaguesandenterintomutualarrangement.

UntilwecancastoffourindividualorSamajicfolly;aslongasweremainunabletogranttoourowncountrymenthefullrightsofman;aslongasourzamindars[landlords]continuetolookontheirtenantryaspartoftheirproperty,ourmeninpowergloryinkeepingtheirsubordinatesundertheirheels,ourhighercastesthinknothingoflookingdownonthelowestcastesasworsethanbeasts;solongshallwenothavetherightorpowertodemandfromtheEnglishmanproperbehaviourtowardsourselves.

Ateveryturn—inherreligion,inhersamaj[socialarrangements],inherdailypractice—doestheIndianofto-dayfailtodojusticetoherself.Shedoesnotpurifyhersoulbysacrifice,andsooneverysideshesuffersfutility.Shecannotmeettheoutsideronequaltermsandsoreceivesnothingofvaluefromhim.NoclevernessorviolencecandeliverherfromthesufferingsandinsultsofwhichtheEnglishmanisbuttheinstrument.Onlywhenshecanmeethimashisequal,willallreasonforantagonism,andwithitallconflict,disappear.ThenwillEastandWestuniteinIndia—countrywithcountry,racewithrace,knowledgewithknowledge,endeavourwithendeavour.ThenwilltheHistoryofIndiacometoanend,mergedintheHistoryoftheWorldwhichwillbegin.

TheExcessesofNationalismInthemiddleoftheFirstWorldWar,TagoretravelledtoJapanandthe

UnitedStates.Everywhere,hewarnedhisaudiencesagainstequatingloveofone’snationwiththecelebrationofmilitaryprowess.Hislectureswerepublishedinaslimbook,Nationalism,thatisperhapshismostpowerfulandcompellingpieceofnon-fiction.Remarkably,thenoteonTagoreintheofficialNobelPrizewebsitedoesnotmentionthisbook,thusconfirmingthepopularbeliefthatheshouldbeknownbyhisstoriesandpoemsalone.Theexcerptspresentedbelowsuggestotherwise.2

…ThepoliticalcivilizationwhichhassprungupfromthesoilofEuropeandisoverrunningthewholeworld,likesomeprolificweed,isbaseduponexclusiveness.Itisalwayswatchfultokeepthealiensatbayortoexterminatethem.Itiscarnivorousandcannibalisticinitstendencies,itfeedsupontheresourcesofotherpeoplesandtriestoswallowtheirwholefuture.Itisalwaysafraidofotherracesachievingeminence,namingitasaperil,andtriestothwartallsymptomsofgreatnessoutsideitsownboundaries,forcingdownracesofmenwhoareweaker,tobeeternallyfixedintheirweakness.Beforethispoliticalcivilizationcametoitspowerandopeneditshungryjawswideenoughtogulpdowngreatcontinentsoftheearth,wehadwars,pillages,changesofmonarchyandconsequentmiseries,butneversuchasightoffearfulandhopelessvoracity,suchwholesalefeedingofnationuponnation,suchhugemachinesforturninggreatportionsoftheearthintomince-meat,neversuchterriblejealousieswithalltheiruglyteethandclawsreadyfortearingopeneachother’svitals.Thispoliticalcivilizationisscientific,nothuman.Itispowerfulbecauseitconcentratesallitsforcesupononepurpose,likeamillionaireacquiringmoneyatthecostofhissoul.Itbetraysitstrust,itweavesitsmeshesoflieswithoutshame,itenshrinesgiganticidolsofgreedinitstemples,takinggreatprideinthecostlyceremonialsofitsworship,callingthispatriotism…

ImustnothesitatetoacknowledgewhereEuropeisgreat,forgreatsheiswithoutdoubt.Wecannothelplovingherwithallourheartandpayingherthebesthomageofouradmiration—theEuropewho,inherliteratureandart,poursoutaninexhaustiblecascadeofbeautyandtruthfertilizingallcountriesandalltime;theEuropewho,withamindwhichistitanicinitsuntiringpower,issweepingtheheightandthedepthoftheuniverse,winningherhomageofknowledgefromtheinfinitelygreatandtheinfinitelysmall,applyingalltheresourcesofhergreatintellectandheartinhealingthesickandalleviatingthosemiseriesofmanwhichuptillnowwewerecontentedtoacceptinaspiritof

hopelessresignation;theEuropewhoismakingtheearthyieldmorefruitthanseemedpossible,coaxingandcompellingthegreatforcesofnatureintoman’sservice.Suchtruegreatnessmusthaveitsmotivepowerinspiritualstrength.Foronlythespiritofmancandefyalllimitations,havefaithinitsultimatesuccess,throwitssearchlightbeyondtheimmediateandtheapparent,gladlysuffermartyrdomforendswhichcannotbeachievedinitslifetimeandacceptfailurewithoutacknowledgingdefeat.IntheheartofEuroperunsthepureststreamofhumanlove,ofloveofjustice,ofspiritofself-sacrificeforhigherideals.TheChristiancultureofcenturieshassunkdeepinherlife’score.InEuropewehaveseennoblemindswhohaveeverstoodupfortherightsofmanirrespectiveofcolourandcreed;whohavebravedcalumnyandinsultfromtheirownpeopleinfightingforhumanity’scauseandraisingtheirvoicesagainstthemadorgiesofmilitarism,againsttherageofbrutalretaliationorrapacitythatsometimestakespossessionofawholepeople;whoarealwaysreadytomakereparationforwrongsdoneinthepastbytheirownnations…Therearetheseknight-errantsofmodernEuropewhohavenotlosttheirfaithinthedisinterestedloveoffreedom,intheidealswhichownnogeographicalboundariesornationalself-seeking.ThesearetheretoprovethatthefountainheadofthewaterofeverlastinglifehasnotrundryinEurope,andfromthenceshewillhaveherrebirthtimeaftertime…Europeissupremelygoodinherbeneficencewhereherfaceisturnedtoallhumanity;andEuropeissupremelyevilinhermaleficentaspectwhereherfaceisturnedonlyuponherowninterest,usingallherpowerofgreatnessforendswhichareagainsttheinfiniteandeternalinMan…

ButwhiletryingtofreeourmindsfromthearrogantclaimsofEuropeandtohelpourselvesoutofthequicksandsofourinfatuation,wemaygototheotherextremeandbindourselveswithawholesalesuspicionoftheWest.Thereactionofdisillusionmentisjustasunrealasthefirstshockofillusion.Wemusttrytocometothatnormalstateofmindbywhichwecanclearlydiscernourowndangerandavoiditwithoutbeingunjusttowardsthesourceofthatdanger.ThereisalwaysthenaturaltemptationinusofwishingtopaybackEuropeinherowncoin,andreturncontemptforcontemptandevilforevil.ButthatagainwouldbetoimitateEuropeinoneofherworstfeatures,whichcomesoutinherbehaviourtopeoplewhomshedescribesasyelloworred,brownorblack.AndthisisapointonwhichweintheEasthavetoacknowledgeourguiltandownthatoursinhasbeenasgreat,ifnotgreater,whenweinsultedhumanitybytreatingwithutterdisdainandcrueltymenwhobelongedtoaparticularcreed,colourorcaste.Itisreallybecauseweareafraidofourownweakness,whichallowsitselftobe

overcomebythesightofpower,thatwetrytosubstituteforitanotherweaknesswhichmakesitselfblindtothegloriesoftheWest.WhenwetrulyknowthatEuropewhichisgreatandgood,wecaneffectivelysaveourselvesfromtheEuropewhichismeanandgrasping…WemustadmitthatthereisalivingsoulintheWestwhichisstrugglingunobservedagainstthehugenessoftheorganizationsunderwhichmen,womenandchildrenarebeingcrushed,andwhosemechanicalnecessitiesareignoringlawsthatarespiritualandhuman—thesoulwhosesensibilitiesrefusetobedulledcompletelybydangeroushabitsofheedlessnessindealingswithracesforwhomitlacksnaturalsympathy.TheWestcouldneverhaverisentotheeminenceshehasreachedifherstrengthweremerelythestrengthofthebruteorofthemachine.Thedivineinherheartissufferingfromtheinjuriesinflictedbyherhandsupontheworld—andfromthispainofherhighernatureflowsthesecretbalmwhichwillbringhealingtotheseinjuries.Timeaftertimeshehasfoughtagainstherselfandhasundonethechainswhichwithherownhandsshefastenedroundhelplesslimbs…Thisshowshiddenspringsofhumanityinspotswhichlookdeadandbarren.Itprovesthatthedeepertruthinhernature,whichcansurvivesuchacareerofcruelcowardliness,isnotgreed,butreverenceforunselfishideals.Itwouldbealtogetherunjust,bothtousandtoEurope,tosaythatshehasfascinatedthemodernEasternmindbythemereexhibitionofherpower.Throughthesmokeofcannonsanddustofmarketsthelightofhermoralnaturehasshonebright,andshehasbroughttoustheidealofethicalfreedom,whosefoundationliesdeeperthansocialconventionsandwhoseprovinceofactivityisworldwide.

TheEasthasinstinctivelyfelt,eventhroughheraversion,thatshehasagreatdealtolearnfromEurope,notmerelyaboutthematerialsofpower,butaboutitsinnersource,whichisofthemindandofthemoralnatureofman.Europehasbeenteachingusthehigherobligationsofpublicgoodabovethoseofthefamilyandtheclan,andthesacrednessoflaw,whichmakessocietyindependentofindividualcaprice,securesforitcontinuityofprogress,andguaranteesjusticetoallmenofallpositionsinlife.AboveallthingsEuropehasheldhighbeforeourmindsthebannerofliberty,throughcenturiesofmartyrdomandachievement—libertyofconscience,libertyofthoughtandaction,libertyintheidealsofartandliterature.AndbecauseEuropehaswonourdeeprespect,shehasbecomesodangerousforuswheresheisturbulentlyweakandfalse—dangerouslikepoisonwhenitisservedalongwithourbestfood.Thereisonesafetyforusuponwhichwehopewemaycount,andthatisthatwecanclaimEuropeherselfasourallyinourresistancetohertemptationsandtoherviolentencroachments;forshehas

evercarriedherownstandardofperfection,bywhichwecanmeasureherfallsandgaugeherdegreesoffailure,bywhichwecancallherbeforeherowntribunalandputhertoshame—theshamewhichisthesignofthetrueprideofnobleness…

Thisabstractbeing,theNation,isrulingIndia.Wehaveseeninourcountrysomebrandoftinnedfoodadvertisedasentirelymadeandpackedwithoutbeingtouchedbyhand.ThisdescriptionappliestothegoverningofIndia,whichisaslittletouchedbythehumanhandaspossible.Thegovernorsneednotknowourlanguage,neednotcomeintopersonaltouchwithusexceptasofficials;theycanaidorhinderouraspirationsfromadisdainfuldistance,theycanleadusonacertainpathofpolicyandthenpullusbackagainwiththemanipulationofofficeredtape.ThenewspapersofEngland,inwhosecolumnsLondonstreetaccidentsarerecordedwithsomedecencyofpathos,needtakebutthescantiestnoticeofcalamitieswhichhappeninIndiaoverareasoflandsometimeslargerthantheBritishIsles…

Ihavenotcomehere,however,todiscussthequestionasitaffectsmyowncountry,butasitaffectsthefutureofallhumanity.ItisnotaquestionoftheBritishgovernment,butofgovernmentbytheNation—theNationwhichistheorganizedself-interestofawholepeople,whereitisleasthumanandleastspiritual.OuronlyintimateexperienceoftheNationiswiththeBritishNation,andasfarasthegovernmentbytheNationgoestherearereasonstobelievethatitisoneofthebest.Then,again,wehavetoconsiderthattheWestisnecessarytotheEast.Wearecomplementarytoeachotherbecauseofourdifferentoutlooksuponlifewhichhavegivenusdifferentaspectsoftruth.ThereforeifitbetruethatthespiritoftheWesthascomeuponourfieldsintheguiseofastormitisneverthelessscatteringlivingseedsthatareimmortal.AndwheninIndiawebecomeabletoassimilateinourlifewhatispermanentinWesterncivilizationweshallbeinapositiontobringaboutareconciliationofthesetwogreatworlds…

IhaveadeeploveandagreatrespectfortheBritishraceashumanbeings.Ithasproducedgreat-heartedmen,thinkersofgreatthoughts,doersofgreatdeeds.Ithasgivenrisetoagreatliterature.Iknowthatthesepeoplelovejusticeandfreedom,andhatelies.Theyarecleanintheirminds,frankintheirmanners,trueintheirfriendships;intheirbehaviourtheyarehonestandreliable.ThepersonalexperiencewhichIhavehadoftheirliterarymenhasrousedmyadmirationnotmerelyfortheirpowerofthoughtorexpressionbutfortheirchivalroushumanity.Wehavefeltthegreatnessofthispeopleaswefeelthesun;butasfor

theNation,itisforusathickmistofastiflingnaturecoveringthesunitself.ThisgovernmentbytheNationisneitherBritishnoranythingelse;itisan

appliedscienceandthereforemoreorlesssimilarinitsprincipleswhereveritisused.Itislikeahydraulicpress,whosepressureisimpersonal,andonthataccountcompletelyeffective.Theamountofitspowermayvaryindifferentengines.Somemayevenbedrivenbyhand,thusleavingamarginofcomfortableloosenessintheirtension,butinspiritandinmethodtheirdifferencesaresmall.OurgovernmentmighthavebeenDutch,orFrench,orPortuguese,anditsessentialfeatureswouldhaveremainedmuchthesameastheyarenow.Onlyperhaps,insomecases,theorganizationmightnothavebeensodenselyperfect,andthereforesomeshredsofthehumanmightstillhavebeenclingingtothewreck,allowingustodealwithsomethingwhichresemblesourownthrobbingheart.

BeforetheNationcametoruleoveruswehadothergovernmentswhichwereforeign,andthese,likeallgovernments,hadsomeelementofthemachineinthem.ButthedifferencebetweenthemandthegovernmentbytheNationislikethedifferencebetweenthehand-loomandthepower-loom.Intheproductsofthehand-loomthemagicofman’slivingfingersfindsitsexpression,anditshumharmonizeswiththemusicoflife.Butthepower-loomisrelentlesslylifelessandaccurateandmonotonousinitsproduction.

Wemustadmitthatduringthepersonalgovernmentofformerdaystherehavebeeninstancesoftyranny,injustice,andextortion.Theycausedsufferingsandunrestfromwhichwearegladtoberescued.Theprotectionoflawisnotonlyaboon,butitisavaluablelessontous.Itisteachingusthedisciplinewhichisnecessaryforthestabilityofcivilizationandforcontinuityofprogress.Wearerealizingthroughitthatthereisauniversalstandardofjusticetowhichallmen,irrespectiveoftheircasteandcolour,havetheirequalclaim.

Thisreignoflawis[how]ourpresentgovernmentinIndiahasestablishedorderinthisvastlandinhabitedbypeoplesdifferentintheirracesandcustoms.Ithasmadeitpossibleforthesepeoplestocomeinclosertouchwithoneanotherandcultivateacommunionofaspiration.

ButthisdesireforacommonbondofcomradeshipamongthedifferentracesofIndiahasbeentheworkofthespiritoftheWest,notthatoftheNationoftheWest…InIndiawearesufferingfromthisconflictbetweenthespiritoftheWestandtheNationoftheWest.ThebenefitofWesterncivilizationisdoledouttousinamiserlymeasurebytheNation,whichtriestoregulatethedegreeofnutritionasnearthezero-pointofvitalityaspossible.Theportionofeducation

allottedtousissoraggedlyinsufficientthatitoughttooutragethesenseofdecencyofWesternhumanity.Wehaveseeninthesecountrieshowthepeopleareencouragedandtrainedandgiveneveryfacilitytofitthemselvesforthegreatmovementsofcommerceandindustryspreadingovertheworld,whileinIndiatheonlyassistancewegetismerelytobejeeredatbytheNationforlaggingbehind.Whiledeprivingusofouropportunitiesandreducingoureducationtotheminimumrequiredforconductingaforeigngovernment,thisNationpacifiesitsconsciencebycallingusnames,bysedulouslygivingcurrencytothearrogantcynicismthattheEastiseastandtheWestiswestandneverthetwainshallmeet.Ifwemustbelieveourschoolmasterinhistauntthat,afternearlytwocenturiesofhistutelage,Indianotonlyremainsunfitforself-governmentbutunabletodisplayoriginalityinherintellectualattainments,mustweascribeittosomethinginthenatureofWesterncultureandourinherentincapacitytoreceiveitortothejudiciousniggardlinessoftheNationthathastakenuponitselfthewhiteman’sburdenofcivilizingtheEast?…

WemustrecognizethatitisprovidentialthattheWesthascometoIndia.AndyetsomeonemustshowtheEasttotheWest,andconvincetheWestthattheEasthashercontributiontomaketothehistoryofcivilization.IndiaisnobeggaroftheWest.AndyeteventhoughtheWestmaythinksheis,IamnotforthrustingoffWesterncivilizationandbecomingsegregatedinourindependence.Letushaveadeepassociation.IfProvidencewantsEnglandtobethechannelofthatcommunication,ofthatdeeperassociation,Iamwillingtoacceptitwithallhumility.Ihavegreatfaithinhumannature,andIthinktheWestwillfinditstruemission.IspeakbitterlyofWesterncivilizationwhenIamconsciousthatitisbetrayingitstrustandthwartingitsownpurpose.TheWestmustnotmakeherselfacursetotheworldbyusingherpowerforherownselfishneedsbut,byteachingtheignorantandhelpingtheweak,sheshouldsaveherselffromtheworstdangerthatthestrongisliabletoincurbymakingthefeebleacquirepowerenoughtoresistherintrusion…

TheProblemWithNon-CooperationInthespringof1921,whenthenon-cooperationmovementwasinfullflow,

TagorewastravellingintheWest,raisingmoneyforhisuniversityinSantiniketan.ReadingreportsofGandhi’smovementrenewedhisreservationsaboutamilitantandunthinkinglyoppositionalnationalism.HeexpressedhisfeelingsinletterswrittentohisandGandhi’sclosefriend,theEnglishpriestC.F.Andrews,whoreleasedthemtothepress.3

LatelyIhavebeenreceivingmoreandmorenewsandnewspapercuttingsfromIndia,givingriseinmymindtoapainfulstrugglethatpresagesaperiodofsufferingwhichiswaitingforme.Iamstrivingwithallmypowertotunemymoodofmindtobeinaccordwiththegreatfeelingofexcitementsweepingacrossmycountry.But,deepinmybeing,whyistherethisspiritofresistancemaintainingitsplaceinspiteofmystrongdesiretoremoveit?…

Theideaofnon-co-operationispoliticalasceticism.Ourstudentsarebringingtheirofferingofsacrificestowhat?Nottoafullereducation,buttonon-education.Ithasatitsbackafiercejoyofannihilation,whichatitsbestisasceticism,andatitsworstthatorgyoffrightfulnessinwhichhumannature,losingfaithinthebasicrealityofnormallife,findsadisinteresteddelightinanunmeaningdevastation,ashasbeenshowninthelatewarandonotheroccasionswhichcamenearertous.‘No,’initspassivemoralform,isasceticism,andinitsactivemoralformviolence…

Iremembertheday,duringtheSwadeshimovementinBengal,whenacrowdofyoungstudentscametoseemeinthefirstfloorofour…house.TheysaidtomethatifIwouldorderthemtoleavetheirschoolsandcollegestheywouldinstantlyobey.Iwasemphaticinmyrefusaltodoso,andtheywentawayangry,doubtingthesincerityofmyloveformymotherland.Andyetlongbeforethispopularebullitionofexcitement,Imyselfhadgivenathousandrupees,whenIhadnotfiverupeestocallmyown,toopenaSwadeshistoreandcourtedbanterandbankruptcy.

Thereasonofmyrefusaltoadvisethosestudentstoleavetheirschoolswasbecausetheanarchyofmereemptinessnevertemptsme,evenwhenitisresortedtoasatemporarymeasure.Iamfrightenedatanabstractionwhichisreadytoignorelivingreality.Thesestudentswerenomerephantomstome…Icouldnotlightlytakeuponmyselfthetremendousresponsibilityofamerenegativeprogrammeforthemwhichwoulduproottheirlifefromitssoil,howeverthinandpoorthatsoilmightbe.Thegreatinjuryandinjusticewhichhadbeendonetothoseboys,whoweretemptedawayfromtheircareerbeforeanyreal

provisionwasmade,couldneverbemadegoodtothem…Ilovemyfellow-beingsandprizetheirlove.YetIhavebeenchosenby

destinytoplymyboatatthatspotwherethecurrentisagainstme.Whatironyoffateisthis,thatIshouldbepreachingcooperationofculturesbetweenEastandWestonthissideoftheseajustatthemomentwhenthedoctrineofnon-co-operationispreachedontheotherside!

YouknowthatIdonotbelieveinthematerialcivilizationoftheWest,justasIdonotbelievethephysicalbodytobethehighesttruthinman.ButIbelievestilllessinthedestructionofthephysicalbody,andtheignoringofthematerialnecessitiesoflife.Whatisneededistheestablishmentofharmonybetweenthephysicalandspiritualnatureofman,themaintainingofbalancebetweenthefoundationandsuperstructure.IbelieveinthetruemeetingofEastandWest.Loveistheultimatetruthofsoul.Weshoulddoallwecannottooutragethattruth,buttocarryitsbanneragainstallopposition.Theideaofnon-co-operationunnecessarilyhurtsthattruth.Itisnotourhearth-fire,butthefirethatburnsoutourhearthandhome…

To-day,atthiscriticalmomentoftheworld’shistory,cannotIndiariseaboveherlimitationsandofferthegreatidealtotheworldthatwillworktowardsharmonyandcooperationbetweenthedifferentpeoplesoftheearth?MenoffeeblefaithwillsaythatIndiarequirestobestrongandrichbeforeshecanraisehervoiceforthesakeofthewholeworld.ButIrefusetobelieveit.Thatthemeasureofman’sgreatnessisinhismaterialresourcesisagiganticillusioncastingitsshadowoverthepresent-dayworld—itisaninsulttoman.Itliesinthepowerofthemateriallyweaktosavetheworldfromthisillusion;andIndia,inspiteofherpenuryandhumiliation,canaffordtocometotherescueofhumanity…

IndiahasevernourishedfaithinthetruthoftheSpiritualMan,forwhoserealizationshehasmadeinthepastinnumerableexperiments,sacrificesandpenances,somevergingonthegrotesqueandtheabnormal.Butthefactisshehasneverceasedinherattempttofindit,eventhoughatthetremendouscostoflosingmaterialsuccess.ThereforeIfeelthatthetrueIndiaisanidea,andnotameregeographicalfact.IhavecomeintotouchwiththisideainfarawayplacesofEurope,andmyloyaltywasdrawntoitinpersonswhobelongedtocountriesdifferentfrommine.Indiawillbevictoriouswhenthisideawinsthevictory—theideaof‘Purushammahantamadityavarnamtamasahparastat’—‘TheInfinitePersonality,whoseLightrevealsitselfthroughtheobstructionofDarkness.’OurfightisagainstthisDarkness.OurobjectistherevealmentoftheLightofthis

InfinitePersonalityofMan.Thisisnottobeachievedinsingleindividuals,butinonegrandharmonyofallhumanraces.ThedarknessofegoismwhichwillhavetobedestroyedistheegoismoftheNation.TheideaofIndiaisagainsttheintenseconsciousnessoftheseparatenessofone’sownpeoplefromothers,whichinevitablyleadstoceaselessconflicts.Thereforemyownprayeris,letIndiastandforthecooperationofallpeoplesoftheworld…

OurpresentstruggletoalienateourheartandmindfromtheWestisanattemptatspiritualsuicide.If,inthespiritofnationalvainglory,weshoutfromourhousetopsthattheWesthasproducednothingthathasaninfinitevalueforman,thenweonlycreateaseriouscauseofdoubtabouttheworthofanyproductoftheEasternmind.ForitisthemindofMan,intheEastandWest,whichiseverapproachingTruthinherdifferentaspectsfromdifferentanglesofvision.IfitcanbetruethatthestandpointoftheWesthasbetrayeditintoanuttermisdirection,thenwecanneverbesureofthestandpointoftheEast.Letusberidofallfalseprideandrejoiceatanylampbeinglitinanycorneroftheworld,knowingthatitisapartofthecommonilluminationofourhouse…

TheWesthasmisunderstoodtheEast.Thisisattherootofthedisharmonythatprevailsbetweenthem.ButwillitmendmattersiftheEastinherturntriestomisunderstandtheWest?ThepresentagehasbeenpowerfullypossessedbytheWest;ithasonlybecomepossiblebecausetoherisgivensomegreatmissionforman.We,fromtheEast,havecometohertolearnwhatevershehastoteachus;forbydoingsowehastenthefulfilmentofthisage.WeknowthattheEastalsohasherlessonstogive,andshehasherownresponsibilityofnotallowingherlighttobeextinguished.ThetimewillcomewhentheWestwillfindleisuretorealizethatshehasahomeofhersintheEastwhereherfoodisandherrest.

ChapterNine

TheAnnihilatorofCasteB.R.Ambedkar

OurnextmakerofmodernIndiahadonethingincommonwithRabindranathTagore—hetoowasthefourteenthandlastchildofhisparents.Theretheparallelsend.WhereTagore’sfamilywasrichanduppercaste,BhimraoRamjiAmbedkarwasthesonofasmalltimemilitaryofficialwhohailedfromtheUntouchableMaharcaste.TheboystudiedinaschoolinSatara,whereaBrahminteacherchangedhissurnamefromAmbavadekartoAmbedkar.AfterthefamilymovedtoBombay,BhimraomatriculatedfromtheElphinstoneHighSchool.Hethenjoinedthenowwell-establishedElphinstoneCollege,wherehisfeeswerepaidbytheprogressivemaharajaofBaroda.HeobtainedhisBAin1912,whereuponhejoinedtheserviceoftheBarodastate.

In1913AmbedkarwassentbythemaharajaforhigherstudiestotheUnitedStates.HejoinedColumbiaUniversityinNewYork,wherehedidamaster’sthesisonthecastesystemandadoctoralthesisonprovincialfinanceinBritishIndia.HewasguidedinhisresearchbytheeconomistE.R.A.SeligmanandcameundertheinfluenceofthephilosopherJohnDewey,whoalsotaughtatColumbia.LivinginNewYorkwasaneducationinitself,broadeningthemindandcultureofthisshy,youngIndianfromanunderprivilegedbackground.Hereadfuriouslyonallsubjects,buying,forhispersonalcollection,morethan2,000booksfromthesecond-handstoresofthecity.

In1916AmbedkarmovedtoLondon,enrolledatGray’sInnandbegananotherdoctorateattheLondonSchoolofEconomics.Buthisscholarshipranout,andhewassummonedbacktoBaroda,wherehewasappointedmilitarysecretarytothemaharaja.However,thediscriminationhefaced(duetohiscaste)ledhimtoquitthejobindisgustandmovetoBombay.Hestartedtutoringstudentsforaliving(asGokhalehaddonebeforehim).Bynowhewasalsopoliticallyactive.WithfundsfromthemaharajaofKolhapur(who,likehiscounterpartinBaroda,wasacriticoftheBrahminstrangleholdonsocietyandpoliticsinwesternIndia),hebeganafortnightlypaperforthedepressedcastes.

In1920AmbedkarwentbacktoLondontoresumehisstudies,fundinghimselffromhissavings,supplementedbyaloanfromaParsifriend.HisDScthesisonthe‘problemoftherupee’wasacceptedin1923.HealsoqualifiedasaBar-at-Law.OnhisreturntoBombay,AmbedkarenrolledattheBombayHighCourt,asGandhihadoncedone,exceptthattheyoungermanwasabletomaintainasuccessfullegalpractice.Heremainedactiveonotherfronts,startingasocietytospreadeducationamongtheDepressedClasses(astheUntouchableswerethenlegallyknown).In1927hewasnominatedtotheBombayLegislativeCouncil,wherehisfirstspeech(paceGokhale)askedforthebudgettobeframed

amidstlesssecrecy.Meanwhile,hehadalsobegunlecturingatthecity’sLawCollege(helaterservedatermasitsprincipal).

Ambedkarwasnotunsympathetictothereformerswhohadprecededhim.However,hefeltthattheyhadnotgonefarenough.Themedievalsaint-poetsaskedmerelyforBrahminsandSudrastobetreatedonparasdevoteesofGod.Ambedkararguedthatreligiousequalitymeantlittlewithoutsocialandeconomicequality.Asforupper-castereformers,therewas,hethought,aninescapablypatronizingtingetotheirefforts.ItwastimefortheDepressedClassestoasserttheirownrightsundertheirownleaders.

In1928acommissionheadedbyJohnSimoncametoIndiatoexaminethequestionofconstitutionalreforms.TheCongressboycotteditsproceedings,inpartbecauseitsmemberswereallwhite.Inhistestimonytothecommission,AmbedkararguedthattheDepressedClassesshouldbetreatedas‘adistinct,independentminority’—asseparatefromtheHindus,astheMuslimsalreadywere.Healsoadvocateddirectactionforthefulfilmentoftheirrights,launchingsatyagrahastoallowUntouchablestodrinkwaterfromtanksandtoentertemplesfromwhichtheywereexcluded.Therewasdeterminedoppositionbytheuppercastes,leadingAmbedkartoconcludethatreformcouldcomeonlythroughthepurposiveactionofthestate.Hethusasked,tobeginwith,forgreaterrepresentationfortheDepressedClassesatalllevelsofpublicservice.

Throughthe1930sand1940s,AmbedkarwroteaseriesoftractsexcoriatingGandhiandGandhism.Thetwomenmetseveraltimes,butcouldnotreconciletheirdifferences.In1932theBritishgovernmentawardedseparateelectoratesforUntouchables.Gandhiwentonafasttoprotest.Tosavehislife,acompromisewasreachedwithAmbedkar(knownasthePoonaPact)wherebyajointelectoratewouldremainforHindus,butwithgreaterseatsfortheDepressedClasses.

In1936AmbedkarformedtheIndependentLabourPartytofighttheelectionsmandatedunderthenewGovernmentofIndiaAct.(Inlateryearsthepartychangeditsnametwice,becoming,first,theScheduledCasteFederation,andlater,theRepublicanPartyofIndia.)InJune1942hewasnominatedtotheviceroy’sExecutiveCouncil,thefirstUntouchabletobesodistinguished.ThissethimevenmorefirmlyinoppositiontotheCongresswhich,inAugustofthesameyear,starteditsQuitIndiamovement.

WhenIndiabecameindependentin1947,thenewCongressgovernmentofferedAmbedkarthejoboflawminister.Heservedinthepostforfouryears,beforeresigninginSeptember1951.Bynowhehadbecomedeeplyattractedto

theBuddha,whomhereferredtoas‘mymaster’.InJanuary1954hewasaskedtobethechiefguestatthepremierofafeaturefilmonJotiraoPhuleproducedbythewriter-editorP.K.Atre.InOctober1956AmbedkarconvertedtoBuddhisminthecityofNagpur.SixweekslaterhediedinNewDelhi.

Likehisgreatrival,Gandhi,Ambedkarhadmultipleagendasaswellasmultiplecareers.Hewas,atvarioustimes,alawyer,teacher,legislator,educationalorganizer,partybuilderandcabinetminister.Throughalltheserolesandassignmentshecontinuedtobeaprolificwriter.Hepublishedimportantbooksonmanytopics,includingfederalism,theologyandphilosophy,finance,language,constitutionalismand,notleast,thesociology,politicsandhistoryofthecastesystem.

B.R.Ambedkar’slifeandworkaresummedupbyhisbiographerDhananjayKeerasfollows:‘WhatdidAmbedkarachievefortheUntouchables?ThestoryofthepastlifeoftheScheduledCasteHinduswaspitchdark…Itwasforthefirsttimeinthehistoryofthepasttwenty-fivehundredyearsthatthesunofabetterfuturearoseontheirhorizon.Ambedkar,thesonoftheirsoil,theirkithandkin,focussedtheworld’sattentionontheircivic,socialandpoliticalrightsandliberties,madeuntouchabilityaburningtopicoftheday,raisedittoaninternationalimportance,andgaveitaglobalpublicity.Hisceaselesshardstruggleandhismercilesshammerforcedanopeningforthem,andinauguratedaneraoflightandliberty.Heawakenedinthemasenseofhumandignity,afeelingofself-respectandaburninghatredofuntouchabilitythatwasworsethanslavery.Hepulledthemoutofsloughandexorcizeddespondencyanddespairfromtheirminds.Heinfusedcourageandnewlifeintotheirdemoralizedanddehumanizedcells.Hegavethemtheirsoulandreimbuedthemwithaspiritwhichenabledthemtovoicetheirgrievances,andtostandupforjustice,equalityandliberty.Beforetheriseoftheirleadershiptheyweretreatedworsethananimals.HisheroicstruggleraisedthemtopoliticalequalitywithothercommunitiesinIndia…’

Thequaintnessoftheprosenotwithstanding,thisisanessentiallyaccuratedescriptionofwhatonemandidforhispeople.

TheRevolutionAgainstCasteIn1927AmbedkarledaprotestagainstabanonUntouchablecastes

drinkingwaterfromalakeinthetownofMahad.Onthatoccasionhemadeaspeechcomparingthestruggleagainstcastewiththestruggleagainstabsolutisminlateeighteenth-centuryFrance.Excerptsfromthatspeechfollow.1

TheHindusaredivided,accordingtosacredtradition,intofourcastes;butaccordingtocustom,intofive:Brahmins,Kshatriyas,Vaishyas,ShudrasandAtishudras.ThecastesystemisthefirstofthegoverningrulesoftheHindureligion.Thesecondisthatthecastesareofunequalrank.Theyareorderedinadescendingseriesofeachmeanerthantheonebefore.

Notonlyaretheirrankspermanentlyfixedbytherule,buteachisassignedboundariesitmustnottransgress,sothateachonemayatonceberecognizedasbelongingtoitsparticularrank.ThereisageneralbeliefthattheprohibitionsintheHindureligionagainstintermarriage,interdining,interdrinkingandsocialintercourseareboundssettodegreesofassociationwithoneanother.Butthisisanincompleteidea.Theseprohibitionsareindeedlimitstodegreesofassociation;buttheyhavebeensettoshowpeopleofunequalrankwhattherankofeachis.Thatis,theseboundsaresymbolsofinequality.

ThecasteHindusofMahadpreventtheuntouchablesfromdrinkingthewateroftheChavadarLakenotbecausetheysupposethatthetouchoftheuntouchableswillpollutethewaterorthatitwillevaporateandvanish.Theirreasonforpreventingtheuntouchablesfromdrinkingitisthattheydonotwishtoacknowledgebysuchapermissionthatcastesdeclaredinferiorbysacredtraditionareinfacttheirequals.

Gentlemen!youwillunderstandfromthisthesignificanceofthestrugglewehavebegun.DonotletyourselvessupposethattheSatyagrahaCommitteehasinvitedyoutoMahadmerelytodrinkthewateroftheChavadarLakeofMahad.

ItisnotasifdrinkingthewateroftheChavadarLakewillmakeusimmortal.Wehavesurvivedwellenoughallthesedayswithoutdrinkingit.WearenotgoingtotheChavadarLakemerelytodrinkitswater.WearegoingtotheLaketoassertthatwetooarehumanbeingslikeothers.Itmustbeclearthatthismeetinghasbeencalledtosetupthenormofequality.

Iamcertainthatnoonewhothinksofthismeetinginthislightwilldoubtthatitisunprecedented.IfeelthatnoparalleltoitcanbefoundinthehistoryofIndia.Ifweseekforanothermeetinginthepasttoequalthis,weshallhavetogotothehistoryofFranceonthecontinentofEurope.Ahundredandthirty-eightyearsago,on24January1789,KingLouisXVIhadconvened,byroyal

command,anassemblyofdeputiestorepresentthepeopleofthekingdom.ThisFrenchNationalAssemblyhasbeenmuchvilifiedbyhistorians.TheAssemblysenttheKingandtheQueenofFrancetotheguillotine;persecutedandmassacredthearistocrats;anddrovetheirsurvivorsintoexile.ItconfiscatedtheestatesoftherichandplungedEuropeintowarforfifteenyears.SucharetheaccusationslevelledagainsttheAssemblybythehistorians.Inmyview,thecriticismismisplaced;further,thehistoriansofthisschoolhavenotunderstoodthegistoftheachievementoftheFrenchNationalAssembly.ThatachievementservedthewelfarenotonlyofFrancebutoftheentireEuropeancontinent.IfEuropeannationsenjoypeaceandprosperitytoday,itisforonereason:therevolutionaryFrenchNationalAssemblyconvenedin1789setnewprinciplesfortheorganizationofsocietybeforethedisorganizedanddecadentFrenchnationofitstime,andthesameprincipleshavebeenacceptedandfollowedbyEurope.

ToappreciatetheimportanceoftheFrenchNationalAssemblyandthegreatnessofitsprinciples,wemustkeepinmindthestateofFrenchsocietyatthetime.YouareallawarethatourHindusocietyisbasedonthesystemofcastes.ArathersimilarsystemofclassesexistedintheFranceof1789:thedifferencewasthatitwasasocietyofthreecastes.LiketheHindusociety,theFrenchhadaclassofBrahminsandanotherofKshatriyas.ButinsteadofthreedifferentcastesofVaishya,ShudraandAtishudra,therewasoneclassthatcomprehendedthese.Thisisaminordifference.Theimportantthingisthatthecasteorclasssystemwassimilar.Thesimilaritytobenotedisnotonlyinthedifferentiationbetweenclasses:theinequalityofourcastesystemwasalsotobefoundintheFrenchsocialsystem.ThenatureoftheinequalityintheFrenchsocietywasdifferent:itwaseconomicinnature.Itwas,however,equallyintense.ThethingtobearinmindisthereisagreatsimilaritybetweentheFrenchNationalAssemblythatmeton5May1789atVersaillesandourmeetingtoday.Thesimilarityisnotonlyinthecircumstancesinwhichthetwomeetingstookplacebutalsointheirideals…

ThatAssemblyoftheFrenchpeoplewasconvenedtoreorganizeFrenchsociety.OurmeetingtodaytoohasbeenconvenedtoreorganizeHindusociety…TheroaditmarkedoutforthedevelopmentoftheFrenchnation,theroadthatallprogress[ive]nationshavefollowed,oughttobetheroadadoptedforthedevelopmentofHindusocietybythismeeting.Weneedtopullawaythenailswhichholdtheframeworkofcaste-boundHindusocietytogether,suchasthoseoftheprohibitionofintermarriagedowntotheprohibitionofsocialintercourse

sothatHindusocietybecomesallofonecaste.Otherwiseuntouchabilitycannotberemovednorcanequalitybeestablished…

Rememberthatiftheprohibitionsonsocialintercourseandinterdrinkinggo,therootsofuntouchabilityarenotremoved.Releasefromthesetworestrictionswill,atthemost,removeuntouchabilityasitappearsoutsidethehome;butitwillleaveuntouchabilityinthehomeuntouched.Ifwewanttoremoveuntouchabilityinthehomeaswellasoutside,wemustbreakdowntheprohibitionagainstintermarriage.Nothingelsewillserve.Fromanotherpointofview,weseethatbreakingdownthebaragainstintermarriageisthewaytoestablishrealequality.Anyonemustconfessthatwhentherootdivisionisdissolved,incidentalpointsofseparatenesswilldisappearbythemselves.Theinterdictionsofinterdining,interdrinkingandsocialintercoursehaveallsprungfromtheoneinterdictionagainstintermarriage.Removethelastandnospecialeffortsareneededtoremovetherest.Theywilldisappearoftheirownaccord.Inmyviewtheremovalofuntouchabilityconsistsinbreakingdownthebanonintermarriageanddoingsowillestablishrealequality.Ifwewishtorootoutuntouchability,wemustrecognizethattherootofuntouchabilityisinthebanonintermarriage.Evenifourattacktodayisonthebanagainstinterdrinking,wemustpressithomeagainstthebanonintermarriage;otherwiseuntouchabilitycannotberemovedbytheroots.Whocanaccomplishthistask?ItisnosecretthattheBrahminclasscannotdoit.

Whilethecastesystemlasts,theBrahmincastehasitssupremacy.Noone,ofhisownwill,surrenderspowerwhichisinhishands.TheBrahminshaveexercisedtheirsovereigntyoverallothercastesforcenturies.Itisnotlikelythattheywillbewillingtogiveitupandtreattherestasequals.TheBrahminsdonothavethepatriotismoftheSamuraisofJapan.ItisuselesstohopethattheywillsacrificetheirprivilegesastheSamuraiclassdid,forthesakeofnationalunitybasedonanewequality.NordoesitappearlikelythatthetaskwillbecarriedoutbyothercasteHindus…

Thetaskofremovinguntouchabilityandestablishingequalitythatwehaveundertaken,wemustcarryoutourselves.Otherswillnotdoit.Ourlifewillgainitstruemeaningifweconsiderthatweareborntocarryoutthistaskandsettoworkinearnest.Letusreceivethismeritwhichisawaitingus.

Thisisastruggleinordertoraiseourselves;henceweareboundtoundertakeit,soastoremovetheobstaclestoourprogress.Weallknowhowateveryturn,untouchabilitymuddiesandsoilsourwholeexistence.Weknowthatatonetimeourpeoplewererecruitedinlargenumbersintothetroops.Itwasa

kindofoccupationsociallyassignedtousandfewofusneededtobeanxiousaboutearningourbread.Otherclassesofourlevelhavefoundtheirwayintothetroops,thepolice,thecourtsandtheoffices,toearntheirbread.Butinthesameareasofemploymentyouwillnolongerfindtheuntouchables.

Itisnotthatthelawdebarsusfromthesejobs.Everythingispermissibleasfar[as]thelawisconcerned.ButtheGovernmentfindsitselfpowerlessbecauseotherHindusconsiderusuntouchablesandlookdownuponus,anditacquiescesinourbeingkeptoutofGovernmentjobs.Norcanwetakeupanydecenttrade.Itistrue,partly,thatwelackmoneytostartbusiness,buttherealdifficultyisthatpeopleregardusasuntouchablesandnoonewillacceptgoodsfromourhands.

Tosumup,untouchabilityisnotasimplematter;itisthemotherofallourpovertyandlowlinessandithasbroughtustotheabjectstateweareintoday.Ifwewanttoraiseourselvesoutofit,wemustundertakethistask.Wecannotbesavedinanyotherway.Itisatasknotforourbenefitalone;itisalsoforthebenefitofthenation…

Ourworkhasbeenbeguntobringaboutarealsocialrevolution.Letnoonedeceivehimselfbysupposingthatitisadiversiontoquietenmindsentrancedwithsweetwords.Theworkissustainedbystrongfeeling,whichisthepowerthatdrivesthemovement.Noonecannowarrestit.IpraytoGodthatthesocialrevolutionwhichbeginsheretodaymayfulfilitselfbypeacefulmeans.

Nonecandoubtthattheresponsibilityoflettingtherevolutiontakeplacepeacefullyrestsmoreheavilyonouropponentsthanonus.WhetherthissocialrevolutionwillworkpeacefullyorviolentlywilldependwhollyontheconductofthecasteHindus.PeoplewhoblametheFrenchNationalAssemblyof1789foratrocitiesforgetonething.Thatis,iftherulersofFrancehadnotbeentreacheroustotheAssembly,iftheupperclasseshadnotresistedit,hadnotcommittedthecrimeoftryingtosuppressitwithforeignhelp,itwouldhavehadnoneedtouseviolenceintheworkoftherevolutionandthewholesocialtransformationwouldhavebeenaccomplishedpeacefully.

Wesaytoouropponentstoo:pleasedonotopposeus.Putawaytheorthodoxscriptures.Followjustice.Andweassureyouthatweshallcarryoutourprogrammepeacefully.

HowtoAnnihilateCasteInDecember1935AmbedkarwasinvitedbytheJatPatTodakMandal,a

HindureformorganizationbasedinthePunjab,todeliverthepresidentialaddressattheirannualconference.However,whenAmbedkarsentthemthetextofhisaddresstheinvitationwaswithdrawn.Hethenpublishedhisspeech,abrilliantandwitheringindictmentofthecastesystem,athisownexpense.Intheprefacetothispamphlet,Ambedkarwroteoftheinvitationsentandrescinded:‘[W]hatcananyoneexpectfromarelationshipsotragicastherelationshipbetweenthereformingsectofCasteHindusandtheself-respectingsectofUntouchables,wheretheformerhavenodesiretoalienatetheirorthodoxfellowsandthelatterhavenoalternativebuttoinsistuponreformbeingcarriedout?’Excerptsfromhisundeliveredaddressfollow.2

ItisapitythatCasteevento-dayhasitsdefenders.Thedefencesaremany.ItisdefendedonthegroundthattheCasteSystemisbutanothernamefordivisionoflabourandifdivisionoflabourisanecessaryfeatureofeverycivilizedsocietythenitisarguedthatthereisnothingwrongintheCasteSystem.

NowthefirstthingtobeurgedagainstthisviewisthatCasteSystemisnotmerelydivisionoflabour.Itisalsoadivisionoflabourers.

Civilizedsocietyundoubtedlyneedsdivisionoflabour.Butinnocivilizedsocietyisdivisionoflabouraccompaniedbythisunnaturaldivisionoflabourersintowater-tightcompartments.

CasteSystemisnotmerelyadivisionoflabourerswhichisquitedifferentfromdivisionoflabour—itisanhierarchyinwhichthedivisionsoflabourersaregradedoneabovetheother.

Innoothercountryisthedivisionoflabouraccompaniedbythisgradationoflabourers.

ThereisalsoathirdpointofcriticismagainstthisviewoftheCasteSystem.Thisdivisionoflabourisnotspontaneous,itisnotbasedonnaturalaptitudes.Socialandindividualefficiencyrequiresustodevelopthecapacityofanindividualtothepointofcompetencytochooseandtomakehisowncareer.

ThisprincipleisviolatedintheCasteSysteminsofarasitinvolvesanattempttoappointtaskstoindividualsinadvance,selectednotonthebasisoftrainedoriginalcapacities,butonthatofthesocialstatusoftheparents.LookedatfromanotherpointofviewthisstratificationofoccupationswhichistheresultoftheCasteSystemispositivelypernicious.Industryisneverstatic.Itundergoesrapidandabruptchanges.Withsuchchangesanindividualmustbefreetochangehisoccupation.Withoutsuchfreedomtoadjusthimselfto

changingcircumstancesitwouldbeimpossibleforhimtogainhislivelihood.NowtheCasteSystemwillnotallowHindustotaketooccupationswhere

theyarewantediftheydonotbelongtothembyheredity.IfaHinduisseentostarveratherthantaketonewoccupationsnotassignedtohisCaste,thereasonistobefoundintheCaste.Bynotpermittingreadjustmentofoccupations,castebecomesadirectcauseofmuchoftheunemploymentweseeinthecountry.

AsaformofdivisionoflabourtheCasteSystemsuffersfromanotherseriousdefect.ThedivisionoflabourbroughtaboutbyCasteisnotadivisionbasedonchoice.Individualsentiment,individualpreferenceshavenoplaceinit.Itisbasedonthedogmaofpredestination.

Considerationsofsocialefficiencywouldcompelustorecognizethatthegreatestevilintheindustrialsystemisnotsomuchpovertyandthesufferingthatitinvolvesasthefactthatsomanypersonshavecallingswhichmakenoappealtothosewhoareengagedinthem.Suchcallingsconstantlyprovokeonetoaversion,ill-willandthedesiretoevade.

TherearemanyoccupationsinIndiawhichonaccountofthefactthattheyareregardedasdegradedbytheHindusprovokethosewhoareengagedinthemtoaversion.ThereisaconstantdesiretoevadeandescapefromsuchoccupationswhichtheyproduceuponthosewhofollowthemowingtotheslightandstigmacastuponthembytheHindureligion.Whatefficiencycantherebeinasystemunderwhichneithermen’sheartsnortheirmindsareintheirwork?AsaneconomicorganizationCasteisthereforeaharmfulinstitution,inasmuchasitinvolvesthesubordinationofman’snaturalpowersandinclinationstotheexigenciesofsocialrules.

SomehavedugabiologicaltrenchindefenceoftheCasteSystem.ItissaidthattheobjectofCastewastopreservepurityofblood.Nowethnologistsareofopinionthatmenofpureraceexistnowhereandthattherehadbeenamixtureofallracesinallpartsoftheworld.

EspeciallythisisthecasewiththepeopleofIndia.Mr.D.R.BhandarkarinhispaperonForeignElementsintheHinduPopulationhasstatedthat‘thereishardlyaclassorCasteinIndiawhichhasnotaforeignstraininit.Thereisanadmixtureofalienbloodnotonlyamongthewarriorclasses—theRajputsandtheMarathas—butalsoamongtheBrahminswhoareunderthehappydelusionthattheyarefreefromallforeignelements.’

TheCasteSystemcannotbesaidtohavegrownasameansofpreventingtheadmixtureofracesormeansofmaintainingpurityofblood.AsamatteroffactCasteSystemcameintobeinglongafterthedifferentracesofIndiahad

commingledinbloodandculture.ToholdthatdistinctionsofCastesarereallydistinctionsofraceandtotreatdifferentCastesasthoughtheyweresomanydifferentracesisagrossperversionoffacts.WhatracialaffinityistherebetweentheBrahminofPunjabandtheBrahminofMadras?WhatracialaffinityistherebetweentheuntouchableofBengalandtheuntouchableofMadras?WhatracialdifferenceistherebetweentheBrahminofPunjabandtheChamarofPunjab?WhatracialdifferenceistherebetweentheBrahminofMadrasandthePariahofMadras?TheBrahminofthePunjabisraciallyofthesamestockastheChamarofthePunjabandtheBrahminofMadrasisofthesameraceasthePariahofMadras.CasteSystemdoesnotdemarcateracialdivision…

Atreeshouldbejudgedbythefruitsityields.IfCasteiseugenicwhatsortofaraceofmenshouldithaveproduced?PhysicallyspeakingtheHindusareaCpeople.Theyarearaceofpygmiesanddwarfsstuntedinstatureandwantinginstamina.Itisanation9/10thsofwhichisdeclaredtobeunfitformilitaryservice.ThisshowsthattheCasteSystemdoesnotembodytheEugenicsofmodernscientists.ItisasocialsystemwhichembodiesthearroganceandselfishnessofaperversesectionoftheHinduswhoweresuperiorenoughinsocialstatustosetitinfashionandwhohadauthoritytoforceitontheirinferiors.

Castedoesnotresultineconomicefficiency.Castecannotandhasnotimprovedtherace.Castehashoweverdoneonething.IthascompletelydisorganizedanddemoralizedtheHindus.

ThefirstandforemostthingthatmustberecognizedisthatHindusocietyisamyth.ThenameHinduisitselfaforeignname.ItwasgivenbytheMahomedanstothenativesforthepurposeofdistinguishingthemselves.ItdoesnotoccurinanySanskritworkpriortotheMahomedaninvasion.Theydidnotfeelthenecessityofacommonnamebecausetheyhadnoconceptionoftheirhavingconstitutedacommunity.

HinduSocietyassuchdoesnotexist.Itisonlyacollectionofcastes.Eachcasteisconsciousofitsexistence.Itssurvivalisthebeallandendallofitsexistence.

Castesdonotevenformafederation.AcastehasnofeelingthatitisaffiliatedtoothercastesexceptwhenthereisaHindu—Muslimriot.Onallotheroccasionseachcasteendeavourstosegregateitselfandtodistinguishitselffromothercastes.Eachcastenotonlydinesamongitselfandmarriesamongitselfbuteachcasteprescribesitsowndistinctivedress.WhatotherexplanationcantherebeoftheinnumerablestylesofdresswornbythemenandwomenofIndia

whichsoamusethetourists?TheCasteSystempreventscommonactivityandbypreventingcommon

activityithaspreventedtheHindusfrombecomingasocietywithunifiedlifeandaconsciousnessofitsownbeing.

TheHindusoftencomplainoftheisolationandexclusivenessofagangoracliqueandblamethemforanti-socialspirit.Buttheyconvenientlyforgetthatthisanti-socialspiritistheworstfeatureoftheirownCasteSystem.OnecasteenjoyssingingahymnofhateagainstanothercasteasmuchastheGermansdidinsingingtheirhymnofhateagainsttheEnglishduringthelastwar.TheliteratureoftheHindusisfullofcastegenealogiesinwhichanattemptismadetogiveanobleorigintoonecasteandanignobleorigintoothercastes…

Thisanti-socialspiritisnotconfinedtocastealone.Ithasgonedeeperandhaspoisonedthemutualrelationsofthesubcasteaswell.InmyprovincetheGulakBrahmins,DeorukhaBrahmins,KaradaBrahmins,PalsheBrahminsandChitpavanBrahmins,allclaimtobesub-divisionsoftheBrahminCaste.Buttheanti-socialspiritthatprevailsbetweenthemisquiteasmarkedandquiteasvirulentastheanti-socialspiritthatprevailsbetweenthemandotherNon-Brahmincastes…

TheBrahmin’sprimaryconcernistoprotect‘hisinterest’againstthoseoftheNon-BrahminsandtheNon-Brahmin’sprimaryconcernistoprotecttheirinterestsagainstthoseoftheBrahmins.

TheHindus,therefore,arenotmerelyanassortmentofcastesbuttheyaresomanywarringgroupseachlivingforitselfandforitsselfishideal.

Thereisnodoubt,inmyopinion,thatunlessyouchangeyoursocialorderyoucanachievelittlebywayofprogress.Youcannotmobilizethecommunityeitherfordefenceorforoffence.Youcannotbuildanythingonthefoundationsofcaste.Youcannotbuildupanation,youcannotbuildupmorality.Anythingthatyouwillbuildonthefoundationsofcastewillcrackandwillneverbeawhole.

Theonlyquestionthatremainstobeconsideredis—HowtobringaboutthereformoftheHindusocialorder?HowtoabolishCaste?Thisisaquestionofsupremeimportance.

Thereisaviewthatinthereformofcaste,thefirststeptotake,istoabolishsub-castes.Thisviewisbaseduponthesuppositionthatthereisagreatersimilarityinmannersandstatusbetweensub-castesthanthereisbetweencastes.

Ithinkthisisanerroneoussupposition.TheBrahminsofNorthernandCentralIndiaaresociallyoflowergrade,ascomparedwiththeBrahminsofthe

DeccanandSouthernIndia.Theformerareonlycooksandwatercarrierswhilethelatteroccupyahighsocialposition.Ontheotherhand,inNorthernIndia,theVaishyasandKayasthasareintellectuallyandsociallyonaparwiththeBrahminsoftheDeccanandsouthernIndia.Again,inthematteroffoodthereisnosimilaritybetweentheBrahminsoftheDeccanandSouthernIndia,whoarevegetariansandtheBrahminsofKashmirandBengalwhoarenon-vegetarians.Ontheotherhand,theBrahminsoftheDeccanandSouthernIndiahavemoreincommonsofarasfoodisconcernedwithsuchNon-BrahminsastheGujaratis,Marwaris,BaniasandJains.

Thereisnodoubtthatfromthestandpointofmakingthetransit[ion]fromonecastetoanothereasy,thefusionoftheKayasthasofNorthernIndiaandtheotherNon-BrahminsofSouthernIndiawiththeBrahminsoftheDeccanandtheDravidcountryismorepracticablethanthefusionoftheBrahminsoftheSouthwiththeBrahminsoftheNorth.

ButassumingthatthefusionofSub-Castesispossible,whatguaranteeistherethattheabolitionofSub-CasteswillnecessarilyleadtotheabolitionofCastes?Onthecontrary,itmayhappenthattheprocessmaystopwiththeabolitionofSub-Castes.Inthatcase,theabolitionofSub-CasteswillonlyhelptostrengthentheCastesandmakethemmorepowerfulandthereforemoremischievous.Thisremedyisthereforeneitherpracticablenoreffectiveandmayeasilyprovetobeawrongremedy.

AnotherplanofactionfortheabolitionofCasteistobeginwithinter-castedinners.Thisalso,inmyopinion,isaninadequateremedy.TherearemanyCasteswhichallowinterdining.ButitisacommonexperiencethatinterdininghasnotsucceededinkillingthespiritofCasteandtheconsciousnessofCaste.

Iamconvincedthattherealremedyisintermarriage.Fusionofbloodcanalonecreatethefeelingofbeingkithandkinandunlessthisfeelingofkinship,ofbeingkindred,becomesparamounttheseparatistfeeling—thefeelingofbeingaliens—createdbyCastewillnotvanish.

AmongtheHindusintermarriagemustnecessarilybeafactorofgreaterforceinsociallifethanitneedbeinthelifeofthenon-Hinduwheresocietyisalreadywell-knitbyotherties,[and]marriageisanordinaryincidentoflife.Butwheresocietyiscutasunder,marriageasabindingforcebecomesamatterofurgentnecessity.

TherealremedyforbreakingCasteisintermarriage.NothingelsewillserveasthesolventofCaste…

Castemaybebad:Castemayleadtoconductsogrossastobecalledman’s

inhumanitytoman.Allthesame,itmustberecognizedthattheHindusobserveCastenotbecausetheyareinhumanorwrongheaded.TheyobserveCastebecausetheyaredeeplyreligious.

PeoplearenotwronginobservingCaste.Inmyview,whatiswrongistheirreligion,whichhasinculcatedthisnotionofCaste.Ifthisiscorrect,thenobviouslytheenemyyoumustgrapplewithisnotthepeoplewhoobserveCaste,buttheShastraswhichteachthemthisreligionofCaste.

Criticizingandridiculingpeoplefornotinterdiningorinter-marryingoroccasionallyholdinginter-castedinnersandcelebratinginter-castemarriages,isafutilemethodofachievingthedesiredend.TherealremedyistodestroythebeliefinthesanctityoftheShastras…

Reformersworkingfortheremovalofuntouchability,includingMr.Gandhi,donotseemtorealizethattheactsofthepeoplearemerelytheresultsoftheirbeliefsinculcatedupontheirconduct,untiltheyceasetobelieveinthesanctityoftheShastrasonwhichtheirconductisfounded…

Itisnouseseekingrefugeinquibbles.ItisnousetellingpeoplethattheShastrasdonotsaywhattheyarebelievedtosay,grammaticallyreadorlogicallyinterpreted.WhatmattersishowtheShastrashavebeenunderstoodbythepeople.You3musttakethestandthatBuddhatook.YoumustnotonlydiscardtheShastras,youmustdenytheirauthority,asdidBuddhaandNanak.YoumusthavecouragetotelltheHindus,thatwhatiswrongwiththemistheirreligion—thereligionwhichhasproducedinthemthisnotionofthesacrednessofCaste.Willyoushowthatcourage?

WhytheUntouchablesDistrustGandhiIn1945AmbedkarpublishedabookcalledWhatCongressandGandhiHave

DonetotheUntouchables,itstitlesinglingoutthepartyandindividualhebelievedtobehismainpoliticalandpersonaladversary.Asharpandattimesbitterpolemic,thebooknonethelessmakessometellingpoints,asthefollowingexcerptsreveal.4

TheUntouchableshavealwayssaidthatMr.Gandhi’santi-Untouchabilitycampaignhasfailed.After25yearsoflabour,hotelshaveremainedclosed,wellshaveremainedclosed,templeshaveremainedclosedandinverymanypartsofIndia—particularlyinGujarat—evenschoolshaveremainedclosed.Theextractsproducedfromthepapers5formthereforeaverywelcometestimonyespeciallybecausethepapersareCongresspapers.AstheyfullycorroboratewhattheUntouchableshavebeensayingonthepoint,nothingfurtherneedbesaidonthesubjectexcepttoaskonequestion.

WhyhasMr.Gandhifailed?Accordingtome,therearethreereasonswhichhavebroughtaboutthisfailure.

ThefirstreasonistheHindustowhomhemakeshisappealfortheremovalofUntouchabilitydonotrespond.Whyisthisso?Itisacommonexperiencethatthewordsamanusesandtheeffecttheyproducearenotalwayscommensurate.Whathesayshasitsmomentumindefinitelymultiplied,orreducedtonullity,bytheimpressionthatthehearerforgoodreasonorbadhappenstohaveformedofthespiritofthespeaker.ThisgivesacluetoknowwhyMr.Gandhi’ssermonsonUntouchabilityhavecompletelyfailedtomovetheHindus,whypeoplehearhisafter-prayersermonsforfewminutesandthengotothecomicoperaandwhythereisnothingmoretoit.ThefaultisnotentirelyoftheHindupublic.ThefaultisofMr.Gandhihimself.Mr.GandhihasbuiltuphisreputationofbeingaMahatmaonhisbeinganharbingerofpoliticalfreedomandnotonhisbeingaspiritualteacher.Whatevermaybehisintentions,Mr.GandhiislookeduponasanapostleofSwaraj.Hisanti-Untouchabilitycampaignislookeduponasafadifnotaside-show.ThatiswhytheHindusrespondtohispoliticalbiddingsbutnevertohissocialorreligiouspreaching…

ThesecondreasonisthatMr.GandhidoesnotwishtoantagonizetheHindusevenifsuchantagonismwasnecessarytocarryouthisanti-Untouchabilityprogramme.AfewinstanceswillillustrateMr.Gandhi’smentality.

MostofMr.Gandhi’sfriendsgivecredittoMr.GandhiforsincerityandearnestnessforthecauseoftheUntouchablesandexpecttheUntouchablesto

believeinitonthemeregroundthatMr.GandhiistheonemanwhokeepsonconstantlypreachingtotheHindusthenecessityofremovingUntouchability.TheyhadlostsightoftheoldproverbthatanounceofpracticeisworthatonofpreachingandhavenevercaredtoaskMr.GandhitoexplainwhydoeshenotceasetopreachtotheHindusthenecessityofremovingUntouchabilityandlaunchacampaignofsatyagrahaorstartafast.IftheywouldaskforsuchanexplanationtheywouldknowwhyMr.GandhimerelycontentshimselfwithsermonsonUntouchability.

ThetruereasonswhyMr.GandhiwillnotgobeyondsermonswererevealedtotheUntouchablesforthefirsttimein1929whentheUntouchablesintheBombayPresidencyopenedacampaignofsatyagrahaagainsttheHindusforestablishingtheircivicrightsinthematteroftemple-entryandtakingwaterfrompublicwells.TheyhopedtogettheblessingsofMr.GandhiinasmuchassatyagrahawasMr.Gandhi’sownweapontogetwrongsredressed.Whenappealedtoforsupport,Mr.GandhisurprisedtheUntouchablesbyissuingastatementcondemningtheircampaignofsatyagrahaagainsttheHindus.TheargumenturgedbyMr.Gandhiwasveryingenious.Hestatedthatsatyagrahawastobeusedonlyagainstforeigners;itmustnotbeusedagainstone’sownkindredorcountrymenandastheHinduswerethekindredandcountrymenoftheUntouchablesbyrulesofsatyagrahathelatterweredebarredfromusingtheweaponagainsttheformer!Whatafallfromthesublimetotheridiculous!BythisMr.Gandhimadenonsenseofsatyagraha.WhydidMr.Gandhidothis?OnlybecausehedidnotwanttoannoyandexasperatetheHindus.

Asasecondpieceofevidence,IwouldrefertowhatisknownastheKavithaincident.KavithaisavillageintheAhmedabadDistrictinGujarat.In1935,theUntouchablesofthevillagedemandedfromtheHindusofthevillagethattheirchildrenshouldbeadmittedinthecommonschoolofthevillagealongwithotherHinduchildren.TheHinduswereenragedatthisoutrageandtooktheirrevengebyproclaimingacompletesocialboycott.TheeventsconnectedwiththisboycottwerereportedbyMr.A.V.Thakkar,6whowenttoKavithatointercedewiththeHindusonbehalfoftheUntouchables.Thestorytoldbyhimrunsasfollows:

TheAssociatedPressannouncedonthe10thinst.thattheCasteHindusofKavithaagreedtoadmitHarijanboystothevillageschoolinKavithaandthatmatterswereamicablysettled.Thiswascontradictedonthe13thinstantbytheSecretaryoftheAhmedabadHarijanSevakSangh,whosaidinhisstatementthattheHarijanshadundertaken(privatelyofcourse)nottosendtheirchildrentotheschool.Suchanundertakingwasnotgivenvoluntarily,butwasextortedfromthembytheCaste

Hindus,inthiscasetheGarasiasofthevillage,whohadproclaimedasocialboycottagainstpoorHarijans—weavers,chamarsandothers,whonumberover100families.Theyweredeprivedofagriculturallabour,theiranimalsofgrazinginthepastureland,andtheirchildrenofbuttermilk.Notonlythis,butaHarijanleaderwascompelledtotakeanoathbyMahadev[theHindugodShiva]thatheandotherswouldnothereafterevenmakeanefforttoreinstatetheirchildrenintheschool.Theso-calledsettlementwasbroughtaboutinthisway.

Butevenafterthebogussettlementreportedonthe10thandthecompletesurrenderbypoorHarijans,theboycottwasnotlifteduptothe19thandpartlyuptothe22ndfromtheweavers.Itwasliftedsomewhatearlierfromtheheadofthechamars,asGarasiasthemselvescouldnotremovethecarcassesoftheirdeadanimals,andthushadtocometotermswithchamarsearlier.Asiftheenormitiesperpetratedsofarwerenotenough,kerosenewaspouredintotheHarijan’swell,onceonthe15thinstantandagainonthe19thinstant.OnecanimaginewhatterrorismwasthuspracticedonpoorHarijansbecausetheyhaddaredtosendtheirchildrentositalongsideofthe‘princely’Garasiaboys.

ImettheleadersoftheGarasiasonthemorningofthe22nd.TheysaidtheycouldnottoleratetheideaofboysofDhedsandChamarssittingbythesideoftheirownboys.ImetalsotheDistrictMagistrateofAhmedabadonthe23rdwithaviewtofindingoutifhewoulddosomethingtoeasethesituation,butwithoutanyresult.

Harijanboysarethuspracticallybannedfromthevillageschoolwithnobodytohelpthem.ThishascauseddespondencyamongtheHarijanstosuchanextentthattheyarethinkingofmigratinginabodytosomeothervillage.ThiswasareportmadetoMr.Gandhi.WhatdidMr.Gandhido?The

followingistheadviceMr.GandhigavetotheUntouchablesofKavitha:

Thereisnohelplikeself-help.Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.IftheHarijansconcernedwillcarryouttheirreportedresolvetowipethedustofKavithaofftheirfeet,theywillnotonlybehappythemselvesbuttheywillpavethewayforotherswhomaybesimilarlytreated.Ifpeoplemigrateinsearchofemploymenthowmuchmoreshouldtheydosoinsearchofself-respect?Ihopethatwell-wishersofHarijanswillhelpthesepoorfamiliestovacateinhospitableKavitha.Mr.GandhiadvisedtheUntouchablesofKavithatovacate.Butwhydidhe

notadviseMr.ThakkartoprosecutetheHindusofKavithaandhelptheUntouchablestovindicatetheirrights?Obviously,hewouldliketouplifttheUntouchablesifhecanbutnotbyoffendingtheHindus.WhatgoodcansuchamandotopromotethecauseoftheUntouchables?AllthisshowsthatMr.GandhiismostanxioustobegoodtotheHindus.ThatiswhyheopposessatyagrahaagainsttheHindus.ThatiswhyheopposedthepoliticaldemandsoftheUntouchablesashebelievedthattheywereaimedagainstthem.HeisanxioustobesogoodtotheHindusthathedoesnotcareifheistherebybecominggoodfornothingfortheUntouchables.ThatiswhyMr.Gandhi’swholeprogrammefortheremovalofUntouchabilityisjustwords,wordsandwordsandwhythereisnoactionbehindit.

ThethirdreasonisthatMr.GandhidoesnotwanttheUntouchablesto

organizeandbestrong.ForhefearsthattheymighttherebybecomeindependentoftheHindusandweakentheranksofHindus.ThisisbestillustratedbytheactivitiesoftheHarijanSevakSangh.ThewholeobjectoftheSanghistocreateaslavementalityamongtheUntouchablestowardstheirHindumasters.ExaminetheSanghfromanyangleonemaylikeandthecreationofslavementalitywillappeartobeitsdominantpurpose.

TheworkoftheSanghremindsoneofthemythologicaldemonessPutanadescribedintheBhagvat—acompaniontotheMahabharat.KamsathekingofMathura,wantedtokillKrishna,asitwaspredictedthatKamsawilldieatthehandsofKrishna.HavingcometoknowofthebirthofKrishna,KamsaaskedPutanatoundertakethemissiontokillKrishnawhilehewasyetaboy.PutanatooktheformofabeautifulwomanandwenttoYashoda,thefostermotherofKrishnaandhavingappliedliquidpoisontoherbreastpleadedtobeemployedasawetnurseforsucklingthebabyKrishnaandthushavetheopportunitytokillit.Therestofthestoryitisunnecessarytopursue.Thepointofthestoryisthattherealpurposeisnotalwaysthesameastheostensiblepurposeandanursecanbeamurderess.TheSanghistotheUntouchableswhatPutanawastoKrishna.TheSanghunderthepretenceofserviceisouttokillthespiritofindependencefromamongtheUntouchables.TheUntouchables,intheearlystagesoftheiragitation,hadtakenthesupportofsomewell-meaningHindusandhadfollowedtheirleadership.BythetimeoftheRoundTableConference,theUntouchableshadbecomecompletelyself-reliantandindependent.TheywerenolongersatisfiedwithcharityfromtheHindus.Theydemandedwhattheysaidwastheirright.ThereisnodoubtthatitistokillthisspiritofindependenceamongtheUntouchablesthatMr.GandhistartedtheHarijanSevakSangh.TheHarijanSevakSanghbyitspettyserviceshascollectedaswarmofgratefulUntouchableswhoareemployedtopreachthatMr.GandhiandtheHindusarethesavioursoftheUntouchables…TheUntouchablesaretoosimple-mindedtoknowthatthecostoftheservicewhichtheHarijanSevakSanghofferstorenderislossofindependence.ThisisexactlywhatMr.Gandhiwants.

TheworstpartoftheactivitiesoftheHarijanSevakSanghisthehelprenderedtotheUntouchablestudentskeptinthehostelsmaintainedbytheSangh.TheseUntouchablestudentsremindmeofBhishmaandKacha,twoprominentcharacters[who]figureintheMahabharata.BhishmaproclaimedwithgreatshowthatthePandavaswereright[but]betweenthetwohefoughtonthesideoftheKauravasandagainstthePandavas.WhenaskedtojustifyhisconducthewasnotashamedtosaythathefoughtfortheKauravasbecausethey

fedhim.KachabelongedtothecommunityoftheDevaswhowereengagedinawaragainsttheRakshasas.ThespiritualheadoftheRakshasasknewamantrabywhichhecouldreviveadeadRakshasa.TheDevaswerelosingthebattlesincetheirheaddidnotknowthemantraandcouldnotrevivetheirdead.TheDevasplannedtosendKachatotheheadoftheRakshasaswithinstructionssomehowtolearnthemantraandcomeback.Kachainthebeginningcouldnotsucceed.UltimatelyheenteredintoanagreementwithDevayanithedaughterofthespiritualheadoftheRakshasasthatifshehelpedhimtoacquirethemantrahewouldbepreparedtomarryher.Devayanisucceededinfulfillingherpartofthecontract.ButKacharefusedtoperformhispartallegingthattheinterestsofhiscommunityweremoreimportantthanhispromisetoher.

BhishmaandKacha,inmyopinion,aretypicalofthemorallydepravedcharacterswhoknownootherpurposebuttoservetheirowninterestsforthetimebeing.TheUntouchablestudentsintheHarijanhostelsareactingthepartofbothBhishmaandKacha.DuringtheirstayinthehostelstheyplaythepartofBhishmabysingingthepraisesofMr.GandhiandtheCongress.WhentheycomeoutofthehostelstheyplaythepartofKachaanddenounceMr.GandhiandtheCongress.Iamextremelypainedtoseethis.NothingworsecouldhappentotheyouthoftheUntouchablesthanthismoraldegeneration.ButthisisthegreatestdisservicewhichhisHarijanSevakSanghhasdonetotheUntouchables.Ithasdestroyedtheircharacter.Ithasdestroyedtheirindependence.ThisiswhatMr.Gandhiwantstohappen.

Takeafourthillustration.TheSanghisrunbytheCasteHindus.TherearesomeUntouchableswhohavedemandedthattheinstitutionshouldbehandedovertotheUntouchablesandshouldberunbythem.OthershavedemandedthattheUntouchablesshouldhaverepresentationonthegoverningBoard.Mr.Gandhihasflatlyrefusedtodoeitherontwoveryingeniousgroundswhichnomanwiththegreatestcunningcouldimprove.Mr.Gandhi’sfirstargumentisthattheHarijanSevakSanghisanactofpenanceonthepartoftheHindusforthesinofobservingUntouchability.Itistheywhomustdothepenance.ThereforetheUntouchablecanhavenoplaceinrunningtheSangh.SecondlyMr.GandhisaysthemoneycollectedbyhimisgivenbytheHindusandnotbytheUntouchablesandasthemoneyisnotoftheUntouchables,theUntouchableshavenorighttobeontheGoverningBody.TherefusalofMr.GandhimaybetoleratedbuthisargumentsaremostinsultingandarespectableUntouchablewillbeforgivenifherefusestohaveanythingtodowiththeSangh.OneshouldhavethoughtthattheHarijanSevakSanghwasaTrustandtheUntouchablesits

beneficiaries.AnytyroinlawwouldadmitthatthebeneficiarieshaveeveryrighttoknowtheaimsandobjectsoftheTrust,itsfundsandwhethertheobjectsareproperlycarriedoutornot.ThebeneficiarieshaveeventherighttohavetheTrusteesremovedforbreachoftrust.OnthatbasisitwouldbeimpossibletodenytheclaimoftheUntouchablesforrepresentationontheManagingBoard.EvidentlyMr.Gandhidoesnotwishtoacceptthisposition.Aself-respectingUntouchablewhohasnodesiretocringeandwhodoesnotbelieveinstakingthefutureoftheUntouchablesonthephilanthropyofstrangerscannothaveanyquarrelwithMr.Gandhi.HeisquitepreparedtosaythatifmeannessisavirtuethenMr.Gandhi’slogicissuperbandMr.Gandhiiswelcometothebenefitofit.OnlyhemustnotblametheUntouchablesiftheyboycotttheSangh.

ThesehowevercouldnotbetherealreasonsfornotallowingtheUntouchablestoruntheSangh.Therealreasonsaredifferent.Inthefirstplace,iftheSanghwashandedovertotheUntouchablesMr.GandhiandtheCongresswillhavenomeansofcontrolovertheUntouchables.TheUntouchableswillceasetobedependentontheHindus.Inthesecondplace,theUntouchableshavingbecomeindependentwillceasetobegratefultotheHindus.Theseconsequenceswillbequitecontrarytotheaimandobject,whichhaveledMr.GandhitofoundtheSangh…ThatiswhyMr.GandhidoesnotwishtohandovertheSanghtothecontrolandmanagementoftheUntouchables.IsthisconsistentwithagenuinedesirefortheemancipationoftheUntouchables?CanMr.GandhibecalledaliberatoroftheUntouchables?DoesthisnotshowthatMr.GandhiismoreanxioustotightenthetiewhichbindstheUntouchablestotheapronstringsoftheHindusthantofreethemfromthethralldomoftheHindus?

ThesearethereasonswhyMr.Gandhi’santi-Untouchabilitycampaignhasfailed.

ChapterTen

TheMuslimSeparatistMuhammadAliJinnah

Throughthe1930sand1940s,GandhiandtheCongressfacedtwomajorchallengesthatcastdoubtontheirclaimtorepresentallofIndiaandallIndians.ThefirstwasfromB.R.Ambedkar,whoarguedthattheCongresswasapartyoftheuppercastes.ThesecondwasfromMuhammadAliJinnah,whoinsistedthattheCongressrepresentedonlyHindusandthattheMuslimsofthesubcontinentneedlookrathertohisparty,theMuslimLeague,toprotectandadvancetheirinterests.

JinnahwasborninKarachiin1876,intoaGujarati-speakingfamilyofShiaMuslimmerchants.Hewastheeldestofsevenchildrenofasuccessfulbusinessman,whoownedhorsecarriages.AfterstudyinginaschoolinKarachi,JinnahproceededtoLondontoqualifyasalawyer,enrollingatLincoln’sInn.In1896hereturnedwithhisbarrister’squalificationinhandandjoinedtheBombayBar.

Thusfar,therearesomeconspicuousparallelswithGandhi.BothhadGujaratiastheirmothertongue,bothcamefrommercantilecommunities,bothstudiedlawinLondonandbothcamebacktopractiseinBombay.However,Jinnahwasverysuccessfulathischosenprofession.Inafewyearshehaddevelopedaverylucrativepractice.Hewasofferedaplaceonthebench,whichherefusedonthegroundsthathenormallyearnedinadaywhatajudgeearnedinamonth.

Atthesametime,likeothersuccessfulandambitiousyoungIndians,Jinnahwasnotaversetoacareerinpubliclife.In1904heattendedhisfirstCongresssession,inBombay.InanotherparallelwithGandhi,heattractedthefavourableattentionofGopalKrishnaGokhale.HealsocameclosetothegreatParsinationalistDadabhaiNaoroji.JinnahwaselectedtotheImperialLegislativeCouncilin1910,aspartofanewquotaforMuslims.Atthirty-five,hewasoneofitsyoungestmembers.Interestinglyenough,oneofhisfirstspeecheswasontheconditionofIndiansinSouthAfrica.

By1915orthereabouts,Jinnahwasbeingreferredtoasthe‘MuslimGokhale’.Likehismentor,hewasknownforhiscarefulresearch,hiscloselyarguedspeechesandhisfocusonharmoniousrelationsbetweenHindusandMuslims.Inthepoliticsofthedayheoccupiedauniqueposition—forhewasatonceamemberoftheCongressandoftheMuslimLeague,whilesimultaneouslyservingasamemberoftheImperialCouncil.

WhenGandhicamehomefromSouthAfricainJanuary1915,JinnahspokeatareceptionforthereturningheroinBombay.Towardstheendofthedecade,however,thetwoGujaratilawyer-politiciansfelloutoverthebestmeansto

advanceIndianinterests.Jinnahpreferredtheconstitutionalroute,whileGandhiwantedtheCongresstoadopthiscreedofcountrywidesatyagraha.Thebreakbecamefinal,andirretrievable,whenattheNagpurCongressofDecember1920JinnahwasbooedoffthestagebyGandhi’seager(orperhapsovereager)followers.

Throughthe1920s,Jinnahtried,withlimitedsuccess,toorganizeamoderatealternativetoGandhi’sparty.In1925hewasofferedaknighthood,andrefused,asGokhalehaddonebeforehim.

In1930JinnahmovedtoLondon,whereheranasuccessfulpracticeattheBarwhilealsotakingpartintheRoundTableConferencesof1930and1931whichdiscussed,abortively,India’spoliticalfuture.AtonetimeheseriouslyconsideredstandingfortheBritishparliament.However,in1934,hewaspersuadedtoreturntoIndiatoassumeleadershipoftheMuslimLeague.Overthenextfewyears,heinfusedlifeandpurposeintoamoribundorganization.Underhisleadership,themembershipoftheLeagueincreasedfromafewthousandtowelloverhalfamillion.Studentsandprofessionalsflockedtohiscall.Now,itcouldnolongerbedismissedasapartymerelyoftheMuslimnobilityandgentry.JinnahalsolaidspecialfocusonstrengtheningtheprovincialbranchesoftheLeague.Inallthishewastakingaleafoutofhisrival’sbook,forGandhihadonceadoptedsimilarmethodstoconverttheCongressfromanelitedebatingclubintoamass-basedpoliticalparty.

Intheelectionsof1937theCongresscametopowerovermuchofIndia.Ironically,electoraldefeatactuallyhelpedtheMuslimLeague,fortheywerenowabletoportraytheCongressinofficeasanessentiallyHinduparty.QuestionswereraisedaboutthepromotionbytheCongressministriesofHindi(asopposedtoUrdu)andthesingingofreligioushymnsinstateschools.ThesecampaignshelpedtheLeaguetoalienatetheCongressfromanyMuslimsupportitstillenjoyed.ThentheSecondWorldWarbrokeoutandtheCongressministriesresigned.In1940theMuslimLeagueformallycommitteditselftotheformationofaseparatehomelandforMuslims,tobenamedPakistan.Jinnah,onceknownas‘theambassadorofHindu—Muslimunity’,hadnowcomearoundtotheviewthatHindusandMuslimscouldnotlivetogetherinasingle,united,independentnation.

WhenGandhiandhisfollowerswenttojailduringtheQuitIndiamovement,JinnahusedtheopportunitytofurtherconsolidatetheMuslimLeague.BynowtheBritishweretreatingtheLeagueonparwiththeCongress.Jinnahdemanded,andobtained,afurtherparity,ofhimselfwithGandhi.

Aftertheendofthewar,electionswereheldtothecentralandprovincialassemblies.TheLeagueobtainedaresounding88percentoftheMuslimvote.InthecrucialprovincesofPunjabandBengal,itwon75outof88and113outof119Muslimseatsrespectively.NowPartitionandtheestablishmentofPakistanweremoreorlessinevitable.

IntheircampaigntocreatePakistan,JinnahandtheLeaguewerehelpedbyseparateelectorates,bythearroganceoftheCongressandbytheBritishpolicyof‘divideandrule’.Thatsaid,onecannotandmustnotdiscountthequalityofJinnah’sleadershiportheenergyandcommitmentofhiscadresandfollowers.Thesemadewhat,in1937,hadseemedaverydistantdream,intoaconcreterealitytenyearslater.

MuhammadAliJinnahdiedinSeptember1948.

TheStepsTowardsAMuslimNationThecontextforthisfirstexcerptisprovidedbytheelectionsof1937,in

whichtheCongressdidfarbetterthantheMuslimLeagueevenamongMuslimvoters.Withtherivalpartynowrunningadministrationsinsixmajorprovinces,theLeaguehadtoregroup.Inthefollowingexcerpt,fromhispresidentialaddresstotheannualsessionoftheMuslimLeagueheldatLucknowinOctober1937,Jinnahurgeshiscolleaguestostandfirmagainsttheadversary.1

…ThepresentleadershipoftheCongress,especiallyduringthelasttenyears,hasbeenresponsibleforalienatingtheMusalmansofIndiamoreandmorebypursuingapolicywhichisexclusivelyHindu,andsincetheyhaveformedtheGovernmentsinsixprovinceswheretheyareinamajoritytheyhavebytheirwords,deedsandprogrammeshownmoreandmorethattheMusalmanscannotexpectanyjusticeorfair-playattheirhands.Wherevertheyareinamajorityandwhereveritsuitedthem,theyrefusedtoco-operatewiththeMuslimLeaguePartiesanddemandedunconditionalsurrenderandsigningoftheirpledges.

Thedemandwasinsistent:abjureyourpartandforswearyourpolicyandprogrammeandliquidate[the]MuslimLeague;butwheretheyfoundthattheyhadnotamajority,liketheNorth-WestFrontierProvince,theirsacredprincipleofcollectiveresponsibilitydisappeared,andpromptlytheCongressPartywasallowedinthatprovincetocoalescewithanyothergroup.ThatanyindividualMusalmanmemberwhowaswillingtounconditionallysurrenderandsigntheirpledgewasofferedajobasaministerandwaspassedoffasaMusalmanminister,althoughhedidnotcommandtheconfidenceortherespectofanoverwhelmingmajorityoftheMusalmanrepresentativesinthelegislature.ThesemenareallowedtomoveaboutandpassoffasMuslimministersforthe‘loyal’servicestheyhaverenderedtotheCongress,bysurrenderingandsigningthepledgeunconditionallyandthedegreeoftheirrewardistheextentoftheirperfidy.HindiistobethenationallanguageofallIndia,andthatBandeMatramistobethenationalsong,andistobeforceduponall.TheCongressflagistobeobeyedandreveredbyallandsundry.Ontheverythresholdofwhatlittlepowerandresponsibilityisgiven,themajoritycommunityhaveclearlyshowntheirhandthatHindustanisfortheHindus…TheresultofthepresentCongressPartypolicywillbe,Iventuretosay,classbitterness,communalwarandstrengtheningoftheimperialisticholdasaconsequence…

Nosettlementwith[the]majoritycommunityispossible,asnoHinduleaderspeakingwithanyauthorityshowsanyconcernorgenuinedesireforit.

Honourablesettlementcanonlybeachievedbetweenequals,andunlessthetwopartieslearntorespectandfeareachother,thereisnosolidgroundforanysettlement.Offersofpeacebytheweakerpartyalwaysmeansconfessionofweakness,andaninvitationtoaggression.Appealstopatriotism,justiceandfair-playandforgood-willfallflat.Itdoesnotrequirepoliticalwisdomtorealizethatallsafeguardsandsettlementswouldbeascrapofpaper,unlesstheyarebackedupbypower.Politicsmeanspowerandnotrelyingonlyoncriesofjustorfair-playorgood-will…

IwanttheMusalmanstoponderoverthesituationanddecidetheirownfatebyhavingonesingle,definite,uniformpolicywhichshouldbeloyallyfollowedthroughoutIndia.TheCongressiteMusalmansaremakingagreatmistakewhentheypreachunconditionalsurrender.Itistheheightofdefeatistmentalitytothrowourselvesonthemercyandgood-willofothersandthehighestactofperfidytotheMusalmancommunity;andifthatpolicyisadopted,letmetellyou,thecommunitywillsealitsdoomandwillceasetoplayitsrightfulpartinthenationallifeofthecountryandtheGovernment.OnlyonethingcansavetheMusalmansandenergisethemtoregaintheirlostground.Theymustfirstrecapturetheirownsoulsandstandbytheirloftypositionandprincipleswhichformthebasisoftheirgreatunityandwhichbindtheminonebody-politic…

InOctober1939theCongressministriesresignedinprotestagainsttheviceroy,LordLinlithgow,takingIndiaintotheSecondWorldWarwithoutconsultingIndianopinion.AsthewarintensifiedinEurope,thequestionofIndia’spoliticalfuturewasintenselydiscussedinEngland.ThenextexcerptisfromanarticlewrittenbyJinnahfortheLondonjournal,TimeandTide,andpublishedinJanuary1940underthetitle‘TheConstitutionalMaladiesofIndia’.2

TheconstitutionalmaladiesfromwhichIndiaatpresentsuffersmaybestbedescribedassymptomsofadiseaseinherentinthebody-politic.Withoutdiagnosingthedisease,nounderstandingofthesymptomsispossibleandnoremedycansuggestitself.Letus,therefore,firstdiagnosethedisease,thenconsiderthesymptomsandfinallyarriveattheremedy.

WhatisthepoliticalfutureofIndia?ThedeclaredaimoftheBritishGovernmentisthatIndiashouldenjoyDominionStatusinaccordancewiththeStatuteofWestminsterintheshortestpracticabletime.Inorderthatthisendshouldbebroughtabout,theBritishGovernmentverynaturallywouldliketoseeinIndiatheformofdemocraticconstitutionitknowsbestandthinksbest,underwhichthegovernmentofthecountryisentrustedtooneorotherpolitical

partyinaccordancewiththeturnoftheelections.Such,however,istheignoranceaboutIndianconditionsamongeventhe

membersoftheBritishParliamentthat,inspiteofalltheexperienceofthepast,itisevenyetnotrealizedthatthisformofgovernmentistotallyunsuitedtoIndia.DemocraticsystemsbasedontheconceptofahomogeneousnationsuchasEnglandareverydefinitelynotapplicabletoheterogeneouscountriessuchasIndiaandthissimplefactistherootcauseofallIndia’sconstitutionalills…

TheBritishpeoplemustrealizethatHinduismandIslamrepresenttwodistinctandseparatecivilizationsand,moreover,areasdistinctfromoneanotherinorigin,traditionandmanneroflifeasarenationsofEurope…

If,therefore,itisacceptedthatthereareinIndiaamajorandaminornation,itfollowsthataparliamentarysystembasedonthemajorityprinciplemustinevitablymeantheruleofthemajornation.Experiencehasprovedthat,whatevertheeconomicandpoliticalprogrammeofanypoliticalparty,theHindu,asageneralrule,willvoteforhiscaste-fellowandtheMuslimforhisco-religionist.

TheBritishpeople,beingChristians,sometimesforgetthereligiouswarsoftheirownhistoryandto-dayconsiderreligionasaprivateandpersonalmatterbetweenmanandGod.ThiscanneverbethecaseinHinduismandIslam,forboththesereligionsaredefinitesocialcodeswhichgovernnotsomuchman’srelationwithhisGodasman’srelationwithhisneighbour.Theygovernnotonlyhislawandculturebuteveryaspectofhissociallifeandsuchreligions,essentiallyexclusive,completelyprecludethatmergingofidentityandunityofthoughtonwhichWesterndemocracyisbased…

ThenextexcerptisfromJinnah’sfamousaddresstotheMarch1940meetingoftheMuslimLeague,heldinLahore,whichcommittedbothpartyandleadertothecreationofaseparateMuslimhomelandtobenamedPakistan.3

…TheprobleminIndiaisnotofaninter-communalcharacterbutmanifestlyofaninternationalone,anditmustbetreatedassuch.Solongasthisbasicandfundamentaltruthisnotrealized,anyconstitutionthatmaybebuiltwillresultindisasterandwillprovedestructiveandharmfulnotonlytotheMusalmansbuttotheBritishandHindusalso.IftheBritishGovernmentarereallyinearnestandsinceretosecurepeaceandhappinessofthepeopleofthissubcontinent,theonlycourseopentousallistoallowthemajornationsseparatehomelandsbydividingIndiainto‘autonomousnationalstates’.Thereisnoreasonwhythesestatesshouldbeantagonistictoeachother.Ontheotherhand,therivalryandthenaturaldesireandeffortsonthepartofonetodominatethesocialorderand

establishpoliticalsupremacyovertheotherinthegovernmentofthecountrywilldisappear.Itwillleadmoretowardsnaturalgood-willbyinternationalpactsbetweenthem,andtheycanliveincompleteharmonywiththeirneighbours.ThiswillleadfurthertoafriendlysettlementallthemoreeasilywithregardtominoritiesbyreciprocalarrangementsandadjustmentsbetweenMuslimIndianandHinduIndia,whichwillfarmoreadequatelyandeffectivelysafeguardtherightsandinterestsofMuslimsandvariousotherminorities.

ItisextremelydifficulttoappreciatewhyourHindufriendsfailtounderstandtherealnatureofIslamandHinduism.Theyarenotreligionsinthestrictsenseoftheword,butare,infact,differentanddistinctsocialorders,anditisadreamthattheHindusandMuslimscaneverevolveacommonnationality,andthismisconceptionofoneIndiannationhasgonefarbeyondthelimitsandisthecauseofmostofyourtroublesandwillleadIndiatodestructionifwefailtoreviseournotionsintime.TheHindusandMuslimsbelongtotwodifferentreligiousphilosophies,socialcustoms,literatures.Theyneitherintermarrynorinterdinetogetherand,indeed,theybelongtotwodifferentcivilizationswhicharebasedmainlyonconflictingideasandconceptions.Theiraspectsonlifeandoflifearedifferent.ItisquiteclearthatHindusandMusalmansderivetheirinspirationfromdifferentsourcesofhistory.Theyhavedifferentepics,differentheroes,anddifferentepisodes.Veryoftentheheroofoneisafoeoftheotherand,likewise,theirvictoriesanddefeatsoverlap.Toyoketogethertwosuchnationsunderasinglestate,oneasanumericalminorityandtheotherasamajority,mustleadtogrowingdiscontentandfinaldestructionofanyfabricthatmaybesobuiltupforthegovernmentofsuchastate…

Historyhas[shown]tousmanygeographicaltracts,muchsmallerthanthesubcontinentofIndia,whichotherwisemighthavebeencalledonecountry,butwhichhavebeendividedintoasmanystatesastherearenationsinhabitingthem.BalkanPeninsulacomprisesasmanyassevenoreightsovereignstates.Likewise,thePortugueseandtheSpanishstanddividedintheIberianPeninsula.WhereasunderthepleaofunityofIndiaandonenation,whichdoesnotexist,itissoughttopursueherethelineofonecentralgovernmentwhenweknowthatthehistoryofthelasttwelvehundredyearshasfailedtoachieveunityandhaswitnessed,duringtheages,IndiaalwaysdividedintoHinduIndiaandMuslimIndia.ThepresentartificialunitofIndiadatesbackonlytotheBritishconquestandismaintainedbytheBritishbayonet,butterminationoftheBritishregime…willbetheheraldoftheentirebreak-upwithworsedisasterthanhasevertakenplaceduringthelastonethousandyearsunderMuslims.Surelythatisnot

thelegacywhichBritainwouldbequeathtoIndiaafter150yearsofherrule,norwouldHinduandMuslimIndiarisksuchasurecatastrophe.

MuslimIndiacannotacceptanyconstitutionwhichmustnecessarilyresultinaHindumajoritygovernment.HindusandMuslimsbroughttogetherunderademocraticsystemforcedupontheminoritiescanonlymeanHinduraj.DemocracyofthekindwithwhichtheCongressHighCommandisenamouredwouldmeanthecompletedestructionofwhatismostpreciousinIslam.Wehavehadampleexperienceoftheworkingoftheprovincialconstitutionsduringthelasttwoandahalfyearsandanyrepetitionofsuchagovernmentmustleadtocivilwar…

Musalmans[inIndia]arenotaminorityasitiscommonlyknownandunderstood…Musalmansareanationaccordingtoanydefinitionofanation,andtheymusthavetheirhomelands,theirterritoryandtheirstate.Wewishtoliveinpeaceandharmonywithourneighboursasafreeandindependentpeople.Wewishourpeopletodeveloptothefullestourspiritual,cultural,economic,socialandpoliticallifeinawaythatwethinkbestandinconsonancewithourownidealsandaccordingtothegeniusofourpeople.Honestydemandsandthevitalinterestsofmillionsofourpeopleimposeasacreddutyuponustofindanhonourableandpeacefulsolution,whichwouldbejustandfairtoall.Butatthesametimewecannotbemovedordivertedfromourpurposeandobjectivebythreatsorintimidations.Wemustbepreparedtofacealldifficultiesandconsequences,makeallthesacrificesthatmayberequiredofustoachievethegoalwehavesetinfrontofus.

Ladiesandgentlemen,thatisthetaskbeforeus.IfearIhavegonebeyondmytimelimit…Anyhow,Ihaveplacedbeforeyouthetaskthatliesaheadofus.Doyourealizehowbigandstupendousitis?Doyourealizethatyoucannotgetfreedomorindependencebymerearguments?Ishouldappealtotheintelligentsia.Theintelligentsiainallcountriesintheworldhavebeenthepioneersofanymovementsforfreedom.WhatdoestheMuslimintelligentsiaproposetodo?Imaytellyouthatunlessyougetthisintoyourblood,unlessyouarepreparedtotakeoffyourcoatsandarewillingtosacrificeallthatyoucanandworkselflessly,earnestlyandsincerelyforyourpeople,youwillneverrealizeyouraim.Friends,Ithereforewantyoutomakeupyourminddefinitelyandthenthinkofdevicesandorganizeyourpeople,strengthenyourorganizationandconsolidatetheMusalmansalloverIndia.Ithinkthatthemassesarewide-awake.Theyonlywantyourguidanceandyourlead.ComeforwardasservantsofIslam,organizethepeopleeconomically,socially,educationallyand

politicallyandIamsurethatyouwillbeapowerthatwillbeacceptedbyeverybody.(Cheers).

ThelastexcerptisfromaspeechtothestudentsunionoftheAligarhMuslimUniversity(AMU)inMarch1941,ayearafterthePakistanresolution.TheAMUwasthecollegeofchoiceforbrightyoungMuslimsfromalloverIndia.Jinnahisthusaddressingthosewhocouldplaycrucialleadershiprolesinthe(asyethypothetical)stateofPakistan.4

…Mr.JinnahbeganbyexpressinghiswarmestthanksforthedeepaffectionandregardshowntohimbytheAligarhstudents.Proceeding,hesaidthatwhenheaddressedthemlastyear,theLahoreresolution,popularlyknownasPakistan,hadnotbeenpassed,buthehadnoticedthattheywereanxiousforthedeclarationoftheidealembodiedintheLahoreresolution.InotherpartsofIndiahehadnoticedthesamefeeling.MrJinnahsaid:

WhatIhavedoneistodeclareboldlywhatwasstirringtheheartofMuslimIndia.ThewholeHindupress,HinduleadersandtheCongressgothystericalaboutit.Theyraisedastormofopposition:butallthepresspropaganda,vituperation,misrepresentationandhystericaloutburstshavenotchangedourposition.IhaveassertedonnumerousoccasionsthatthedemocraticparliamentarysystemofgovernmentastheyhaveinEnglandandotherWesterncountriesisentirelyunsuitedtoIndia.IwascondemnedintheCongresspressasanenemyofIndia’sfreedom!Butthetruthofthestatementisgraduallydawningonthemindsofallthinkingpersons…

IneverythingthatisfundamentalandessentialtolifeHindusandMuslimsdiffer.Itisnouseshuttingone’seyestorealities.AmongHindusthemselvesthereareschismsandexclusivecastesandsub-castes.Betweenthemtheymakeamostundemocraticsocietyyettheyhavesuddenlyfalleninlovewithdemocracy.Theytalkofnothingelsebutdemocracy.(Laughter.)InBombayrecentlyaswimmingbathontheseashorewasopenedfortheexclusiveuseoftheHindus.TheyarenotpreparedtoswimwiththeMuslimseveninthesea.IdonotwanttoridiculethefeelingsoftheHindus.Irespecteveryone’sreligiousfeelings.IamonlyreferringtothesethingstoshowhowdeepisthedifferencebetweentheHindusandtheMuslims.ItwouldbenowisdomtoproceedtobuildforIndiaaconstitutionontheassumptionasifthesedifferencesdidnotexist.ByignoringtherealitiesandthedifficultiesinthewayoffittingIndiaintoasimpledemocraticsystemtheHinduswillbedoingthegreatestharmtotheirownpeople.DemocracyofthekindtheywanttoimposeonIndiaisanimpossibility,foreventheconditionswhichmakediluteddemocracypossibleinother

countriesareabsentfromIndia.Thesoonertheideaisgivenupthebetter.ItwasthereforeaftermatureconsiderationthatwepassedtheLahore

resolutionwhichadvocatestheestablishmentofindependentsovereignstatesinregionsofMuslimmajority,namely,theNorth-WestandtheNorth-EastofIndiaandalsoprovidesformandatorysafeguardsforminoritiesintheregionalstatesandtheirunits.Nowitdoesnotrequireagreatgeniusoragreatconstitutionalisttounderstandtheschemeofpartition.WithoutwaitingtoconsidertheschemeonitsmeritstheCongressandotherHinducirclesbecamehystericalaboutit,asifitwereanightmareorsomedangerousanimal!(Laughter.)Asamatteroffact,Pakistanhasbeenthereforcenturies;itisthereto-day,anditwillremaintilltheendoftheworld.(Cheers.)Itwastakenawayfromus;wehaveonlytotakeitback.WhatisthetitleoftheHindustoit?Howcanwebepreventedfromclaimingwhatisourown?ItisreallymoreintheinterestoftheHindusthemselves.What,afterall,doestheLeaguesay?ZoneswithclearMuslimmajorityaretobedemarcatedandallowedtoestablishindependentstatesoftheirownwiththenecessaryterritorialreadjustments.Undertheschemetwo-thirdsofIndiagoestotheHinduswheretheycanhavetheirownstates.Theyshouldbecontentwiththeirdueshare.TheycanneverhavethewholeofIndia…

TheoldslogansagainstPakistan,suchasvivisectionofIndia,cuttingMotherIndiaintotwo,andcuttingthemothercowhavebeengivenup.TheyhavenowbeguntoaskwhethertheywillbesafeifIndiaispartitioned.TheHindupresshasraisedthebogeythatifIndiaispartitionedtheMuslimswilloverruntheentirecountry.Itisabaselessinsinuation.ForifthatistheHindufear,mayIknowhowdotheythenproposetoruleoverthewholeofIndia?InPakistantherewillbenomorethanseventymillionMuslims.HinduIndiawillconsistofnolessthantwohundredandtwentymillionHindus.Dotheymeantosaythatthese220millionpeoplecannotholdtheirfreedomagainstamereseventymillion?ThenitissaidthatthefutureofIndiawillnotbesafe,asalltheinvasionshavecomefromtheNorth-WestofIndia,andthatPakistanitselfwillnotbeabletowardoffsuchinvasions.ItissaidthataunitedIndia,ademocraticIndia,alonecanwithstandsuchattacksand,therefore,thereshouldbeacentraldemocraticgovernmentofIndia.Byhavingacentralgovernmentandamajorityintheballot-boxtheythinktheycanmakethecountrysafefrominvasion.(Laughter.)Further,ourHindufriendsasktheMuslimminoritiesastohowPakistanwasgoingtobenefitthemandthattheywouldsufferatthehandoftheHindus.AsfortheinvasionsfromtheNorth-West,mayIknowwheredidthe

Portuguesecomefrom?WheredidtheFrenchcomefrom,andwheredidourBritishmasterscomefrom?WasitthroughtheKhyberPass?Theycamefromthecoasts.Butweknowthat,asamatteroffact,modernwarfareknowsnofrontiers.Thedecisiveweaponofmodernwaristheair-arm.Thelandandtheseapowershavetakenasecondaryposition.Letus,therefore,liveasgoodneighbours;lettheHindusguardtheSouthandWestandlettheMuslimsguardthefrontiers.Wewillthenstandtogetherandsaytotheworld,‘HandsoffIndia;IndiafortheIndians’.(Cheers.)

ThesecondobjectionwhichconcernsMuslimminoritieshasnoforce.Asaself-respectingpeople,weintheMuslimminorityprovincessayboldlythatwearepreparedtoundergoeverysufferingandsacrificefortheemancipationandliberationofourbrethreninregionsofMuslimmajority.BystandingintheirwayanddraggingthemalongwithusintoaunitedIndiawedonotinanywayimproveourposition.Instead,wereducethemalsotothepositionofaminority.Butwearedeterminedthat,whateverhappenstous,wearenotgoingtoallowourbrethrentobevassalisedbytheHindumajority.Butthefactisthatthecreationoftheseindependentstateswillbethesurestguaranteeforthefairtreatmentoftheminorities.WhenthetimeforconsultationandnegotiationscomesthecaseofMuslimsintheminorityprovinceswillcertainlynotgobydefault.

PakistanisnotonlyapracticablegoalbuttheonlygoalifyouwanttosaveIslamfromcompleteannihilationinthiscountry.Wehaveyettogoalongway.Pakistanistherebutwehavetotakeit.Itiseasiertoachievefreedomthantokeepit.EnglandandAmericaareindependentstatesbuthowhardtheyhavetostruggletopreservetheirindependence!Wehavetoprepareourselves.Makeyourselvesstrong;prepareyourpeopleineducation,trade,industries,commerceanddefence.Theproblemsbeforeuswillbehowtomaintaininternalsecurityandwardoffexternalaggression.Freedomcannotbeachievedorkeptbythespinningofcharkhas.Weshouldbepreparedtofightanddefendourhomesandidealswecherish.(Cheers.)TherealizationofPakistanisinyourhands…AligarhisthearsenalofMuslimIndiaandyouareitsbestsoldiers.Gotothecountryside.Educateourpeopleandupliftthem.Explaintoourpeoplewhatisourgoal.Therearemanywhoaretryingtomisleadthem.Letthemunderstandthingsandthentheywillmarchontotheirdestinedgoal.

…Thetimehasnowcometodevoteyourselvesmoreandmoretotheconstructiveprogramme.Iaskyoutospendyourvacationsinattendingtoconstructivework,likethespreadofliteracy,socialuplift,economicbetterment

andgreaterpoliticalconsciousnessanddisciplineamongourpeople.WewanttoestablishMuslimStatesintheNorth-WestandtheNorth-EastofIndia,sothatthepeacefulandneighbourlyrelationsmaybemaintainedbetweenHindusandMuslims.Thisistheonlywaytorestorelastingpeaceandhappinesstothecountry.IhavelearntfromreliablesourcesthatinresponsiblecirclesinEnglandandeveninCongresscirclesthisschemeisbeingseriouslyconsidered.Letus,therefore,marchontoourgoal.Thetimecomes,andwhenyouareready,Iwilltellyouwhattodo.(Prolongedcheers.)

ChapterEleven

TheRadicalReformerE.V.Ramaswami

IntheTamilcountry,asinMaharashtra,itwasBrahminswhotookearlyadvantageofBritishrule,learningEnglishinordertoservethenewrulersasteachers,lawyers,doctors,clerksandcivilservants.WhentheCongresssoughtmembersinsouthIndia,oncemoreitwasBrahminswhocametothefore.Somejoinedtheneworganizationoutofaspiritofpatriotismandnationalservice;others,inthehopethatitwouldhelpdeliverjobsathigherlevelsoftheadministration.

Beforecolonialism,theBrahminalreadyenjoyedanexaltedsocialstatus.Whetherbyaccidentordesign,thepoliciesoftheRajmadethemdominantinaneconomicandpoliticalsenseaswell.ItwasthedangerofBrahminhegemonyinallspheresoflifethatlaybehindtheactivismofJotiraoPhuleandB.R.Ambedkar.TheiranalogueinsouthIndiawasanequallyremarkablethinker-organizernamedE.V.Ramaswami.

RamaswamiwasborninthetownofErodein1879.HewasaKannada-speakingNaiker,fromacastethatlayintheupperstratumofSudras.Hisfatherwasamoderatelysuccessfulbusinessman.

WeknowlittleaboutRamaswami’searlylife.ItissaidthathetravelledtoBanarasasayoungman,wherehewaslessthanimpressedwiththecityanditsreligiosity.Inparticular,hewasappalledbythedirtinthestreetsandbythesightofhalf-burntbodiesintheriverGanges.Onhisreturnhome,hejoinedthefamilybusinessandalsobrieflyservedaschairmanoftheErodemunicipality.Inabout1920RamaswamibecameactiveintheCongressParty.HeenergeticallyadoptedtheGandhiancredo,promotinghomespuncloth,templeentryfortheUntouchablesandthelike.In1925helefttheCongressbecausehefoundthatitsleadershipwasoverwhelminglyBrahminand,withonlytherareexception,wasinsensitivetotheclaimsofthelowercastes.AcatalyticincidentrelatedtoaCongress-runhostelwhosemanagementinsisted,despiteRamaswami’sprotests,onservingfoodseparatelytoBrahminandnon-Brahminstudents.

Ramaswaminowturnedtopromotingwhathecalled‘SelfRespect’.HebelievedthatancienthistoryandcurrentpoliticshadconsolidatedthedominationofsouthIndiabynorthIndiaandofnon-BrahminsbyBrahmins.Oppressedcastesandregionsneededthustoregain,orreassert,theirself-respectandcreateconditionswheretheycouldbeincontroloftheirownaffairs.AbrilliantoratorinTamil,healsoranaseriesofwidelyreadpoliticalmagazineswherehepromotedhisideas.

(ApartfromwhathesawaroundhimintheIndiaofthe1920s,RamaswamiseemsalsotohavebeeninfluencedbythethenverypopularAmerican

rationalistthinkerandpropagandist,RobertG.Ingersoll.AvisittotheSovietUnionin1931reinforcedhisbeliefinmaterialism.)

Fromthe1930s,Ramaswamiwasincreasinglyknownas‘Periyar’,orthegreatone.Inhisspeechesandessays,hetookradicalstandsinfavourofatheism,women’srightsandcontraception.Heranamilitant(andeventuallysuccessful)campaignagainsttheimpositionofHindiinsouthIndia.HewrotecriticallyoftheRamayanaandotherHinduepicsandtextswhich,inhisview,promotedthemessageofBrahminsuperiorityandendorseddistinctionsofcasteandgender.Brahminpriestswereaparticulartargetofhispolemics—theywere,heclaimed,corruptandcunning,aswellassexualpredators.

In1944Ramaswamiformedhisownparty,theDravidaKazhagam,whichaskedfortheestablishmentofaseparate,sovereignnation-stateinsouthIndiatobecalledDravidaNadu.WhenIndiabecameindependenton15August1947,andwhenitenactedademocraticconstitutionandcelebrateditsfirstRepublicDayon26January1950,Ramaswamiobservedbotheventsasdaysofmourning.Inhisview,theymerelyformalizedtheruleofthenorthernAryansoverthesouthernDravidians.

In1949agroupofRamaswami’sfollowersbrokeawaytoformtheDravidaMunnetraKazhagam(DMK).In1967theDMKbecamethefirstprofessedlyregionalpartytocometopowerinamajorprovincialelectioninIndia.TheCongress,oncedominantinTamilNadu,hasneversinceregainedpowerinthatstate.WithouttheideologicalandorganizationalgroundworklaiddownbyRamaswami,itishardtoseehowthiscouldhavehappened.Tobesure,hemayhavehimselfseenthisassomewhatlessthanideal—forhewantedaseparatecountryfortheTamils,notmerelygreaterautonomywithintheexistingnation-stateofIndia.

Ramaswami’smessageisnicelycapturedinastatueofhisinTiruchirapalliwhichcarriesthisinscription:‘Goddoesnotexistatall.TheinventorofGodisafool.ThepropagatorofGodisascoundrel.TheworshipperofGodisabarbarian’.

E.V.RamaswamidiedinDecember1973.

TheFraudofReligionWepresentexcerptsfromtwospeechesofRamaswami,satirizingthe

pretensionsoforthodoxHindusandHinduism.ThefirstisfromatalkatCourtallam,Tirunelvelidistrict,inAugust1927.1

TheskulduggerythatthepriestlyclassorBrahminsindulgeininthenameofreligiontoweakenourunityandexpropriateourhard-earnedwealth,andruinoursocietyandcountryandmakeusintopeoplewithoutself-respectandlivingcorpses,isnothinglessthanthedamagedonetousinthenameofpoliticsbypoliticiansandso-callednationalistsasIhaverepeatedlystated.

Withoutrealizingthisweourselvesareaidingthesetreacherousactstocontinueforever,andcreatingthefoundationformakingusandourposteritytheirpermanentslaves.AsIgoaboutexplainingthisyoumightfeelgreatlyagitated.Butifyougivemeapatienthearingandapplyreasonwithoutprejudicethetruthofthis,whetherIamrightorwrong,willsurelybecomecleartoyou.

Further,likethevedas,puranasandshastras,Iamnotsaying,‘BelievewhateverIsay!Mywordisthewordofgod!Ifyoudonotbelievemeyou’llperishinhell!Oryou’llbecomeatheists!’Rather,Isay,‘BrushasidewhatIsayifitdoesnotconformtoyourreason,knowledge,learningandexperience.Ifitdoesfitinwiththesepleaseputthemintopracticeatleasttosomeextent.Redeemyourbrethrenbyexplainingthesetothem.’PleaserealizethatIhavenothingselfishtogainfromthis.

Iamnoagentofanyreligion.NoramIaslavetoanyreligion.Iamboundonlybytheconceptsofloveandknowledge.Ithereforespeaktoyouwhateverstrikesmeasmyduty,mydesire,myhappiness.OtherwiseIleavethingstoyourduty,toyourfreewill,toyourreason.

Whatisthepurposeoftheexistenceofreligionforacountryorasocietyoranindividual?Isitmeantfordiscipliningandunitingasocietyorcountryortodivideit?Isitboundbytheconscienceofanindividualorisitmeanttobindtheindividual’sconscience?Isreligionforthesakeofmanorisitmanforthesakeofreligion?Pleaseponderoverthis.

Pleasethinkoverthenatureofreligioninthismanner.Firstly,howmanyofthosehereknowanythingaboutwhatisour,theHindu,religion?Howmanyoftheso-calledHindusunderstanditsphilosophy?HowmanyevenacceptthatthereissuchareligionasHinduism?

Firstly,towhichlanguagedoestheword‘Hindu’belong?Cananybodysaythat‘Hindu’occursinanyoftheworld’slanguages?Ifwelookintowhenthiswordcameintoourcountry—doesthistermoccurintheliteratureandgrammar

ofourTamil,orforthatmatter,intheoldTamilwritingsoftheSangam,orintheAryanlanguageorinthevedas,shastras,agamas,sruti,smriti,purana,history,storyoranysuchrepositoryofAryancivilizationortradition?OristhistermtobeencounteredinthesongsorstoriesoftheveneratedAlwarsandNayanmars?2OrcanwefindthatatleasttheSittharsorsagesorrishishaveeitherutteredoremployedthisterm?

Whenwelookatwhatwemeanbymatham,religion,scholarssaythat‘religionisadoctrine’.EvenifweacceptthatwhatthenisHindumatham?

IfweconcedethereisaHindudoctrine,whatdoes‘Hindu’mean?Allreligions,apartfromtheHindureligion,prefixthenameofanindividualtothemselves,suchasthe‘Christianreligion’,‘Mohammedanreligion’,‘Buddhistreligion’,‘Ramanujareligion’,‘Sankaracharyareligion’,etc.Inthismannerwhichfellowdoes‘Hindu’referto?Whosedoctrineisit?Pleaseponderwhetherwehavenotadoptedasthenameofourreligionatermwhichhasnomeaningbutonlyaphonicsound.

Secondly,whoistheauthoroftheHindureligion?Howoldisit?Whatisitsdoctrine?Whatistheauthorityforallthese?Ponderoveralltheseissues.

Somesaythat‘theHindureligionisthereligionofthevedas.ThevedaswerespokenbyGod.’Lookatthevulgarityofthisproposition.Ifthevedaswerespokenbygodthenthey’dhavetobecommonforall;howisitthatthevedasareacceptedbysomeandrejectedbysome,revealedtosomeandnotrevealedtoothers,andcircumscribedbysomeboundary?Ifithasbeenspokenbygod,whyhasitbeenrevealedonlyinonelanguage?Ifitwasavedameantforuswoulditnothavebeenspokeninourlanguage[i.e.,Tamil].Whatdowehavetodowiththevediclanguage[i.e.,Sanskrit]?Furtherifithadbeenmeantforushowisitthatitisnotforustohear,see,readorunderstand?…Like‘beingawifetoeverybody’whyisitbeingamenabletoeverywishfulexegesis,andwithafactiontobackeverysuchexegesis?Ifwethinkofallsuchquestionswehavetoask‘Istheresuchathingasaveda?Ifyes,isittrue?Iftrue,canitbindus?’Pleasethink.

Howmanygodsinthisworld!…Howmanygods!Howmanysymbolsrepresentingthesegods!Howmanytemplesforthesegods!Howmuchfoodofferingsforeachgod!Howmanymarriages!Howmanychildren!Howmanysuchhorrors!Lookatallthese!Howmanydifferencesamongthedevotees!Howmanycastes!Howmuchofhierarchicalranking!Isitjustthatonesectionofthese,whocanbecountedonthefingers,shouldbeconsideredsuperiorandhighandentitled?

Ifourreligionacceptsthetheorythatgodiscommontoallandisomnipresent,howisitthatsuchcrueltiesasweshouldnotgonearthedeity,enterthetemples,whilesomeotherscantouchthedeity,washit,clotheit,canbeinstituted?

Nowpleasethinkwhatistheuseofourhavingacceptedsuchareligion,accepteditsgods,builttemplesforthem,endowedourproperties,andworshippingthemdaily…

ThenextexcerptisfromatalkatPachaiyappa’sHall,Madras,inOctober1927.3

…Ourreligiouspoliciesandpracticesarethereasonforourcountrynotattainingfreedomandwallowinginastatewithoutself-respect.SomeofthoselisteningtomemaybeoffendedbywhatIsay.Thisissobecauseselfishpersonshaveinculcatedthesuperstitionofreligiousbeliefinpeopletosuchanextent…Itissoingrainedthatitisnoteasytoconvincepeople…However,ifIdonotspeakoutIwillbeeitheraselfishpersonoracoward.Ifyouanalysethisinadetachedmanneremployingreason,there’dbenoneedtofindfaultwithwhatIsay.Whenonetalksofreligionitbecomesimperativeaswelltotalkaboutthefailureofpoliticsasaresult.ManyhereknowthatIworkedextensivelyinthefieldofpolitics.Afterthisexperience,realizingthatthiswasnotthepathtofreedom,IlefttheCongressandnotbecauseIwaseitherexpelledoroutofminordifferenceofopinion.Ididnotcomefromamodestbackground.IquitatatimewhenIwasinapositionofresponsibilityandpower.IquitasIbelievedthatnothinggoodwillcomeoutforthecountryfromthispoliticalmovement.ItwasattheKanchipuramconference[ofNovember1925]thatthisfeelinggotstrengthened.IwasformanyyearsthePresidentandSecretaryoftheTamilnaduCongressCommittee.Itwasthen[thatIrealized]myservicewaswastedandthatIwasonlyservingourenemiesinthetaskofruiningourcountryandsociety,andIquitpolitics.

Ifyouwanttoknowmystandregardingreligion,between1904andJune1927…IwasthesecretaryandchairmanoftheErodeCircleDevasthanam[templeboard].TheBoardoftheHinduReligiousEndowmentshadalwayswritteninpraiseofme.ThenewlyconstitutedBoard,increatinganewDevasthanamcommitteeforfourtaluks,hasagainnominatedmeamember…ManycomplaintsweresenttothembyBrahminsurgingagainstmynomination.OneofthefirstcomplaintsstatedthatIamacriminalandthatIhavebeenjailedtwice.Thatcomplaintwasforwardedtome.IrepliedthatthechargeswereallcorrectandtheonlyerrorwasthatIhadbeenjailedthriceandnottwice.

Next,signatureswerecollectedfrommanynon-BrahminsandBrahminsthat‘Thisfellowabusesreligion;heabusesonlyBrahmins.EngageaCIDinspectortoreportonhim’andapetitionwassenttothegovernment.Thegovernmentagainaskedforareply.Istated,‘Idonotabuseanyoneclassofpeople.Iabuseeverybody.Icannotbutabuseanyclassofpeoplewhoseideascomeinthewayofmywork.Iamstrivingonlytoseethatthereareequalrightsforall.’Iwasre-nominated.AsIkeeptravellingtoChennaiandotherplacesIhavedelegatedmychairmanshiptoanotherresponsiblepersonandnowremainitsvicechairman.Somepeoplewhohaveheardmespeaksaythat‘Iamanatheist,anabuserofreligion’,‘anenemyofswaraj’and‘astoogeofthegovernment’.IamyettoseeanysignthatIamafavouriteofthegovernment.Thegovernmenttreatsmeinthesamemannerthatithasalwaystreatedme.EventodayIambeingshadowedbypolicemenasbefore…

TheissueonwhichIamtospeaktoyoutodayisthereformofreligion.Iamnotouttodefraudyou,liketheBrahmins,bysayingthatyouhavetoacceptallthatIsayandifyoudon’tthensinwillbefallyou.Isetouttospeakonthematterofreligiousreformonlyafterstating,‘Pleasegivemeapatienthearingandthendoasyouwish.’

…Whendidtheneedforreligionoriginate?Whydoesoneneedreligion?Weneedtoponderthis.Tomyminditseemsthatreligionmighthaveoriginatedwhenhumansbegantoliveasgroupsandwantedtohavesomeorderfortheirday-to-daylifeandpreventonefromharmingothers.Andwhenthisorderbegantobeestablishedtheprinciplesmighthavebeendevisedinkeepingwiththeknowledge,capabilities,situations,climate,etc.ofthepeopleofthetimes.Withthepassageoftimethisordermusthavegrownintunewiththedesiresandgreedandpoliticsofindividualsandfinallytakentheshapeofwhatiscalledreligiontoday.Inourcountrywhenreligionoriginatedithadlittletodowithpolitics.Inthosedaysourpeopledidnothaveasenseofpolitics.Therewaslittleneedforitinanycase.Why?Analysethehistoryofthousandsofyearsago.Inthosedays,agricultureflourished.Therewasenoughandmorefortheneedsofeverybody.

Theonewhohadpaddygaveittotheonewhohadcottonandgotcottonorclothinexchange.Thiswassoforotherneedsaswell.Thisiswhatiscalledbarter.Duringtheirfreetimeourpeopleindulgedincontemplationandcreatedsomelawsandreligiousstipulations.HowevertheBrahminswhocametoourlandlater,fooledourcarefreepeople,manipulatedthemtotheirbenefit,enslavedeveryoneandbecametheircreatorsandlords…Ifthisstatecontinues

howwillweeverprogress?Howcanweescapealifeofthraldomandlivewithself-respect?Thereforeweshoulddestroyallthosewhoarehurdlestoalifeofself-respectofanationorcountry.Weshouldforsakeobstinacyandactaccordingtothestateofthepeopleandourreason,removetheobstaclesinthepathandbecomefreebyattainingself-respect.

Somecallthemselves‘Hindus’.Butifyouaskthem‘WhatdoesitmeantobeaHindu?’,ninetyoutofahundredwouldhavenoanswer.Yet,theirloveforreligionbasedonsuperstitionisbeyonddescription.OfMuslims,ninetyoutofahundredarewellawareoftheirreligion.Unlikeotherreligionistswedonothaveanunderstandingofourreligion.Ifyouaskourpeoplesuchquestionsas‘Whatisyourreligion?Whofoundedit?Whendiditoriginate?’thereisnoonetoanswerthem.ButifyouaskMuslimsorChristiansorBuddhistsorotherstheyarereadywithananswer.TheantiquityattributedtotheHindureligionbythesepeopleisnotsimple.Ifyoubuyallthepaperavailable,putthenumberoneandfillitwithegg-shapedzeroesallover,yettheageattributedtoitwouldbehigherandnotlower.Nobodyisabletoanswerwhoisitshead.Somesayitwascreatedbygod.Ifweaskforevidencetheycitetheveda.Ifweaskthemwhatitsays,theyreply,‘Youcannotseeit;hearit;readit!’Isitpossiblethatgodcouldhavecomposedit?No.Becauseifitwasgodwhocreatediteveryoneinthisworldshouldacceptit.Anyoneshouldbeabletoseeit.Sohowcanwebelieveintheveda?Howcanwefollowit?Peopleofotherreligionshavetranslatedtheirscripturesintovariouslanguages,printedthemandhaveensuredthatitisavailableeventopeopleofotherreligions.

ItwasbecauseMuslimsandChristiansmadesucheffortsthattheycouldspreadtheirreligionandtheirscriptures,andtherearesevenandahalfcroresofMuslimsandacroreofChristiansinourcountry.CananybodysaythatthesesevenandahalfcrorescamefromcountriessuchasArabiaorTurkey?…Everyweekfourthousandoftheso-calledHindusconverttootherreligions.Thereasonisthat[MuslimsandChristians]propagatetheirreligion.Tothepeoplewhohavesoconvertedtheyteachtheirreligionandalsogivethemeducation.Thentheyprovideavocationforleadingagoodlifeandthiscreatesafeelingthattheirreligionshouldruletheworld.Forthistheyspendverylittlemoneyforthesakeofreligion.Theydonotspendevenonepercentofwhatwespendforourreligion.Nootherreligionspendsasmuchaswedo.WithinashorttimeoftheircomingChristianshaveralliedourpeople,giventhemeducation,andhavemadethemselvesourmasters…

Butourreligion,saidtobemadebygodandmillionsandmillionsofyears

old,saysthatamajorityofthepeopleshouldnotreaditsscriptures;andifoneviolatesit,therearepunishmentssuchascuttingoffthetonguethatstudies,pouringmoltenleadintoearsthathear,andgougingoutoftheheartthatlearns.Asaresult,onlywiththeadventofthewhitegovernment5percentarenowliterate.Ofthem,90percentareBrahmins.Butsomesay,‘Weneverforbadeanyonefromstudying;weonlyforbadethestudyingofthevedas.’TheeducationofvedictimesisnotlikethehistoriesofEngland,EuropeorArabia.NorisitthebookswrittenbyShakespeareorMacaulay.Theeducationofthosedayswasthatofmorals.Thesemoralmaximsbecamethevedas.Andwearenotsupposedtoreadthevedas…Ifthewhitegovernmenthadnotcome,wouldreligionhavepermittedtheeducationofevenoneoutofathousandamongus?Well,ifwecannotreadthevedascanwenotatleastlearnSanskrit?No,theysay.Ifweaskwhy,theysayitwillnotcometoourtongue.IfIsay,letmetrytheysaythatthemoralsofthevedasoccurintermittentlyinthemandthereforethattooisnotpermitted.Thusareuntoldtravailsandinsultsheapeduponusinthenameofreligion.Buttheexpensesincurredinthisregardarebeyondcalculation.Nootherreligionexpendssomuchmoney.Inotherreligionsoneortwopersonsmayendowathousandorfourthousandpounds.Thatwillbeusedtopropagatetheirreligion.Thatmeansthespreadingofeducationamongpeople,amelioratingdiseaseanddiscoveringthenew.Butinourreligioneveryoneisforcedtopayataxforreligion.Inourprovincealone,accordingtogovernmentstatistics,templesandmonasterieshaveanannualrevenueof2croresofrupees.Ifyouaddindependentmonasteriesandtemplesthefigurewouldbemanytimesover.TheTirupathitemplealonehasanannualincomeof20lakhs.InthedistrictofTirunelvelialonethreeorfourtempleshaveanannualrevenueof2–3lakhs.

IfyouincluderenownedtemplessuchasthoseinChidambaram,RameswaramandSrirangamthisfigurewillbemuchhigher.Apartfromthesethereareotherunaccountedsums.SupposeifonegoesfromheretoTirupathitooffertwothousandrupees,whataretheotherexpensesinvolved?Hehastotakehisrelativeswithhim.Hehastoweartheritualyellowcloth.Hehastogoinaprocessionwithdrums.Hehastocollectalmsonthestreetscryingout‘Govinda,Govinda’.Whydoeshedoallthistomakehisofferingoftwothousandrupees?It’savotiveoffering.Whatwasthevow?Earlier,whenhewassickordistressed,godsavedhimfromdiseaseinanswertohisprayers.Thereforehehastonowemptythepromisedsumwithoutashortfallofasinglepaisa.Andthereareotherexpensesaswell.Justthinkhowmuchmoneyisspentonsuchthings.ImaginehowmanypeoplefromtheHimalayastoKanyakumari

makesuchpilgrimages.Manygonotonlyforvotiveofferingsbutforfestivalsaswell.Howmuchisspentonthat?Iamnotsayinganythingaboutthefaith.Iamgivingthesefiguresonlytoaskwhatistheoutcome.Whatistheuseofthemoneythusspent?Justthinkwhogainsfromallthis.Allthismoneygoesintorawrice,greengram,ghee,badamandsugar.Whoeatsthem?…

Let’snowturntorituals.Howmuchdowespendonrituals?Ourpeoplethinkthatmenaremadeforrituals…Evenbeforeweareconceivedtheritualsbegin.Apriestisrequiredtoconducttherituals.Hehastocomeandburnthefirewoodandcreatesmokeandsoot.Onlyifhesaysthatahealthychildwillbeborndowebelievethatsuchachildwillbeborn.Webelievethatonlyifweinstructthechildinthewombwillitbecomeintelligent.Ifthechildtripsandfallswehavetoperformaritual.Tocastthehoroscope,toputitinacradle,tofeedit,totieanappy,totonsure,topiercetheears,tosendittoschool—ritualshavetobeperformedforeachoneofthese.Evenifthechilddevelopsafeveraritualisneeded.ForeveryritualtheBrahminhastobecalledin.Moneyhastobecoughedup.Evenifonefallsill,hesays‘SaturnisturningtowardsVenusandhastobepropitiated.’Shellingoutmoneyisthepropitiation.Fortheritualofmarriagematching[ofhoroscopes]hastobedone.Ifanothermandesiresthewoman,hewinksatthepriestofferingtopayfivehundredorathousandrupees,andthepriestsaysthatthematchisnotrightevenifitis.Hefixesthetimeanddayaccordingtohisownwhims.Hemurmursdeathmantrasorsomesuchthingatthemarriageritualandtakesmoney.Insomecasesthebrideiswidowedaftertendaysofmarriage.Thehorrorsinflictedbythemother-in-lawareunutterable.There’snolimittothetroublesandmisfortunecausedbythehusband.Andifyouaskthepriestwhydidthishappenevenaftermatchingallaspects[oftheirhoroscopes]hesays,‘That’sherkarma,whatcananybodydoaboutthat?’Andifyouask‘Whythendidyoucomparesomanyhoroscopicattributes,performritualsandtakeawaymoney?’hereplies,‘Youarestupid.’Ifthecouplearechildless,hesays,‘Youmusthaveachild.GotoKashi,gotoRameswaram,performcharities,makepropitiationsorelseyouwillgotohell.’Partakingfoodatachildlesshomeisabigsin,heasserts.

Youshouldhaveachildevenifyouhavetomakeyourwifecohabitwithyourbrother.Whatisthesecretbehindthis?OnlyifafamilyhasatleastoneheircantheBrahminperformritualsandfillhisstomach.Otherwisehislinewillperishwithoutanyonetogivetohim.Finally,doesheleaveusaloneevenatthetimeofdeath?Likethecartsarepermittedtopassattollgatesonlyafterthetollispaid,eventhedeadmanhastopayatolltotheBrahmin.

Let’snowconsiderreligiouspreceptorsandgurus.Peoplegainnothingfromthese.InthenameoftheHindureligion,therearemanySankaracharyas,andSaivaandVaishnavapontiffs.Theygoaboutwiththeirretinueinprocessionsonelephantsandcamels,campataplace,advertisethroughtheirmenaboutritualwashingoftheirfeetandgivingalms,chargearupeeorapoundfortheirfeettobewashedandtoletpeopledrinkthatdirtywater,andmoveouttoadifferentcampafterpeopletherearemilkeddry,doingexpiatoryritualsandtakingaritualdipwithourmoneyforhavingseteyesonashudra,anotherritualanddipfortheshudra’sshadowfallingonthem,onemoreritualanddipforhavingspokenin[demoticorcolloquial]Tamil.Someofthemarecalled‘lokaguru’[people’spreceptor].Andthenthere’sthekulaguru[familypreceptor].Hesendshismantoletpeopleknowofhiscoming.Thedisciplesrushtohimwithfamilyandchildrenandareorderedtofallathisfeet.

Kulaguru:Howmanychildrendoyouhave?Disciple:Three.Twoofwhomaremarried.

Kulaguru:Twosonsaretwounits.Youareoneunit.Thatmakesitthreeunits.Threeunitsmakethree.Threequartersmakesthree-quarters.Soofthreeandthree-quartersyouhaveremittedonlyoneandaquarter!

Disciple:Lord,forgiveme.ButI’vesubmittedoneandaquarterasafineinmyignorancebecausemytwosonsarenotemployed.

Kulaguru:Butwasitnotyourfatherwhowilledthatit’soneandaquarterforeachunit?Lookatthiswrit.Andafterthemoneyistaken,hismansays‘Swamigal’s[theguru’s]home

needsabitofrepair.ComeandgetitdonesoonforSwamigalisinconvenienced.’

OntheRightsofWidowsRamaswamiwasanearlyandconsistentadvocateofwidowremarriage.The

excerptthatfollowsisfromanarticlepublishedinAugust1926.4Intelligentpeoplewillagreethatthecreatorhasnotendowedmenand

womenwithdifferentfaculties.Isitpossibletofindanydifferencebetweenmenandwomen,settingasidethephysicalfeatures,insharpnessofintellectorinqualitiesofcourageandheroism?Itisnotpossibleatall.Thereare,inbothmenandwomen,intellectuals,courageouspeopleaswellasstupidandcowardlypeople.Whilethisisthecase,itisunfairandwickedonthepartofthehaughtymalepopulationtocontinuetodenigrateandenslavethefemalepopulation.

AmongtheatrocitiesperpetratedbytheHindumalepopulationagainstwomen,herewehavetoconsiderthetreatmentmetedouttowidowsalone.

Evenaveryoldmanwhoisalreadysatiatedwithworldlypleasurestriestomarryagain,assoonashiswifeisdead.Healsoselectsaverybeautifulandgracefulmaidtobehisbride.But,ifagirllosesherhusband,evenbeforeknowinganythingofworldlypleasures,sheiscompelledtoclosehereyestoeverythingintheworldanddiebroken-hearted.Whatagreatinjustice!

ItisextremelycruelonthepartoftheHindubrethrentowitnessthegradualdestructionsufferedbyonehalfoftheirsociety,withouttakinganyaction.

Inthepast,itwascustomaryforawomanwholostherhusband,tojumpintohisfuneralpyre.Wheneffortswerebeingtakentostopthispracticeofself-immolation,calledSati,theorthodoxpeopleindulgedinagreatagitationsayingthatHindureligionwasindangerandtheorthodoxywasgettingdestroyed.Butincourseoftime,theagitationdiedoutandthepracticeofSatialsostoppedaltogether.

Now,thepracticeofpreventingwidowsfrommarryingagainisapartialandcruelone.Allowinganoldmanwhohaslosthiswifetomarryagainandpreventingevenayoungchildlesswidowfromgettingmarriedagain—thisattitudeisfarfromimpartialandjust.

Itisreasonabletosaythattheremarriageofawidowinterfereswithherchastity.Widowslosetheirchastityandgetdestroyedonlybecausewedon’tgetthemremarried.Someyoungwidowswhoseektosatisfytheirphysicalpassionbecomepregnantandseektodestroythechildinthewomb.Towhomwillthissinofinfanticidego?Itwillgoonlytotheparentswhocompelyoungwidowstocontinuetobewidowsandnotgetremarried.Leavingalonetheyoungwomenwhodonotwishtomarryagain,itisalwaysgoodtogettheotheryoungwidowsremarried.

Whensomefriendsreadsuchardentadvocacyofwidowremarriage,theymaywonderifmysupportofthispropositionisonlyverbalorifIhavetakenactiveparticipationinanywidow-remarriage.Justtoclearthisdoubtatleast,IwishtorecordwhatIhavedoneinpractice.

IbelongtotheKarnatakaBalijavarCommunity.Thewomenofmycommunityare[not]permittedtomarryagain,incasetheybecomewidows.ThefamilyinwhichIwasbornwasextremelyorthodoxandrigorouslydevotedtoVaishnavareligiousprinciples.Inspiteofthisfamilybackground,frommyseventhyearonwardsIwasridiculingtheartificialdistinctionsbetweenthehighandthelowinsocietyandalsothepracticeofnoteatinganyitemoffoodtouchedbyothers.Notsatisfiedwiththis,Ibrokethesebansdeliberatelyandtouchedanybodyandatefoodfromanyhouse.

Forthesereasons,Iwaspreventedfromenteringourkitchenandexceptingmyfather,nobodyusedanyvesseltouchedbyme,withoutwashingit.Thosewhowereenviousoftherigidorthodoxpracticesinourfamily,derivedsomecomfortfrommyrebelliousattitude.Theyusedtoremark,‘Naickerhasbeenblessedwithasonforhisorthodoxyandheisagemofboy!’FrommysixteenthyearIattributedtomalearrogancethespecialtraininggiventogirlchildrenandtherestrictionsimposedonthem.

Inthesecircumstances,mysisterdied,leavingamalechildandagirlchild.Whenthegirl,whomwecalledAmmayi,wastenyearsold,wecelebratedhermarriageonagrandscale.Sixtydaysafterthemarriage,thehusbandoftheyounggirldiedofcholera.Hewasonly13yearsoldthen.WhenAmmayiheardabouthisdeath,sheranuptomecryingbitterly,‘Uncle,didIaskyoutogetmemarried?Youhavethrownaboulderonmyhead!’andfellviolentlyatmyfeetinjuringherhead.600to700menandwomenwhohadcomethereforcondolencelookedatmeandthegirlalternatelyandshedtearsprofusely.Itoocrieduncontrollably.AndwhenIliftedtheprostrategirlfromtheground,Iresolvedtogethermarriedagain.

Ayearafterthegirlcameofage,mybrother-in-lawandItookstepstoarrangeforhermarriage.Assoonasthisnewsreachedmyparentsandothers,theywereupset,thinkingthattheircommunitywasingreatdanger,andmadethepartieswhomwehadcontactedwithdrawfromthetalkofmarriagealliance.Finally,weselectedthebrotherofmybrother-in-law’ssecondwife.TheyoungmanandthegirlweresecretlytakentoChidambaram,andtheirmarriagewasconductedinthetemple.IdidnotgotoChidambaram,simplytokeepourrelativesoffthescent,regardingourplans.Iwasafraidthatifthosepeoplegot

theleastsuspicion,theywouldforcethebridegroomtowithdrawfromthealliance.Asaresultofthisremarriageforthegirl,therewasdivisionamongourrelatives,communaldisciplinewasenforcedforsometimeandlaterourrelationshipsbecamenormal.

Theboyandthegirllivedtogetherandbegotamalechild.But,unfortunately,aftersometime,myniecelosthersecondhusbandalso.Now,themotherandthesonarelivingtogetherfairlycomfortably.Still,inmycommunitytherearesomewidowedgirlsbelow13years.Itisatouchingsighttoseetheparentsofthosewidowedchildrentreatingthemlikeuntouchables.

WheneverIthinkofthelotofwidowsandwhenIwitnesstheirsufferings,Icometotheconclusionthatitisthelawofnatureforthestrongtodominateovertheweakandill-treatthem.WearetemptedtothinkthatwhenHindusocietycameunderthedominationofsomepeople,therewasneitherreligionnoranykindofdisciplineinthatsociety,thatsomekindofdisciplinearoseamongthemandthatthestrongshapedthatdisciplinetosuittheirself-interest.But,whatevermaybethereasonforthepresentstateoftheHindusociety,myfirmbeliefisthatthelowpositiongivenpermanentlytowidowsmayprovetobethereasonfortheutterruinoftheHindureligionandtheHindusociety.

Icraveyourforgivenessformyfrankstatementthatmostofthepeoplewhoclaimtobeinvolvedinpolitics,socialwelfare,socialreformationandtheimprovementofwomen’slotareworkingonlyfortheimprovementoftheirlivesandforbuildingtheirownreputation,andnotforthecausestowhichtheyclaimtobedevoted.

Further,evenifinthesespheresthereissomeimprovement,mostofthosewhoappeartobeworkingthereareactuatednotbyconvictionsbutonlybyaloveofpopularity.Thosewhospeakabouttheimprovementofthestatusofwomenkeepthewomenintheirownfamiliesunder‘purdah’;thosewhospeakabouttheremarriageofwidows,keepthewidowsintheirownfamilieswell-guardedandprotecttheirwidowhoodcarefully.Thereisnoconnectionbetweenwhattheypreachandwhattheypractice.Ifwetrytofindthereasonforsuchconduct,wewillhavetoconcludethattheyinstinctivelyfeelthatwomenareslaves,subservienttomenandthattheymustbekeptundercontrol.Thatiswhythesepeopletreatwomenlikeanimals.Theyseemtofeelthatgivingfreedomtowomenisequivalenttocommittingaveryseriouscrime.Theresultofthisattitudeisthatthereisnoindependenceorfreedomtoonehalfofthehumanrace.Thiswickedenslavementofhalfofthehumanraceisduetothefactthatmenarephysicallyalittlestrongerthanwomen.Thisprincipleappliestoall

spheresoflifeandtheweakerareenslavedbythestronger.Ifslaveryhastobeabolishedinsociety,themalearroganceandwickedness

whichleadtotheenslavementofwomenmustbeabolishedfirst.Onlywhenthisisachieved,thetendersproutsoffreedomandequalitywillregistergrowth.

TheCaseforContraceptionRamaswamisupportedcontraceptionasameansofenhancingtherightsand

freedomsofwomen.ThissethimapartfromotherIndianreformers,suchasGandhi,whoadvocatedcelibacyasameansofbirthcontrol.Theexcerptsthatfollowarefromanarticlepublishedin1930.5

WhatIwrotetwoyearsagooncontraceptionshockedmanypeople.But,nowithasbecomeanordinarymattertobetalkedabouteverywhereBut,therearebasicdifferencesbetweenthereasonsgivenbyusforcontraceptionandthereasonsgivenbyothersforthis.Wesaythatcontraceptionisnecessaryforwomentogainfreedom.Othersadvocatecontraceptiontakingintoconsiderationmanyproblemslikethehealthofwomen,thehealthandenergyofthechildren,thepovertyofthecountryandthemaintenanceofthefamilyproperty.ManyWesternersalsosupportcontraceptionforthesamereasons.Ourviewisnotbasedontheseconsiderations.Werecommendthatwomenshouldstopdeliveringchildrenaltogetherbecauseconceptionstandsinthewayofwomenenjoyingpersonalfreedom.Further,begettinganumberofchildrenpreventsmenalsofrombeingfreeandindependent.Thistruthwillbeclearifwelistentotalkofmenandwomenwhentheirfreedomishampered.

Whenamanisindifficulties,hegenerallysays,‘IfIwereasinglemanwithoutencumbrances,Iwouldfaceanydifficultyboldly.But,becauseIamnowthefatheroffourorfivechildren,outofanxietyoflookingafterthem,Ihavetobowtothewordsofothers.’Sotoo,whenawomanissubjectedtosufferingbythehusbandorbysomeadversecircumstances,shegenerallysays,‘IfIwerefree,Iwouldgetawayfromthisplaceordrownmyselfinariveroratank.Mytemperamentwillnotallowmetofacethiskindofsufferingevenforaminute.ButhowcanIgoaway,leavingthesechildrentofendforthemselves?’Therefore,itisthesechildrenthatstandinthewayofthefreedomofbothmenandwomen.

Whenpeopleintheworldhavetoworkhardandalsosubordinatethemselves,sacrificingpersonalfreedom,justinordertoearnaliving,iftheyareburdenedwiththeresponsibilityoflookingafterchildrenalso,howcantheybefreeandindependent?Therefore,conceptionanddeliveryofchildrenobstructthefreedomofbothmenandwomen.Conceptionprovestobethewickedenemyofwomen’sfreedom.Thatiswhywesaythatwomenmustdefinitelyputastoptodeliveringchildren.Conceptionistherootcauseofwomenbecomingsickly,developingsignsofoldagetoosoonandmeetingwithdeathearly.Further,itisthisconceptionthatstandsinthewayofwomenbecomingascetics,

religiousleadersandheadsofreligiousinstitutionsandmutts,whilemenarefreetobecomeanyofthese.Thatiswhyweadvocatecontraception.

TheConstraintsofMarriageOurfinalexcerptfromthefeminist,orproto-feminist,writingsofE.V.

Ramaswamispeaksoftheburdensplacedonwomenbythatmostdurableofhumaninstitutions,marriage.6

Themarriedlifeofamanandawomaninourcountryisverybad;innoothercountryitissobad.Themarriageprinciple,briefly,involvestheenslavementofawomanbyherhusband,anditisnothingelse.Weconcealthisenslavementundercoverofmarriageritesandwedeceivethewomenconcernedbygivingtheweddingthemeaninglesslyfalsenameofadivinefunction.

Generallyspeaking,notmerelyinourcountry,butinalmostallcountriesoftheworld,asfarasmarriageisconcerned,womenaresubjectedtounnaturallyharshtreatment.Thiswillbeacceptedastruebyallimpartialpeople.But,inthis,ourcountryisfarworsethanothercountries.

Ifthiswickednessagainstwomencontinues,inthenearfuture,thatis,withinanotherfiftyyears,marriageritesandconnectedrelationshipswillceasetobe;wecanbesureofthat.Realisingthis,intelligentpeopleinothercountriesaregraduallyrelaxingtheharshtreatmentofwomen.Ourcountryaloneisobstinatelyclingingtotheoldpractices.Thereforeanunconventionallydrasticagitationofwomenhastotakeplace.

Lastyear(1929)attheChengalpattuconferencearesolutionwaspassedstatingthatmenandwomenshouldhavetherighttobedivorcedfromtheirpartners.AndthenintheWomen’sConferenceheldinMadrasrecentlytherewasademandforalawtoenablewomentohavedivorcewhennecessary.Thesocalledsocialreformersraisedahueandcryagainsttheresolutionsinthetwoconferences.ButaftertheChengalpatturesolution,insomepartofIndiaandinothercountriesdivorcelawshavebeenenacted.InRussiamarriageitselfistreatedasadailycontract.AllofusknowthatinGermany,ifthereisnoagreementbetweenamanandhiswife,theycanbedivorcedwithoutassigninganyreason.TheBarodagovernment7alsohasenactedsuchalaw.InmanycountriesoftheWest,suchalawisinforce.Wehavetosaythatitisfoolishonthepartofthegovernmentinourcountrynottohaveenactedsuchalaw.NewspapersreportthatinSouthIndiamanyhusbandshavekilledtheirwivessuspectingimmoralbehaviour.Sometimesthehusband’ssuspicionofhiswife’scharacterhasledtomanymurders.Thosewhobelieveindivinedispensationdonothavethebrainstoaskthemselveswhymarriagesconductedaccordingtoreligiousritesandtheapprovalofgod,endinthisfashion.Iftheworldofthe

womenshouldprogress,ifthehumanelementshoulddevelopinwomenandifmenshouldhavecontentmentandhappinessandiftheyshouldexperiencereallove,itisessentialthatweshouldgiveourpeopletherighttoseekdivorcewhenitisnecessary.Otherwisemenandwomenwillhavenoscopeforindependentliving.

Manyofour‘socialreformers’raiseaviolentcryofprotestifamanmarriestwowives.Itisnotclearwhatmakesthemraisethiscry.Isittheirdevotiontoreligionorrationalismortheirinterestinthewelfareofwomenorthefreedomofhumanbeingsortherighteousconductofhumanbeings?Wewilldiscussthisquestiononanotheroccasion.

Now,Iwishtoaskthepeoplewhoobjecttoamanmarryingmorethanonewifethesequestions:Ismarriageintendedtogivepleasureandsatisfactiontomanorisitjustaformalrite?Ifbychanceamangetsashiswifeawomanwhomhedoesnotlike,whodoesnotcooperatewithhimandwhocannotgivehimphysicalpleasure,thenwhatshouldthemanconcerneddo?Inthesameway,ifawomanhappenstogetamanunsuitabletoherineveryway,then,whatisherlot?Whatisshetodo?Ifmarriagehasanythingtodowithdivinity,andifitisreallydissoluble,willsuchcomplicationsariseinit?Whenthesethingsareconsidereditwillbecleartoanykindofman,thatthetalkofdivinityisutterfalsehood.Therefore,ifdivorceisnotfacilitatedinourcountrybylawasitisdoneinothercountries,wewillhavetodopropagandaagainstmarriageandalsoformorethanonepartnerforeachmarriedmanandwoman.Thatapart,atpresent,wewishtourgethemenwhofindtheirwivesnon-cooperative,anduselessforgivingpleasureandsatisfaction,tocomeforwardtomarrythewomentheylike.Onlythenthesufferingthatresultsfrombringingtogether,inthenameofdivinesanction,menandwomenwhodonotknoweachotherandwhohavenotgiventheirconsentforthealliance,willend.Whymanisbornandwhyhediesarequestionswithwhichwearenotconcerned.Whatweareconvincedaboutisthataslongashumanbeingslive,theymustenjoypleasureandsatisfaction.Forthis,awomanmusthaveamanandamanmusthaveawoman.

Whenthisisaccepted,ifdifficultieswhichcausesorrowbetweenthecouplecropup,itisthefirstdutyofanysensiblemantogetridofthosedifficulties.Thosewhoworkforthepleasureandsatisfactionofotherhumanbeingsmustdothisservice.Withoutgettingridofthedifficultiesifmenandwomensufferdissatisfactionandpain,tellingthemselvesthatsimplybecausetheyaremarried,theymustpatientlyputupwitheverything,Iwouldsaythattheybetrayabsence

oftheessentialhumanqualitiesandalsowantofself-respect.

ChapterTwelve

TheSocialistFeministKamaladeviChattopadhyay

WhereasAmbedkar,JinnahandRamaswamiwerecriticsofGandhi,ournextmakerofmodernIndiawasacriticalsympathizer.InthisshewassomewhatakintoTagore.WhilethepoeturgedGandhinottorejectothercultureswhendemandingnationalindependence,KamaladeviChattopadhyayaskedhimtobemoresensitivetotherightsofwomen,aswellastobemoreattentivetotheeconomicbasesofsocialstrife.

Kamaladeviwasbornin1903,theyoungestchildofamiddle-classBrahminfamilyfromthesouth-westernportcityofMangalore.HercommunityofChitrapurSaraswatshadtakenearlytomoderneducationandreapeditsrewardsaccordingly.Herownfatherwasinthecolonialcivilservice.Growingup,Kamaladeviwasdeeplyinfluencedbyhermother,whoreadTamil,English,HindiandMarathiandalsoplayedtheclassicalviolin.

Kamaladeviwasmarriedandwidowedinherteens.HermotherencouragedhertostudyinMadras,whereshefellinlovewithandlatermarriedHarindranathChattopadhyay,whowasabrotherofthepoet-patriotSarojiniNaiduandaversifierandactorofsometalenthimself.Theatreseemedtobeacommonbond—forKamaladevilikedtoactinandpromoteplays,particularlythosewithsocialthemes.In1926,stillinherearlytwenties,shestoodforelectionstotheMadrasLegislativeCouncil,butlostnarrowly.BynowshewasaconvincednationalistintheCongressmould.In1928shewaselectedtotheprestigiousAllIndiaCongressCommittee(AICC).

Kamaladevibecamebetterknownwhen,in1930,sheprevaileduponGandhinottorestricttheSaltSatyagrahatomenalone.SheherselfmadepacketsofsaltandsoldthemoutsidetheBombayStockExchange,shouting‘MahatmaGandhikijai’.Thensherepeatedtheprocedureinthehighcourt.Forthisbreachofthelaw,shewasarrestedandsenttojail,thefirstofseveralprisontermsshewasto—thewordisinescapable—enjoy.

In1934agroupofidealisticandbrilliantlygiftedyoungmenandwomenformedtheCongressSocialistParty(CSP).ThisurgedtheCongresstobemoresensitivetotherightsofworkersandpeasants.Atthesametime,theseCongressSocialistsdetestedtheso-calledSocialistFatherland,theSovietUnion.Condemningitsone-partystateanditsbrutaltreatmentofpoliticaldissidents,theCSPstoodratherforamarriageofdemocracyandsocialism.KamaladeviwasactiveintheCSPfromthebeginning,becomingitspresidentin1936.Shehadalsobecomeincreasinglyinvolvedinthewomen’smovement,lobbyingforbetterworkingconditionsforwomeninfactoriesandfarmsandfortheirrighttopaidmaternityleave.

KamaladeviwasarrestedduringtheQuitIndiamovementof1942andspentmorethanayearinjail.However,afterIndiabecameindependentin1947,sherefusedtoenterformalpolitics.Withherabilities,andherrecordasafighterforfreedom,aplaceinParliamentandintheUnionCabinetwashersfortheasking.Ifshewished,shecouldhavebeenagovernorofalargestateorambassadortoanimportantcountry.Offersweremadeinthesedirections—sherejectedthemall,infavourofsocialwork.Inthefirst,difficultyearsoffreedomsheworkedtoresettlerefugeesinnorthernIndia.ThroughherIndianCooperativeUnionshehelpedthedisplacedrefugeesacquireland,buildhomesandsetupsmallworkshopsandfactories.Underherdirection,thecooperativeranschoolsandhospitalsaswell.

Fromthe1950s,KamaladeviturnedincreasinglytotherevivalandpromotionofIndia’srich,variedandendangeredcrafttraditions.SheestablishedtheAllIndiaHandicraftsBoardandheadeditfortwentyyears.Shetravelledthroughthecountry,studyingexistingtraditionsofweaving,pottery,sculpture,metalwork,toy-making,etc.Sheformedcooperativestomarkettheproductsofcraftsmenandtoprovidethemcredit.Sheinstitutedawardstomotivatethem.Sheurgedstategovernmentstocutoutmiddlemenandtodealdirectlywithcraftsmen,sourcetheirproductsandsellthemthroughtheirownemporia.Ahealthycompetitiverivalrybetweenthestateswastherebycreated.ThatIndiancraftsarestillaliveand,moreover,haveavisiblenationalandinternationalpresence,isowedmoretoKamaladeviChattopadhyaythantoanyotherindividual.

AmongtheotherinstitutionsthatKamaladevihelpedcreateandnurtureweretheNationalSchoolofDrama,theSangeetNatakAkademiandtheIndiaInternationalCentre.Sheisnowchieflyknownforherworkforhandicraftsandthroughtheinstitutionsthatshefounded.But,astheexcerptsbelowdemonstrate,Kamaladeviwasalsoanoriginalthinker,whosewritingsonpoliticsandsocialreformcontinuetospeaktoustoday.

KamaladeviChattopadhyaydiedin1988,havinglivedthroughthemostpartofacenturyshehelpeddefineandwhosefinesttendenciessheembodied.

TheWomen’sMovementinPerspectiveIn1942KamaladeviChattopadhyaywaselectedpresidentoftheAllIndia

Women’sConference.Sinceshewastheninjailshecouldnotassumeoffice.However,afterherreleasefromprisonin1944,shepresidedovertheannualconferenceoftheWomen’sConferenceheldthatyearinBombay.Excerptsfromheraddressarepresentedbelow.Hereducated,urbaneandmodernstylemakesforaninterestingcontrastwiththemoredirectandearthyproseofTarabaiShinde,herfellowworkerinthecauseofgenderequality.1

Althoughthewomen’smovementhasfairlyadvancedandmatured,Ifeeltheneedtodaymorethanevertorestateitscase,becauseofthecontinuedmisunderstandingofitsnatureandgrowthbyalargenumberofmenandquiteafewwomenalike.Thewomen’smovement…operatesasanintegralpartoftheprogressivemovementinthebroadestsense,andisnotasexwarassomanymechanicallybelieveorareledtobelieve.Fortheissuesroundwhichitrevolves,suchasrightofvotes,inheritance,entryintoprofessionsandthelike,areanintrinsicpartofthebiggerissuesstrivingtoovercometheprevailingundemocraticpracticesthatdenycommonrightstocertainsectionsofsociety.Itisthereforeacomradetothestruggleofthebackwardcastesandthelong-oppressedclassesalike,seekingtoregainthelostinheritanceofman’sinalienablerights.Togiveitanyotherinterpretationorshearitofftoisolateitfromthemaincurrent,issociallyinjurious.Itisequallyerroneoustoholdthe‘natureofman’responsibleforwomen’sdisabilitiesandgivethewomen’smovementananti-mantwist.Itisthenatureofoursocietywhichisatfaultandourdrivehastobedirectedagainstfaultysocialinstitutions.

Thewomen’smovement,therefore,doesnotseektomakewomeneitherfightmenorimitatethem.Itratherseekstoinstilintothemaconsciousnessoftheirownfacultiesandfunctionsandcreatearespectforthoseoftheothersex.Thusalonecansocietybeconditionedtoacceptthetwoasequals.Tofitwomentheoreticallyandpracticallyintothisscheme,womenhavetobeencouragedtodeveloptheirgiftsandtalents.Thishasthereforetobeoneofthemainplanksofthemovement.

Closelyalliedtoafalseconceptionofthewomen’smovementisalsothefalsevalueallottedtothewomen’seconomicworth.Thecorrectpremisetostartfromistherecognitionofthesocialdivisionoflabourbetweenthesexes,whichgivestheliedirecttothemiddleandupper-classconceptionofwomenasdomesticandsocialparasites,livingontheirhusbandsandcontributingnothing.Womanpowerisbasicandthewomanmustberecognizedasasocialand

economicfactoronherown,notasanassistanttoman.Littlerecognizedarethetremendouslaboursofthehousewife,andeveninthemosthighlyindustrializedcountrieshouse-keepingstillremainsthemajorindustry,andthehousewivesstillformthemajority.Tostateblandlythatwomanproduceschildrenandrearsthem,cooksfood,cleans,washes,isnotenough…Thehousewifeisasmuchofaworkingwomanasafactoryworker.Sheexpendsmoreenergyandtimeandskillintheproductionofcommoditiesthantheunionized,legallyprotectedworker,forherhoursareunlimitedandhertoolscountless.Traditionhasalwaystendedtoplacealowervalueonhomeproductionandservices.Onereasonmaybebecausesuchgoodsandservicesdonotcomeonthemarketbutonlycatertothefamilygroupasconsumers.Yet,reallyspeaking,thisveryfactshouldmakethem,asonewritersays,‘priceless’.For,sincesocietydependsuponthefamilynotonlyforbiologicalperpetuationbutculturalaswell,womanastheguardianofthehomeandoneofitsstabilizingfactors,willalsocontinuetoremain‘priceless’.Thetragedyisthatitsverynon-pecuniaryandnon-competitivecharacterhasloweredtheprestigeofthewoman’srole.Husbandswhoclaimthey‘support’theirwivessimplybecausethelatterdonotbringhomeapaycheque,arebeinganti-social,upsettingtheharmonioussocialequilibriumandbreakingsocialsolidarity.Foritistimesocietyrecognizedthateveryhousewifesupportsherselfthoughshemaynotscratchatadeskorrunamachine,bythesociallaboursheperformsandthecontributionshemakestowardsthemaintenanceofthehomeanditshappiness.

Theentranceofwomenintoextra-domesticactivitieshastobewelcomed,foritprovidesawiderfieldfortheirtalents,breakstherelativesegregationofthewomenasasex,relaxestherestrictionsthatotherwisenarrowwomen’sfunctions.Whatisstrangeisthataslongaswomanconfinesherselftoherdomesticduties,sheiscensuredasaburdenonman,whereasifshetriestoearnalivelihoodoutsidethehome,sheisequallycondemnedasacompetitorofman,tryingtotakehislivelihoodawayfromhim…

ThefieldofoperationsthatliebeforetheConferenceisever-widening.Manyvariedactivitiesbeckonandthetemptationtorushinalldirectionsisgreat.Butlikeanautumnalmatronwhohasdevelopedahighsenseofdiscriminationbutnotlostheryouthfulvigourandenthusiasm,theConferencewoulddowelltoconcentrateonafewitemsanddothemwell.FirstinimportanceIwouldplacethetraininginsocialservices,soeminentlyneededyetsogrievouslyneglected…Closelyalliedtothisisthenecessityfortrainingwomeninhandicraftsandfosteringhand[made]industries.Thoseofour

brancheswhicharealreadyworkinginthisdirection,oneofthemeventurningoutpaper,willtestifytotheutilityofsuchventures.Theywillprovideameansoflivelihoodtomanyhelplesswomen.Incidentally,theywilladdtotheindustrialproductionofourcountryatatimewhenitisnotabletomeetourneeds.Everybranchshouldinitiateandrunwhateverindustriesitisbestinapositiontointroduce.Insuchundertakings,Iamsure,wecanalwayscountonthehelpandcooperationofotherexperiencedbodieswhoarealreadyinthefieldbutwhodonotattemptthespecialtrainingandemploymentofwomen,ataskthisConferenceisbestfittedfor.

Asessentialandasscarcearethehealthservices,particularlynursing…Thematernityandchildwelfaremovementismostlyaweek-endshowandtheentirecountrycanboastofonly800centrestocatertosuchavastareaandpopulation.Allthismakesanappallingpicture.WhileadmittingthattheWomen’sConferenceisnotthebodywhichcanbuildupacompletehealthservicetomeetthecountry’srequirements,Ifeelsureitcanmakeasmallbutappreciablecontribution.Itcanrecruitwomentothenursingprofession,encouragemanymoregirlstotakecoursesinpublichealth-nursing,firstaid,industrialhygiene,etc.,andalsogetmoreofsuchcoursesintroducedinoureducationalandsocialinstitutions.Itcanhelptoorganizeshortercoursesinthegeneralprinciplesofnursingtomeetthepresentemergencyinthecountry.Atthesametimeitshouldagitatetoraisethestandardofhousing,allowances,trainingandpayofthenursingstaff,withaviewtopopularizingandsecuringsocialrecognitiontothislong-despisedbutmostnobleofprofessions…

Althoughthefoodproblemisthemostfrighteningatthemomentandtendstoovershadowmostothers,itscausesarebeyondtheConference’spowertoremedy.AslongasIndia’seconomycontinuestobethrottledandpervertedbyforeigninterests,hungerandstarvationmuststalkthislandofplenty.Onlyacarefuldevelopmentofitsvastuntappedwealth,basedonaneconomydesignedtomeettheneedsofthepeoplebyafreeIndia[n]people’sgovernment,canaspiretoovercomethisdreadfulscourgeofperpetualfamines.Butthatcan’tbyanymeansbeourfinalwordonit.Aswomenhappentobetheregulatorsoffoodinthehometheyshouldbemoresensitivenowthanevertothecareandpreservationoffood,avoidwasteindailyconsumptionasalsoinlavishhospitalitywhichinthepresentsettingstrikesoneaspainfullyincongruous.Workingoutbalanceddietswiththelimitedthingsavailable,wouldalsohelp.Theworstsufferersinthistragicdramaarethechildren.Ineveryresponsiblesocietytheyhavethefirstclaimontheavailableresources,particularlymilk.But

todayinourcountrythemanwhopaysthepricegetsthemilk.So,whileadultswhoarenotwhollydependentonthisarticleareabletogetlargesuppliesandsometimeseventhoughtlesslywasteit,childrenwhosolelysubsistonitareforcedtogowithoutitiftheydonothavesufficientmeans.Waysandmethodsmustbesoughtbyustoalterthisandseethatourchildren,whichinrealitymeansseveralfuturegenerationstocome,arenothopelesslyundermined.Weshallbeguiltyofagravecrimeifwedonotgetthisrightedimmediately.

Incateringtothedailyneedsof[humans]wetoooftengrosslyneglecttheculturalside,thedelicatecreationsinword,songandcolourinwhichthedreamsofmankindfindexpression.TheConferencemustrealizeitsresponsibilityinfosteringcreativework.Itcanencouragewomenartistsandintroducethemtothepublic.Itcanplacetheirwritingswithpublishers,articleswitheditors,itcanorganizeconcertsandexhibitionsandhelpplaywrightsproducetheirplays.Thiswouldhelpreleasefloodsofcreativestreamsanddirectthemintousefulchannels,therebyenrichingtheculturalwealthofourcountry,awealthwhichcanonlybemeasuredbythehappinessitbringstothemthatgiveandthemthatreceive.

Twohappeningsaffectingwomenhaveconsiderablyagitatedthepublicmind—there-employmentofwomeninminesandtheBillsemergingfromthedeliberationsoftheRauCommitteeandnowbeforetheCentralAssembly.2Theformer,anactperpetratedinviolationofaninternationalagreementandintensenationalfeeling,hasraisedsuchastormofprotestbothinIndiaandabroadastobearampletestimonytoitsunpopularity.TheGovernmentargumentsthatnocompulsionisappliedandthatwageshavebeenincreased,havenoreality.Povertydrivespeopletoanyrisks.Theveryfactthatthreeannasadayispaidforsurfaceworkasagainsteightannasundergroundisexplanationenough.3ThewageevenafterthisgrandincreaseisaboutRs.15[permonth],whiletheaverageinotherindustriesintheneighbourhoodisaroundRs.25to30.Inaddition,thegeneralconditionsareverybad,housingdeplorableandinadequate.Althoughtheagitationagainstthismeasurehasbeenconsiderable,ithasnotbeeneffective,andnoneofuscanrestwhileitcontinues.TheWomen’sConference,ifitistoproveaneffectiveinstrumentforsafeguardingwomen’sinterests,mustgetwomenoutoftheminesasspeedilyaspossible.

AllprogressiveelementsinIndiahavelongdreamedoftheestablishmentofacommonnationallegalcode,operatingirrespectiveofcasteorcreed.ItisasasteptowardsthisthatwewelcomethecodificationoftheHinduLawundertakenbytheRauCommittee,andnotasanendinitself.Ihopethisattemptwill

fructifyinthenearfutureandgiveustheentirecodificationasacompletepicture,insteadofinbitsandpieceswhichsoeasilylendthemselvestodistortionwhenisolatedfromthewhole.TheConferencehassupportedtheIntestateSuccessionBillinspiteofitsinadequatenature,becauseitseekstogiverecognitiontotheprincipleofwomen’sright.ItisregrettablethatintheMarriageBillthebarriersofcasteandgotrawhichhavelostmostoftheirsignificanceinmodernsociety,havenotbeenovercome.Theclauseonmonogamyiswelcomethoughitwouldnotservethepurposewithoutcertainotherchangeswhichareenvisaged.TheWomen’sConference,alongwithotherliberalsectionsofsociety,hasalwaysstoodfortheinstitutionofmarriage.Thestrongallegianceofwomentothisinstitutionhardlyneedsreiteration,foritisproverbial…ButallsocietiesincludingtheHindu,haverecognizedtheneedformodificationinitslegalattitudes.Lawshavehadtochangefromtimetotimeunderchangingconditions.Thosewhoseekrelaxationofarigidmarriagelaworofalawthatmakesdifferencebetweenthesexesindispensingjustice,donotdosoonflimsygroundsbutonadeeprespectforandunderstandingofthefunctionoflawwhichistoenableharmoniousliving.Whereitbecomesasocialinjustice,theneedforanadjustmenthastoberecognizedbysocietyasimperative…

Ourinsularpeninsularoutlinehaswidenedintotheglobal,withanincreasingawarenessthatweandtherestoftheworldarebutpartofasinglesphere,thatourdestiniesareinevitablylinked,ourpathsinterlocked.Therefore,worldpoliciesandeventsareasmuchourconcernasouraffairsaretheirresponsibilities.Warasmuchaspeacerevealsthattheworldcannotbedividedintoislandsoffreedomandslavery,thatthepresentsystemofonepeopleholdinganotherdownbyarmedmight,nomatterwithwhatsmoothexplanations,leadsultimatelytoworldenslavementbyfearandviolence,andtocolossalhuman,materialandmoraldestruction.JustasnationalfreedomisbutanextensionofsocialfreedomtheConferenceisfightingfor,theestablishmentofthesameprinciplealltheworldoverisofequalinteresttous.Untilthispresentsystemisnotonlyoutlawedinprinciplebutabolishedinpractice,alltalkofpeaceandfreedombecomestransitoryandmeaningless.Forpeaceisnottobeachievedbyarmedvictoriesorbyrefusingtobeararms,butbytheremovaloftherootcauses:imperialismandcolonialexploitationthatmenacepeace.Todaywewitnessthefantasticspectacleofbigworld-powers,claimingtofightforthelargerfreedomandgreaterhappinessofmankind,feelingnosenseofshameorhumiliationindenyingthoseveryprinciplestomillionsofthepeopletheystillcontinuetoexploitanddominateover.

Itisnotidlecuriosityorcheapsentimentwhichshapesthequestionthathauntsandharasseseverydiplomatlikeafamilyghost:‘WhataboutIndia?’Wemaywellsay‘Everything,’forwhileEnglandcontinuestoholdIndiainpoliticalandeconomicbondage,theUnitedNationsdonothingshortofperpetratingacolossallieonhumanity.Indiaismorethanatest,itisasymbol.Itisthemirrorinwhichtheworldseestheshapeofthingstobe.Todaywearewitnessingthefantasticspectacleoftwowarringgroups[i.e.,theAlliedandtheAxisPowers],eachassiduouslyclaimingtofightforthelargerfreedomandgreaterhappinessofmankind.Itistowardsaworldwhichrecognizestherightofeverynationtodetermineandruleitsowndestinybutinacooperativeworldorder,thatthewomenofIndiaandoftheworldhavetostrivefor,ifhumanityisevertoenjoydecency,peaceandhappiness,andworldwarsbanishedfromamongstourseasonalpests.

Beforeclosing,Ishouldliketosendmythoughtstothosemillionsallovertheworldwhosehomeshavebeengrippedbytheplightofdeathanddestruction,andwhosespiritsarelaceratedbyuntoldsuffering,andofferthemsincerestsympathies.Inparticular,mythoughtsturntothedistressedareaswithinourownhomelandandItakethisopportunitytopaymyhumbletributetothevariousorganizations,volunteercorpsandindividualswhoaresoselflesslyservingtoalleviatesuffering.IshouldlikeinparticulartocongratulateourBengalbranchforitssplendidworkinthisterribledistress.4

Theairisheavywithgloom,theskyrentwithcriesofpain.Civilliberties,oneofthemainplanksoftheConference,areunderperpetualassault.Shadowsofsuspicionandinsinceritydeepenandlengthen,blackingoutthoseneonlightsmankindhadsucceededinlightingthroughtheages;agrowingdisregardforthecommoncourtesiesandhumandecenciesandaruthlessfloutingofpopularfeelingmakeamockeryoflife.Thecontinueddetentionofourvaluedandirreplaceableleadersandcomrades5whoaloneatthehelmcouldtransformthescenefromdespairtohopeandweaveorderoutofchaos,oftendullsourspiritandstaysourhand.Butthisverytragedyshouldintruthgalvaniseusintogreaterandmightieraction,forourresponsibilitybecomesdoublygreater.Therearesomewhoturntopost-warreconstructionasanescapefromtheterrorsofthepresent.Othersbelievethatinlarge-scaleindustrializationliesthecure.Thosewhohavefaithinthesepatentpillshaveonlytoglanceatsomeofthehighlyindustrializedcountriestonotethehavocwroughtoutofpricelessnaturalresourcesandmarvelloustechnicalopportunities.Hunger,unemployment,slums,humandegradation,allbeareloquenttestimonytothistragedy.Itisnot

enoughtoproducemore.Itismoreimportanttodetermineitsbasisandtheprinciplesthatwillguidethedistribution;inshort,whocontrolsanddirectstheeconomy.Wecannotsurelysubscribetoasysteminwhichmanyproducebutfewenjoythebenefit,inwhichartificialscarcityiscreatedbyarbitrarilydenyingmentherighttoproduce,anddestroyingnaturalwealth.

Womencanhaverealfreedomonlyinasocietywhichwillupholdthesanctityoflifeandthedignityoflabour,asocietywhichwillgiveeverychildthefullestopportunitiesfordevelopment,enforceandpractisethosefundamentaleconomicandsocialrightsthatentitleeveryindividualtoadecentlife,thefruitsofhisorherlabour,andthebenefitsofscienceandculture.ToachievethistheWomen’sConferenceshouldallyitselfwithalltheprogressiveforcesinthecountryanddevelopavitalidentitywithotheroppressedsectionsofthesocietytopullitsfullweightonthesideofprogressinordertoovercomereaction.Thusalonecanitmeetthepresentchallengeandplayanaccreditedroleinthenationalregenerationofthecountry.

ASocialistViewoftheCommunalQuestionThenextexcerptpresentsasocialist’sviewofthegrowingdividebetween

HindusandMuslimsinthe1940s.ItarguedthatthesolutiontotheconflictlaynotinaseparateMuslimhomelandbutinamodelofeconomicgrowththatfocusedontheeliminationofpoverty.6

Thelargercommunaltangleortriangleasithasalsobeencalled,isnotanatural,political,orsocialphenomenoninthiscountry.ItisadeviceconceivedandcarriedoutbyBritishimperialismtomaintainitselfinsecurityinthisvastland.AsamatteroffactanyofIndia’smajorproblemscanonlybeposedandappraisedagainsthercolonialbackground—thatisherretardedeconomy.HadIndiabeenabletoindustrialiseinthecourseofhernormaleconomicevolution,thefuelforthecurrentragingconflagrationcouldneverhavebeenprovided.Therealcommunalproblemhasunderitsthinveneerofreligiosityastarkeconomiccore.

Letusglancebackathistory.WiththedestructionofIndianindigenousindustries,the[colonial]Government’svastsecretariatbecametheonlyjob-offeringagency…Intheperiodimmediatelyfollowingthe1857IndianWarofIndependence,theBritishdefinitelyencouragedtheHinduelementtosupplythelargearmyofclericalstaffthatitneeded.ThismeantarapidreorientationoftheHinducommunitybytheswiftcreationofthenucleusofthepresentIndianmiddleclass.TheimpactofthenewEnglisheducationanditsinfluenceonthosewhoresortedtoit,too,wasswiftandfar-reaching.Thenewlygrowingmiddleclass,facedwithevenamorerapidlygrowingscarcityofjobs,nowcutofffromtheoldruralandfeudalizedoccupations,had…toturntomodernbusinessand,wherepossible,industry.

TheMuslims,whoattheverystartgotleftbehindinthisrace…remainedtiedtotheirancientfeudalmooringsalongertime.Asthenewmiddle-classwhich,thankstothenatureoftheearlyBritishpolicywaspredominantlyHindu,beganfromtheearlytwentiethcenturytoformthespearheadofthenationalistrevolt,theBritishdecidedtoreversetheiroldpolicyandnowcourttheMuslimsinstead…Socommunalelectorates,communalratiosinservices,etc.,wereintroducedforthispurpose.

AsgreaterandgreaterfrustrationsovertooktheHindumiddleclasswithrisingunemploymentfacingitseducatedyouth,andasthebuddingindustrialistskeptforevercomingupagainsttheBritishcommercialinterests,thediscontentmentcommencedflowingintothenationaltidefromallsides,swellingitintoamightyflood.Inthiscontextthecommunalproblembeganto

showupitspoliticalcharactermoreandmore.Underaretardednationaleconomy,opportunitieswerefewandtherushonthosefewterrific.TheBritishwhohadcreatedthesituation,nowusedittopitonecommunityagainsttheother,everwideningthegulfbetweenthetwo.Butthelogicalnationalmarchtowardsfreedomcouldnotbearrested.Theanti-Britishsentimentspreadlikewild-fireandtheMuslimmassesweresooncaughtinittoo.

Astheprogressiveandradicalforcesgatherstrength,proportionatelytheelementsofreactiontoomusterstrengthtobeatbackthenewchallenge.Indifferentcountriesitassumesdifferentguises.Butthecommonestandmostfeasibleisthatofreligionorofrace.Itwouldperhapsbemorecorrecttosayperversionsofboth.Wehaveseeninrecentyearshowinspiteofthevaststridesmadebyscienceanditsdispassionatepursuitbyobjectiveminds,theveryfindingsofanthropologyandethnologyarepervertedtoreinforcebrutalreactionaryforcesasinthecaseoftheNazirule;theoppressionofthecolouredpeoplesinAsiaandAfrica;thediscriminationagainstnegroesinAmericaandtheHarijansinIndia;thewidespreadanti-Sem[i]tisminEurope…

Oftentheseareavailedofbyathirdinterestedpartyinordertobolsteritselfup.TheBritishinIndiahaveallalongplayedthatrole,puttingcommunityagainstcommunity,religiousgroupsagainstreligiousgroupsthroughbribery,favouritism,distributionofpatronageandthelike,successfullycuttingacrossthatgiganticnationalunitywroughtbythe1857revolution.Incourseoftimethesewerefollowedbyconstitutionalprocedurestoperpetuatefurtherthegrowingcleavages,suchastheintroductionofcommunalelectorates,communalcompositionoflegislatures,communalratiosinappointmenttooffices,admissiontoeducationalandotherinstitutions,sanctioningofgrants;andahostofsuchequallyunhealthypractices…

ItisagainstthisbackgroundthattheroleoftheMuslimLeaguegetsclear,forironicallyitwason[the]veryanti-BritishandintensepatrioticfeelingoftheMuslimsandnotonanyreligioussop,thattheconceptofPakistanwasfounded.TheMuslimswantedfreedomaspassionatelyastheHindus.MohamedAliJinnahwasgoingtogetitforthem;onlyhetoldthemthathewantedthemtobefreefromnotmerelytheBritishoppressorsbuttheevenworseHinduexploiters.Here,likeHitlerwhousedtheweaponofAryanpurityandanti-Sem[i]tismtodrivehispeopletofrenzy,Jinnahusedhiscleveridiomofa‘Muslimnation’asthedrivingforce.TheMuslimmasseswereeconomicallyandsociallytoobackwardandtooignoranttounderstandthetruenatureofthemanyproblemsthatweighedthemdown…ForMr.Jinnahhadrealizedonlytoowellthatthe

risingmassdiscontentcouldonlybemetbysomeconcretepoliticalfactor,howeverdistortedorperverteditbe,andnotmereemptyreligiousshibboleths.

ItisveryimportantforustorememberthatPakistanhasbeenraisedonthehungeroftheMuslimmassesforfreedom.AtthesametimeJinnahhasbeenabletorallyandkeeptiedtotheLeaguetheyoungerintellectualsandtheothergrowingmiddle-classesbygettingGovernmentfavours,offices,postsdistributedtothemandpreventingtherebytheirjoiningthenationalistmovement.

TheLeaguehasnorecordofanyconstructiveworkfortheameliorationoftheMuslimmasses.TheLeagueministries7cantakenocreditforanysuchspecialservices.TheroleoftheLeaguehasbeentoaidtheBritishdirectlyorindirectlytoenablethemtocontinuetheirstrangleholdandstallthefreedommovementthroughdeliberateobstructionofthenationalisttide.ItisintheverynatureoftheLeague,constitutedasitsleadershipisofbigvestedinterests,thatitcannotservetheIndianmasses,betheyHindusorMuslims.HadtheCongressfromtheearliestdayscounteredthisbycourageouslypursuinganeconomicprogrammeforthemassesandidentifieditselfcompletelywiththepeasantryasagainstthelandlords,itwouldhaveeffectivelyunderminedtheLeague’seffortsatdisruption,andthetwo-nationtheorywouldhavefailedtofindthesoilinwhichtoimplantitspoisonousstem.Unfortunately,theCongressfailedtofollowanysuchscientificlineandtheMuslimmassesfellapreytomedievalism—fanatical,irrationalreligiousfervourthatcanneverhaveanyrealityintheirday-to-daystruggle.

TheHindusectionontheotherhand,partlythroughignorancebutmoresobecauseofthefrustrationcausedpartlybytheabsenceofanypositiveprogrammeofmasscontactandsocialreconstructionwork,andpartlybytheacutetensionproducedbythelongdelayintheattainmentofpowerduetoBritain’sreluctancetopartwithpower,plungeddeeperandmorerecklesslyintoasimilarabyssoffanaticalpassions,unableandtooill-equippedtofacethelogicofarapidlychangingsituation.Ithashoweversoughtrefugeinademagogicpast.Ittriestocoverthecomplexpresentwiththeveilofavaguepast,tintingtheharshrealitieswithillusiveshadesandthegrossangleswithsentimentalcontours,conjuringupinshortby-goneghoststolendheroicstocommonplacesentiments.UnfortunatelyastheaggressivenessoftheMuslimLeaguehasadvanced,proportionatelyhasthelureofthisHindumiragedeepened,ensnaringinitsmeshesrawimmaturemindswho,thwartedbyanoverpoweringpresent,filltheimaginationwithpastachievements,whichatleastforthefleeting

momentgivethemasenseofsecurity.ThisishowNazismraiseditselfontheruinsofaprostrateGermany,feedingyoungandoldalikeontherosyillusionofanall-conqueringAryanrace.TheIndianyouthwhichisrapidlyfallingvictimtosimilarantics,mustbewareofitsdangers.Indiacanneithersaveitselfnorsolveitsproblemsbydonningthefadedarmourofmemories,howeverglorioustheybe.Themenaceofthepresentcannotbemetbyareorientationtothepast.Ratheritisaboldandcourageousreckoningupoftheexistingconditionsandtheirappraisalwhichalonecansteerusalongtheproperpath.

Thecruxofthemodernworldproblemisitsillogicaleconomicsystem…Asocietysoblatantlybasedonviolenceandexploitation,wherethemajorityisunabletosecure,inspiteofitshardindustry,evenbareminimumsubsistence,anddeniednormalopportunitiesforcultivatingitstalentsorgivingexpressiontoitscreativeurge,isthecommonenemyof[all]irrespectiveofcaste,creedorreligion.Similarlypovertyisnotthemonopolyofanyoneparticularcommunity.Itiscommontoallexploitedpeople.Fortheexploitingelements,thelandlordsandcapitalistsarealsodistributedamongsteverycommunity.Theexploitationofthemassesbythevestedinterestsiscommontoallsections.AHindulandlordisnokindertoaHindukisanthanaMuslimlandlordtoaMuslimkisan;nordoesaHinduoraMuslimemployerpayanyhigherwagestohisworkerssimplybecausetheybelongtohiscommunity…Employersdemandthesamehardhoursoflabourfromtheiremployeesquiteirrespectiveofthelatter’scaste,creedorcommunity.TheHindulandlordsofBiharhaveexploitedtheirHindutenantsevenastheMuslimlandlordsofSindhaveexploitedtheirMuslimtenants.Theclasscharacterisnotalteredormodifiedbyreligiousorculturalfactors—andthatisreallytheinherentweaknessofacommunalmovement.Itcanonlythriveontheignoranceofthemassesandmustcollapsebeforesociallyaware,understandingminds.NeithertheMuslimnortheHindubusinessmenhadanycompunctioninmakingfortunesoutoftheBengalfaminethatdestroyedmillionsofMuslimsandHindusalike.Forwhenfaminecomesitlapsupallcommunitieslikeahungryflame.TheMuslimsofBengaldiedlikefliesinspiteofaMuslimMinistryinpower…

Unrealissuesarethereforeraisedtodivertthegrowingconsciousnessofthemassesintofutilechannels,andbythisdeflectiondissipatetheirmountingstrength.The‘Two-Nation’theorysoardentlypressedbytheLeagueismeantthereforetoconfusetheMuslimmassesandcamouflagetherealsocialissues.Thesepeopleareledintobelievingthatalltheirmiseriesspringfromonlyonesource,aHindu-dominatedcountry,andifonlytheycouldget‘theirterritory’

separatedfromtheHindutyranny,alltheirtroubleswouldinstantlydisappear.Intheabsenceofanyrealpoliticaloreconomiceducation,theyareinclinedtoswallowthissopandlendthemselvestoworkingupfrenziedagitationsinsupportofwhatisknownasPakistan…

Theincitementtoorganizedviolencethroughmassfrenzybyareactionaryleadership,marksasignificantphaseinourpoliticalhistory—asalwaysandeverywhereithassoughttocamouflageitsrealcharacterundertheguiseofreligion.TheChristiancrusaderfoughtnomorefortheChristianholylandthandotheMuslimmassesfortheirsacredPakistan.Asthechallengeofagrowing,consciouspeoplebecomesmorepronounced,itsassertivequalitiesmoredetermined,thetraditionalcitadelsofeconomicandsocialpowermuststrivetodealtherisingneworderadeathblow.Thecoreofallreligiouswarshasbeeneconomicandpoliticaldomination.Ifreligionbefaith,thenitisoutsideitsverynaturetolenditselftofratricidalorgies.Forfaithisastreamthatspringsfromwithinandisneitherprotectednordestroyedfromwithout.Theveryactofcoercionisacompletenegationofallthatreligionhasstoodforormeantemotionallyforpeople…

Itisobviousthatthewavesofviolencewhicharerockingthecountrycannotbeabatedbyeitherhittingbackwithgreaterviolenceorbyamereappealtocoldreason.Theoldorderhasbeensetadriftfromitsoldmoorings.Wehavenowtofallbackwithgreaterearnestnessandeffortonalltheavailablesocialandculturalmaterialoutofwhichmorepositivestructurescanberaised,andnewavenuescut,whichtimeandpatiencecanconvertintoabidingchannelslikenewveinsinasystemthroughwhichcontinuedstreamsofcreativeandinvigoratingactivitiescanbemadetoflowuntiltheorganismheavesupanewandfunctionsasanormal,healthymechanism.Everynervemustbebenttofosterscientificthinkingandrationalanalysisthrougheveryresourceavailable,administrativeorpublicorprivate.Activitiesofanationalcharactermustbeencouragedonanation-widebasiswithalltheemphasisonitsuniversalcharacter,especiallysowithorganisationsofthemasses,whichmustbeconvertedfromtheirpresentlocalunitscolouredaggressivelybytheemotionsoflocalenvironmentsintolargenationalbodieswithnationalobjectives.Veryintensiveeducationofthemassesmustbeundertakenwheretheconflagrationhasnotspread,andtherealnatureoftheirpoliticalandsocialproblemsexplained…

History,reasonandcommonsensearewithus.Fortheveryviolenceisbutthesignofdesperation;itshowsthegatheringpressureofsocialforceswhichcanneitherbeabatednorovercome.Thefactalsoremainsthatthebasic

economicproblemofIndia,evenasitspoliticalproblem,isoneandindivisible.Themeasuresthatcansolvepovertyandignoranceinoneprovince,cansolvetheminanother.Theclassthatoppressesonesectionofthecommunitycanalsooppressanother.Religion,communitynorevencasteidentityisasafeguardagainstclassexploitation,muchlessartificialfrontiers.NeithertheMuslimlandlordsofSindnortheMuslimcapitalistsofBengalwillceasetoexploittheMuslimmassesthemomentPakistanwallsthemofffrom‘Hindu’India.ButitiswhentheseMuslimmassespeepoverthatwallapprehensivelyandshylyandseewhatishappeningontheothersidethattheywilldeterminewhetherthewallistocontinuetostandorgo.Theonusofthatresponsibilityrestsonus…Therearenottwonations—thereareonlytwoforces,thosethatcreateandthosethatdestroy—theformerhaveafuture,thelatternone.

ChapterThirteen

TheRenewedAgendasofM.K.Gandhi

ThevolumesoftheCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhirunchronologically,fromthe1880stothe1940s.Onmanysubjects,alaterstatementofGandhiappearstodivergefromorevencontradictanearlierstatement.Hehimselfurgedthatinthesecasesthereadershouldtakehismostrecentpronouncementasreflectinghiscorrectviewofthequestion.

Asnotedintheprologuetothisbook,Gandhiwasrareamongmodernpoliticiansinhisreadinesstoengageinargumentandinhiswillingnesstochangeormodifyhisopinionsinthelightofcriticism.Hiscriticsweresometimesfanaticsandcranks,whoseangryandabusiveletterswereoftenreprintedinhisjournalsYoungIndiaandHarijan,alongsideGandhi’sgood-temperedreplies.Atothertimesthesecriticswerethinkersandactorsofmoresubstance.Thesetooherespondedto,atgreaterlength,andperhapsmoresubstantively.

ThischapterpresentsGandhi’sconsideredviewsonthreeimportantsubjects—nationalism,casteandHindu—Muslimrelations.Here,heisrespondingtocriticismswehaveencounteredinpreviouschapters.WeendwithtwoshortstatementswhichoutlineGandhi’shopesforafreeIndia.

RevisitingNationalismInthisfirstexcerpt,GandhirespondstoRabindranathTagore’sworry,

printedinChapterEight,thatnon-cooperationwouldfosteranunreasoninghostilityagainsttheforeignerandforeignculture.1

ThePoetofAsia,asLordHardinge2calledDr.Tagore,isfastbecoming,ifhehasnotalreadybecome,thePoetoftheWorld.Increasingprestigehasbroughttohimincreasingresponsibility.HisgreatestservicetoIndiamustbehispoeticinterpretationofIndia’smessagetotheworld.ThePoetis,therefore,sincerelyanxiousthatIndiashoulddelivernofalseorfeeblemessageinhername.Heisnaturallyjealousofhiscountry’sreputation.Hesayshehasstrivenhardtofindhimselfintunewiththepresentmovement.Heconfessesthatheisbaffled.HecanfindnothingforhislyreinthedinandthebustleofNon-cooperation.Inthreeforcefulletters,hehasendeavouredtogiveexpressiontohismisgivings,andhehascometotheconclusionthatNon-cooperationisnotdignifiedenoughfortheIndiaofhisvision,thatitisadoctrineofnegationanddespair.Hefearsthatitisadoctrineofseparation,exclusiveness,narrownessandnegation.

NoIndiancanfeelanythingbutprideinthePoet’sexquisitejealousyof

India’shonour.Itisgoodthatheshouldhavesenttoushismisgivingsinlanguageatoncebeautifulandclear.

Inallhumility,IshallendeavourtoanswerthePoet’sdoubts.Imayfailtoconvincehimorthereaderwhomayhavebeentouchedbyhiseloquence,butIwouldliketoassurehimandIndiathatNon-cooperationinconceptionisnotanyofthethingshefears,andheneedhavenocausetobeashamedofhiscountryforhavingadoptedNon-cooperation.If,inactualapplication,itappearsintheendtohavefailed,itwillbenomorethefaultofthedoctrine,thanitwouldbeofTruth,ifthosewhoclaimtoapplyitinpracticedonotappeartosucceed.Non-cooperationmayhavecomeinadvanceofitstime.Indiaandtheworldmustthenwait,butthereisnochoiceforIndiasavebetweenviolenceandNon-cooperation.

NorneedthePoetfearthatNon-cooperationisintendedtoerectaChinesewallbetweenIndiaandtheWest.Onthecontrary,Non-cooperationisintendedtopavethewaytoreal,honourableandvoluntarycooperationbasedonmutualrespectandtrust.Thepresentstruggleisbeingwagedagainstcompulsorycooperation,againstone-sidedcombination,againstthearmedimpositionofmodernmethodsofexploitation,masqueradingunderthenameofcivilization.

Non-cooperationisaprotestagainstanunwittingandunwillingparticipationinevil.

ThePoet’sconcernislargelyaboutthestudents.HeisoftheopinionthattheyshouldnothavebeencalledupontogiveupGovernmentschoolsbeforetheyhadotherschoolstogoto.HereImustdifferfromhim.Ihaveneverbeenabletomakeafetishofliterarytraining.Myexperiencehasprovedtomysatisfactionthatliterarytrainingbyitselfaddsnotaninchtoone’smoralheightandthatcharacter-buildingisindependentofliterarytraining.IamfirmlyoftheopinionthattheGovernmentschoolshaveunmannedus;renderedushelplessandGodless.Theyhavefilleduswithdiscontent,andprovidingnoremedyforthediscontent,havemadeusdespondent.Theyhavemadeuswhatwewereintendedtobecome—clerksandinterpreters.AGovernmentbuildsitsprestigeupontheapparentlyvoluntaryassociationofthegoverned.AndifitwaswrongtocooperatewiththeGovernmentinkeepingusslaves,wewereboundtobeginwiththoseinstitutionsinwhichourassociationappearedtobemostvoluntary.Theyouthofanationareitshope.IholdthatassoonaswediscoveredthatthesystemofGovernmentwaswholly,ormainlyevil,itbecamesinfulforustoassociateourchildrenwithit...

I,therefore,thinkthatthePoethasbeenunnecessarilyalarmedatthe

negativeaspectofNon-cooperation.Wehadlostthepowerofsaying‘no’.Ithadbecomedisloyal,almostsacrilegioustosay‘no’totheGovernment.Thisdeliberaterefusaltocooperateislikethenecessaryweedingprocessthatacultivatorhastoresorttobeforehesows.Weedingisasnecessarytoagricultureassowing.Indeed,evenwhilstthecropsaregrowing,theweedingfork,aseveryhusbandmanknows,isaninstrumentalmostofdailyuse.Thenation’sNon-cooperationisaninvitationtotheGovernmenttocooperatewithitonitsowntermsasiseverynation’srightandeverygoodgovernment’sduty.Non-cooperationisthenation’snoticethatitisnolongersatisfiedtobeintutelage.Thenationhadtakentotheharmless(forit),naturalandreligiousdoctrineofNon-cooperationintheplaceoftheunnaturalandirreligiousdoctrineofviolence.AndifIndiaisevertoattaintheswarajofthePoet’sdream,shewilldosoonlybyNon-violentNon-cooperation.Lethimdeliverhismessageofpeaceoftheworld,andfeelconfidentthatIndia,throughherNon-cooperation,ifsheremainstruetoherpledge,willhaveexemplifiedhismessage.Non-cooperationisintendedtogivetheverymeaningtopatriotismthatthePoetisyearningafter.AnIndiaprostrateatthefeetofEuropecangivenohopetohumanity.AnIndiaawakenedandfreehasamessageofpeaceandgoodwilltoagroaningworld.Non-cooperationisdesignedtosupplyherwithaplatformfromwhichshewillpreachthemessage.

RevisitingCasteInChapterNine,weprintedexcerptsfromapamphletbyB.R.Ambedkar

called‘TheAnnihilationofCaste’.Ambedkar’sfrontalattackontheorganizingprinciplesofHindusocietypromptedarejoinderbyGandhi,whichheprintedinhisjournal,Harijan.Ambedkar’sindictment,thoughtGandhi,wasachallengetoHindustoputtheirhouseinorder.3

...DrAmbedkarwastohavepresidedlastMayattheannualconferenceoftheJat-Pat-TorakMandalofLahore.ButtheconferenceitselfwascancelledbecauseDr.Ambedkar’saddresswasfoundbytheReceptionCommitteetobeunacceptable.HowfaraReceptionCommitteeisjustifiedinrejectingaPresidentofitschoicebecauseofhisaddressthatmaybeobjectionabletoitisopentoquestion.TheCommitteeknowDr.Ambedkar’sviewsoncasteandtheHinduscriptures.TheyknewalsothathehadinunequivocaltermsdecidedtogiveupHinduism.NothinglessthantheaddressthatDr.Ambedkarhadpreparedwastobeexpectedfromhim.TheCommitteeappearstohavedeprivedthepublicofanopportunityoflisteningtotheoriginalviewsofamanwhohas

carvedoutforhimselfauniquepositioninsociety.Whateverlabelhewearsinfuture,Dr.Ambedkarisnotthemantoallowhimselftobeforgotten.

Dr.AmbedkarwasnotgoingtobebeatenbytheReceptionCommittee.Hehasansweredtheirrejectionofhimbypublishingtheaddressathisownexpense...

Noreformercanignoretheaddress.Theorthodoxwillgainbyreadingit.Thisisnottosaythattheaddressisnotopentoobjection.Ithastobereadifonlybecauseitisopentoseriousobjection.Dr.AmbedkarisachallengetoHinduism.BroughtupasaHindu,educatedbyaHindupotentate,hehasbecomesodisgustedwiththeso-calledsavarnaHindusforthetreatmentthatheandhishavereceivedattheirhandsthatheproposestoleavenotonlythembuttheveryreligionthatishisandtheircommonheritage.Hehastransferredtothatreligionhisdisgustagainstapartofitsprofessors.

Butthisisnottobewonderedat.Afterallonecanonlyjudgeasystemoraninstitutionbytheconductofitsrepresentatives.Whatismore,Dr.AmbedkarfoundthatthevastmajorityofsavarnaHindushadnotonlyconductedthemselvesinhumanlyagainstthoseoftheirfellowreligionistswhomtheyclassedasuntouchables,buttheyhadbasedtheirconductontheauthorityoftheirscriptures,andwhenhebegantosearchthemhehadfoundamplewarrantfortheirbeliefinuntouchabilityandallitsimplications.Theauthoroftheaddresshasquotedchapterandverseinproofofhisthreefoldindictment—inhumanconductitself,theunabashedjustificationforitonthepartoftheperpetrators,andthesubsequentdiscoverythatthejustificationwaswarrantedbytheirscriptures.

NoHinduwhoprizeshisfaithabovelifeitselfcanaffordtounderratetheimportanceofthisindictment.Dr.Ambedkarisnotaloneinhisdisgust.Heisitsmostuncompromisingexponentandoneoftheablestamongthem.Heiscertainlythemostirreconcilableamongthem.ThankGod,inthefrontrankoftheleadersheissingularlyaloneandasyetbutarepresentativeofaverysmallminority.Butwhathesaysisvoicedwithmoreorlessvehemencebymanyleadersbelongingtothedepressedclasses.Onlythelatter,forinstanceRaoBahadurM.C.RajahandDewanBahadurSrinivasan,notonlydonotthreatentogiveupHinduismbutfindenoughwarmthinittocompensatefortheshamefulpersecutiontowhichthevastmassofHarijansareexposed.

ButthefactofmanyleadersremainingintheHindufoldisnowarrantfordisregardingwhatDr.Ambedkarhastosay.Thesavarnashavetocorrecttheirbeliefandtheirconduct.Aboveall,thosewhoarebytheirlearningandinfluence

amongthesavarnashavetogiveanauthoritativeinterpretationofthescriptures.ThequestionsthatDr.Ambedkar’sindictmentsuggestsare:

1. Whatarethescriptures?2. Arealltheprintedtextstoberegardedasanintegralpartofthemoris

anypartofthemtoberejectedasunauthorizedinterpolations?3. Whatistheanswerofsuchacceptedandexpurgatedscripturesonthe

questionofuntouchability,caste,equalityofstatus,inter-diningandintermarriages?

...TheVedas,Upanishads,SmritisandPuranasincludingRamayanaandMahabharataaretheHinduscriptures.Noristhisafinitelist.Everyageorevengenerationhasaddedtothelist.Itfollows,therefore,thateverythingprintedorevenfoundhandwrittenisnotscripture.TheSmritis,forinstance,containmuchthatcanneverbeacceptedasthewordofGod.ThusmanyofthetextsthatDr.AmbedkarquotesfromtheSmritiscannotbeacceptedasauthentic.Thescripturesproperlysocalledcanonlybeconcernedwitheternalveritiesandmustappealtoanyconscience,i.e.,anyheartwhoseeyesofunderstandingareopened.NothingcanbeacceptedasthewordofGodwhichcannotbetestedbyreasonorisnotcapableofbeingspirituallyexperienced.Andevenwhenyouhaveanexpurgatededitionofthescriptures,youwillneedtheirinterpretation.Whoisthebestinterpreter?Notlearnedmensurely.Learningtheremustbe.Butreligiondoesnotlivebyit.Itlivesintheexperiencesofitssaintsandseers,intheirlivesandsayings.Whenallthemostlearnedcommentatorsofthescripturesareutterlyforgotten,theaccumulatedexperienceofthesagesandsaintswillabideandbeaninspirationforagestocome.

Castehasnothingtodowithreligion.ItisacustomwhoseoriginIdonotknowanddonotneedtoknowforthesatisfactionofmyspiritualhunger.ButIdoknowthatitisharmfulbothtospiritualandnationalgrowth...Thelawofvarnateachesusthatwehaveeachoneofustoearnourbreadbyfollowingtheancestralcalling.Itdefinesnotourrightsbutourduties.Itnecessarilyhasreferencetocallingsthatareconducivetothewelfareofhumanityandtonoother.Italsofollowsthatthereisnocallingtoolowandnonetoohigh.Allaregood,lawful,andabsolutelyequalinstatus.ThecallingsofaBrahmin—spiritualteacher—andascavengerareequal,andtheirdueperformancecarriesequalmeritbeforeGodandatonetimeseemstohavecarriedidenticalrewardbeforeman.Bothwereentitledtotheirlivelihoodandnomore.Indeedone

tracesevennowinthevillagesthefaintlinesofthishealthyoperationofthelaw.LivinginSegaonwithitspopulationof600,IdonotfindagreatdisparitybetweentheearningsofdifferenttradesmenincludingBrahmins.IfindtoothatrealBrahminsaretobefoundeveninthesedegeneratedayswhoarelivingonalmsfreelygiventothemandaregivingfreelyofwhattheyhaveofspiritualtreasures.Itwouldbewrongandimpropertojudgethelawofvarnabyitscaricatureinthelivesofmenwhoprofesstobelongtoavarnawhilsttheyopenlycommitabreachofitsonlyoperativerule.Arrogationofasuperiorstatusbyanyofthevarnasoveranotherisadenialofthelaw.Andthereisnothinginthelawofvarnatowarrantabeliefinuntouchability.(TheessenceofHinduismiscontainedinitsenunciationofoneandonlyGodasTruthanditsboldacceptanceofahimsaasthelawofthehumanfamily.)

IamawarethatmyinterpretationofHinduismwillbedisputedbymanybesidesDr.Ambedkar.Thatdoesnotaffectmyposition.ItisaninterpretationbywhichIhavelivedfornearlyhalfacenturyandaccordingtowhichIhaveendeavouredtothebestofmyabilitytoregulatemylife.

InmyopiniontheprofoundmistakethatDr.AmbedkarhasmadeinhisaddressistopickoutthetextsofdoubtfulauthenticityandvalueandthestateofdegradedHinduswhoarenofitspecimensofthefaiththeysowoefullymisrepresent.JudgedbythestandardappliedbyDr.Ambedkar,everyknownlivingfaithwillprobablyfail.

Inhisableaddress,thelearnedDoctorhasover-provedhiscase.CanareligionthatwasprofessedbyChaitanya,Jnanadeya,Tukaram,Tiruvalluvar,RamakrishnaParamahamsa,RajaRamMohanRoy,MaharshiDevendranathTagore,Vivekanandandahostofotherswhomightbeeasilymentioned,besoutterlydevoidofmeritasismadeoutinDr.Ambedkar’saddress?Areligionhastobejudgednotbyitsworstspecimensbutbythebestitmighthaveproduced.Forthatandthatalonecanbeusedasthestandardtoaspireto,ifnottoimproveupon.

ChapterNinealsoexcerptedasharppersonalattackonGandhibyAmbedkar,writtenin1945.Gandhididnotreplytothebook,buttheexcerptbelowdemonstratesthathehadtakenaboardAmbedkar’scriticisms.Inthe1920sGandhisaidthatwhileuntouchabilitymustgo,theinjunctionsagainstinter-diningandintermarriagecouldstay.Bythe1940s,assuggestedbelow,hehadabandonedthesepositions.4

AfriendfromPatidarAshram,Surat,writestoShriNarhariParikh:5‘IfHarijangirlsaretomarryCasteHindusitshouldbeonconditionthatthe

couplewilldevotetheirlivestotheserviceoftheHarijans...IfCasteHindugirlsliveamongstHarijansasHarijans,Harijansisterswillbeabletolearnalotfromthem.’

IfaneducatedHarijangirlmarriesaCasteHinduthecoupleoughttodevotethemselvestotheserviceofHarijans.Self-indulgencecanneverbetheobjectofsuchamarriage.Thatwillbeimproper.Icanneverencourageit.Itispossiblethatamarriageenteredintowiththebestofintentionsturnsouttobeafailure.Noonecanpreventsuchmishaps.EvenifoneHarijangirlmarriesaCasteHinduwithahighcharacteritwilldogoodtoboththeHarijansandCasteHindus.TheywillsetupagoodprecedentandiftheHarijangirlisreallyworthy,shewillspreadherfragrancefarandwideandencourageotherstocopyherexample.Societywillceasetobescaredbysuchmarriages.Theywillseeforthemselvesthatthereisnothingwronginthem.Ifchildrenbornofsuchaunionturnouttobegood,theywillfurtherhelptoremoveuntouchability.Everyreformmovesattheproverbialsnail’space.Tobedissatisfiedwiththisslownessofprogressbetraysignoranceofthewayinwhichreformworks.

ItiscertainlydesirablethatCasteHindugirlsshouldselectHarijanhusbands.Ihesitatetosaythatitisbetter.Thatwouldimplythatwomenareinferiortomen.Iknowthatsuchinferioritycomplexistheretoday.ForthisreasonIwouldagreethatatpresentthemarriageofaCasteHindugirltoaHarijanisbetterthanthatofaHarijangirltoaCasteHindu.IfIhadmywayIwouldpersuadeallCasteHindugirlscomingundermyinfluencetoselectHarijanhusbands.ThatitismostdifficultIknowfromexperience.Oldprejudicesaredifficulttoshed.Onecannotaffordtolaughatsuchprejudiceseither.Theyhavetobeovercomewithpatience.AndifagirlimaginesthatherdutyendsbymarryingaHarijanandfallsapreytothetemptationofself-indulgenceaftermarriage,thelaststatewouldbeworsethanthefirst.Thefinaltestofeverymarriageishowfaritdevelopsthespiritofserviceintheparties.Everymixedmarriagewilltendinvaryingdegreestoremovethestigmaattachedtosuchmarriages.Finallytherewillbeonecaste,knownbythebeautifulnameBhangi,thatistosay,thereformerorremoverofalldirt.Letusallpraythatsuchahappydaywilldawnsoon.

Thecorrespondentmustrealizethateventhebestofmywishescannotcometrueonthemereexpression.IhavenotsucceededinmarryingoffasingleHarijangirltoaCasteHindusofaraftermydeclaration.IhaveaCasteHindugirlwhoatherfather’swishhasofferedtomarryaHarijanladofherfather’sselection.TheladisatpresentundertrainingatSevagram.Godwilling,the

marriagewilltakeplaceafterashorttime.

RevisitingHindu–MuslimCooperationInChapterTen,weprintedseveralspeechesmadebyM.A.Jinnahthat

arguedthattheCongresswasbiasedagainstMuslimsandthatHindusandMuslimscouldnotpeaceablylivetogetherinasinglenation.Gandhisoughttorebutthesecriticisms,inaspeechontheeveoftheQuitIndiamovement,deliveredtoameetingoftheAllIndiaCongressCommittee(AICC).Thespeechisexcerptedbelow.6

Hindu—Muslimunityisnotanewthing.MillionsofHindusandMussalmanshavesoughtafterit.Iconsciouslystroveforitsachievementfrommyboyhood.Whileatschool,ImadeitapointtocultivatethefriendshipofMuslimandParsifellowstudents.IbelievedevenatthattenderagethattheHindusinIndia,iftheywishedtoliveinpeaceandamitywiththeothercommunities,shouldassiduouslycultivatethevirtueofneighbourliness.Itdidnotmatter,Ifelt,ifImadenospecialefforttocultivatethefriendshipwithHindus,butImustmakefriendswithatleastafewMussalmans.ItwasascounselforaMussalmanmerchantthatIwenttoSouthAfrica.ImadefriendswithotherMussalmansthere,evenwiththeopponentsofmyclients,andgainedareputationforintegrityandgoodfaith.Ihadamongmyfriendsandco-workersMuslimsaswellasParsis.IcapturedtheirheartsandwhenIleftfinallyforIndia,Ileftthemsadandsheddingtearsofgriefattheseparation.

InIndia,too,Icontinuedmyeffortsandleftnostoneunturnedtoachievethatunity.Itwasmylife-longaspirationforitthatmademeoffermyfullestcooperationtotheMussalmansintheKhilafatmovement.Muslimsthroughoutthecountryacceptedmeastheirtruefriend...

InthosedaysIshockedtheHindusbydiningwiththeMussalmans,thoughwiththepassageoftimetheyhavenowgotusedtoit.MaulanaBari7toldme,however,thatthoughhewouldinsistonhavingmeashisguest,hewouldnotallowmetodinewithhim,lestsomedayheshouldbeaccusedofasinistermotive.Andso,wheneverIhadoccasiontostaywithhim,hecalledaBrahmincookandmadespecialarrangementsforseparatecooking.FirangiMahal,hisresidence,wasanold-styledstructurewithlimitedaccommodation;yethecheerfullyboreallhardshipsandcarriedouthisresolvefromwhichIcouldnotdislodgehim.Itwasthespiritofcourtesy,dignityandnobilitythatinspiredusinthosedays.Themembersofeachcommunityviedwithoneanotherin

accommodatingmembersofsistercommunities.Theyrespectedoneanother’sreligiousfeelings,andconsidereditaprivilegetodoso.Notatraceofsuspicionlurkedinanybody’sheart.Wherehasallthatdignity,thatnobilityofspirit,disappearednow?IshouldaskallMussalmans,includingQaid-e-AzamJinnah,torecallthosegloriousdaysandtofindoutwhathasbroughtustothepresentimpasse.Qaid-e-AzamJinnahhimselfwasatonetimeaCongressman.IftodaytheCongresshasincurredhiswrath,itisbecausethecankerofsuspicionhasenteredhisheart.MayGodblesshimwithlonglife,butwhenIamgone,hewillrealizeandadmitthatIhadnodesignsonMussalmansandthatIhadneverbetrayedtheirinterests.WhereistheescapeformeifIinjuretheircauseorbetraytheirinterests?Mylifeisentirelyattheirdisposal.Theyarefreetoputanendtoit,whenevertheywishtodoso.Assaultshavebeenmadeonmylifeinthepast,butGodhassparedmetillnow,andtheassailantshaverepentedfortheiraction.Butifsomeoneweretoshootmeinthebeliefthathewasgettingridofarascal,hewouldkillnottherealGandhi,buttheonethatappearedtohimarascal.

TothosewhohavebeenindulginginacampaignofabuseandvilificationIwouldsay,‘Islamenjoinsyounottorevileevenanenemy.TheProphettreatedevenenemieswithkindnessandtriedtowinthemoverbyhisfairnessandgenerosity.AreyoufollowersofthatIslamorofanyother?IfyouarefollowersofthetrueIslam,doesitbehoveyoutodistrustthewordsofonewhomakesapublicdeclarationofhisfaith?Youmaytakeitfrommethatonedayyouwillregretthefactthatyoudistrustedandkilledonewhowasatrueanddevotedfriendofyours.’ItcutsmetothequicktoseethatthemoreIappeal...themoreintensedoesthecampaignofvilificationgrow.Tome,theseabusesarelikebullets.Theycankillme,evenasabulletcanputanendtomylife.Youmaykillme.Thatwillnothurtme.Butwhatofthosewhoindulgeinabusing?TheybringdiscredittoIslam.ForthefairnameofIslam,Iappealtoyoutoresistthisunceasingcampaignofabuseandvilification.

MaulanaSaheb8isbeingmadeatargetforthefilthiestabuse.Why?Becauseherefusestoexertonmethepressureofhisfriendship.Herealizesthatitisamisuseoffriendshiptoseektocompelafriendtoacceptastruthwhatheknowsisanuntruth.

TotheQaid-e-AzamIwouldsay:‘WhateveristrueandvalidintheclaimforPakistanisalreadyinyourhands.Whatiswronganduntenableisinnobody’sgift,sothatitcanbemadeovertoyou.Evenifsomeoneweretosucceedinimposinganuntruthonothers,hewouldnotbeabletoenjoyforlongthefruits

ofsuchcoercion.Goddislikesprideandkeepsawayfromit.Godwouldnottolerateaforcibleimpositionofanuntruth.’

TheQaid-e-Azamsaysthatheiscompelledtosaybitterthingsbutthathecannothelpgivingexpressiontohisthoughtsandhisfeelings.SimilarlyIwouldsay:IconsidermyselfafriendoftheMussalmans.WhyshouldIthennotgiveexpressiontothethingsnearesttomyheart,evenatthecostofdispleasingthem?HowcanIconcealmyinnermostthoughtsfromthem?IshouldcongratulatetheQaid-e-Azamonhisfranknessingivingexpressiontohisthoughtsandfeelings,eveniftheysoundbittertohishearers.ButevensowhyshouldtheMussalmanssittingherebereviled,iftheydonotseeeyetoeyewithhim?IfmillionsofMussalmansarewithyou,canyounotaffordtoignorethehandfulofMussalmanswhomayappeartoyoutobemisguided?Whyshouldonewiththefollowingofseveralmillionsbeafraidofamajoritycommunity,oroftheminoritybeingswampedbythemajority?HowdidtheProphetworkamongtheArabsandtheMussalmans?HowdidhepropagateIslam?DidhesayhewouldpropagateIslamonlywhenhecommandedamajority?I,therefore,appealtoyouforthesakeofIslamtoponderoverwhatIsay.ThereisneitherfairplaynorjusticeinsayingthattheCongressmustacceptathingevenifitdoesnotbelieveinitandevenifitgoescountertoprinciplesitholdsdear...

TheCongresshasnosanctionbutthemoraloneforenforcingitsdecisions.Itbelievesthattruedemocracycanonlybetheoutcomeofnon-violence.Thestructureofaworldfederationcanberaisedonlyonafoundationofnon-violence,andviolencewillhavetobetotallyabjuredfromworldaffairs.Ifthisistrue,thesolutionoftheHindu—Muslimquestion,too,cannotbeachievedbyresorttoviolence.IftheHindustyrannizeovertheMussalmans,withwhatfacewilltheytalkofaworldfederation?ItisforthesamereasonthatIdonotbelieveinthepossibilityofestablishingworldpeacethroughviolenceastheEnglishandAmericanstatesmenproposetodo.TheCongresshasagreedtosubmittingallthedifferencestoanimpartialinternationaltribunalandtoabidebyitsdecisions.Ifeventhisfairestofproposalsisunacceptable,theonlycoursethatremainsopenisthatofthesword,ofviolence.HowcanIpersuademyselftoagreetoanimpossibility?Todemandthevivisectionofalivingorganismistoaskforitsverylife.Itisacalltowar.TheCongresscannotbepartytosuchafratricidalwar.ThoseHinduswho,likeDr.MoonjeeandShriSavarkar,9believeinthedoctrineoftheswordmayseektokeeptheMussalmansunderHindudomination.Idonotrepresentthatsection.IrepresenttheCongress.YouwanttokilltheCongresswhichisthegoosethatlaysgoldeneggs.Ifyoudistrustthe

Congress,youmayrestassuredthatthereistobeaperpetualwarbetweentheHindusandtheMussalmans,andthecountrywillbedoomedtocontinuewarfareandbloodshed.Ifsuchwarfareistobeourlot,Ishallnotlivetowitnessit...

IndiaiswithoutdoubtthehomelandofalltheMussalmansinhabitingthiscountry.EveryMussalmanshouldthereforecooperateinthefightforIndia’sfreedom.TheCongressdoesnotbelongtoanyoneclassorcommunity;itbelongstothewholenation.ItisopentoMussalmanstotakepossessionoftheCongress.Theycan,iftheylike,swamptheCongressbytheirnumbers,andcansteeritalongthecoursewhichappealstothem.TheCongressisfightingnotonbehalfoftheHindusbutonbehalfofthewholenation,includingtheminorities.ItwouldhurtmetohearofasingleinstanceofaMussalmanbeingkilledbyaCongressman.Inthecomingrevolution,CongressmenwillsacrificetheirlivesinordertoprotecttheMussalmanagainstaHindu’sattackandviceversa.Itisapartofourcreed,andisoneoftheessentialsofnon-violence.Youwillbeexpectedonoccasionslikethesenottoloseyourheads.EveryCongressman,whetheraHinduoraMussalman,owesthisdutytotheorganizationtowhichhebelongs.TheMussalmanwhowillactinthismannerwillrenderaservicetoIslam.Mutualtrustisessentialforsuccessinthefinalnation-widestrugglethatistocome.

Intheend,Gandhi’sattemptstoforgeacommonpoliticalfrontofHindusandMuslimsfailed.TheMuslimLeaguewassuccessfulincreatingaseparatestateofPakistan.This,however,wasachievedatthecostofbloodyriotsbetweenHindusandMuslimsacrosslargepartsofnorthandeastIndia.AfterPartition,millionsofMuslimschosetostaybehindinIndia.IntheseexcerptsfromaspeechtotheAICCon15November1947,GandhiurgeshispartycolleaguestoensurethatMuslimsinIndiaaregrantedtherightsofequalcitizenship.10

Ihavecomeinyourmidsttoday.IcametoDelhinottostayforlong,butsincemyarrivalmanythingshavehappenedwhichshouldnothavehappened.AndsoIhavehadtoprolongmystayhereinsteadofproceedingtothePunjab.Thisexplainsmypresenceinyourmidsttoday.

Ihadmadeavowtodoordie.WhentheoccasioncomesIshallindeedeitherdoordie.Ihaveseenenoughtorealizethatthoughnotallofushavegonemad,asufficientlylargenumberhavelosttheirheads.Whatisresponsibleforthiswaveofinsanity?Whateverthecause,itisobvioustomethatifwedonotcureourselvesofthisinsanity,weshalllosethefreedomwehavewon.Youmustunderstandandrecognizethegravityoftheplightwearein.Undertheshadow

ofthisimpendingmisfortunetheA.I.C.C.hasmettoday.Youhavetofaceveryseriousproblemsandapplyyourmindstothem.

ThereistheGeneralBodyoftheCongresswhichmeetsonceeveryyear,butitismoreorlessdemonstrativeincharacter.TherealCongressistheAll-IndiaCongressCommittee,inwhosekeepingisthehonouroftheCongress.ItisforyoutogivealeadtotheCongressandtoseethatitfunctionseffectivelyandwithoutanydisruptionwithinitsranks.ThatiswhyIwantyoutobetruetothebasiccharacteroftheCongressandmakeHindusandMuslimsone,forwhichidealtheCongresshasworkedformorethansixtyyears.Thisidealstillpersists.TheCongresshadnevermaintainedthatitworkedfortheinterestoftheHindusonly.MustwenowgiveupwhatwehaveclaimedeversincetheCongresswasbornandsingadifferenttune?CongressisofIndians,ofallthosewhoinhabitthisland,whethertheyareHindus,Muslims,Christians,SikhsorParsis.TherehavebeenMuslims,ChristiansandParsisasPresidentsoftheCongress.Buttodaywehearadifferentcry.LetmetellyouthatwhatweheartodayisnotthevoiceoftheCongress.

YourepresentthevastoceanofIndianhumanity.YouwillnotallowittobesaidthattheCongressconsistsofahandfulofpeoplewhorulethecountry.AtleastIwillnotallowit.IamanIndiantothelast.EversinceIreturnedfromSouthAfricaIhavetriedtoservetheCongressineverywayandhavedonenothingelse.IhavetriedtounderstandIndiansfromdifferentwalksoflife,havelivedwiththem,eatenwiththemandlovedthem.IhaveseennodifferencebetweenHarijansandotherHindus.ThatishowIammade.

TheCongressisheldresponsibleforwhateverhappenstoday.ThesituationhaschangedsinceAugust15.Iamleavingoutofconsiderationwhathappenedbeforethatdate.IdonotwishtohearwhatpartyouplayedintheeventsthathavehappenedsinceAugust15.Ihavenottherighttosithere.Ihavemuchworktodooutsidethishall.ThatiswhyIhadrequestedthatImightbeallowedtohavemysayandthentakeyourleave.Youmightaskmeanyquestionsyoulikeattheendofmyspeech,thoughthereoughttobenonecessityforsuchquestions.Iwishonlytoshowyoualittleofthewaysothatyoumightfinditeasiertocarryonyourdeliberations.

Whenwewerefightingforourfreedom,weboreaheavyresponsibility,buttodaywhenwehaveachievedfreedom,ourresponsibilityhasgrownahundred-fold.Whatishappeningtoday?ThoughitisnottrueofthewholeofIndia,yettherearemanyplacestodaywhereaMuslimcannotliveinsecurity.Therearemiscreantswhowillkillhimorthrowhimoutofarunningtrainfornoreason

otherthanthatheisaMuslim.Thereareseveralsuchinstances.Iwillnotbesatisfiedwithyoursayingthattherewasnohelpforitorthatyouhadnopartinit.Wecannotabsolveourselvesofourresponsibilityforwhathashappened.Ihavetofightagainstthisinsanityandfindoutacureforit.IknowandIconfessthatIhavenotyetfoundit.

Iamashamedofwhatishappeningtoday;suchthingsshouldneverhappeninIndia.WehavetorecognizethatIndiadoesnotbelongtoHindusalone,nordoesPakistantoMuslims.IhavealwaysheldthatifPakistanbelongstoMuslimsalone,thenitisasinwhichwilldestroyIslam.Islamhasnevertaughtthis.ItwillneverworkifHindusasHindusclaimtobeaseparatenationinIndiaandMuslimsinPakistan.TheSikhstoohavenowandagaintalkedofaSikhistan.Ifweindulgeintheseclaims,bothIndiaandPakistanwillbedestroyed,theCongresswillbedestroyedandweshallallbedestroyed.

ImaintainthatIndiabelongsbothtoHindusandMuslims.YoumayblametheMuslimLeagueforwhathashappenedandsaythatthetwo-nationtheoryisattherootofallthisevilandthatitwastheMuslimLeaguethatsowedtheseedofthispoison;neverthelessIsaythatwewouldbebetrayingtheHindureligionifwedidevilbecauseothershaddoneit.EversincemychildhoodIhaveknownthatHinduismteachesustoreturngoodforevil.Thewickedsinkundertheweightoftheirownevil.Mustwealsosinkwiththem?MyownexperienceofsixtyyearshasconfirmedwhatHinduismhastaughtmeandmystudyofotherreligionshasrevealedthesamething.Islamtoosaysthesamething.ItisthebasiccreedoftheCongressthatIndiaisthehomeofMuslimsnolessthanofHindus...

ItisheldbysomethatifweperpetrateworseatrocitiesonMuslimsherethanwhathavebeenperpetratedonHindusandSikhsinPakistan,itwillteachtheMuslimsinPakistanasalutarylesson.Theywillindeedbetaughtalesson,butwhatwillhappentoyouinthemeanwhile?YousaythatyouwillnotallowMuslimstostayinIndia,butIholdittobeanimpossibilitytodriveawaythree-and-a-halfcroresofthemtoPakistan.Whatcrimehavetheycommitted?TheMuslimLeagueindeedisculpable,butnoteveryMuslim.Ifyouthinkthattheyarealltraitorsandfifth-columnists,thenshootthemdownbyallmeans,buttoassumethattheyareallcriminalsbecausetheyareMuslimsiswrong.Ifyoubullythem,beatthem,threatenthem,whatcantheydobutrunawaytoPakistan?Afterall,lifeisdeartothem.Butitisunworthyofyoutotreatthemso.TherebyyouwilldegradetheCongress,degradeyourreligionanddegradethenation.

Ifyourealizethis,thenitisyourdutytorecallallthoseMuslimswhohavebeenobligedtofleetoPakistan.OfcoursethoseofthemwhobelieveinPakistanandwishtoseektheirhappinesstherearewelcometomigrate.Forthemthereisnobar.Theywillnotneedmilitaryprotectiontoescortthem.Theygooftheirownwillandattheirownexpense.Butthosewhoareleavingtodayhavetobeprovidedwithspecialtransportandspecialprotection.Suchunnaturalexodusunderartificialconditionsmustcauseusshame.YoushoulddeclarethatthoseMuslimswhohavebeenobligedtoleavetheirhomesandwishtoreturnarewelcomeinyourmidst.YoushouldassurethemthattheyandtheirreligionwillbesafeinIndia.Thisisyourduty,thisisyourreligion.Youmustbehumaneandcivilized,irrespectiveofwhatPakistandoes.IfyoudowhatisrightPakistanwillsoonerorlaterbeobligedtofollowsuit.

AsthingsarewecannotholdourheadshighintheworldtodayandhavetoconfessthatwehavebeenobligedtocopyPakistaninitsmisdeedsandhavetherebyjustifieditsways.Howcanwegoonlikethis?Whatishappeningisaprovocationtowaronbothsidesandmustinevitablyleadtoit.Youwillthenhavetopartcompanywith[PrimeMinister]Jawaharlal[Nehru].Andyetitisbecauseofhimthatweareheldinhighesteemintheworldtoday.HeisrespectedoutsideIndiaasoneoftheworld’sgreateststatesmen.ManyEuropeanshavetoldmethattheworldhasnotknownsuchahigh-mindedstatesman.IhaveknownAmericanswhoholdJawaharlalinhigheresteemthantheyholdPresidentTruman.Eventhosewhohavefabulouswealth,vastarmiesandtheatombombrespectthemoralworthofJawaharlal’sleadership.WeinIndiaoughttohavedueappreciationforit.

IrepeattoyouthatitisyourprimedutytotreatMuslimsasyourbrothers,whatevermayhappeninPakistan.Wewillnotreturnblowforblowbutwillmeetitwithsilenceandrestraint.Restraintwilladdtoyourstrength.ButifyoucopywhathappensinPakistan,thenonwhatmoralbasiswillyoutakeyourstand?Whatbecomesofyournon-violence?Ifyouapproveofwhathashappened,thenyoumustchangetheverycreedandcharacteroftheAll-IndiaCongressCommittee.Thisisthebasicissuebeforeyou.Untilyouhavefacedit,youcannotsolveanyoftheproblemsthatarebeforeyou.Whenyourhouseisonfireyoumustfirstputouttheflamesbeforeyoucandoanythingelse.ThatiswhyIhavetakensomuchofyourtime.LetallMuslimswhohavelefttheirhomesandfledtoPakistancomebackhere.IndiaisbigenoughtokeepthemaswellastheHinduandSikhrefugeeswhohavefledfromPakistan.WhatIwishtoemphasizetoyouisthatifyoumaintainthecivilizedway,whateverPakistan

maydonow,soonerorlater,shewillbeobligedbythepressureofworldopiniontoconform.Thenwarwillnotbenecessaryandyouwillnothavetoemptyyourexchequer...

ContinuingonthethemeofHindu—MuslimharmonyinindependentIndia,hereareexcerptsfromatalkbyGandhiataprayermeetinginNewDelhion7December1947.HespokeinHindi—thetranslationisbytheeditorialteamoftheCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhi.11

BROTHERSANDSISTERS,TodayIwishtotalktoyouaboutaverycomplicatedmatter,whichisalso

rathersensitive.Ithasappearedinthenewspapers.YouwillhaveseenthatyesterdaysomeHinduwomenworkerswenttoLahoreandmetsomeMuslimwomenthere.TheydiscussedthequestionofwhatoughttobedoneabouttheHinduwomenabductedbyMuslimsinPakistanandtheMuslimwomenabductedbyHindusandSikhsinEastPunjab.AverylargenumberofMuslimshavealreadyleftIndiaanditispossiblesomemoremayyetleave.WeshouldnowresolvethatnotasingleMuslimwillbecompelledtoleave.IftheyvoluntarilyoptforPakistanthatisadifferentmatter.ButthefactisthatnoonewantsvoluntarilytoleaveIndia.Whyshouldanyonewanttogiveupone’shouseandproperty?ItisnotasiftheyhadhousesandpropertieswaitingfortheminPakistan.ThosevoluntarilyoptingforPakistanorgoingforthesakeofjobsareveryfew,whichisnaturalbecausetherearenotenoughjobsfortheminPakistan.AndiftheirestablishedbusinessesinIndiaarenotaffected,thereisnoreasonforthemtogo.

Butwhatofthewomen?Thisisacomplicatedquestion.Somesaythatabout12,000womenhadbeenabductedbyHindusandSikhsandtwicethatnumberhadbeenabductedbyMuslimsinPakistan.Someotherssaythatthisestimateistoolow.Iwouldsay12,000isnotasmallnumber.Why,athousand,orevenone,isnotasmallnumber.Whyshouldevenasinglewomanbeabducted?ItisbarbaricforaHinduwomantobeabductedbyaMuslimoraMuslimwomantobeabductedbyaHinduoraSikh.Somepeoplebelievethat12,000representsaveryconservativefigure.Letussaythat12,000womenhadbeenabductedbyMuslimsofPakistanandanother12,000womenhadbeenabductedbyHindusandSikhsofEastPunjab.Theproblemishowtorecoverthem.ThewomenworkershadbeentoPakistantoconsiderhowtosolvethisproblem.TheHinduandSikhwomencarriedawaybyforceshouldberestoredtotheirfamilies.SimilarlytheMuslimwomentakenawayshouldberestoredtotheirs.Thistaskshouldnotbelefttothefamiliesofthewomen.Itshouldbeourcharge...

Wehavebecomebarbarousinourbehaviour.ItistrueofEastPunjabaswellasofWestPunjab.Itismeaninglesstoaskwhichofthemismorebarbaric.Barbarityhasnodegrees...Itisnotnecessarytoaskwhohasbeenmoreguilty.Atrocitieshavetakenplaceonamassscaleanditisirrelevantwhotookthefirststep.Theneedisforwomenwhohavebeenabductedandharassedtobetakenbacktotheirhomes.Itismybeliefthatthepolicecannotdothis.Thearmycannotdothis.Yes,ateamofwomenworkerscouldbesenttoEastPunjabandanotherteamtoWestPunjabbutIdonotthinkthatwouldbeeffective.Icansayasamanofexperiencethatthisisnotthewaytodothiswork.ThisisataskfortheGovernmentstotackle.IamnotsayingthattheGovernmentswerebehindtheabductions.ItwasnottheGovernmentofEastPunjabwhichorganizedabductions.InEastPunjabHindusandSikhswereresponsibleforthemandinWestPunjabMuslimswereresponsible.Whatfurtherinvestigationisrequired?Whateverthenumber—Iputitat12,000atleast—EastPunjabandWestPunjabshouldreturnthem.

Itisbeingsaidthatthefamiliesoftheabductedwomennolongerwanttoreceivethemback.Itwouldbeabarbarianhusbandorabarbarianparentwhowouldsaythathewouldnottakebackhiswifeordaughter.Idonotthinkthewomenconcernedhaddoneanythingwrong.Theyhadbeensubjectedtoviolence.Toputablotonthemandtosaythattheyarenolongerfittobeacceptedinsocietyisunjust.AtleastthisdoesnothappenamongMuslims.AtleastIslamisliberalinthisrespect,sothisisamatterthattheGovernmentsshouldtakeup.TheGovernmentsshouldtraceallthesewomen.Theyshouldbetracedandrestoredtotheirfamilies.Thepoliceandwomensocialworkerscannoteffectivelydealwiththis.Theproblemisdifficult,whichmeanstosaythatpublicopinionisnotfavourable.Youcannotsaythatallthe12,000womenwereabductedbyruffians.Idonotthinkthatisthecase.Itisgoodmenthathavebecomeruffians.Peoplearenotbornasgoondas;theybecomesoundercertaincircumstances.BoththeGovernmentshadbeenweakinthisrespect.NeitherGovernmenthasshownenoughstrengthtorecovertheabductedwomen.HadboththeGovernmentsexercisedauthority,whathappenedinEastPunjabandWestPunjabwouldnothavehappened.Butourindependencewasbornonlythreemonthsago.Itisstillinitsinfancy.

InmyviewPakistanisresponsibleforspreadingthispoison.Butwhatgoodcancomefromapportioningresponsibility?ThereisonlyonewayofsavingthesewomenandthatisthattheGovernmentsshouldevennowwakeuptotheirresponsibility,givethistaskthefirstpriorityandalltheirtimeandaccomplishit

evenatthecostoftheirlives.Onlythuscanthesewomenberescued.OfcourseweshouldhelptheGovernmentifitrequireshelp...

VillageRenewalandPoliticalDecentralizationGandhiandKarlMarxresembleoneanotherinonlytworespects—thateach

hashadadeepandenduringinfluenceandthatneitherleftbehindanyrealblueprintforthejustsocietytheyenvisagedandworkedfor.Marx’sideaofafuturecommunistsocietyiscontainedonlyinafewpagesofhis‘CritiqueoftheGothaProgramme’,whileGandhi’svisionofafreeIndiaismanifestonlyinpassingthoughtshereandthere.Forexample,whentheCongresscametopowerinseveralprovincesofBritishIndiain1937,Gandhiofferedthesereflectionsonhisidealvillage.12

‘AHumbleVillagerofBirbhum’livinginSantiniketansendsmethroughDeenbandhuAndrews13thefollowingquestions:

1. WhatisanidealIndianvillageinyouresteemedopinionandhowfarisitpracticabletoreconstructavillageonthebasisofan‘IdealVillage’inthepresentsocialandpoliticalsituationofIndia?

2. Whichofthevillageproblemsshouldaworkertrytosolvefirstofallandhowshouldheproceed?

3. Whatshouldbethespecialthemeofvillageexhibitionsandmuseumsinaminiatureform?Howshouldsuchexhibitionsbebestutilizedforthereconstructionofvillages?1. AnidealIndianvillagewillbesoconstructedastolenditselfto

perfectsanitation.Itwillhavecottageswithsufficientlightandventilationbuiltofamaterialobtainablewithinaradiusoffivemilesofit.Thecottageswillhavecourtyardsenablinghouseholderstoplantvegetablesfordomesticuseandtohousetheircattle.Thevillagelanesandstreetswillbefreeofallavoidabledust.Itwillhavewellsaccordingtoitsneedsandaccessibletoall.Itwillhavehousesofworshipforall;alsoacommonmeetingplace,avillagecommonforgrazingitscattle,acooperativedairy,primaryandsecondaryschoolsinwhichindustrialeducationwillbethecentralfact,anditwillhavepanchayatsforsettlingdisputes.Itwillproduceitsowngrains,vegetablesandfruits,anditsownkhadi[homespuncloth].Thisisroughlymyideaofamodelvillage.Inthepresentcircumstancesits

cottageswillremainwhattheyarewithslightimprovements.Givenagoodzamindar,wherethereisone,orcooperationamongthepeople,almostthewholeoftheprogrammeotherthanmodelcottagescanbeworkedoutatanexpenditurewithinthemeansofthevillagersincludingthezamindarorzamindars,withoutGovernmentassistance.Withthatassistancethereisnolimittothepossibilityofvillagereconstruction.Butmytaskjustnowistodiscoverwhatthevillagerscandotohelpthemselvesiftheyhavemutualcooperationandcontributevoluntarylabourforthecommongood.Iamconvincedthattheycan,underintelligentguidance,doublethevillageincomeasdistinguishedfromindividualincome.Thereareinourvillagesinexhaustibleresourcesnotforcommercialpurposesineverycasebutcertainlyforlocalpurposesinalmosteverycase.Thegreatesttragedyisthehopelessunwillingnessofthevillagerstobettertheirlot.

2. Theveryfirstproblemthevillageworkerwillsolveisitssanitation.Itisthemostneglectedofalltheproblemsthatbaffleworkersandthatunderminephysicalwell-beingandbreeddisease.IftheworkerbecameavoluntaryBhangi[sweeper],hewouldbeginbycollectingnight-soilandturningitintomanureandsweepingvillagestreets.Hewilltellpeoplehowandwheretheyshouldperformdailyfunctionsandspeaktothemonthevalueofsanitationandthegreatinjurycausedbytheneglect.Theworkerwillcontinuetodotheworkwhetherthevillagerslistentohimornot.

3. Thespinning-wheelshouldbethecentralthemeofallsuchvillageexhibitionsandtheindustriessuitedtotheparticularlocalityshouldrevolveroundit.Anexhibitionthusarrangedwouldnaturallybecomeanobject-lessonforthevillagersandaneducationaltreatwhenitisaccomplishedbydemonstrations,lecturesandleaflets.

Intheelectionsof1946,Congressministriesoncemorecametopowerinseveralprovinces.ThedepartureoftheBritishwasnowimminent.Inthiscontext,GandhioutlinedinaninterviewhishopesforthepoliticalsystemoffreeIndia.14

Q.YouhavesaidinyourarticleintheHarijanof15July,underthecaption‘TheRealDanger’,thatCongressmeningeneralcertainlydonotknowthekindofindependencetheywant.WouldyoukindlygivethemabroadbutcomprehensivepictureoftheIndependentIndiaofyourownconception?

A.IdonotknowthatIhavenot,fromtimetotime,givenmyideaofIndianindependence.Since,however,thisquestionispartofaseries,itisbettertoansweritevenattheriskofrepetition.

IndependenceofIndiashouldmeanindependenceofthewholeofIndia,includingwhatiscalledIndiaoftheStatesandtheotherforeignpowers,FrenchandPortuguese,whoarethere,Ipresume,byBritishsufferance.IndependencemustmeanthatofthepeopleofIndia,notofthosewhoaretodayrulingoverthem.Therulersshoulddependonthewillofthosewhoareundertheirheels.Thus,theyhavetobeservantsofthepeople,readytodotheirwill.

Independencemustbeginatthebottom.Thus,everyvillagewillbearepublicorpanchayathavingfullpowers.Itfollows,therefore,thateveryvillagehastobeself-sustainedandcapableofmanagingitsaffairseventotheextentofdefendingitselfagainstthewholeworld.Itwillbetrainedandpreparedtoperishintheattempttodefenditselfagainstanyonslaughtfromwithout.Thus,ultimately,itistheindividualwhoistheunit.Thisdoesnotexcludedependenceonandwillinghelpfromneighboursorfromtheworld.Itwillbefreeandvoluntaryplayofmutualforces.Suchasocietyisnecessarilyhighlyculturedinwhicheverymanandwomanknowswhatheorshewantsand,whatismore,knowsthatnooneshouldwantanythingthatotherscannothavewithequallabour...

Inthisstructurecomposedofinnumerablevillages,therewillbeever-widening,never-ascendingcircles.Lifewillnotbeapyramidwiththeapexsustainedbythebottom.Butitwillbeanoceaniccirclewhosecentrewillbetheindividualalwaysreadytoperishforthevillage,thelatterreadytoperishforthecircleofvillages,tillatlastthewholebecomesonelifecomposedofindividuals,neveraggressiveintheirarrogancebuteverhumble,sharingthemajestyoftheoceaniccircleofwhichtheyareintegralunits.

Thereforetheoutermostcircumferencewillnotwieldpowertocrushtheinnercirclebutwillgivestrengthtoallwithinandderiveitsownstrengthfromit.ImaybetauntedwiththeretortthatthisisallUtopianand,therefore,notworthasinglethought.IfEuclid’spoint,thoughincapableofbeingdrawnbyhumanagency,hasanimperishablevalue,mypicturehasitsownformankindtolive.LetIndialiveforthistruepicture,thoughneverrealizableinitscompleteness.Wemusthaveaproperpictureofwhatwewant,beforewecanhavesomethingapproachingit.IfthereeveristobearepublicofeveryvillageinIndia,thenIclaimverityformypictureinwhichthelastisequaltothefirstor,inotherwords,nooneistobethefirstandnonethelast.

Inthispictureeveryreligionhasitsfullandequalplace.Weareallleavesofamajestictreewhosetrunkcannotbeshakenoffitsrootswhicharedeepdowninthebowelsoftheearth.Themightiestwindcannotmoveit.

Inthisthereisnoroomformachinesthatwoulddisplacehumanlabourandthatwouldconcentratepowerinafewhands.Labourhasitsuniqueplaceinaculturedhumanfamily.Everymachinethathelpseveryindividualhasaplace.ButImustconfessthatIhaveneversatdowntothinkoutwhatthatmachinecanbe...

Q.DoyoubelievethattheproposedConstituentAssembly15couldbeusedfortherealizationofyourpicture?

A.TheConstituentAssemblyhasallthepossibilitiesfortherealizationofmypicture.YetIcannothopeformuch,notbecausetheStatePaperholdsnosuchpossibilitiesbutbecausethedocument,beingwhollyofavoluntarynature,requiresthecommonconsentofthemanypartiestoit.Thesehavenocommongoal.CongressmenthemselvesarenotofonemindevenonthecontentsofIndependence.Idonotknowhowmanyswearbynon-violenceorthecharkhaor,believingindecentralization,regardthevillageasthenucleus.IknowonthecontrarythatmanywouldhaveIndiabecomeafirst-classmilitarypowerandwishforIndiatohaveastrongcentreandbuildthewholestructureroundit.InthemedleyoftheseconflictsIknowthatifIndiaistobe[a]leaderincleanactionbasedoncleanthought,Godwillconfoundthewisdomofthesebigmenandwillprovidethevillageswiththepowertoexpressthemselvesastheyshould.

Q.IftheConstituentAssemblyfizzlesoutbecauseofthe‘dangerfromwithin’,asyouhaveremarkedintheabove-mentionedarticle,wouldyouadvisetheCongresstoacceptthealternativeofgeneralcountry-widestrikeandcaptureofpower,eithernon-violentlyorwiththeuseofnecessaryforce?Whatisyouralternativeinthateventualityiftheaboveisnotapprovedbyyou?

A.Imustnotcontemplatedarknessbeforeitstaresmeintheface.AndinnocasecanIbeaparty,irrespectiveofnon-violence,toauniversalstrikeandcaptureofpower.Though,therefore,IdonotknowwhatIshoulddointhecaseofabreakdown,Iknowthattheactualitywillfindmereadywithanalternative.MysolereliancebeingonthelivingPowerwhichwecallGod,Hewillputthealternativeinmyhandswhenthetimehascome,notaminutesooner.

PartIVDebatingDemocracy

IntroductiontoPartIV

PerhapsnonewnationwasborninmoredifficultcircumstancesthanIndia.WhentheBritishfinallyrelinquishedcontroloverthesubcontinent,theyleftbehindnotonenewnationbuttwo—IndiaandPakistan,thelattercreatedasahomelandfortheMuslimminority.IndependenceandPartitionhadbeenaccompaniedbymassivereligiousrioting,whichclaimedmorethanamillionlives.TheGovernmentofIndiahadtocontendwiththeangeranddesperationofsomeeightmillionrefugeeswhohadfledacrosstheborderfromEastandWestPakistan.TheirdiscontentthreatenedtounleashafreshwaveofviolencebetweenHindusandSikhsontheonehandandtheMuslimswhohadchosentostaybehindinIndiaontheother.

Anequallyportentousproblemwasthatoftheprincelystates.TheBritishhadcontrolledsometwo-thirdsofthesubcontinentdirectly,therestbeingdividedbetweenmorethanfivehundredchiefdomsandprincipalitieswhoserulersowedallegiancetotheKing-EmperorinLondonbutwerelargelyfreetogovernastheypleased.Inthe1930sanAllIndiaStatesPeople’sConference(AISPC)promotedbytheCongresssoughttoinvolvethesubjectsofthesechiefdomsinthenationaliststruggle.Theprincesthemselvestheydisparagedasreactionaryfeudals.Now,however,theyhadtobepersuaded—orcoerced—tojointhenewnation,aprocessthatwastotakemorethantwoyears.

Therefugeeshadtobeplacated,theprincelystatesintegrated.Beyondtheseimmediateconcerns,alargerfutureforthenewnationhadtobedesigned.BetweenDecember1946andNovember1949,sometwohundredindividualsservedaselectedmembersoftheConstituentAssemblyofIndiaandcollectivelydesignedademocraticconstitutionwhichguaranteedfreedomofspeech,associationandworship;enshrinedspecialprivilegesfordisadvantagedsocialgroupssuchaslowcastesandtribals;identifiedtherespectivepowersoftheCentreandthestates;andadoptedaparliamentarysystemofgovernancebasedonuniversaladultfranchise.

In1946,theyeartheConstituentAssemblywasconvenedinNewDelhi,agroupofAmericansdesignedtheJapaneseConstitution.In1949,whentheassemblyconcludeditsdeliberations,acommunistpartyledbyMaoZedongestablishedcontroloverChina.ThenewpoliticalsystemofIndiawasthusinmarkedcontrasttothatadoptedbytheseotherAsiannations.UnlikeinthecaseofJapan,itwaschosenanddesignedbyIndians;unlikeinthecaseofChina,italloweditscitizenstospeaktheirmindsfreelyandtovoteforwhicheverpartytheypleased.ButtherewasacontrastwiththeadvancedWesterndemocraciesaswell:namely,thatinIndiatherighttoelectone’sleadershadbeengrantedtoall

adultsinonefellswoop,ratherthaninstages.Thatsometwo-thirdsoftheelectoratewasilliteratemadethechoiceevenmorestriking.

Between15August1947,whenIndiaacquiredDominionstatuswithintheBritishEmpire,and26January1950,whentheConstitutionmakingitademocraticrepubliccameintooperation,theunityofthenewnationwassorelytested.Therewereseveralseriousproblemsotherthanthoseoftherefugeesandtheprincelystates.InSeptember1947anarmedconflictbrokeoutwithPakistanoverthedisputedterritoryofKashmir.InMarch1948theCommunistPartyofIndialaunchedaninsurrection,hopingtocapturepowerontheChinesemodelandinstallaone-partystate.Therewasdiscontentinthenorth-easternborderlands,withalargesectionofNagasandManipurisunwillingtojointheIndianUnion.

ItwasagainstthisbackgroundofdissentanddiscordthatIndiahelditsfirstgeneralelectionsinJanuary-February1952.PollswereheldsimultaneouslytothenationalParliamentandtothevariousstateassemblies.Avarietyofpartiescontested,someregionallybased,otherswithnationalambitions.(AmongthemweretheCommunistswhohadlaiddownarmsandacceptedtheConstitution.)Thepartyofthefreedomstruggle,theIndianNationalCongress,waselectedtopowerwithacomfortablemajority.Butitstillfacedmajorchallenges—includingtheforgingofaneconomicpolicythatcouldliftthemassesoutofpoverty;andtheforgingofaforeignpolicythatcouldassertIndia’splaceinaworldincreasinglydefinedbytherivalrybetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.

Manyobservers—notallofthemcynicalWesterners—hadthoughtthatIndia’sfirstgeneralelectionswouldbeitslast.Theydidnotthinkthatdemocracycouldtakerootinanilliterateandhierarchicalsociety.Surelyitwouldsoongivewaytorulebyastrongmanor,attheleast,byastrong,centralizedinstitutionsuchastheIndianArmy?OthercommentatorswerescepticaloftheabilityofIndiatostaytogetherasasinglenation.Theythoughtitwouldbalkanizeagain,perhapsafterabloodycivilwarbasedthistimeonlanguageratherthanreligion;orthatitwouldreturntothepatternofpre-colonialIndia,withthegovernmentinDelhicontrollingterritorywithinaradiusofafewhundredmiles(atbest),withthemorefar-flungareasslowlysecedingtoformaseriesofindependentnationsorkingdoms.

Thefearsweretobeprovedunfounded.Thegeneralelectionsof1952werefollowedbynationwidepollsin1957and1962.Electionstothestateassemblieswerealsoheldregularly.Theprocessesofdemocracywereconsolidatedand

upheldbyanindependentjudiciaryandafreepress.Atthesametime,despitediscontentintheborderlands,nationalunitywasalsomaintained.ThewritoftheCentralgovernmentranoverthewholeofIndia.

Throughthe1950sand1960s,thespecificcontoursofdemocracyandnationalunitywereintenselydebatedinallpartsofthecountry.TheCongresswonsuccessivegeneralelections,buthadstilltoansweritscriticsontheleftandtherightwhowererepresentedinParliament.Italsometstrongoppositioninthestates;notleastinthesouthernmoststateofKerala,whereCongressdominancewassuccessfullychallengedfirstbythesocialistsandthenbythecommunists.Apartfromthispoliticalopposition,individualsandgroupswithincivilsocietywerealsovocalintheircriticismsofthepoliciesoftheCongressgovernment.

ThispartofthebookfeaturesthemajordebatesonpoliticsandsocialpolicythattookplaceinthefirstdecadesofIndianindependence.Theseargumentscoveredawiderangeoftopics—amongthem,theidealsandinstitutionsofdemocracy;therelationsbetweendifferentreligiouscommunities;therespectiverolesofthestateandprivateenterpriseinpromotingeconomicdevelopment;India’splaceintheworld;theplaceoftheEnglishlanguageinIndia;thehonourableintegrationwithinthenation-stateofsmallethnicminorities;andmore.

Therangeoftopicsdiscussedinthepagesthatfollowwascommensuratewiththescaleoftheenterprise,namely,thebuildingofasingle,unitednationoutofsomanydisparatefragments;thenurturingofademocraticethosinapooranddividedsociety;thepromotionofindustrialdevelopmentinanagrarianeconomy;andthesafeguardingofnationalhonouranddignityinanincreasinglypolarizedinternationalclimate.Ithinkthatthequalityoftheinterlocutorsisworthyofnotetoo.Asinotherpartsofthebook,thesemakersofmodernIndiacombinesubtletyofargumentwithintensityofexpression—thefirstmarkingthemoutasoriginalpoliticalthinkers,thesecondasfocusedpoliticalactors.Theremaybeoneexceptiontothischaracterization,whichIshallleavetothereadertoidentify,onlyremarkingherethatwhatthisparticular‘Maker’lostbywayofintellectualsophisticationheperhapsmadeupbywayofsocialandpoliticalinfluence.

ChapterFourteen

TheWiseDemocratB.R.Ambedkar

AswehaveseeninChapterNine,B.R.AmbedkarhadbeenabittercriticofGandhiandtheCongress.Remarkably,despitetwentyyearsofintensepersonalandpoliticalrivalry,whenIndiabecameindependentAmbedkarwasofferedthejoboflawministerintheUnionCabinet.Thiswasanextraordinaryactofreconciliation,forwhichGandhiseemstohavebeenpersonallyresponsible.Itissaidthathetoldthepre-eminentCongressleaders,JawaharlalNehruandVallabhbhaiPatel,thatfreedomhadcomenottoasingleparty,buttoallofIndia.Inthisspirit,thefirstcabinetalsoincludedrepresentativesoftheAkaliDalandtheJusticeParty,whohadlikewisepreviouslyopposedtheCongress.

TofacilitateAmbedkar’sentryintothecabinet,theCongresselectedhimtotheConstituentAssemblyofIndiafromasafeseatinBombay.Aslawminister,hewasmadechairmanofthecommitteeformedtodrafttheIndianConstitution.Asthethirteenvolumesoftheproceedingsoftheassemblydemonstrate,Ambedkarhandledcriticismwithtactandauthority.HealsomadesomequitebrilliantspeechesonthesignificanceoftheConstitutionforthefutureofdemocracy.

ApartfrompilotingtheConstitutionofIndiathroughasometimesfractiousassembly,Ambedkarmadeoneotherimportantcontributionaslawminister.Thiswastooverseethedraftingofanewlawthatwould,forthefirsttime,allowHinduwomentochoosetheirmarriagepartners,todivorcethemifnecessaryandtoinheritafairshareofancestralproperty.ThesereformsonlycameintoeffectafterAmbedkarresignedfromthecabinetin1951.Buthewastheirprincipalarchitect,ashewasoftheConstitutionitself.

TheIndianConstitutionDefendedandInterpretedWeprintexcerptsfromtwoimportantspeechesmadebyAmbedkartothe

ConstituentAssemblyofIndia.ThefirstintroducedthedraftoftheConstitutionandoutlinedthemeaningsof‘constitutionalmorality’.1

…OnelikestoaskwhethertherecanbeanythingnewinaConstitutionframedatthishourinthehistoryoftheworld.MorethanhundredyearshaverolledoverwhenthefirstwrittenConstitutionwasdrafted.IthasbeenfollowedbymanycountriesreducingtheirConstitutionstowriting.WhatthescopeofaConstitutionshouldbehaslongbeensettled.SimilarlywhatarethefundamentalsofaConstitutionarerecognizedallovertheworld.Giventhesefacts,allConstitutionsintheirmainprovisionsmustlooksimilar.Theonlynewthings,iftherecanbeany,inaConstitutionframedsolateinthedayarethevariationsmadetoremovethefaultsandtoaccommodateittotheneedsofthecountry.ThechargeofproducingablindcopyoftheConstitutionsofothercountriesisbased,Iamsure,onaninadequatestudyoftheConstitution.IhaveshownwhatisnewintheDraftConstitutionandIamsurethatthosewhohavestudiedotherConstitutionsandwhoarepreparedtoconsiderthematterdispassionatelywillagreethattheDraftingCommitteeinperformingitsdutyhasnotbeenguiltyofsuchblindandslavishimitationasitisrepresentedtobe.

AstotheaccusationthattheDraftConstitutionhasproducedagoodpartoftheprovisionsoftheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1935,Imakenoapologies.Thereisnothingtobeashamedofinborrowing.Itinvolvesnoplagiarism.NobodyholdsanypatentrightsinthefundamentalideasofaConstitution.WhatIamsorryaboutisthattheprovisionstakenfromtheGovernmentofIndiaAct,1935,relatemostlytothedetailsofadministration.IagreethatadministrativedetailsshouldhavenoplaceintheConstitution.IwishverymuchthattheDraftingCommitteecouldseeitswaytoavoidtheirinclusionintheConstitution.Butthisistobesaidonthenecessitywhichjustifiestheirinclusion.Grote,thehistorianofGreece,hassaidthat:

Thediffusionofconstitutionalmorality,notmerelyamongthemajorityofanycommunitybutthroughoutthewhole,istheindispensableconditionofgovernmentatoncefreeandpeaceable;sinceevenanypowerfulandobstinateminoritymayrendertheworkingofafreeinstitutionimpracticable,withoutbeingstrongenoughtoconquerascendencyforthemselves.ByconstitutionalmoralityGrotemeant‘aparamountreverencefortheforms

oftheConstitution,enforcingobediencetoauthorityactingunderandwithintheseformsyetcombinedwiththehabitofopenspeech,ofactionsubjectonlyto

definitelegalcontrol,andunrestrainedcensureofthoseveryauthoritiesastoalltheirpublicacts,combinedtoowithaperfectconfidenceinthebosomofeverycitizenamidstthebitternessofpartycontestthattheformsoftheConstitutionwillnotbelesssacredintheeyesofhisopponentsthaninhisown.’(Hear,hear.)

WhileeverybodyrecognizesthenecessityofthediffusionofConstitutionalmoralityforthepeacefulworkingofademocraticConstitution,therearetwothingsinterconnectedwithitwhicharenot,unfortunately,generallyrecognized.OneisthattheformofadministrationhasacloseconnectionwiththeformoftheConstitution.TheformoftheadministrationmustbeappropriatetoandinthesamesenseastheformoftheConstitution.TheotheristhatitisperfectlypossibletoperverttheConstitution,withoutchangingitsformbymerelychangingtheformoftheadministrationandtomakeitinconsistentandopposedtothespiritoftheConstitution.ItfollowsthatitisonlywherepeoplearesaturatedwithConstitutionalmoralitysuchastheonedescribedbyGrotethehistorianthatonecantaketheriskofomittingfromtheConstitutiondetailsofadministrationandleavingitfortheLegislaturetoprescribethem.Thequestionis,canwepresumesuchadiffusionofConstitutionalmorality?Constitutionalmoralityisnotanaturalsentiment.Ithastobecultivated.Wemustrealizethatourpeoplehaveyettolearnit.DemocracyinIndiaisonlyatop-dressingonanIndiansoil,whichisessentiallyundemocratic.

InthesecircumstancesitiswisernottotrusttheLegislaturetoprescribeformsofadministration.ThisisthejustificationforincorporatingthemintheConstitution.

AnothercriticismagainsttheDraftConstitutionisthatnopartofitrepresentstheancientpolityofIndia.ItissaidthatthenewConstitutionshouldhavebeendraftedontheancientHindumodelofaStateandthatinsteadofincorporatingWesterntheoriesthenewConstitutionshouldhavebeenraisedandbuiltuponvillagePanchayatsandDistrictPanchayats.Thereareotherswhohavetakenamoreextremeview.TheydonotwantanyCentralorProvincialGovernments.TheyjustwantIndiatocontainsomanyvillageGovernments.TheloveoftheintellectualIndiansforthevillagecommunityisofcourseinfiniteifnotpathetic(laughter).ItislargelyduetothefulsomepraisebestoweduponitbyMetcalfe2whodescribedthemaslittlerepublicshavingnearlyeverythingthattheywantwithinthemselves,andalmostindependentofanyforeignrelations.TheexistenceofthesevillagecommunitieseachoneformingaseparatelittleStateinitselfhasaccordingtoMetcalfecontributedmorethanany

othercausetothepreservationofthepeopleofIndia,throughalltherevolutionsandchangeswhichtheyhavesuffered,andisinahighdegreeconducivetotheirhappinessandtotheenjoymentofagreatportionoftheirfreedomandindependence.Nodoubtthevillagecommunitiesdonotcaretoconsiderwhatlittleparttheyhaveplayedintheaffairsandthedestinyofthecountry;andwhy?TheirpartinthedestinyofthecountryhasbeenwelldescribedbyMetcalfehimselfwhosays:

Dynastyafterdynastytumblesdown.Revolutionsucceedstorevolution.Hindoo,Pathan,Mogul,Maratha,Sikh,Englishareallmastersinturnbutthevillagecommunitiesremainthesame.Intimesoftroubletheyarmandfortifythemselves.Ahostilearmypassesthroughthecountry.Thevillagecommunitiescollecttheirlittlecattlewithintheirwalls,andlettheenemypassunprovoked.Suchisthepartthevillagecommunitieshaveplayedinthehistoryoftheir

country.Knowingthis,whatpridecanonefeelinthem?Thattheyhavesurvivedthroughallvicissitudesmaybeafact.Butmeresurvivalhasnovalue.Thequestionisonwhatplanetheyhavesurvived.Surelyonalow,onaselfishlevel.IholdthatthesevillagerepublicshavebeentheruinationofIndia.IamthereforesurprisedthatthosewhocondemnProvincialismandCommunalismshouldcomeforwardaschampionsofthevillage.Whatisthevillagebutasinkoflocalism,adenofignorance,narrow-mindednessandcommunalism?IamgladthattheDraftConstitutionhasdiscardedthevillageandadoptedtheindividualasitsunit…

SomecriticshavetakenobjectiontothedescriptionofIndiainArticle1oftheDraftConstitutionasaUnionof[States]…SomecriticshavesaidthattheCentreistoostrong.Othershavesaidthatitmustbemadestronger.TheDraftConstitutionhasstruckabalance.HowevermuchyoumaydenypowerstotheCentre,itisdifficulttopreventtheCentrefrombecomingstrong.Conditionsin[the]modernworldaresuchthatcentralizationofpowersisinevitable.OnehasonlytoconsiderthegrowthoftheFederalGovernmentintheU.S.A.which,notwithstandingtheverylimitedpowersgiventoitbytheConstitution,hasout-grownitsformerselfandhasovershadowedandeclipsedtheStateGovernments.Thisisduetomodernconditions.ThesameconditionsaresuretooperateontheGovernmentofIndiaandnothingthatonecandowillhelptopreventitfrombeingstrong.Ontheotherhand,wemustresistthetendencytomakeitstronger.Itcannotchewmorethanitcandigest.Itsstrengthmustbecommensuratewithitsweight.Itwouldbeafollytomakeitsostrongthatitmayfallbyitsownweight…

TheConstitutionhasbeendiscussedinsomeoftheProvincialAssembliesofIndia.ItwasdiscussedinBombay,C.P.,WestBengal,Bihar,MadrasandEastPunjab.ItistruethatinsomeProvincialAssembliesseriousobjectionsweretakentothefinancialprovisionsoftheConstitution…Butexceptingthis,innoProvincialAssemblywasanyseriousobjectiontakentotheArticlesoftheConstitution.NoConstitutionisperfectandtheDraftingCommitteeitselfissuggestingcertainamendmentstoimprovetheDraftConstitution.ButthedebatesintheProvincialAssembliesgivemecouragetosaythattheConstitutionassettledbytheDraftingCommitteeisgoodenoughtomakeinthiscountryastartwith.Ifeelthatitisworkable,itisflexibleanditisstrongenoughtoholdthecountrytogetherbothinpeacetimeandinwartime.Indeed,ifImaysayso,ifthingsgowrongunderthenewConstitution,thereasonwillnotbethatwehadabadConstitution.Whatwewillhavetosayis,thatManwasvile.Sir,Imove.

Ayearafteradrafthadbeenintroducedanddiscussed,afinalconstitutionwasagreedupon.Inhislastspeechtotheassembly,AmbedkarofferedsomepropheticwarningsaboutthecourseofIndiandemocracy.3

…Thecreditthatisgiventomedoesnotreallybelongtome.ItbelongspartlytoSirB.N.Rau,theConstitutionalAdvisertotheConstituentAssemblywhopreparedaroughdraftoftheConstitutionfortheconsiderationoftheDraftingCommittee.ApartofthecreditmustgotothemembersoftheDraftingCommitteewho,asIhavesaid,havesatfor141daysandwithoutwhoseingenuitytodevisenewformulaeandcapacitytotolerateandtoaccommodatedifferentpointsofview,thetaskofframingtheConstitutioncouldnothavecometososuccessfulaconclusion.MuchgreatershareofthecreditmustgotoMr.S.N.Mukherjee,theChiefDraftsmanoftheConstitution.Hisabilitytoputthemostintricateproposalsinthesimplestandclearestlegalformcanrarelybeequalled,norhiscapacityforhardwork.HehasbeenanacquisitiontotheAssembly.Withouthishelp,thisAssemblywouldhavetakenmanymoreyearstofinalisetheConstitution.ImustnotomittomentionthemembersofthestaffworkingunderMr.Mukherjee.For,Iknowhowhardtheyworkedandhowlongtheyhavetoiled,sometimesevenbeyondmidnight.Iwanttothankthemallfortheireffortandtheircooperation.(Cheers.)

ThetaskoftheDraftingCommitteewouldhavebeenaverydifficultoneifthisConstituentAssemblyhadbeenmerelyamotleycrowd,atessellatedpavementwithoutcement,ablackstonehereandawhitestonethereinwhicheachmemberoreachgroupwasalawuntoitself.Therewouldhavebeen

nothingbutchaos.ThispossibilityofchaoswasreducedtonilbytheexistenceoftheCongressPartyinsidetheAssemblywhichbroughtintoitsproceedingsasenseoforderanddiscipline.ItisbecauseofthedisciplineoftheCongressPartythattheDraftingCommitteewasabletopilottheConstitutionintheAssemblywiththesureknowledgeastothefateofeacharticleandeachamendment.TheCongressPartyis,therefore,entitledtoallthecreditforthesmoothsailingoftheDraftConstitutionintheAssembly.

TheproceedingsofthisConstituentAssemblywouldhavebeenverydullifallmembershadyieldedtotheruleofpartydiscipline.Partydiscipline,inallitsrigidity,wouldhaveconvertedthisAssemblyintoagatheringof‘yes’men.Fortunately,therewererebels.TheywereMr.Kamath,Dr.P.S.Deshmukh,Mr.Sidhva,ProfSaxenaandPanditThakurDasBhargava.AlongwiththemImustmentionProf.K.T.ShahandPanditHridayNathKunzru.Thepointstheyraisedweremostlyideological.ThatIwasnotpreparedtoaccepttheirsuggestions,doesnotdiminishthevalueoftheirsuggestions,norlessentheservicetheyhaverenderedtotheAssemblyinenliveningitsproceedings.Iamgratefultothem.Butforthem,IwouldnothavehadtheopportunitywhichIgotforexpoundingtheprinciplesunderlyingtheConstitutionwhichwasmoreimportantthanthemeremechanicalworkofpassingtheConstitution.

Finally,ImustthankyouMr.President4forthewayinwhichyouhaveconductedtheproceedingsofthisAssembly.ThecourtesyandtheconsiderationwhichyouhaveshowntotheMembersoftheAssemblycanneverbeforgottenbythosewhohavetakenpartintheproceedingsofthisAssembly.TherewereoccasionswhentheamendmentsoftheDraftingCommitteeweresoughttobebarredongroundspurelytechnicalintheirnature.Thosewereveryanxiousmomentsforme.Iam,therefore,speciallygratefultoyoufornotpermittinglegalismtodefeattheworkofConstitutionmaking.

AsmuchdefenceascouldbeofferedtotheConstitutionhasbeenofferedbymyfriendsSirAlladiKrishnaswamiAyyarandMr.T.T.Krishnamachari.IshallnotthereforeenterintothemeritsoftheConstitution.BecauseIfeel,howevergoodaConstitutionmaybe,itissuretoturnoutbadbecausethosewhoarecalledtoworkit,happentobeabadlot.HoweverbadaConstitutionmaybe,itmayturnouttobegoodifthosewhoarecalledtoworkit,happentobeagoodlot.TheworkingofaConstitutiondoesnotdependwhollyuponthenatureoftheConstitution.TheConstitutioncanprovideonlytheorgansofStatesuchastheLegislature,theExecutiveandtheJudiciary.ThefactorsonwhichtheworkingofthoseorgansoftheStatedependarethepeopleandthepoliticalpartiesthey

willsetupastheirinstrumentstocarryouttheirwishesandtheirpolitics.WhocansayhowthepeopleofIndiaandtheirpartieswillbehave?Willtheyupholdconstitutionalmethodsofachievingtheirpurposesorwilltheypreferrevolutionarymethodsofachievingthem?…

ThecondemnationoftheConstitutionlargelycomesfromtwoquarters,theCommunistPartyandtheSocialistParty.WhydotheycondemntheConstitution?IsitbecauseitisreallyabadConstitution?Iventuretosay‘no’.TheCommunistPartywantsaConstitutionbasedupontheprincipleoftheDictatorshipoftheProletariat.TheycondemntheConstitutionbecauseitisbaseduponparliamentarydemocracy.TheSocialistwanttwothings.Thefirstthingtheywantisthatiftheycomeinpower,theConstitutionmustgivethemthefreedomtonationalizeorsocializeallprivatepropertywithoutpaymentofcompensation.ThesecondthingthattheSocialistswantisthattheFundamentalRightsmentionedintheConstitutionmustbeabsoluteandwithoutanylimitationssothatiftheirPartyfailstocomeintopower,theywouldhavetheunfetteredfreedomnotmerelytocriticize,butalsotooverthrowtheState.

ThesearethemaingroundsonwhichtheConstitutionisbeingcondemned.Idonotsaythattheprincipleofparliamentarydemocracyistheonlyidealformofpoliticaldemocracy.Idonotsaythattheprincipleofnoacquisitionofprivatepropertywithoutcompensationissosacrosanctthattherecanbenodeparturefromit.IdonotsaythatFundamentalRightscanneverbeabsoluteandthelimitationssetuponthemcanneverbelifted.WhatIdosayisthattheprinciplesembodiedintheConstitutionaretheviewsofthepresentgenerationorifyouthinkthistobeanoverstatement,IsaytheyaretheviewsofthemembersoftheConstituentAssembly…

Ifwewishtomaintaindemocracynotmerelyinform,butalsoinfact,whatmustwedo?Thefirstthinginmyjudgmentwemustdoistoholdfasttoconstitutionalmethodsofachievingoursocialandeconomicobjectives.Itmeanswemustabandonthebloodymethodsofrevolution.Itmeansthatwemustabandonthemethodofcivildisobedience,non-cooperationandsatyagraha.Whentherewasnowayleftforconstitutionalmethodsforachievingeconomicandsocialobjectives,therewasagreatdealofjustificationforunconstitutionalmethods.Butwhereconstitutionalmethodsareopen,therecanbenojustificationfortheseunconstitutionalmethods.ThesemethodsarenothingbuttheGrammarofAnarchyandthesoonertheyareabandoned,thebetterforus.

ThesecondthingwemustdoistoobservethecautionwhichJohnStuartMillhasgiventoallwhoareinterestedinthemaintenanceofdemocracy,

namely,not‘tolaytheirlibertiesatthefeetofevenagreatman,ortotrusthimwithpowerswhichenablehimtosubverttheirinstitutions’.Thereisnothingwronginbeinggratefultogreatmenwhohaverenderedlife-longservicestothecountry.Buttherearelimitstogratefulness.AshasbeenwellsaidbytheIrishpatriotDanielO’Connell,nomancanbegratefulatthecostofhishonour,nowomancanbegratefulatthecostofherchastityandnonationcanbegratefulatthecostofitsliberty.ThiscautionisfarmorenecessaryinthecaseofIndiathaninthecaseofanyothercountry.ForinIndia,Bhaktiorwhatmaybecalledthepathofdevotionorhero-worship,playsapartinitspoliticsunequalledinmagnitudebythepartitplaysinthepoliticsofanyothercountryintheworld.Bhaktiinreligionmaybearoadtothesalvationofthesoul.Butinpolitics,Bhaktiorhero-worshipisasureroadtodegradationandtoeventualdictatorship.

Thethirdthingwemustdoisnottobecontentwithmerepoliticaldemocracy.Wemustmakeourpoliticaldemocracyasocialdemocracyaswell.Politicaldemocracycannotlastunlessthereliesatthebaseofitsocialdemocracy.Whatdoessocialdemocracymean?Itmeansawayoflifewhichrecognizesliberty,equalityandfraternityastheprinciplesoflife.Theseprinciplesofliberty,equalityandfraternityarenottobetreatedasseparateitemsinatrinity.Theyformaunionortrinityinthesensethattodivorceonefromtheotheristodefeattheverypurposeofdemocracy.Libertycannotbedivorcedfromequality,equalitycannotbedivorcedfromliberty.Norcanlibertyandequalitybedivorcedfromfraternity.Withoutequality,libertywouldproducethesupremacyofthefewoverthemany.Equalitywithoutlibertywouldkillindividualinitiative.Withoutfraternity,libertyandequalitycouldnotbecomeanaturalcourseofthings.Itwouldrequireaconstabletoenforcethem.WemustbeginbyacknowledgingthefactthatthereiscompleteabsenceoftwothingsinIndianSociety.Oneoftheseisequality.Onthesocialplane,wehaveinIndiaasocietybasedontheprincipleofgradedinequalitywhichmeanselevationforsomeanddegradationforothers.Ontheeconomicplane,wehaveasocietyinwhichtherearesomewhohaveimmensewealthasagainstmanywholiveinabjectpoverty.Onthe26thofJanuary1950,wearegoingtoenterintoalifeofcontradictions.Inpoliticswewillhaveequalityandinsocialandeconomiclifewewillhaveinequality.Inpoliticswewillberecognizingtheprincipleofonemanonevoteandonevoteonevalue.Inoursocialandeconomiclife,weshall,byreasonofoursocialandeconomicstructure,continuetodenytheprincipleofonemanonevalue.Howlongshallwecontinuetolivethislifeofcontradictions?Howlongshallwecontinuetodenyequalityinoursocialand

economiclife?Ifwecontinuetodenyitforlong,wewilldosoonlybyputtingourpoliticaldemocracyinperil.WemustremovethiscontradictionattheearliestpossiblemomentorelsethosewhosufferfrominequalitywillblowupthestructureofpoliticaldemocracywhichthisAssemblyhassolaboriouslybuiltup.

Thesecondthingwearewantinginisrecognitionoftheprincipleoffraternity.Whatdoesfraternitymean?FraternitymeansasenseofcommonbrotherhoodofallIndians—ifIndiansbeingonepeople.Itistheprinciplewhichgivesunityandsolidaritytosociallife.Itisadifficultthingtoachieve.Howdifficultitis,canberealizedfromthestoryrelatedbyJamesBryce…abouttheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

Thestoryis—IproposetorecountitinthewordsofBrycehimself—that:

SomeyearsagotheAmericanProtestantEpiscopalChurchwasoccupiedatitstriennialConventioninrevisingitsliturgy.Itwasthoughtdesirabletointroduceamongtheshortsentenceprayersaprayerforthewholepeople,andaneminentNewEnglanddivineproposedthewords‘OLord,blessournation’.Acceptedoneafternoon,onthespurofthemoment,thesentencewasbroughtupnextdayforreconsideration,whensomanyobjectionswereraisedbythelaitytotheword‘nation’asimportingtoodefinitearecognitionofnationalunity,thatitwasdropped,andinsteadtherewereadoptedthewords‘OLord,blesstheseUnitedStates’.TherewassolittlesolidarityintheU.S.A.atthetimewhenthisincident

occurredthatthepeopleofAmericadidnotthinkthattheywereanation.IfthepeopleoftheUnitedStatescouldnotfeelthattheywereanation,howdifficultitisforIndianstothinkthattheyareanation.Irememberthedayswhenpolitically-mindedIndiansresentedtheexpression‘thepeopleofIndia’.Theypreferredtheexpression‘theIndiannation.’Iamofopinionthatinbelievingthatweareanation,wearecherishingagreatdelusion.Howcanpeopledividedintoseveralthousandsofcastesbeanation?Thesoonerwerealizethatwearenotasyetanationinthesocialandpsychologicalsenseoftheword,thebetterforus.Forthenonlyweshallrealizethenecessityofbecominganationandseriouslythinkofwaysandmeansofrealizingthegoal.Therealizationofthisgoalisgoingtobeverydifficult—farmoredifficultthanithasbeenintheUnitedStates.TheUnitedStateshasnocasteproblem.InIndiatherearecastes.Thecastesareantinational,inthefirstplacebecausetheybringaboutseparationinsociallife.Theyareantinationalalsobecausetheygeneratejealousyandantipathybetweencasteandcaste.Butwemustovercomeallthesedifficultiesifwewishtobecomeanationinreality.Forfraternitycanbeafactonlywhenthereisanation.Withoutfraternity,equalityandlibertywillbenodeeperthan

coatsofpaint.Thesearemyreflectionsaboutthetasksthatlieaheadofus.Theymaynot

beverypleasanttosome.Buttherecanbenogainsayingthatpoliticalpowerinthiscountryhastoolongbeenthemonopolyofafewandthemanyarenotonlybeastsofburden,butalsobeastsofprey.Thismonopolyhasnotmerelydeprivedthemoftheirchanceofbetterment,ithassappedthemofwhatmaybecalledthesignificanceoflife.Thesedown-troddenclassesaretiredofbeinggoverned.Theyareimpatienttogovernthemselves.Thisurgeforself-realizationinthedown-troddenclassesmustnotbeallowedtodevolveintoaclassstruggleorclasswar.ItwouldleadtoadivisionoftheHouse.Thatwouldindeedbeadayofdisaster.For,ashasbeenwellsaidbyAbrahamLincoln,aHousedividedagainstitselfcannotstandverylong.Thereforethesoonerroomismadefortherealizationoftheiraspiration,thebetterforthefew,thebetterforthecountry,thebetterforthemaintenanceofitsindependenceandthebetterforthecontinuanceofitsdemocraticstructure.Thiscanonlybedonebytheestablishmentofequalityandfraternityinallspheresoflife.ThatiswhyIhavelaidsomuchstressonthem.

IdonotwishtowearytheHouseanyfurther.Independenceisnodoubtamatterofjoy.Butletusnotforgetthatthisindependencehasthrownonusgreatresponsibilities.Byindependence,wehavelosttheexcuseofblamingtheBritishforanythinggoingwrong.Ifhereafterthingsgowrong,wewillhavenobodytoblameexceptourselves.Thereisgreatdangerofthingsgoingwrong.Timesarefastchanging.Peopleincludingourownarebeingmovedbynewideologies.TheyaregettingtiredofGovernmentbythepeople.TheyarepreparedtohaveGovernmentforthepeopleandareindifferentwhetheritisGovernmentofthepeopleandbythepeople.IfwewishtopreservetheConstitutioninwhichwehavesoughttoenshrinetheprincipleofGovernmentofthepeople,forthepeopleandbythepeople,letusresolvenottobetardyintherecognitionoftheevilsthatlieacrossourpathandwhichinducepeopletopreferGovernmentforthepeopletoGovernmentbythepeople,nortobeweakinourinitiativetoremovethem.Thatistheonlywaytoservethecountry.Iknowofnobetter.

ChapterFifteen

TheMultipleAgendasofJawaharlalNehru

Asprimeministerforthefirst,formativeyearsafterIndependence,JawaharlalNehruhadadefiningimpactonthepoliticsandsocietyofhiscountry.InIndia,the1940sand1950sweretheAgeofNehru,justasthe1920sand1930shadbeentheAgeofGandhi.Tobesure,NehruwasnotasoriginalathinkerasGandhi.Ontheotherhand,Gandhineverheldpoliticaloffice.Asheadofgovernmentfrom1947to1964,Nehruhadacolossalinfluenceonthedirectionstaken—andnottaken—bythisnew,large,diverseandveryconflictednation.

JawaharlalNehruwasborninAllahabadin1889.Hisfather,Motilal,wasasuccessfulandwealthylawyerwhodotedonhisonlyson.HewassenttoHarrow,whichhedidnotenjoyverymuch;andtoCambridge,wherehedevelopedwhatwastobecomealifelongfascinationwithmodernscience.Healsoqualifiedasabarrister.ReturninghomeshortlybeforetheFirstWorldWar,heranadesultorylawpracticebeforethrowinghimselffull-timeintonationalistpolitics.

NehruveneratedGandhi.Theolderman,inturn,showeredmoreaffectiononhisdisciplethanonhisfourbiologicalsons.Thetwomendifferedintemperamentandattitudestomodernity.Nehruwasindifferenttoreligion;GandhibelieveddeeplyinhisownversionofGod.NehruthoughtthatindustrializationwastheonlysolutiontotheendemicpovertyofIndia;Gandhicalledinsteadfortherenewalofthevillageeconomy.Nehruhadgreatfaithinthepowersofthemodernstatetoupliftandreformsociety;Gandhiwasscepticalofstatepower,trustinginsteadtheconscienceandwillofindividualsandcommunities.

Beyondthesedifferencesweresomefundamentalsimilarities.Bothwerepatriotsinthemostinclusivesense,whoidentifiedwithallofIndia,ratherthanwithaparticularcaste,language,regionorreligion.Bothabhorredviolenceandstronglypreferreddemocraticformsofgovernmenttodictatorships.Itmayhavebeentheseparallels,aswellasNehru’sownindependentappealtotheyoung,thatledGandhitoanointhimhispoliticalsuccessor.

InDecember1929,havingjustturnedforty,NehruwaselectedtothefirstoffourtermsaspresidentoftheCongress.Throughthedecadeofthe1930shewastheparty’svoiceabroad,takingthemessageofIndianfreedomtonotalwaysreceptiveaudiencesintheWest.Intheelectionsof1937and1946,bothheldundercolonialauspicesandunderarestrictedfranchise,hewasthechiefvote-gathererfortheCongress.WhenIndiabecameindependentinAugust1947,hewasthenaturalchoiceforprimeminister.

NehrusharedoneotherthingwithGandhi—thedesire,andability,tosetdownhisideasontheprintedpage.Hefoundedandforatimeeditedadailynewspaper,theNationalHerald,andwroteoftenforotherIndianandforeignperiodicals.Healsopublishedthreemajorbooks:GlimpsesofWorldHistory(1934),AnAutobiography(1936)andTheDiscoveryofIndia(1946).Thesebooksareallextremelywellwritten.Theyhaveallbeencontinuouslyinprintsincetheirfirstpublication.

Nehruthewriterisknownchieflythroughhisthreebooks.Notably,allwerepublishedbeforeIndianindependence.Theyarethusfarlesspertinenttohisstatecraftthanhiswritingsandspeechesafter1947.These,however,arelittleknown.Theylieinvolumesandanthologiesassembledbydiversehandsandpublishedundertheimprimaturofgovernmentdepartmentsandtruststhatdonotknowhowtoreachtheirbookstoawideraudience.(Bycontrast,Glimpses,AutobiographyandDiscoverywerepublishedbycannyandaggressivecommercialpressesinIndiaandabroad—theyarecurrentlyavailableunderthePenguinClassicsimprint.)

OftheseobscurewritingsofNehru,themostimportantarehisLetterstoChiefMinisters.SoonafterIndependence,heinauguratedthepracticeofwritingeveryfortnighttothoseinchargeofrunningstategovernments.TheseriesrancontinuouslyfromOctober1947toDecember1963.Inthe1980stheseletterswerepublishedinfivefatvolumes(eachexceeding500pages)—thesearelongoutofprint,andnoteasilyavailableinlibrariesoutsideDelhi(myownsetwasassembled,onebyone,fromvarioussecond-handbookdealers).

ThattheseLetterstoChiefMinistersaresolittleknownisashame.Theycoveranastonishingrangeofsubjects.Economicdevelopment,linguisticandreligiouspolitics,theethicsofgovernance,theColdWar,thepassingofliterarygiants—Nehruwritesaboutallthese,andmore,inatonethatisalternatelyreflectiveandexhortative.ThelettersrepresentNehru’sattempttomakesenseofsixteentumultuousyearsinthehistoryofIndia,andtheworld.Theyarecontemporaryhistoryatitsbest.And,astheexcerptsbelowshow,theycontinuetospeaktoustoday.

Asidefromtheseletters,IhavealsodrawnuponNehru’sspeeches,whichweremorecarefullystructuredandperhapslessevocative.Butthesetoodealtwithmattersoffundamentalimportancetothenationthat,underNehru’sdirection,wasbeingmade.

JawaharlalNehrudiedinNewDelhion27May1964.

TheTreatmentofMinoritiesIntheaftermathofPartition,Nehruwasdeeplyconcernedwiththestateand

placeofMuslimsinindependentIndia.ThecreationofPakistanasahomelandforMuslims,andthesubsequentflightofHindusandSikhsfromthatcountry,hadledtoariseofintoleranceamongcertainsectionsoftheHindus.Nehru,however,insistedthatMuslimsbetreatedasequalcitizensinasecularstateandthattheybemadetofeelsafeandsecurebytheadministrationoftheprovincestheylivedin.Theexcerptsonthissubjectthatfollowareallfromtheprimeminister’sfortnightlyletterstochiefministers.

Fromaletterdated15October1947.1Iknowthereisacertainamountoffeelinginthecountry…thattheCentral

GovernmenthassomehoworotherbeenweakandfollowingapolicyofappeasementtowardsMuslims.This,ofcourse,iscompletenonsense.Thereisnoquestionofweaknessorappeasement.WehaveaMuslimminoritywhoaresolargeinnumbersthattheycannot,eveniftheywantto,goanywhereelse.TheyhavegottoliveinIndia.Thatisabasicfactaboutwhichtherecanbenoargument.WhatevertheprovocationfromPakistanandwhatevertheindignitiesandhorrorsinflictedonnon-Muslimsthere,wehavegottodealwiththisminorityinacivilizedmanner.WemustgivethemsecurityandtherightsofcitizensinademocraticState.Ifwefailtodoso,weshallhaveafesteringsorewhichwilleventuallypoisonthewholebodypoliticandprobablydestroyit.Moreover,wearenowonaseveretrialintheinternationalforum.IhaveitontheauthorityofourdelegatestotheU[nited]N[ations]O[rganization]thatthefriendlinesstowardsIndiawhichexistedbeforetherecenttragedy[i.e.,Partition]haschangedandwearelookeduponwithdistrustandalmostwithacertaindegreeofcontempt.Wecannotaffordtoignorethisfeeling.Wearedependentformanythingsoninternationalgoodwill—increasinglysosincepartition.Andpureself-interest,apartfrommoralconsiderations,demandsthatworldopinionshouldbeonoursideinthismatteroftreatmentofminorities.

Iwouldaskyou,therefore,asamatterofgreatimportance,totakestepstoputacrosstothepublicthetruebasisofourpolicy.HowexactlyyoushoulddosoisamatterwhichImustleavetoyourjudgment;itmustdependonlocalfactors.

TheotherimportantquestiontowhichIwoulddrawyourattentionistheparamountimportanceofpreservingthepublicservicesfromthevirusofcommunalpolitics.ThereisagreatdealofevidencethattheservicesinPakistanhavegotoutofhandandarenotamenabletothecontroloftheirgovernment.

YouwillhavenoticedthatMr.Jinnah2himselfreferred,inarecentaddressinKarachi,totheindisciplinethathassetinintheservices.ThisisalreadyaseriousheadacheforPakistan,andwillprobablybemoreseriousinfuture.Fortunatelyforus,takinganoverallpicture…wehavebeenable,generallyspeaking,topreservetheintegrityoftheservicesagainstthecommunalvirus.ButtherehavebeenlapsesinEastPunjabspeciallyinthepolice;andunlesswearevigilantthediseasemayspread.Wewouldthenbefacedwithasituationoftheutmostgravity,viz.,ofhavingagovernmentinofficewhichcouldnotgetitsdecreesexecutedbyitsownservants;thesortofthingthatishappeningsofrequentlyintheSouthAmericanRepublics.Iwouldaskyou,therefore,toallownolaxityintheloyalexecutionofgovernment’spolicybyitsservants,particularlyinthematterofjustandfairtreatmenttominorities.Ifwecondonelapsesinthisrespect,weshallbestoringupserioustroubleforthecountryinthefuture.

Fromaletterdated7December1947.3ReportshavereachedmeofbigdemonstrationsorganizedbytheR[ashtriya

S[wayamsevak]S[angh]insomeprovinces.Oftenthesedemonstrationshavebeenheldinspiteofprohibitoryorders…Someprovincialauthoritieshavetakennoactioninthismatterandapparentlyacceptedthisdefianceoforders.Idonotwishtointerferewithyourdiscretioninthismatter.ButIwouldliketodrawyourattentiontothefactthatthisacquiescenceindefianceislikelytohavegraveconsequences.

WehaveagreatdealofevidencetoshowthattheR.S.S.isanorganizationwhichisinthenatureofaprivatearmyandwhichisdefinitelyproceedingonthestrictestNazilines,evenfollowingthetechniqueoforganization.Itisnotourdesiretointerferewithcivilliberties.Buttraininginarmsoflargenumbersofpersonswiththeobviousintentionofusingthemisnotsomethingthatcanbeencouraged.ThefactthattheR.S.S.isdefinitelyanddeliberatelyagainstthepresentcentralandprovincialgovernmentsneednotbeconsideredenoughforanyactiontobetakenagainstthemandanylegitimatepropagandamightcertainlybeallowed.Buttheiractivitymoreandmoregoesbeyondtheselimitsanditisdesirableforprovincialgovernmentstokeepawatchfuleyeandtotakesuchactionastheymaydeemnecessary…

IhavesomeknowledgeofthewaytheNazimovementdevelopedinGermany.Itattractedbyitssuperficialtrappingsandstrictdisciplineconsiderablenumbersoflowermiddleclassyoungmenandwomenwhoarenormallynottoointelligentandforwhomlifeappearedtoofferlittletoattract

them.AndsotheydriftedtowardstheNazipartybecauseitspolicyandprogramme,suchastheywere,weresimple,negativeanddidnotrequireanactiveeffortofthemind.TheNazipartybroughtGermanytoruinandIhavelittledoubtthatifthesetendenciesareallowedtospreadandincreaseinIndia,theywoulddoenormousinjurytoIndia.NodoubtIndiawouldsurvive.Butshewouldbegrievouslywoundedandwouldtakealongtimetorecover.

Fromaletterdated17January1948.4SinceIlastwrotetoyou,everythingthathashappenedhasbeencompletely

overshadowedbyGandhiji’sfast.5…ThelastprolongedfastwhichGandhijiundertookwasin1943whenhewasaprisoner.Thatfastwasforapurposewhichthemaninthestreetunderstoodandwhollysympathisedwith.HisrecentfastinCalcuttawasalsoforaneasilyunderstoodpurposewhichhadthesupportoftheoverwhelmingbulkofthepeople.Thefastwhichhehasnowundertakenislesseasyforthegeneralpublictounderstand;andinfacttherearesectionsofthem,moreparticularlyamongtherefugees,whodonotsympathisewithitandareinasenseantagonistictoit.Thereinliesitssignificanceandsupremecourage.

Wearefaced,particularlyinEastPunjabandDelhi,withthepsychologicalproblemcreatedbytheeventsofthelastfewmonths.Thesehavecreatedinthemindsofpeople,notmerelyamongtherefugeesbutalsoamongothers,abitterness,asenseofdesperationandadesireforretaliation—inshort,aseriousspiritualmalaise.Thisiswhollyunderstandablebutnonethelessextremelydangerous.Wehaveallofusdoneourbesttocureitbuthavenotsucceededexceptonlytoalimitedextent.Thedifficultieshavebeenpartlyduetoourinabilityeffectivelytotackletheproblemofrehabilitation[ofrefugees]andpartlytothecontinuingevidenceofhostilityandbarbaricconducttowardstheminoritiesinPakistan.TheresulthasbeenthatsectionsoftheHinducommunityarenotintunewithanddonotunderstandGandhiji’sapproachtotheMuslimprobleminIndia.Theyresenthisapproachandthinkthatitissomehoworotherinimicaltotheirowninterests.AndyetanypersonwithvisioncanseethatGandhiji’sapproachisnotonlymorallycorrect,butisalsoessentiallypractical.Indeeditistheonlypossibleapproachifwethinkintermsofthenation’sgood,bothfromtheshortandlongdistancepointsofview.Anyotherapproachmeansperpetuatingconflictandpostponingallnotionsofnationalconsolidationandprogress.

Thisisnottheoccasiontoanalyse—noonecananalysethem—thecomplexofurgeswhichmusthavedrivenGandhijitotakethissupremestepbutquite

clearlyitsmainpurposeistomakethemajoritycommunityinIndiasearchitsheartandpurgeitselfofhatredandthedesiretoretaliate.Intheatmosphereinwhichithasbeenundertaken,itdisplaysadegreeofheroismofwhichonlyGandhijiiscapable.TheordealhasbeenmadeworseforhimbythetragiceventsthathaveoccurredinPakistaninthelastfewdays—themurderandwholesalelootinginKarachiandtherevoltingattackonanon-MuslimrefugeetraininGujratinWestPunjab.Buttheseincidents,inGandhiji’sconception,arenotmerelywhollyirrelevantbutonlyincreasetheurgencyofthestepthathehastaken.

Iamsureyouwillmobilizeallyourresourcestoemphasisetothepeopleofyourprovince,byeverypossiblemeans,themeaningandpurposeofthefastandthushelptocreateasituationinwhichGandhijimaybreakit.Iregardtheemergencycreatedbythefastasatleastasgraveasthediseasethathasgivenrisetoit;andifwedonotgoallouttomeetit,historywillnotforgiveus.

Fromaletterdated20September1953.6Iwanttosharewithyouacertainapprehensionthatisgrowingwithinme.I

feelthatinmanywaysthepositionrelatingtominoritygroupsinIndiaisdeteriorating.OurConstitutionisgoodandwedonotmakeanydistinctioninourrulesandregulationsorlaws.But,ineffect,changescreepinbecauseofadministrativepracticesorofficers.Oftenthesechangesarenotdeliberate,sometimestheyareso.

IntheServices,generallyspeaking,therepresentationoftheminoritycommunitiesislessening.Insomecases,itisverypoorindeed.Itistruethatsomeofthehighestofficesinthelandareoccupiedbymembersoftheseminoritycommunities.Theyoccupyhighplacesalsoinourforeignmissions.ButinlookingthroughCentralGovernmentfigures,aswellassomeothers,Iamdistressedtofindthatthepositionisverydisadvantageoustothem,chieflytotheMuslimsandsometimesothersalso.

InourDefenceServices,therearehardlyanyMuslimsleft.InthevastCentralSecretariatofDelhi,thereareveryfewMuslims.Probablythepositionissomewhatbetterintheprovinces,butnotmuchmoreso.Whatconcernsmemostisthatthereisnoeffortbeingmadetoimprovethissituation,whichislikelytogrowworseunlesschecked.

Itisallverywellforustosaythatweshallnotpayanyattentiontocommunalandlikeconsiderationsinappointments.Iamnoloverofcommunalismanditsworks.Indeed,IthinkitisthemostdangeroustendencyinIndiaandhastobecombatedonallfronts.But,atthesametime,wehaveto

realizethatinavastandmixedcountrylikeIndiawemustproduceasenseofbalanceandofassuranceofasquaredealandfutureprospectsinallpartsofthecountryandinallcommunitiesofIndia.Ifthetendencyistoupsetanybalanceortoemphasizeoneaspectatthecostofanother,theresultisalackofequilibriumanddissatisfactionandfrustrationamonglargegroups…

IhavereferredtoMuslimsabove,butthisappliestoChristiansandothersalso.UnfortunatelythereisafeelingofapprehensionamongalargenumberofourChristiancountrymenandcountrywomen,andmanyofthemfeeluncertainoftheirplaceinIndiainthefuture.WehavealwaystorememberIndiaasacompositecountry,compositeinmanyways,inreligion,incustoms,inlanguages,inwaysoflife,etc.Anattemptbythemajoritygrouptoimposeitselfonotherscanonlyleadtoinnerconflicts,whichareasbadasouterconflicts.ThebasicproblemforustodayinIndiaistobuildupaunitedIndiaintherealandinnersenseoftheword,thatis,apsychologicalintegrationofourpeople…

Thefeelingofnationalismisanenlargingandwideningexperiencefortheindividualorthenation.Moreespecially,whenacountryisunderforeigndomination,nationalismisastrengtheningandunifyingforce.But,astagearriveswhenitmightwellhaveanarrowinginfluence.Sometimes,asinEurope,itbecomesaggressiveandchauvinisticandwantstoimposeitselfonothercountriesandotherpeople.Everypeoplesufferfromthestrangedelusionthattheyaretheelectandbetterthanallothers.Whentheybecomestrongandpowerful,theytrytoimposethemselvesandtheirwaysonothers.Intheirattempttodoso,sometimeorother,theyoverreachthemselves,stumbleandfall.ThathasbeenthefateoftheintensenationalismofGermanyandJapan.

Butamoreinsidiousformofnationalismisthenarrownessofmindthatitdevelopswithinacountry,whenamajoritythinksitselfastheentirenationandinitsattempttoabsorbtheminorityactuallyseparatesthemevenmore.We,inIndia,havetobeparticularlycarefulofthisbecauseofourtraditionofcasteandseparatism.Wehaveatendencytofallintoseparategroupsandtoforgetthelargerunity.

Communalorganizationsaretheclearestexamplesofextremenarrownessofoutlook,struttingaboutintheguiseofnationalism.Inthenameofunity,theyseparateanddestroy.Insocialtermstheyrepresentreactionoftheworsttype.Wemaycondemnthesecommunalorganizations,buttherearemanyotherswhoarenotfreefromthisnarrowinfluence.Oddlyenough,theverylargenessofIndia,whichisaworldinitself,tendstomakethepeoplelivinginitcomplacent,ratherignorantoftherestoftheworld,andnarrow-minded.Wehavetocontend

againsttheseforces…

OnPlanningandEconomicPolicyInrecentyears,JawaharlalNehruhascomeunderattackforpromotingthe

beliefthatthestateshouldoccupythe‘commandingheights’oftheeconomy.Thesepoliciesaresaidtohavestifledprivateenterprise.ItistruethatNehruhadanaestheticaversiontobigbusiness,andperhapstoorosyapictureoftheallegedsuccessesofcentralizedplanninginthesocialistcountries.Thatsaid,thecriticismsaresomewhatanachronistic.AtthetimeofIndependence,eventheprivatesectorinIndiahadcalledformassivestateinvestmentintheeconomy.Inanycase,Nehru’seconomicphilosophywasmorecomplexthanissometimessupposed—forinstance,hesawplanningasnecessarynotmerelytoaugmentproductivity,butalsotoovercomethesectarianaffiliationsofcaste,languageandreligion.Thetwoexcerptsonthissubjectthatfollowarefromhisletterstochiefministers.

Fromaletterdated22December1952:7…ThisrelativelyshortsessionofParliamentdidsubstantialworkandmany

importantproblemswerediscussed.ThemostimportantdiscussionwasthatontheFiveYearPlan.ByapprovingofitinParliament,wehavegiventhefinalsealtothisPlanandnowthetimecomestoimplementit.Itistruethatimplementationhasbeengoingonallthetimeandnearlytwoyearsoutofthefiveareover.Nevertheless,wehavetomakeanewapproachnow,amorepositive,concentratedandintegratedone.Moreparticularly,wehavetorelyonpublicco-operation.

OntheStateGovernmentsliesaspecialresponsibilityinthisrespectandwehavenointervaltorestbeforewestartonthenextstageofthejourney.Thereisnorestingplaceforanyofuswhoareinpositionsofresponsibility,fortheworldandIndiamoveonandifwedelay,wearelikelytobeleftbehind.ThefirstthingtobedoneistogivethewidestpublicitytothisPlanortoitsessentialfeaturesanditsbasicoutlook.Thereismaterialenoughintheprintedsummarythatthey[thePlanningCommission]haveproducedandwemustrememberthatthebestapproachstillinIndiaisthepersonalone,throughpublicmeetingorgroupdiscussion.NowthatParliamentandmostofourStateAssembliesarenotinsession,membersshouldgototheirconstituenciesandmakeanintensivedriveonthesubjectoftheFiveYearPlan.Unfortunatelyandratherunreasonably,mostoftheOppositiongroupshavecriticizedorevencondemnedthePlan.Theyhaveoftendonesoforentirelycontradictoryreasons,thesamepersoncriticizingitfornotgoingfarenoughandforgoingtoofar,havingregardtoourresources.TheresponsibilityofthosewhobelieveinthePlanisthusallthegreater.

PeopleintheStatesandindistrictswillnaturallybeinterestedchieflyintheirownpartofthisPlanandwhattheycando.Thispartshouldbeexplained,buttheapproachshouldalwaysbeanall-Indiaapproachandanattemptshouldbemadetoexplainthisgreatconceptionofplanningforthewholecountry.BehindthePlanliestheconceptionofIndia’sunityandofamightyco-operativeeffortofallthepeopleofIndia.ThatshouldalwaysbestressedandtheinterrelationofonepartofIndiawithanotherpointedout.Ifweadoptthisapproach,weshallbedealingwiththemajordiseaseorweaknessofIndia,i.e.,thefissiparoustendenciesandparochialoutlookthatoftenconfrontusinthiscountry.ThemorewethinkofthisbalancedpictureofthewholeofIndiaandofitsmany-sidedactivities,whicharesointerrelatedwithoneanother,thelesswearelikelytogoastrayinthecrookedpathsofprovincialism,communalism,casteismandallotherdisruptiveanddisintegratingtendencies.Thatisahardtask,foritmeanschangingthementalityoflargenumbersofpeople.ItisataskwhichwillnotbecompletedwithinthesethreeremainingyearsofthePlan,butwillhavetobecontinuedtillwerootoutandputanendtothesetendencies…

ThePlaniscomprehensiveandthereliesatremendousdealofthoughtanddiscussionbehindit.Itis,onthewhole,acautiousPlan,evenamoderateone,andyetitisfar-reachingand,ifwesowillit,wecantakeitasfaraswelike.Itisachallengetoallofusandinthemeasurethatwemeetthatchallenge,webuildthenewIndiaandjustifyourwork.Wehave,therefore,totakethisupinallearnestnessandtrytoinfuseinourworksomethingofthespiritofamissionaryforacause.Wehavetorememberalwaysthatitisnotmerelythegovernmentalmachinerythatcountsinthis,butevenmoresotheenthusiasmandco-operationofthepeople.Ourpeoplemusthavethesensationofpartnershipinamightyenterprise,ofbeingfellow-travellerstowardsthenextgoalthattheyandwehavesetbeforeus.ThePlanmaybe,andhastobe,basedonthecalculationsofeconomists,statisticiansandthelike,butfiguresandstatistics,veryimportantastheyare,donotgivelifetothescheme.Thatbreathoflifecomesinotherways,anditisforusnowtomakethisPlan,whichisenshrinedincoldprint,somethingliving,vitalanddynamic,whichcapturestheimaginationofourpeople.

Fromaletterdated3March1953.8…Moreandmoreitisbeingrealizedinotherpartsoftheworldthatwein

Indiaareengagedinamightyadventure.Tobuildupthiscountryandtosolvetheproblemsofpovertyandunemploymentinademocraticwayonthisscaleissomethingthathasnotbeendoneanywhere.Themagnitudeofthetaskandthe

difficultieswehavetoovercomemaysometimesoppressus,but,atthesametime,theyshouldfilluswiththeenthusiasmthatgreatundertakingsbringwiththem.Probablythenextfivetotenyearsarethecriticalyearsforus.Ifwecarryonduringthisperiodasastable,progressivecountry,makinggoodandadvancing,thenwehavesucceededandwehavelittletofearinthefuture.Evenifthepaceisnotquitesofastaswewouldlikeittobe,themerefactofcontinuousprogressonastablebasiswouldbeatriumphforlarge-scaledemocraticworking.Thereisdangerinourbecomingstaticandslow-moving;thereisequallydangerintryingtogofasterthancircumstancesorourresourcespermitustodo.Themiddlecourse,thegoldenmeanisalwaysdifficult.

WehavesetbeforeustheidealofthewelfareState…ThewelfareStatemeanswelfareforallandnotforasectionofthecommunityonly.ItmeansproductiveandgainfulemploymentforallandtheremovalofthegravedisparitiesinincomesandmethodsoflivingthatexistinIndiatoday.Wegetusedtothese,buteveryforeignerwhocomeshereisstruckevennowbythesegreatdisparities.Howarewetogetridofthem?Someofourfriendssuggest,asifthatwassomemagicremedy,nationalizationallroundorareductionofhighersalaries,etc.Exceptforafew,salariesarenothighinIndianow.Wherepossible,weshouldtrytoreducethem.Butmerelytodistributepovertydoesnotmeanprogress.Inordertogoahead,wehavetotrytomaintainsomestandardssomewhere.Thatdoesnotmeanaffluenceforsomeandpovertyfortherest,stilllessdoesitmeanvulgardisplaywhichunfortunatelyisstillrathercommonwithafewofourpeople.Asfornationalization,therealtestishowfarthisaddstoourproductivecapacityaswellastothesmootherworkingofourPlan.Merenationalizationdoesnotaddtothatproductivecapacitymuch,ifatall.Itmightindeedmeanalesseningofit.Atthemostitmeansatransferofownershipwiththesameproductionandtheavailableresourcesbeingutilizedforcompensation.ItisfarbettertouseourresourcesfornewStateenterprises,leavingtheoldonestocarryonastheyare,subjecttosomekindofcontrolbytheState.Thusproductiongrowsandthepublicsectorgrowstillitbecomesthedominantsector.

TheproblemsoftodayinIndiaorelsewherecannotbesolvedbysomepurelyacademicapproachorbyadogmaticcreedofyesterday.Mostofus,Isuppose,believeinasocialisticapproachandinsocialisticideals.Butwhenthesearethoughtofintermsofsomerigidformulae,developedinEuropeinthenineteenthcentury,theyneednotnecessarilyapplytoIndiainthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.Eveneconomicscienceisnotsostaticandconditionshave

changedgreatly.Thusfarweseeafull-bloodedsocialism,ifthatistherightterm,workingin

Communistcountries,togetherwithanaccompanimentofauthoritariancontrolandanabsenceofthedemocraticapproach.Thatis,practicallyeverythingisState-controlledandthatdevelopsbureaucracyinanextrememeasure,apartfromsuppressingindividualfreedom.Certaineconomicresultsareundoubtedlyobtainedthatway,butthepricepaidisheavy.Inothercountrieswhichaimatsocialism,thoughofadifferentvariety,inevitably,thereissomekindofamixedeconomy,thoughthequalityofthemixturemayvary.Indeed,Iaminclinedtothinkthatinademocraticsociety,aso-calledmixedeconomyisinevitable,thoughthepublicsectormaygrowandbethedominantpartner.Theprivatesectorhoweverwillcontinuetohaveanimportantplace,butthemajorindustrieswouldtendtobeinthepublicsector.Wehavelaiddownthatinaplannedeconomytheprivatesectorhastoconformtothenationalplanandthereforehastobecontrolledtosomeextent.Thatappearstobeobviousifwearetohaveanyplanning.Butthisleadstoadifficulty.Theprivatesectorhasadifferentoutlookandapproachandcannoteasilyfunctionifthereistoomuchcontrol.Itthusceasestohavetheadvantagesattachingtothepublicsectoraswellastotheprivatesector.Theotherdaysomeindustrialistscametoseemeandsaidthattheywouldbeveryhappytoco-operatefullywiththeFiveYearPlan.Butitwasbecomingincreasinglydifficultforthemtofunctioneffectivelywithsomanyrestrictionsandcontrols.Itwasbettertheysaid,thatanindustrywastakenoverbythepublicsectorcompletelythanleftinahamstrungconditionintheprivatesector.Thesepeopleexaggeratedsomewhat,butIthinktherewassometruthinwhattheysaid.Itisbettertotakeoveranindustryinthepublicsectorandorganizeitsuchastoallowtheindustrieslefttotheprivatesectorsomefreedomofmovement,subjectofcoursetosomebasicconsiderations.Iammentioningthesematterstoyousothatwemightgivethoughttothem.

Asforourresources,itisclearthatwehavetodependessentiallyonourcountryandourownpeople.Wecanwelcomehelpfromabroad,butitcannottakeusfar.Ihaveafeelingthatwehaveenoughinthiscountryprovidedwecanreachit.Thedifficultyisthatitisspreadoutandnoteasilyaccessible.Wehave,ofcourse,thesmallsavingsschemeandthisisimportantandshouldbeencouraged.Butperhapssomeadditionalapproachwouldbringinlargerresourcesatourdisposal.Ifwehadalargenumberofruralbanks,theywouldnotonlyserveasagenciesforgivingcredittothefarmer,andthusreplacingtheoldbania[villagemoneylender],buttheywouldalsoattractsmallpoolsof

moneywhich,intheaggregate,mayamounttoaverybigsum…

AsiaReduxIntheseventeenyearsthathewasprimeminister,JawaharlalNehruserved

simultaneouslyasIndia’sforeignminister.InMarch1947,withIndia’sindependenceimminent,NehrutooktheleadinorganizingaconferenceofAsiancountriesthatwerefreeorstillunderthecolonialyoke.Twenty-eightcountriessentdelegatestoparticipateinthemeeting,whichwasheldintheshadowofthePuranaQila(OldFort)inDelhi.Inhisinauguraladdress,excerptedbelow,Nehruexploredtheideaofapan-AsianismwhichwouldnotturnitsbackontheWest.ThisformulationowedagreatdealtotheworkofRabindranathTagore,athinkerNehrugreatlyadmired.9

FRIENDSANDFELLOWASIANS!Whathasbroughtyou,themenandwomenofAsia,here?WhyhaveyoucomefromvariouscountriesofthismothercontinentofoursandgatheredtogetherinthisancientcityofDelhi?Someofus,greatlydaring,sentyouinvitationsforthisConferenceandyougaveawarmwelcometothatinvitation.Andyetitwasnotmerelythecallfromus,butsomedeeperurgethatbroughtyouhere.

Westandattheendofaneraandonthethresholdofanewperiodofhistory.Standingonthiswatershedwhichdividestwoepochsofhumanhistoryandendeavour,wecanlookbackonourlongpastandlookforwardtothefuturethatistakingshapebeforeoureyes.Asia,afteralongperiodofquiescence,hassuddenlybecomeimportantagaininworldaffairs.Ifweviewthemillenniaofhistory,thiscontinentofAsia,withwhichEgypthasbeensointimatelyconnectedinculturalfellowship,hasplayedamightyroleintheevolutionofhumanity.Itwasherethatcivilizationbeganandmanstartedonhisunendingadventureoflife.Herethemindofmansearchedunceasinglyfortruthandthespiritofmanshoneoutlikeabeaconwhichlightedupthewholeworld.

ThisdynamicAsiafromwhichgreatstreamsofcultureflowedinalldirectionsgraduallybecamestaticandunchanging.Otherpeoplesandothercontinentscametotheforeandwiththeirnewdynamismspreadoutandtookpossessionofgreatpartsoftheworld.ThismightycontinentbecamejustafieldfortherivalimperialismsofEurope,andEuropebecamethecentreofhistoryandprogressinhumanaffairs.

AchangeiscomingoverthescenenowandAsiaisagainfindingherself.WeliveinanageoftremendoustransitionandalreadythenextstagetakesshapewhenAsiaassumesherrightfulplacewiththeothercontinents.

ItisatthisgreatmomentthatwemeethereanditistheprideandprivilegeofthepeopleofIndiatowelcometheirfellowAsiansfromothercountries,to

conferwiththemaboutthepresentandthefuture,andlaythefoundationofourmutualprogress,well-beingandfriendship…

Wewelcomeyou,delegatesandrepresentativesfromChina,thatgreatcountrytowhichAsiaowessomuchandfromwhichsomuchisexpected;fromEgyptandtheArabcountriesofWestAsia,inheritorsofaproudculturewhichspreadfarandwideandinfluencedIndiagreatly;fromIranwhosecontactswithIndiagobacktothedawnofhistory;fromIndonesiaandIndo-ChinawhosehistoryisintertwinedwithIndia’sculture,andwhererecentlythebattleoffreedomhascontinued,aremindertousthatfreedommustbewonandcannotcomeasagift;fromTurkeythathasbeenrejuvenatedbythegeniusofagreatleader;fromKoreaandMongolia,Siam,MalayaandthePhilippines;fromtheSovietRepublicsofAsiawhichhaveadvancedsorapidlyinourgenerationandwhichhavesomanylessonstoteachus;andfromourneighboursAfghanistan,Tibet,Nepal,Bhutan,BurmaandCeylontowhomwelookespeciallyforco-operationandcloseandfriendlyintercourse…WealsowelcomeobserversfromAustraliaandNewZealand,becausewehavemanyproblemsincommon,especiallyinthePacificandinthesouth-eastregionofAsia,andwehavetoco-operatetogethertofindsolutions.

Aswemeetheretoday,thelongpastofAsiarisesupbeforeus,thetroublesofrecentyearsfadeaway,andathousandmemoriesrevive.ButIshallnotspeaktoyouofthesepastageswiththeirgloriesandtriumphsandfailures,norofmorerecenttimeswhichhaveoppressedussomuchandwhichstillpursueusinsomemeasure.DuringthepasttwohundredyearswehaveseenthegrowthofWesternimperialismsandofthereductionoflargepartsofAsiatocolonialorsemi-colonialstatus.Muchhashappenedduringtheseyears,butperhapsoneofthenotableconsequencesoftheEuropeandominationofAsiahasbeentheisolationofthecountriesofAsiafromoneanother.Indiaalwayshadcontactsandintercoursewithherneighbourcountriesinthenorth-west,thenorth-east,theeastandthesouth-east.WiththecomingofBritishruleinIndiathesecontactswerebrokenoffandIndiawasalmostcompletelyisolatedfromtherestofAsia.TheoldlandroutesalmostceasedtofunctionandourchiefwindowtotheouterworldlookedoutonthesearoutewhichledtoEngland.AsimilarprocessaffectedothercountriesofAsiaalso.TheireconomywasboundupwithsomeEuropeanimperialismorother;evenculturallytheylookedtowardsEuropeandnottotheirownfriendsandneighboursfromwhomtheyhadderivedsomuchinthepast.

Todaythisisolationisbreakingdownbecauseofmanyreasons,politicaland

other.Theoldimperialismsarefadingaway.Thelandrouteshaverevivedandairtravelsuddenlybringsusveryneartooneanother.ThisConferenceitselfissignificantasanexpressionofthatdeeperurgeofthemindandspiritofAsiawhichhaspersistedinspiteoftheisolationismwhichgrewupduringtheyearsofEuropeandomination.Asthatdominationgoes,thewallsthatsurroundedusfalldownandwelookatoneanotheragainandmeetasoldfriendslongparted.

InthisConferenceandinthisworktherearenoleadersandnofollowers.AllcountriesofAsiahavetomeettogetheronanequalbasisinacommontaskandendeavour.ItisfittingthatIndiashouldplayherpartinthisnewphaseofAsiandevelopment.ApartfromthefactthatIndiaherselfisemergingintofreedomandindependence,sheisthenaturalcentreandfocalpointofthemanyforcesatworkinAsia.Geographyisacompellingfactor,andgeographicallysheissosituatedastobethemeetingpointofWesternandNorthernandEasternandSouth-EastAsia.Becauseofthis,thehistoryofIndiaisalonghistoryofherrelationswiththeothercountriesofAsia.StreamsofculturehavecometoIndiafromtheWestandtheEastandbeenabsorbedinIndia,producingtherichandvariegatedculturewhichisIndiatoday.Atthesametime,streamsofculturehaveflowedfromIndiatodistantpartsofAsia.IfyouwouldknowIndia,youhavetogotoAfghanistanandWestAsia,toCentralAsia,toChinaandJapanandtothecountriesofSouth-EastAsia.ThereyouwillfindmagnificentevidenceofthevitalityofIndia’sculturewhichspreadoutandinfluencedvastnumbersofpeople.

TherecamethegreatculturalstreamfromIrantoIndiainremoteantiquity.AndthenbeganthatconstantintercoursebetweenIndiaandtheFarEast,notablyChina.InlateryearsSouth-EastAsiawitnessedanamazingefflorescenceofIndianartandculture.ThemightystreamwhichstartedfromArabiaanddevelopedasamixedIrano-ArabicculturepouredintoIndia.Allthesecametousandinfluencedus,andyetsogreatwasthepowerfulimpressofIndia’sownmindandculturethatitcouldacceptthemwithoutbeingitselfsweptawayoroverwhelmed.Nevertheless,weallchangedintheprocessandinIndiatodayallofusaremixedproductsofthesevariousinfluences.AnIndian,whereverhemaygoinAsia,feelsasenseofkinshipwiththelandhevisitsandthepeoplehemeets.

Iwishtospeaktoyounotofthepast,butratherofthepresent.Wemeetherenottodiscussourpasthistoryandcontacts,buttoforgelinksforthefuture.AndmayIsayherethatthisConference,andtheideaunderlyingit,isinnowayaggressiveoragainstanyothercontinentorcountry?Eversincenewsofthis

ConferencewentabroadsomepeopleinEuropeandAmericahavevieweditwithdoubt,imaginingthatthiswassomekindofapan-AsianmovementdirectedagainstEuropeorAmerica.Wehavenodesignsagainstanybody;oursisthegreatdesignofpromotingpeaceandprogressallovertheworld.FartoolonghaveweofAsiabeenpetitionersinWesterncourtsandchancelleries.Thatstorymustnowbelongtothepast.Weproposetostandonourownlegsandtoco-operatewithallotherswhoarepreparedtoco-operatewithus.Wedonotintendtobetheplaythingsofothers.

InthiscrisisinworldhistoryAsiawillnecessarilyplayavitalrole.ThecountriesofAsiacannolongerbeusedaspawnsbyothers;theyareboundtohavetheirownpoliciesinworldaffairs.EuropeandAmericahavecontributedverygreatlytohumanprogressandforthatwemustyieldthempraiseandhonour,andlearnfromthemthemanylessonstheyhavetoteach.ButtheWesthasalsodrivenusintowarsandconflictswithoutnumberandevennow,thedayafteraterriblewar,thereistalkoffurtherwarsintheatomicagethatisuponus.InthisatomicageAsiawillhavetofunctioneffectivelyinthemaintenanceofpeace.Indeed,therecanbenopeaceunlessAsiaplaysherpart.Thereistodayconflictinmanycountries,andallofusinAsiaarefullofourowntroubles.Nevertheless,thewholespiritandoutlookofAsiaarepeaceful,andtheemergenceofAsiainworldaffairswillbeapowerfulinfluenceforworldpeace.

Peacecancomeonlywhennationsarefreeandalsowhenhumanbeingseverywherehavefreedomandsecurityandopportunity.Peaceandfreedom,therefore,havetobeconsideredinboththeirpoliticalandeconomicaspects.ThecountriesofAsia,wemustremember,areverybackwardandthestandardsoflivingareappallinglylow.Theseeconomicproblemsdemandurgentsolutionorelsecrisisanddisastermayoverwhelmus.Wehave,therefore,tothinkintermsofthecommonmanandfashionourpolitical,socialandeconomicstructuresothattheburdensthathavecrushedhimmayberemoved,andhemayhavefullopportunityforgrowth.

WehavearrivedatastageinhumanaffairswhentheidealofOneWorldandsomekindofaWorldFederationseemtobeessential,thoughtherearemanydangersandobstaclesintheway.Weshouldworkforthatidealandnotforanygroupingwhichcomesinthewayofthislargerworldgroup.We,therefore,supporttheUnitedNationsstructurewhichispainfullyemergingfromitsinfancy.ButinordertohaveOneWorld,wemustalso,inAsia,thinkofthecountriesofAsiaco-operatingtogetherforthatlargerideal.

ThisConference,inasmallmeasure,representsthisbringingtogetherofthe

countriesofAsia.Whateveritmayachieve,themerefactofitstakingplaceisitselfofhistoricsignificance.Indeed,thisoccasionisuniqueinhistory,forneverbeforehassuchagatheringmettogetheratanyplace.SoeveninmeetingwehaveachievedmuchandIhavenodoubtthatoutofthismeetinggreaterthingswillcome.Whenthehistoryofourpresenttimesiswritten,thiseventmaywellstandoutasalandmarkwhichdividesthepastofAsiafromthefuture.Andbecauseweareparticipatinginthismakingofhistory,somethingofthegreatnessofhistoriceventscomestousall…

Weseeknonarrownationalism.Nationalismhasaplaceineachcountryandshouldbefostered,butitmustnotbeallowedtobecomeaggressiveandcomeinthewayofinternationaldevelopment.AsiastretchesherhandoutinfriendshiptoEuropeandAmericaaswellastooursufferingbrethreninAfrica.

WeofAsiahaveaspecialresponsibilitytothepeopleofAfrica.Wemusthelpthemtotheirrightfulplaceinthehumanfamily.Thefreedomthatweenvisageisnottobeconfinedtothisnationorthatortoaparticularpeople,butmustspreadoutoverthewholehumanrace.Thatuniversalhumanfreedomalsocannotbebasedonthesupremacyofanyparticularclass.Itmustbethefreedomofthecommonmaneverywhereandfullopportunitiesforhimtodevelop.

WethinktodayofthegreatarchitectsofAsianfreedom—SunYat-sen,ZaghlulPasha,theAtaturkKemalPashaandothers,whoselabourshavebornefruit.

WethinkalsoofthatgreatfigurewhoselaboursandwhoseinspirationhavebroughtIndiatothethresholdofherindependence—MahatmaGandhi.WemisshimatthisConferenceandIyethopethathemayvisitusbeforeourlaboursend.HeisengrossedintheserviceofthecommonmaninIndia,andeventhisConferencecouldnotdraghimawayfromit.10

AlloverAsiawearepassingthroughtrialsandtribulations.InIndiaalsoyouwillseeconflictandtrouble.Letusnotbedisheartenedbythis;thisisinevitableinanageofmightytransition.TherearepowerfulcreativeimpulsesandanewvitalityinallthepeoplesofAsia.Themassesareawakeandtheydemandtheirheritage.StrongwindsareblowingalloverAsia.Letusnotbeafraidofthem,butratherwelcomethem;for,onlywiththeirhelpcanwebuildthenewAsiaofourdreams.Letushavefaithinthesegreatnewforcesandthedreamwhichistakingshape.Letus,aboveall,havefaithinthehumanspiritwhichAsiahassymbolizedforthoselongagespast.

IndiaintheWorldInAugust1947IndiaachievedDominionstatuswithintheBritishEmpire;in

January1950itbecamearepublic,withJawaharlalNehruservingasbothprimeministerandforeignminister.TheexcerptthatfollowsisfromaspeechNehrumadeinParliamenton7December1950.Atthistime,hewasperhapsmoreopentotheUnitedStatesthantotheSovietUnion,inpartbecauseinMarch1948,theCommunistPartyofIndiahadmountedaninsurrectionagainstthestate.Thiswastochangeinlateryears,astheCommunistscameovergroundandmadetheirpeacewith‘bourgeois’democracyandtheAmericansthemselveschosetoallystronglywithPakistan.11

…IshouldliketheMembersofthisHousetoconsiderthelastfiveorsixyearsofdiplomatichistory.Inspiteofeveryeffort,theworldhasrepeatedlyfailedtoachieveharmony.Theastonishingthingisthatfailuredoesnotteachusalessonandwemakethesamemistakesoveragain.Thisisreallyextraordinary.Ishouldhavethoughtthatthelessonsofthetwogreatworldwarswereobviousenoughtoanybodywillingtogivethoughttoit.

Itmaybethatthecrisistodayisduetothefaultofanationoragroupofnations.ItmaybeRussia’sfaultorthefaultofthecommunistgroupofnations.Whatdowedowhenagroupofnationsfunctionsinanobjectionableway?

PeopletalkagreatdealaboutcommunismandasanhonourableMemberpointedout,someMembersthoughtthatwehadturnedthisdiscussionintoananti-communistconference.Communismiscertainlyaninterestingsubjectandonethatisworthyofdiscussionbutitdoesnothavemuchbearingontheissue.Iamsurethatthosewhothinkonlyintermsofcommunismandanti-communismaregoinghopelesslyastrayandwillneverreachanygoal.Thedifficultyisthatmuchofthethinking—notsomuchhereaselsewhere—revolvesroundthesewords.

TheHouseknowsverywellwhatthepolicyoftheGovernmentofIndiahasbeeninregardtocommunistactivitiesinthiscountry.Ithasnotbeenatenderpolicyanditisnotgoingtobeatenderpolicy.Wemustlookattheworldasitisandrecognizethatmightyforcesareatworkandmillionsofpeoplehavecomeundertheirinfluence.Wemusttrytounderstandthemandtryasfaraswecantodivertthemintorightchannelsandpreventthemfromgoingintowrongones.Thatisourproblem.SomehonourableMembersseemtothinkthatIshouldissueanultimatumtoChina,thatIshouldwarnthemnottodothisorthatorthatIshouldsendthemalettersayingthatitisfoolishtofollowthedoctrineofcommunism.IdonotseehowitisgoingtohelpanybodyifIactinthisway.Remember,theworldhasmanycountries.Someofthemarecalledgreatpowersbyvirtueoftheirinfluence.Theyarenationswithgreatresourcesbehindthem

andinevitablyplayasignificantpartintheworld’shistorytoday.TheUnitedStatesofAmericaisagreatdemocraticpower.TheUnited

KingdomandtheU.S.S.R.,eventhoughtheirpoliciesdiffer,greatlyinfluencetheworld’shistoryandnoonecandenyChinathestatusofagreatpowertoday.Chinaisinapositiontoshapeherowndestinyandthatisagreatthing.ItistruethatsheiscontrolledbycommunistsasRussiais.ItwouldbeinterestingtoknowwhetherornothertypeofcommunismisthesameasRussia’s,howshewilldevelopandhowclosetheassociationbetweenChinaandRussiawillbe.

ThepointatissueisthatChinaisagreatnationwhichcannotbeignored,nomatterwhatresolutionyoumaypass.NorcanyouignoretheUnitedStatesofAmerica.SomepeopletalkofAmericanimperialismandAmericandollarsinahostilefashion.YoucannotcondemnorignorethewholenationjustbecauseyoudonotapproveofsomeaspectofthemyriadshapesofAmericanlife.Wehavetotakefactsastheyare.Themostrelevantfactatthemomentisthattherearesomegreatnationsintheworldwithconcentratedpowerintheirhandsthatinfluencealltheothernations.Thatbeingso,thereisaconflictbetweenthesepowerfulnations—anideologicalconflictaswellasapoliticalconflict.Eitherthesenationswillhaveawarandtrytosuppressordefeatoneanotheroronegroupwilltriumphovertheother…

Theonlywayseemstobetheavoidanceofwar.Allnationsmustbefreetodevelopastheylikewithoutanyexternalinterference.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheywillnotinfluenceoneanotherinavarietyofways.Itispossiblethattheexistingcontradictionsmaygraduallybesolvedinthatmanner.Ontheotherhand,theymaynot.Iamnotaprophet;Idonotknow.Inanycase,thewayofwardoesnotsolvethem.Theconcentrationofpowerinthehandsofthesegreatnationsandthefactthatthepowerisnottoounevenlymatched,meansaverydisastrouswar.Italsomeansnoultimatevictory.Theremaybeamilitaryvictory;buttherewillbenorealvictory,ifbyvictoryyoumeantheachievementofcertainobjectives.

Idoubtif,aftertheterribledisasterofaworldwar,democracycansurvive.Thedemocraticnationsmaywinthewar—mindyou,Ihavelittledoubtthattheywill—butIdoubtifafterthedisasterofaworldwardemocracycansurviveatall.Ievendoubtwhetheranyhighstandardsoflivingcansurvive.Ihavenodoubtthatthegreatnationswishtoavoidwarbecausetheyareawareofitsconsequences.NoonecanassertthatAmericawantswar.Icannotimagineanythingmoreunlikely.IfAmericawantedwar,whocouldhavestoppedher?Sheobviouslydoesnot.Shewantstoavoidwarbecausesheisawareofthegreat

disastersaworldwarwillcause.Englandalsowantstoavoidwar.Inspiteofthis,forcesareimpellingthesenationsinadirectionwhichmayleadtowar.ThebiggesttasktodayistopreventthatandthatisthetaskforEngland,forAmerica,forusandforallothercountries…

ThisnextexcerptisfromaletterfromNehrutochiefministers,dated16June1952.12

…Itisimportantthatweshouldbeclearaboutourforeignpolicy.Somepeopleimaginedthattherewassomeshiftofitorsomevariation.Asamatteroffact,wehaveadheredtoourpolicyandweintendtocontinuetodoso.People,judgingfromsomeoddincident,cometowrongconclusions.IfwetakeaidfromtheUnitedStatesofAmericaorareotherwisefriendlytothem,wearesaidtoinclinetowardsthatparticulargroupofnationsinthecoldwarthatisgoingon.IfwesendaculturalmissiontoChinaandexpressourappreciationofsomeoftheactivitiesofthenewregimeinChina,wearesaidtohaveinclinedtowardstheothergroupofnations.Asamatteroffact,wetryourbest,withinthelimitsofourpolicy,tobefriendlyandco-operativewiththecountriesofboththesegroups.Wehaveintimaterelations—political,culturalandeconomic—withtheUnitedKingdom.Thatisnotalegacyfromthepastbutistoourinteresttoday.OurwholepoliticalstructureislargelyfashionedafterthatoftheUnitedKingdom.Weusetheirlanguageextensively.Itisnatural,therefore,thatthoseconnectionsshouldcontinue.ThatdoesnotmeanintheslightestthatwesubordinateourselvestotheU.K.inanyway.EventheCommonwealthrelationshipdoesnotlessenintheslightestourcompleteindependenceofpolicyoraction,ascanbeseenbyanybodywhoisacquaintedwithcurrentaffairs…

WiththeUnitedStatesofAmerica,ourassociationsarealsofairlyclose,thoughnotascloseasthosewiththeU.K.Wetradewiththem.Wehavereceivedhelpfromthemandwehavemanystudentsthere.AsIhavepointedoutpreviously,thereisalwaysacertainriskinvolvedinreceivingsubstantialhelpfromanyonecountry.Thereforewehavetobecareful.Itwouldbefollynottoreceivethehelpwesobadlyneed,becausewecannotrelyuponourselves.

WiththeU.S.S.R.,ourcontactsarefriendlybutnotclose,thatis,wehavenotgotmuchbusinessorotherdealings.Thatisnotbecauseweavoidsuchdealings,butbecause,inthenatureofthings,itismoredifficultforustodealwiththem.Whereanopportunityoffers,wetakeit.WithChina,partlythesameconsiderationsapply.ButIthinkitistruethatavarietyofcircumstancespullIndiaandChinatowardseachother,inspiteofdifferencesofformsofgovernment.Thisisthelongpullofgeographyandhistoryand,ifImayadd,of

thefuture.Idonotseewhyweshouldbealarmedatthis.Herealsoweshouldbecareful.Allthismeansthatweshouldlookatcurrenthistoryinsomeperspectiveofboththepastandthefuture.Thereisfartoomuchentanglementwiththepresentwithallitspassionsandconflictsformostcountriestodevelopthisperspective.Weclaimnospecialvirtueforourselves.But,situatedasweare,weareperhapsinabetterpositiontolookatthingsatlongrangeandfashionourpolicyaccordingly…

OnthereturnofourculturalmissiontoChina,DelhiheardagreatdealaboutthenewChinafromthemembersofthismission.Onthewhole,whatweheardwashighlyappreciativeofChina,thoughtherewerecriticismsalso.InregardtoonemattertherewascompleteagreementandthatwasthenewspiritandenthusiasmoftheChinesepeople.Foranypeoplethatisagreatasset.FortheChinesewiththeiramazingcapacityforhardworkandco-operativeendeavour,thatmeanssomethingevenmore.AlthoughwehaveheardagreatdealaboutrecentdevelopmentsinChina,ourknowledgestillremainsvagueandthepictureisnotclear.Itwouldbehelpfulifweknewmoreaboutthebackgroundofeventsthere,oftheireconomy,theirengineeringsuccess,theireducation,etc.,becausewemightbeabletolearnsomethingfromallthis.Chinastartedaperiodofcivilwarsandinternalconflictsfortyyearsago.Duringtheseyears,shehadnorealpeaceandshehadmajorwars.Becauseofthisobviouslynodevelopmentcouldtakeplaceandlargepartsofthecountryweredevastated.WhenthenewGovernmentcameintopower,theyhadtodealwiththisaccumulatedruinoffortyyearsofconflictandhadtostartalmostfromscratch.OnlyinManchuriatherewasahighlyindustrializedarea,builtupbytheJapanese.Buteventherepartoftheequipmenthadbeenremovedafterthelastwar,mostlybytheRussians.ThusthenewregimeinChinastartedwitheverydisadvantageexceptthatoffaithandenthusiasm.ImmediatelyaftertherewasfrictionwithothercountriesandtheywereunabletogetanykindofhelpfromanyoutsidecountryexceptingtheU.S.S.R.Whattheyhavedoneinthesedifficultconditionsis,therefore,ofgreatinteresttous.Itistruethatauthoritarianmethodsyieldresultsratherquickly,whatevertheirimmediateorlong-distancedisadvantagesmightbe.Nevertheless,itisafeattofacethesemanifolddifficultiesandovercomethem,chieflywiththeirownefforts.

WecannotcompareIndiatotheEuropeancountriesortheAmerican.Theselattercountrieshavehadalongperiodofgrowthandindustrializationandtheyhavemuchsmallerpopulations.EvenacomparisonwiththeSovietUnionisnotfairbecausetheSovietUnionhashadoverthirtyyearsofbuildingup.Alsothe

SovietUnionhasvastareasand,comparedtoIndia,asmallerpopulation.ButtherearefarmorepointsofsimilaritybetweenIndiaandChina,amongthembeingenormouspopulationsandeconomicbackwardness.

HowtheChineseovercometheseeconomicconditions,industrializetheircountryandproducemorewealthanddistributeitmoreevenly,isthereforeofgreatinteresttous.Wearecommitted,andIthinkrightlyso,todemocraticandparliamentaryinstitutions.Thatdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatdemocracymustberigidandunabletoadaptitselftochangingconditions.Democracy,apartfromitsinstitutions,isawayofGovernmentandlifeitself.Ifirmlybelievethatitisabetterwaythanadictatorshiporauthoritarianism.Inthelongrun,dictatorshipsmust,Ithink,ratherstuntthegrowthofthecountry.Thereareinitialadvantageswhichareobviousandtheoutwardspeedofprogressappearstobefast.Butitisverydoubtfuliftheessentialqualitywhichunderlieshumanprogress,thatisthecreativespiritofman,candevelopadequatelyunderanauthoritariansystem.Tosomeextent,ofcourse,suchauthoritariansystemsashaveeconomicequalityastheirgoal,areinitiallyliberatingforcesandreleasetremendouspopularenergy.Thatisagreatadvantage.Butifdictatorshipcontinues,thecreativespiritmaygraduallyfadeaway.

Democracyissupposedtonurturethiscreativespiritbutifitcannotbringaboutareleasefrompovertyoflargemassesofhumanbeings,thenthatcreativespiritcanonlyfunctioninafew.Povertyisafterallmorerestrictiveandlimitingthananythingelse.Ifpovertyandlowstandardscontinuethendemocracy,forallitsfineinstitutionsandideals,ceasestobealiberatingforce.Itmustthereforeaimcontinuouslyattheeradicationofpovertyanditscompanionunemployment.Inotherwords,politicaldemocracyisnotenough.Itmustdevelopintoeconomicdemocracyalso.TheproblembeforeIndiaistobringaboutthisdevelopmentasrapidlyaspossible.Intheultimateanalysis,theworldwillnotbegovernedbytheoriesbutbyactualresultsachieved.IfIndiasucceedsinachievingtheseresultsunderasystemofpoliticaldemocracy,thatindeedwouldbeagreatvictorynotonlyforIndiabutfordemocracy.IfChinasucceedsbyherownmethods,undoubtedlythosemethodswillthenattractlargenumbersofpeople.

SomecountriesoftheWest,notablytheUnitedKingdom,triedtheirutmostsincethewartodevelopthiseconomicdemocracyundertheparliamentarysystem.Theytriedtofindamiddlepathbetweenunrestrainedprivateenterpriseand…thesocialisticorder.IthinkthattheprogressmadebyEngland,inspiteofenormousdifficulties,wasremarkableanddoeseverycredittoherGovernment

andpeople.Itissaidthatindevelopinghersocialschemes,shelivedbeyondhermeansandisnowsufferingbecauseofthis.Thismaypartlybetrue,butIamsurethatifshehadnotdoneso,herfatewouldhavebeenworse.Shehadtobringaboutatremendoustransformationfromthedaysoftheoldempirewhentributeinvariousformsflowedtoherfromallovertheworld,tohernewconditionwhichwasverydifferent,inspiteofsomerelicsoftheempirestillcontinuing.Hergovernmentdecidedtospendtheirmoneyandenergyonimprovingthelotofthepeoplegenerally,andputtinganendtounemployment,ingreaterproduction,etc.Theysucceededinalargemeasure.Perhapstheeffortwasabittoogreat,butitmustberememberedthat,inadditiontoallthis,Englandhadtospendlargesumsofmoneyonarmaments.Whetherthiswasjustifiedornot,itisnotformetosay.Itisthisadditionalburdenofarmamentsthathastenedthegravecrisisthatshehastofacetoday.Evenso,EnglandistodayafarmorestableanddisciplinedandinawaycontentedcountrythanalmostanyinEurope.Parliamentarydemocracyhasjustifieditselftheremorethanelsewhere.Itmaybethattheburdenistoogreatforhertobear.ButIfeelthatshehasstillgreatresourcesofstrengthinherandagreatcapacitytoadaptherself.

WhenweconsidertheproblemsofIndia,wehavetokeepthesechanging,dynamic,fascinatingandsometimesratherterrifyingaspectsofthemodernworldbeforeusandtrytolearnfromthemandavoidthepitfalls.Wemaydiscussvariouspoliciesbutwhateverpolicywemayadopt,ourchoiceisultimatelylimitedbyourcapacityinthepresent.Thatcapacitywillnodoubtgrow.Thattakestimeandtherecanbenomagicsolutionofourproblems.Themainthingisthatwehavetherightobjective,thatwegointhatdirection,andthatwegoasfastascircumstancespermitus.Wecan,tosomeextent,measureandweighthesecircumstancesbutthereareeversomanyuncertainfactorsinthem,bothnationalandinternational.Thebiggestuncertainfactoristheresponseofourownpeopletoanyparticularpolicy.Itisnotultimatelymoneythatcountsbutthelabour,enthusiasmandthewillofthepeople…

TheConflictWithChinaInthelate1940s,ashisspeechtotheAsianRelationsConferenceshowed,

NehruhopedforveryclosepoliticalandculturaltieswithChina.Bythelate1950s,relationsbetweenIndiaandChinabegantosour.Theborderbetweenthetwocountrieswasunderdispute,bothinthewest,intheIndiandistrictofLadakh,andintheeast,intheIndian-administeredNorthEastFrontierAgency(NEFA).Thetwosidesmetseveraltimestotrytoresolvethedisputes,butnoagreementcouldbereached.InMarch1959theDalaiLamafledacrossthebordertoIndia,afterthefailureofanuprisingagainstChineseruleinTibet.ChinaexpresseditsdispleasureatIndiaofferingrefugetotheTibetanleader.Meanwhile,thereweresporadicclashesbetweentroopsalongtheborder.Theexcerptthatfollowsisfromaletterwrittenbytheprimeministertohischiefministerson1October1959.13

…ThistensionthathasarisenbetweenIndiaandChinais,ofcourse,ofgreatconcerntous.Thatdoesnotmeanthatweshouldgetalarmedinthepresentorfearanyseriousconsequences.Idonotthinkanysuchdevelopmentislikelyintheforeseeablefuture.ButthebasicfactremainsthatIndiaandChinahavefallenoutand,eventhoughrelativepeacemaycontinueatthefrontier,itissomekindofanarmedpeace,andthefutureappearstobeoneofcontinuingtension.Itisthisfuturethattroublesmebecauseitwillinvolvebothamentalandaphysicalstrainonourcountry,anditwillsomewhatcomeinthewayofourbasicpolicies…

Wehave…tocontinuethosebasicpoliciesand,atthesametime,showfirmnessinourdealingwithfrontierdevelopments.Noprincipleandnopolicycanbepursuedthroughweaknessorfear.IhavenofearofChina,greatandpowerfulasthatcountryis.Chinawillundoubtedlygrowinphysicalmight.Evenso,thereisnoneedforustobeafraidand,indeedfearisneveragoodcompanion.Butweshallhavetobevigilantallthetimeandbalancefirmnesswithacontinuationofourpolicy.

Behindallthisfrontiertrouble,thereappearstometobeabasicproblemofastrongandunitedChineseState,expansiveandpushingoutinvariousdirectionsandfullofprideinitsgrowingstrength.InChinesehistory,thiskindofthinghashappenedonseveraloccasions.Communismassuchisonlyanaddedelement;therealreasonshouldbefoundtoliedeeperinhistoryandinnationalcharacteristic[s].Butitistruethatneverbeforehavethesetwogreatcountries,IndiaandChina,comefacetofaceinsomekindofaconflict.Byvirtueoftheirverysizeandtheiractualorpotentialstrength,thereisdangerin

thissituation,notdangerinthepresent,butratherinthefuture.Thatdangermaybeminimizedbyotherdevelopmentsandbytheworldmovinggraduallytowardspeace.Butthedangerwillstillremain,partlybecauseofthetremendousrateofincreaseofthepopulationoftheChineseState.Apartfrompopulation,therehasbeenandisacertainhomogeneityamongtheChinesepeoplewhichprobablywelack.Ihavenodoubt,however,thatinthefaceofdangertherewillbemuchgreatercohesioninIndiathanwehaveatpresent.Perhaps,thatmaybeoneofthegoodeffectsofthisnewandunfortunatedevelopment…

Minorcontroversiesaboutthefrontiermightormightnotbeofimportance.Whatwehavetoface,however,issomethingmuchdeeperandmoreserious.Thisisademandforconsiderableareas,moreespeciallyintheNorthEastFrontierAgency.AllthismeanstheChinesewanttocomedownonthissideoftheHimalayanbarrier.Thishastwovitallyimportantaspects:onethatifaforeignPowercomesdownonthissideoftheHimalayas,ourbasicsecurityisgreatlyendangered;theotherthatasentimentwhichhasbeenthelife-bloodofIndiathroughpastagesisshattered.ThatsentimentappertainstotheHimalayas…TheHimalayasareperhapsamorevitalpartofIndia’sthoughtandexistencethroughouttheagesthanalmostanythingelse.Theyarevitalforoursecurityeveninthepresentageofextra-modernweapons;theyarevitalforourculturalinheritance.

InthesecondweekofOctober1962fightingbrokeoutbetweenthearmiesofthetwocountries.TheIndianswerenomatchmilitarilyfortheChinese,whoeasilyovercametheirresistanceandmadedeepinroadsintoIndianterritory.Havingmadetheirpoint,theChinesedeclaredaceasefireandreturnedtotheirsideoftheborder.Inthislettertochiefministers,dated22December1962,Nehrusoughttoexplainthishumiliatingdefeatatthehandsofacountryhehadoncesoughttobefriend.14

ItseemstomethatthemajorreasonsforourreverseswerethechoiceoftheterrainonwhichwehadtofighttheChinese.Thiswasalltotheadvantageoftheenemyandverydisadvantageousforus,themaindisadvantageforusbeingthattherewasnoeasyaccesstoitbyroadorothermeansofcommunications.Wehadthustosendeverythingbydroppingfromtheair.Thisincludedammunition,othersupplies,clothing,etc.OurAirForcedidaveryfinejobofwork,butthislackofpropercommunicationswasagreatdisadvantage.TheChinese,ontheotherhand,hadeasycommunicationsbehindthemastheroadsysteminTibetcamerightuptoourfrontier.Lookedatfromapurelymilitarypointofview,weshouldhaveselectedamuchmoreeffectivelineofdefencewhichwasconnected

byroadatleasttoourmainsupplycentres.This,however,wouldhaveentailedretiringtoourownterritoryandallowingtheChinesetomarchalongitwithoutmajorfighting.Althoughthiswasthewiserthingtodo,itwasnotapleasantcoursetofollow.

AsecondmajordisadvantagetoourArmywasthefactthatourforceshadbeensentratherhurriedlyfromlowaltitudesnearsealeveltoanaltitudeofabout14,000feet.Anyonewhohasdoneanymountaineeringknowstheeffectofthissuddenchangetohighaltitudes.Itproducessevereheadachesandsleeplessnightsandgenerallydevitalizesone.Itisalwaysdesirabletoacclimatizepeopleatvariousstagesbeforetheyreachthehighaltitude.WecouldnotdosobecausetheChinesehadalreadycrossedourborderandweremassingtheirforcesthere.

Itmaybesaidthatweoughttohavethoughtofthisandplacedourforcesatthathighaltitudelongbefore.EventhatwasnotveryfeasiblebecausethatwouldhavemeantsupplyingthemwitheverythingalargeArmywantedbyairdropping.Theonlycoursewastobuildupgoodroadsrightuptothefrontier.Thiswasundertakentwoyearsormoreagoandmanyroadshavebeenbuilt.Buttheprocesswasnotcompleted.Theterrainisdifficultandroadbuildingrequireshighengineeringskill.Ittakestime.

ItisinterestingtonotethedifferenceinthefightingqualityofourtroopsinLadakhandthoseinN.E.F.A.InLadakhtheyhadbeenacclimatizedtothehighaltitudesforsometimepast.Theyfought,therefore,extraordinarilywellandinflictedveryheavycasualtiesontheChinese.EvenwhentheyhadtowithdrawbecauseofsuperiornumbersoftheChinese,theydidsograduallyanddidnotallowtheChineseforcestoadvancemuch.InN.E.F.A.,theyhadnotbeenacclimatizedandcouldnotfightastheynormallydo.

Itiseasytobewiseaftertheevent.Itiseasiertocriticizewhathashappened.ButIdothinkthatthetwomajorcausesforourreverseswerethosetwothatIhavementioned.SomeofourGeneralshavebeenheavilycriticizedandhavebeenretiredfromService.Manyunkindthingsaresaidaboutthemwithoutmuchjustification.Itwasrightperhapsthattheyofferedtheirresignationashonourablemen.Butthefaultwashardlytheirs.Thefaults,suchasoccurred,wereofthelocalCommandersofBrigadesandthelikewhohadtodecideonthespurofthemomentwhattheyshoulddowhentheywerebeingoverwhelmedbylargenumbersoftheenemy.TheChiefoftheArmyStaffandtheArmyCommanderwhohaveresignedcouldhardlybesaidtobedirectlyresponsible.Theywerecompetentandbravemenanditisveryunfairtothemto

accusethemforsomethingthatwasduetoalargenumberofcircumstances,manyofthemoutsidetheircontrol.

TherewasalsothefactthattheChinese,aftermanylongyearsofwarfare,areexpertsatmountainfightingandhavebeentrainedspeciallyforthispurpose.Theirmethodsoffightingareamixtureofregularorthodoxwarfareandguerrillawar.InKorea,withmuchworseweapons,theyshowedwhattheycoulddoagainstarmieswhichhadthelatestmodernweapons.SincethentheChinesehadgotmuchbetterweaponsandhadperfectedtheirmethodsofmountainwarfare.ItisevidentthattheyhadbeenpreparingforsomesuchinvasionforalongtimepastinTibet.Theyhadaccumulatedlargesuppliesandtheirtroopswerelivingallthetimeatahighaltitude.

Wehavelearntbyourexperiencesandmisfortunesandweshalltakegoodcarethattheydonotrepeatthemselves.Thepresentpositionis,asIhavesaidabove,thatourarmies,bothinN.E.F.A.andLadakh,holdtheirpositionsstronglyandeveniftheChineseattackthemwheretheyare,thepositionswouldstillbeheld.Thereisnochance,asfarasonecansee,ofanyfurtherretreatbyourforces.Assam,therefore,issafefromanyinvasionandasthedaysgoby,ourstrengthincreases.Meanwhile,wearenotonlyraisingadditionalforcesofvariouskinds,butalsoaddingasspeedilyaswecantoourequipmentandfightingapparatus.Forthepresent,wehavetogetmuchofthisfightingmaterialfromabroadandwearedoingso.But,realstrengthcanonlycomefromourmanufacturingandproducingallthisequipmentinourowncountry.

Itisofthehighestimportance,therefore,thatourmanufactureofmunitionsandotherwarmaterialshouldbespeededupasrapidlyaspossible.Atthesametime,weshallcontinuetryingtogetsuchmaterialaswerequireandasisavailablefromabroad.Thereisaslightdangerofthetempoofourworkgraduallybecomingslowerbecausetheexcitementofdaytodayfightingmaynotbetheretokeepupthesenseofurgency.Wehavetoguardagainstitbecausethedangerthatthreatensusisnotoftodayortomorrow,butwilllastaconsiderabletime,whetherthereisactualfightingornot.Wecanaffordtotakenomorerisksforthefuture.

WhatwerethemotivesthatdrovetheChinesetoattackusinabigway?Tosaythatthiswasjustadesiretoexpandtheirterritoriesortotakepossessionoftheareastheyclaimedisnotwhollyanadequateanswer,thoughthereissomethinginit.Countriesdonottakesuchactioninvolvingdangerousconsequenceswithoutamuchdeeperreason.TheworldtodayisinastateofcoldwarbetweenthetwomajorblocsofnationsledrespectivelybytheSoviet

UnionandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica,bothofwhicharenuclearpowers,withatremendouscapacityfordestruction.Acertainbalanceofterrorhasbeenstruckupbetweenthemwhichexercisesarestraininginfluence,butwhichalsobringstheever-presentdangerofadeliberatemoveoranaccidentwhichmightbringnuclearwarandtheultimatecatastrophe.Betweenthesetwoblocs,thereisfearonbothsidesresultinginanattemptatcontinuousarmingwiththelatestweaponsofmassdestruction.Therearealsoattemptsbeingmadeatsomeapproachtoapeacefulsettlementoftheproblemsthatfacethem.Recently,wecameveryneartoanuclearwaroverCuba.Italmostseemedforafewdaysthatatanymomenttheatomicandhydrogenbombsmightstartburstinginvariouspartsoftheworld,bringingdeathanddestructiontomillionsorevenperhapshundredsofmillions.Fortunately,thatcrisispassedbecausebothofthemajorpartiesconcernedwantedtoavoidsuchawar.Eversincethentherehasbeenacertainrelaxationoftension,thoughthatisnotverygreatyet.Stillitisnoticeable,andforthefirsttimeinmanyyearsthehopesofpeoplearereviving.

Besidesthesetwomajorblocsofheavilyarmedpowersthereareanumber,andagrowingnumber,ofcountriesweakinarmedpowerbutstillexercisingsomeinfluenceinfavourofpeace.Perhapstheycannotbythemselvesmaketheultimatedecisioninfavourofpeace.Buttheycanandtheyhaveinthepastmadejustthatlittledifferencewhichpreventsawarfrombreakingout.Theyhavebecomesymbols,tosomeextent,ofpeacefulcoexistenceandtheirpolicyofnon-alignmenttomilitaryblocshasgraduallybeenappreciatedmoreandmoreevenbythebigblocs.BoththeUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheSovietUnionhaveappreciatedthispolicyofnon-alignmentandpeacefulcoexistence,eventhoughtheycannotadoptitforthemselvesbecauseoftheirfearofeachother.Andyet,inevitablyalmost,theworldmovestowardspeacefulcoexistenceandshouldultimatelyrealizethatobjectiveunlesswaroverwhelmsitbeforethatrealizationcomes…

Buttothisdesireforpeaceandcoexistencethereisonemajorexception,andthatisChina.Chinahasrepudiatedthedoctrineofpeacefulcoexistence,eventhoughsometimesitrepeatsit.Itbelievesintheinevitabilityofwarand,therefore,doesnotwantthetensionsintheworldtolessen.Itdislikesnon-alignmentanditwouldmuchratherhaveaclearpolarizationofthedifferentcountriesintheworld.Itisnotafraidevenofanuclearwarbecauseasitisoftensaid,theycanaffordtoloseafewhundredmillionpeopleandyethaveenoughnumbersleft.

Becauseofthisdifferenceofopinion,thereisawideandgrowingrift

betweentheSovietUnionandChina,eventhoughtheyaremilitaryallies.Theycondemnbitterlyeachother’spolicies.Itisobviouslyofhighimportancetotheworldastohowfarthisrifthasgoneandwhetherultimatelyitwillresultinacompletebreak.Everychancelleryintheworldisdeeplyinterestedinthisandtriestofindoutwhattheexactrelationshipofthetwogreatcountriesis.Latterlythisinnerconflicthascomeoutintotheopen,andtherehasbeenmuchpubliccursingofeachother.

China,forallitsbelligerencyandtheprogressithasmadeinthepastdozenyears,isstillbyandlargeanunderdevelopedcountryandduringthelastthreeyearsorso,hashadbadharvests.Thishasweakeneditgreatlyalthoughitswarapparatusmayforthepresentbefairlystrong.Itrealizes,however,thatstrengthcomesfromindustrialdevelopmentandthisisadifficultandslowprocess.Howeverharditmaywork,itrequiresagreatdealofaidfromoutside.TheonlycountryfromwhichitcangetsubstantialaidistheSovietUnion;tosomeextentalsofromtheEastEuropeanCommunistcountries.Russia’ssofteningdown,initsopinion,inrevolutionaryardouranditsthinkingofpeaceandpeacefulcoexistence,moreandmoreannoysChinagreatly.Thisispartlybecauseoftheirideologicaldifferences,partlyalsobecausethisleadsRussiatohelpIndiaandlikecountriesintheirindustrialdevelopment.TothatextentRussiacannothelpChina,andindeedbecauseofideologicaldifferences,ithasstoppedhelpingitatallandhaswithdrawnallitstechniciansandexpertsfromChina.ManyofthefactoriesbuiltwithRussianhelpnowliedesertedinChina.

ItwaspossibleforChinatofallintolinewithRussianthinkingandpresentpolicy,andthusperhapsgetmoreaid.Buttheyaretooproudtodothisandtrainedtoomuchintheoldrevolutionarytraditiontoacceptdefeatinthismatter.Whatelsethencouldtheydo?Theothercoursewastoheightentensionsintheworldandtomakenon-alignmentandpeacefulcoexistencemoreandmoredifficulttomaintain.ThiswasadirectassaultonRussianpolicy.Itcanonlybeindulgediniftheydemonstratethattherewasnosuchthingasrealnon-alignmentbybreakingthosecountrieswhichpractiseit,andthusbyincreasingthepolarizationoftheworld.Indiawassaidtobethechiefnon-alignedcountryintheworld,andacountrywhichconstantlypreachedthevirtuesofpeacefulcoexistence.IfIndiacouldbehumiliatedanddefeatedandperhapsevendrivenintotheothercampoftheWesternPowers,thatwouldbetheendofnon-alignmentforothercountriesalso,andRussia’spolicywouldhavebeenbrokendown.ThecoldwarwouldbeatitsfiercestandRussiawouldbecompelledthentohelpChinatoamuchgreaterdegreeandtowithdrawhelpfromthenations

thatdidnotsidewithitcompletelyinthecoldwar…Thisanalysisofcourseisalimitedone.Thereareotherfactorswhichwork

too.TheinternaldifficultiesinChinahavemadeitmorerashandadventuristandtheextremeelementsintheGovernmenttherehavetakencontrol.TheyseethatunlesssomesuchactionistakenandChina’sindustrialprogressspeededupverygreatly,itwillweakenandthepaceofprogresswillslowdown.Theonlyway,therefore,topreventthisistocreateasituationinwhichtheSovietUnionwouldbeforcedtocometoChina’shelp.Inordertodothis,Indiaappearedtobethesafesttargetforthepresent…

TheRightsofWomenInthelate1940sB.R.Ambedkar,thenlawministerintheGovernmentof

India,soughttointroducereformsinHindupersonallaw,whichwouldgivewomentherighttochoosetheirmarriagepartner,therighttodivorceandtherighttoashareoftheirfather’sproperty.Nehru,asprimeminister,stronglysupportedthesemeasures,buttheprogressofthe‘HinduCodeBill’wasstalledbymoreconservative-mindedpoliticians.However,afterhispositionhadbeenstrengthenedbyhisparty’semphaticvictoryinthegeneralelectionsof1952,Nehrurevivedthereformsandhadthempassedintolawinamodifiedform,butonlyafteranextendedandoftenverybitterdebateinbothHousesofParliament.TheexcerptthatfollowsisfromaspeechmadebyNehruinParliamenton5May1955.Thisechoes,probablyunconsciously,Ambedkar’swarningsthatpoliticaldemocracywouldhavenomeaningunlesscomplementedbysocialandeconomicdemocracy.15

JawaharlalNehru:Mr.DeputySpeaker,duringthelastfewdaysIhavenotspokenatthevariousstagesofthisBill.ButIhavetakenadeepinterestinthesediscussionsandfollowedthem.As,perhaps,theHouseknows,IhavebeendeeplyinterestednotonlyinthisBill,butincertainmattersconnectedtherewith,anditisamatterofgreatgratificationtomethatwehavearrivedatthisstagenow,thethirdreadingstageofthisBillandIhaveeveryhopethatthisHousewillfinaliseitinthecourseofthenextfewhours.

IapproveofthisBill,ofcourse.ItisnotmerelywhatisincorporatedinthisBillbutrathersomethingmorethanthatwhichthisBillrepresents.Itappealstomegreatly,Ithinkitishighlyimportantinthecontextofournationaldevelopment.Wetalkaboutfiveyearplans,ofeconomicprogress,industrialization,politicalfreedomandallthat.Theyareallhighlyimportant.ButIhavenodoubtinmymindthattherealprogressofthecountrymeansprogressnotonlyonthepoliticalplane,notonlyontheeconomicplane,butalsoonthesocialplane.Theyhavetobeintegrated,allthese,whenthegreatnationgoesforward…

NowIventuretoask:cananylaw,whetheritissocialoreconomic,beequallyapplicablewhensocietyhaschangedcompletely?LetustakeIndia,broadlyspeaking,athousandortwothousandyearsago.ThepopulationofIndiainthosedayswasonehundredthofwhatthepopulationtodayisandIndiawasacommunityofalargenumberofvillagesandsomesmalltowns.Nowsurelymodernconditionsareentirelydifferent.InthecitiesofDelhi,Calcutta,BombayandMadrasindustriesaregrowingandnewsocialrelationsaregrowingup.Can

anyonesaythatwhileallthesechangesaretakingplace—tremendouschanges—inoursocialset-up,certainthingsmustremainunchanged?Theresultisthattheywillnotfitin;theresultisaverybadone—thatwhileyouappeartoholdontosomething,thatsomethingwhichhasgone,orisintheprocessofgoing,cracksup,becauseitdoesnotfitinwiththechangedconditions.

ThisBillhastakenafewdaysindiscussionhere,butbehinditlieyearsandyearsofinvestigation…Nosubject,Itakeit,hasbeensomuchbeforethepublic,hasbeendiscussedsomuchandopportunitiesgivenforitsconsiderationbythepublicasthisparticularsubjectinitsvariousaspects—thequestionofthereformoftheHindulawinregardtopersonalrelationships.Nowthatwasrightbecauseitwasimportant.Afterall,politicsareimportant,economicsareimportant,veryimportant,butinthefinalanalysishumanrelationsarethemostimportant.

Thismorningafactcametomynotice,thatinthesmallstateofSaurashtra,oneofoursmalleststates,one,ifImaysayso,ofouradvancedstatesinmanyways,sociallyspeaking,thereisonanaverageonesuicideadayamongthewomenbecauseofmaladjustmentsinhumanrelationships.Thefigurewas375inayear;375inapopulationof40lakhs,men,womenandchildren.Youcancalculatetheproportionitworksoutinthatstate.Theseareregularauthenticfigureswhichthechiefministerofthatstategaveme.Thisshowsthemaladjustmentandthedifficultiesthatmoreespeciallythewomenhavetoface.IhavenodoubtthatsuchsimilarstatisticsmaybecollectedfromotherpartsofIndia.Onehastofacethatsituation.

IhadtheprivilegeoflisteningtothespeechofthehonourableMemberopposite,ShriN.C.Chatterjee.ThemoreIlistenedtoit,themoreconfusedIgotandsurprised.Hedealtatgreatlengthwithwhatisasacramentandwhatisasamskaraandotherthings…Asacrament,Itakeit,issomethingwhichhasreligioussignificance,areligiousceremony.AHindumarriageisareligiousceremony,undoubtedly.Nobodydoubtsthat.Ithasareligioussignificance.But,doesitmeanthatitisasacramenttotieuppeoplewhobite,whohateeachother,whomakelifehellforeachother?Isthatasacramentorasamskara—Idonotunderstand.Obviously,thatisnotthequestion,Iadmit.Iwouldgoastepfurther.Ithinkallhumanrelationshipsshouldhaveanelementofsacramentinthem.Ifso,theintimaterelationshipofhusbandandwife,apartfromotherrelationships,shouldhaveanelementofsacramentinit.Thereissomethingratherfineinhumanrelationshipsprovidedtheyaregoodrelationships.Otherwise,thatrelationshipisthereverseoffine.Itisawful.Iftheycannotfitintoeachother,if

theyarecompelledtocarryontogether,theybegintohateeachotherandtheirlifeisbitter.Thewholefoundationsoftheirexistencearebitter.Surelythatisnotasacrament.

Hequoted,hereferredto[theancientlawmakers]ManuandYagnyavalkya,verygreatmeninourhistory,whohaveshapedIndia’sdestiny.Weadmirethem.Theyareamongtheheroesofourhistory.But,isitrightforShriN.C.ChatterjeeoranyonetothrowManuandYagnyavalkyaatmeandsaywhattheywouldhavedoneinthepresentconditionsofIndia?

N.C.Chatterjee:Iamsorry,thePrimeMinisterwasnothere;[thelawminister]ShriPataskarthrewthemonmeandIonlyreciprocatedrightly.

JawaharlalNehru:Thepointis,itisveryunfairforManuorYagnyavalkyaoranybodyelsetobebroughtinasawitnessastowhatshouldbedoneinthepresentconditionsofIndia.Theconditionsarecompletelyandabsolutelydifferent.Iadmitthatthereshouldbe,andthereare,undoubtedly,certainprinciplesofhumanlifewhich,normallyspeaking,donotchangeandshouldnotchange.Therearecertainbasesofhumanlife.But,inadaptingtheminlegislationandotherthings,youhavetoconsidertheconditionsastheyareandnotastheywere1,000or2,000yearsago…

Now,weareoftentold,reminded,ofthehighidealsofIndianwomanhood,SitaandSavitri.Well,everyonehere,Itakeit,admiresthoseidealsandthinksofSitaandSavitriandotherheroinesofIndiawithreverenceandrespectandaffection.SitaandSavitriarementionedasidealsofwomanhoodforthewomen.IdonotseemtoremembermenbeingremindedofRamachandraandSatyavan,tobehavelikethem.ItisonlythewomenwhohavetobehavelikeSitaandSavitri,themenmaybehaveastheylike.Noexampleisputforwardbeforethem.IdonotknowifIndianmenaresupposedtobeperfect,incapableofanyfurthereffortorfurtherimprovement,butitisbadthatthiscanbeso.Itcannotremainso,youcannothaveitsoundermodernconditions,eithermoderndemocraticconditionsoranyconditionsofmodernlife.Yousimplycannothaveit.Youcannothaveademocracy,ofcourse,ifyoucutoffalargechunkofhumanity,fiftypercentorthereaboutsofthepeople,andputtheminaseparateclassapartinregardtosocialprivilegesandthelike.Theyareboundtorebel,andrightlyrebelagainstthat…

Thenagain,itissaid:‘itisallverywell.Weareinfavourofit,butitisnotgoodenoughunlessyoucreateeconomicconditionsforthewomen’.Thatisanargumentwhichmaybeconsideredvalidlogically,but,whenappliedtothesethings,itsimplymeans:‘Donotdothisandyoustarttheother.Youhavenot

donethefirst,youaredoingthesecond.’So,thereal,basicapproachisthatnothingneedbedone.Itisquiteabsurd.Youhavetomakesomebeginningssomewhere.Ofcourse,Ientirelyagreethatthebasicthingiseconomiccondition,equalityofeconomicopportunity.Tosomeextent,Ihope,anotherBillwhichisfollowingwilldoit.Letusgoforwardstillinthatline,buttostopagoodActbecauseitdoesnotcompletelymeetthedemandsofthesituationisnevertodoanythingatall.

TheHousewillrememberhowittriedatfirst—thatwasnotinthisParliament,butinthepreviousParliament—howthethenGovernmentbroughtforwardwhattheycalledtheHinduCodeBill,ahugedocumentofhundredsofhundredsofpages.Weconsidereditinvariousways,introduceditintheHouse,referredittocommittees.Itwassobigthatwecouldnevergetthroughit.Infact,weneverstartedproperlywithit,anditwaspatentthatifwewentthroughit,itmighttakeafewyears—allcommitteesittingsandallthatclausebyclauseconsiderationcouldnotbedone.Therefore,itwasdecidedtosplititupintoseveralcompartmentsanddealwitheachseparately.Thisisthefirstpartofit.ThesecondIhopewillbedealtwithandsenttotheSelectCommitteelater.Thisistheonlywaytodealwithhumanlife.Youcannottakeeveryaspect,theconditionofIndianwomen,alltogether,andimproveitsomeway.Apartfromthecomplication,thedifficultyinvolvedisthat,simplythetimeelementcomesinandyourubupsomanyothergroupsandthingsandtheyobjectandsayitisnotpracticableatall.Therefore,youhavetotake[them]onebyone.Wetakethisherenow,andIhopeweshalltakesomethingelsenext.

IreferredtoIndianwomenandIsaidthatIamnoadmirerofcertaintendencieswhicharevisible.TheyarenotvisibleinIndianwomenonly,theyarevisibleelsewheretoo,butIwouldbegofyouagainnottofallintothetrapofappearingtocriticizeothercountriesorotherwomenorotherpeopleinothercountriesaboutwhomweknowverylittle…[S]omeofusmayhavegoneabroad,spenttwoorthreeweeksormonthsabroad,andformedsomeopinions.IsthatthewayyouwouldlikeaforeignertocometoIndiaandformanopinionofIndiansociety?Youwouldnot.Whenhecomesherefortwomonthsandwritesabook,youobjecthighlybecausehehaspickedoutsomethingswhichhedislikesandrunsyoudown.Hedoesnotknowthebackgroundofit.Now,ifIgotoBanaras,therearemanythingsthatIdonotlikeinBanaras.Thestreetsarenotcleanandthisandthat—therearemanythings.ButBanarasevokesinmeathousandpicturesofIndia’shistory,ofBuddhapreachinginSarnath,andahundredotherthingshappening,thewholeseatofIndia’scultureand

developmentandthisandthat.IamfilledwithIndia’spasthistorywhenIgotoBanaras.WhensometouristcomesfromabroadheseesthefilthanddirtofthelanesofBanaras.Theyarebothtrue,butitissomethingdeeperthanthat.Whenwegoabroadthenwetoofallintothesametrap.Weseesomefilth—socialandotherwise—andthinkthatthatisthebasisofsocietythere.DoyouthinkthatthecivilizationoftheWestoryourcivilizationorthecivilizationofanycountryhasbeenbuiltontheseweakfoundations,immoralfoundations,lowfoundations?Doyouthinkthatanycivilizations,anyculture,canbebuiltuponthatloosebasis?Obviouslynot.Theymayhavebeencolonialpowers—theyhavebeencolonialpowers;theymayhavedominatedoverus—theyhavedoneso;theyhavedoneinjurytous,butthefactisthattheyhavebuiltagreatcivilizationinthelast200or300or400yearsandyoumustfindoutthegoodandtakethegoodfromthem.Afterallwehavegottobuildourselvesonourownsoil,basicallyonourownideas,butkeepingthewindowsofourmindsopentotheideas,tothewinds,thatcomefromothercountries,acceptingthem,becausethemomentwecloseourselvesup,thatmomentwebecomestatic.Whetherwecloseourselvesupbylaw,bydogma,byreligiousdogmaoranyotherkindofclosure,itispreventingthegrowthofthespiritofman,anditisbad,fortheindividual,forthegroupandforthecountry.Andithasbeenthegreatness,Ithink,ofthebasicHinduapproachoflifethatitwasnotrigid.Whetherinphilosophyoranythingelse,aseverybodyknows,wehaveawayofcivilizationorawayoforthodoxycompletelyopposedtoeachother.Weacceptthem:itisagoodthing.Thereisaspiritoftolerance;amanmaybeanatheistandstillnotceasetobeaHindu.Maybeitisnotreligionintheordinarysenseoftheword.Butinregardtocertainsocialpractices,rigiditycomesin.Rigiditycomesinwhenyousayyoumustnoteatwithsoandso,youmustnottouchsoandso.ThatrigidityisathingwhichhasweakenedandbroughtmanydisastersonHindusociety.Now,wehavetobreakthatrigidity.Iamgladwehavebrokenandwearecontinuingtobreaktherigidityinregardtountouchability.Ihopeweshallbreaktherigidityduetothesecastedivisions.Now,inthatcontext,itbecomesimportantthatyoushouldbreakthisrigidstatutelaworinterpretationoflawbyjudgeswhichhasbroughtaboutrigidityinregardtohumanrelationsinHindusociety.ItisbecauseofthatthatIwelcomethis,becauseitbreaksthatrigidity,asanybodywhohasreadthisBillcanseetheconditionsprovidedfordivorce,etc.,arenoteasy.Theyareprettydifficult.ForanyonetosaythatthisissomethingwhichwillletlooselicentiousnessalloverIndiaisfantastic.Thereisnobasisinfactforthat.

SofarasIamconcerned,Idonotproposetosayanythingaboutwomeninothercountries…Aboutthesocialfabricofothercountries,Iamnotcompetenttojudge…ButIcansaywithconsiderableconfidence,expressingmyownfaith,thatthewomanhoodofIndiaissomethingofwhichIamproud.Iamproudoftheirbeauty,grace,charm,shyness,modesty,intelligenceandtheirspiritofsacrificeandIthinkifanybodycantrulyrepresentthespiritofIndia,itcanbetrulyrepresentedbythewomenofIndiaandnotbythemen.Soitis,andImaytellyouthatevennowinthemodernage,somewomenofIndia—notmany—gooutofIndia,maybeonsomeofficialorunofficialwork,incommissionsandthelike.Everytimethatawomanhasbeensent,shehasdonewell,notonlydonewell,butproducedafineimpressionofthewomanhoodofIndia.

ChapterSixteen

TheHinduSupremacistM.S.Golwalkar

IntheearlyyearsofIndependence,whilethecountrywasbeingunited,therefugeesofPartitionbeingresettled,theprincelystatesbeingintegratedandtheConstitutionbeingforged,NehruworkedshouldertoshoulderwithVallabhbhaiPatel,whowashomeministeraswellasdeputyprimeminister.AfterPatel’sdeathinDecember1950,Nehruhadnoequalsinbothpartyandgovernment.Hetoweredovertheothermembersofhiscabinet,whowereinnopositionreallytochallengehimorhisideas.However,hehadplentyofcriticsoutsidegovernment,amongthemMahadevSadashivGolwalkar.

GolwalkarwasborninFebruary1906,sonofaheadmaster.HestudiedinschoolsinsmalltownsincentralIndiabeforejoiningtheBanarasHinduUniversity,wherehedidbachelor’sandmaster’sdegreesinzoology.LaterhealsoqualifiedasalawyerfromNagpur.GolwalkarwaswellreadinscienceandintheHinduscriptures.Hewasalsoaformidablelinguist,fluentin—amongothertongues—Sanskrit,Bengali,Marathi,HindiandEnglish.

In1931GolwalkarmetthefounderoftheRashtriyaSwayamsevakSangh(RSS),whowasadoctorfromNagpurnamedK.B.Hedgewar.TheRSSstoodforamilitantandmuscularbrandofHinduism.Itrecruitedyoungmenwhowouldpreparethemselvesforalifetimeofservicetothe‘HinduRashtra’,namely,tothecreationofanation-staterunforandbyHindus.Golwalkar’sintelligenceandenergyattractedHedgewar,whoadoptedhimashisprotégé.HeleftBanarasandmovedtoNagpur,wherehetookchargeofrunningtheRSS’sorganization.Onhismentor’sdeathin1940hewasappointedthesarsanghchalak,orchieforganizeroftheRSS.

GolwalkarwasinfluencedbySwamiVivekananda’scalltoworshiptheMotherland.HealsoadmiredBalGangadharTilak,formakingculturesocentraltonationalidentityandself-assertion.However,hisloveforIndiaandHinduculturewenthandinhandwithademonizationoftheWestandofwhathesawastheenemywithin.Inhissuspicionofindividualismandhiscelebrationoftheorganiccommunity,Golwalkar,writesthepoliticaltheoristJyotirmayaSharma,‘displaysadeepdistrustofdiversity’.

GolwalkarsawthreeprincipalthreatstotheformationofaHindunation—Muslims,Christiansandcommunists.Allthreewereforeigninorigin,andthelastweregodlesstoboot.GolwalkarsawMuslims,Christiansandcommunistsasakintothedemons,orrakshashas,ofIndianmythology,withtheHindusastheavengingangelswhowouldslaythemandthusrestorethegoodnessandpurityoftheMotherland.TheRSSitselfwasprojectedbyGolwalkarasthechosenvehicleforthisnationalandcivilizationalrenewaloftheHindus.

AfterGandhi’smurderinJanuary1948,GolwalkarwasarrestedandtheRSSbanned.ThiswasbecauseGandhi’sassassin,NathuramGodse,hadoncebeenamemberoftheRSSandbecauseGolwalkarhadhimselfmadeveryprovocativespeechesagainstMuslimsandtheCongress.HewasreleasedfromprisonandtheorganizationunbannedinJuly1949aftertheyagreedtoabjureviolenceandacceptthedemocraticprinciplesoftheIndianConstitutionthenbeingframed.

In1952theBengalipoliticianSyamaPrasadMookerjeeformedtheJanaSanghasa‘Hindu-first’politicalalternativetotheCongress.Althoughitclaimedtobeapurelyculturalorganization,theRSSworkedcloselywiththeJanaSangh,deputedworkerstoitanddirecteditsideology.(ThislinkcontinueswiththeJanaSangh’ssuccessor,theBharatiyaJanataParty.)Initsearlyyears,theRSSwasstronginMaharashtra,thehometerritoryofbothHedgewarandGolwalkar.However,intherun-uptoandaftermathofPartition,itgreatlyexpandeditsreachandinfluenceinnorthernIndia.Thecommunalriotshaddeeplypolarizedcommunityandpublicopinion,ashadPakistan’sinvasionofKashmir.Acampaigntotargettheenemywithinandtheenemywithoutattractedconsiderablesupportinanatmosphereoftensionandsuffering.Inthe1950sand1960s,astemperscooledinnorthernIndia,GolwalkarandtheRSSworkedtomaketheirpresencefeltinthesouthernpartsofthecountryaswell.

Inthe1930stheRSShadprofessedadmirationforthepoliciesoftheNationalSocialistsinGermany.TherearecertainlysomeparallelsbetweenGolwalkar’sideasandthoseoftheNazis—themysticalloveoftheMotherland,forexample,andthehatredofthealienortheculturallyimpure(theJewsthere,theMuslimshere).AlthoughreferencestotheNazisnaturallydisappearedinlateryears,Golwalkar’sspeechesofthe1950sand1960sstillaffirmedablut-und-boden(bloodandsoil)kindofnationalism,inwhichtheHindusweretheonlytrueloversofthenation.ThephilosophyoftheRSSalsopromisedtheHindusthat,weretheydevotedanddeterminedenough,theywouldenjoyagloryinthefuturethathadapparentlybeentheirsinthepast.

TherewereimportantHinduright-wingthinkersbeforeGolwalkar,suchasV.D.SavarkarandMadanMohanMalaviya.Thesemayhavebeenmoresubtleorsophisticated,butscarcelyaseffectiveorinfluential.ThroughhisthreedecadesastheheadoftheRSS,GolwalkarexercisedadeepinfluenceonthesocietyandpoliticsofmodernIndia.Alifelongbrahmachari,orcelibate,heacquired,inthefashionofatypicalHinduguru,acultofyoungermaleacolytes.ThesewentontobecomechiefministersoflargeIndianstates.Othersacquiredevenmorepower,directingtheaffairsoftheCentralgovernmentinNewDelhi.

Thus,AtalBehariVajpayee,primeministerofIndiabetween1998and2004,andLalKrishnaAdvani,homeministeranddeputyprimeministerduringthesameperiod,wereboth,inapersonalaswellasideologicalsense,disciplesofthelong-timeheadoftheRSS.M.S.Golwalkardiedin1973.

TheHinduNationandItsEnemiesGolwalkarworkedchieflyintheoralmode,givingtalkstogroupsofRSS

workersindifferentpartsofthecountry.Hisspeecheswerecompiledinabookpublishedin1966andentitledBunchofThoughts.TheexcerptsbelowdefinetheelementsofaputativeHindunationandidentifythethreatstoitscomingintobeing.1

Thefirstrequisiteforanationisacontiguouspieceoflanddelimitedasfaraspossiblebynaturalboundaries,toserveasthesubstratumonwhichthenationhastolive,growandprosper.Thenthesecondrequisiteis,thepeoplelivinginthatparticularterritoryshouldhavedevelopedloveandadorationforitastheirmotherland,astheplaceoftheirsustenance,theirsecurityandprosperity.Inshort,theyshouldfeelthattheyarethechildrenofthatsoil.

Then,thatpeopleshouldnotbejustamassofmen,justajuxtapositionofheterogeneousindividuals.Theyshouldhaveevolvedadefinitewayoflifemouldedbycommunityoflife-ideals,ofculture,offeelings,sentiments,faithandtraditions.Ifpeoplethusbecomeunitedintoacoherentandwell-orderedsocietyhavingcommontraditionsandaspirations,acommonmemoryofthehappyandunhappyexperiencesoftheirpastlife,commonfeelingsoffriendshipandhostility,andalltheirinterestsinter-twinedintooneidenticalwhole—thensuchpeoplelivingaschildrenofthatparticularterritorymaybetermeda‘nation’.

Ifweapplythisdefinitionacknowledgedbyallthelearnedmenintheworldtoourowncountry,wefindthatthisgreatcountryofoursextendinginthenorthfromtheHimalayas—withallitsbranchesspreadingnorth,south,eastandwest,andwiththeterritoriesincludedinthosegreatbranches—rightuptotheSouthernoceaninclusiveofalltheislands,isonegreatnaturalunit.Asthechildofthissoil,ourwell-evolvedsocietyhasbeenlivinghereforthousandsofyears.Thissocietyhasbeenknown,especiallyinmoderntimes,astheHinduSociety.Thisalsoisahistoricalfact.For,itistheforefathersoftheHinduPeoplewhohavesetupstandardsandtraditionsofloveanddevotionforthemotherland.Theyalsoprescribedvariousdutiesandriteswithaviewtokeepaglowinthepeople’smindforalltimetocome,alivingandcompletepictureofourmotherlandanddevotiontoitasaDivineEntity.Andagainitistheywhoshedtheirbloodindefenceofthesanctityandintegrityofthemotherland.ThatallthishasbeendoneonlybytheHinduPeopleisafacttowhichourhistoryofthousandsofyearsbearseloquenttestimony.ItmeansthatonlytheHinduhasbeenlivinghereasthechildofthissoil…

Whenwesay,‘thisistheHinduNation’,therearesomewhoimmediatelycomeupwiththequestion,‘WhatabouttheMuslimsandtheChristiansdwellinginthisland?Aretheynotalsobornandbredhere?Howcouldtheybecomealiensjustbecausetheyhavechangedtheirfaith?’ButthecrucialpointiswhetherTHEYrememberthattheyarethechildrenofthissoil.WhatistheuseofmerelyOURremembering?Thatfeeling,thatmemory,shouldbecherishedbyTHEM…Butthequestionbeforeusnowis,whatistheattitudeofthosepeoplewhohavebeenconvertedtoIslamorChristianity?Theyareborninthisland,nodoubt.Butaretheytruetoitssalt?Aretheygratefultowardsthislandwhichhasbroughtthemup?Dotheyfeelthattheyarethechildrenofthislandanditstraditionandthattoserveitistheirgreatgoodfortune?Dotheyfeelitadutytoserveher?No!Togetherwiththechangeintheirfaith,gonearethespiritofloveanddevotionforthenation.

Nordoesitendthere.Theyhavealsodevelopedafeelingofidentificationwiththeenemiesofthisland.Theylooktosomeforeignlandsastheirholyplaces.Theycallthemselves‘Sheikhs’and‘Syeds’.SheikhsandSyedsarecertainclansinArabia.Howthendidthesepeoplecometofeelthattheyaretheirdescendants?Thatisbecausetheyhavecutoffalltheirancestralnationalmooringsofthislandandmentallymergedthemselveswiththeaggressors.Theystillthinkthattheyhavecomehereonlytoconquerandtoestablishtheirkingdoms.Soweseethatitisnotmerelyacaseofchangeoffaith,butachangeeveninnationalidentity.Whatelseisit,ifnottreason,tojointhecampoftheenemyleavingtheirmother-nationinthelurch?…

EverybodyknowsthatonlyahandfulofMuslimscamehereasenemiesandinvaders.SoalsoonlyafewforeignChristianmissionariescamehere.NowtheMuslimsandChristianshavegrowninnumber.Theydidnotgrowjustbymultiplicationasinthecaseoffishes.Theyconvertedthelocalpopulation.Wecantraceourancestrytoacommonsource,fromwhereoneportionwastakenawayfromtheHindufoldandbecameMuslimandanotherbecameChristian.TherestcouldnotbeconvertedandtheyhaveremainedasHindus.Now,howdidtheyleavetheirancestralhome?Wasitoutoftheirownsweetwill,andoutofconvictionofthesuperiorityofthosefaiths?Well,historydoesnotrecordasinglenotableinstanceofthatsort.

Onthecontrary,historytellsusthatthereasonwasthefearoflifeorcoercionorthevarioustemptationsofpower,positionetc.,andthedesiretopleasethepowersthatbebyadoptingtheirwaysandcustomsandfinallyeventakingtotheirfaiths.Therewasalotofdeceptionalso.Apieceofbeeforaloaf

usedtobethrownintothewaterreservoirandthevillagers,ignorantofwhathadhappened,usedtotakethewaterasusual.Onthenextmorningthemissionaryorthemoulviwouldcomeanddeclarethatsincetheyhadusedthepollutedwatertheyhadalllosttheirreligionandtheonlywayleftforthemwastojoinhisfold!InthiswaywholevillageshavebeenconvertedtoIslamintheNorthandtoChristianityonourWestCoast.Thisisdeception,pureandsimple.Thusitwasthemadzealforincreasingtheirnumbersforpoliticaldomination.Itwasnotpropagationofreligion,butapoliticalstrategyunderthegarbofreligion.Theforeigninvadernotonlysubjugatedthempoliticallyandculturallybutultimatelyconvertedthemtohisfaith.Thattooisforeigndomination.Therearepolitical,economicandculturaldominationsandthisisreligiousdomination.

Itisourdutytocalltheseourforlornbrothers,sufferingunderreligiousslaveryforcenturies,backtotheirancestralhome.Ashonestfreedom-lovingmen,letthemoverthrowallsignsofslaveryanddominationandfollowtheancestralwaysofdevotionandnationallife.Alltypesofslaveryarerepugnanttoournatureandshouldbegivenup.Thisisacallforallthosebrotherstotaketheiroriginalplaceinournationallife.AndletusallcelebrateagreatDiwalionthereturnoftheseprodigalsonsofoursociety.Thereisnocompulsionhere.ThisisonlyacallandrequesttothemtounderstandthingsproperlyandcomebackandidentifythemselveswiththeHinduwayoflifeindress,customs,buildinghomes,performingmarriageceremoniesandfuneralritesandsuchotherthings.

TherearesomepeoplewhodeclarethattheyhaveachievedunityofHindus,Muslims,Christiansandallothersonthepoliticalandeconomicplane.Butwhylimittheonenessonlythere?WhynotmakeitmorewideandmorecomprehensivesoastofusethemallintheHinduwayoflife,inourdharma,andtakethembackaslostbrothers?Forthosewhospeakofunityonthepoliticalandeconomicplane,wesaythatwestandnotonlyforpoliticalandeconomicunitybutalsoforculturalandreligiousunity…

Todayweoftenhearourpoliticalleadersspeakingof‘nationalintegration’,‘emotionalintegration’andsoon.Butwhatisthat‘commonemotion’,thatcommonbasisonwhichallcancometogether?Whatarethoseeternallife-springsofournationallifethatgotomakeitunified,resurgentandglorious?

Inthefirstplace,thefeelingofburningdevotiontotheland,whichfromtimesimmemorialwehaveregardedasoursacredMatrubhoomi,

—inthesecondplace,thefeelingoffellowship,offraternity,bornoutoftherealizationthatwearethechildrenofthatonegreatcommonMother,

—inthethirdplace,theintenseawarenessofcommoncurrentofnationallife,bornoutofcommoncultureandheritage,ofcommonhistoryandtraditions,ofcommonidealsandaspirations,

—thistrinityofvaluesor,inaword,HinduNationalism,formsthebedrockofournationaledifice.

TheMuslimThreatForGolwalkar,IndianMuslimswereanunreliablefifthcolumn,who

threatenedtheunityandstrengthoftheHindunation.Hecountedthemasthechiefamongthreeenemies—theothers,asnoted,beingChristiansandcommunists.TheexcerptbelowtargetstheMuslimsinparticular.2

Ithasbeenthetragiclessonofthehistoryofmanyacountryintheworldthatthehostileelementswithinthecountryposeafargreatermenacetonationalsecuritythanaggressorsfromoutside.Unfortunately,thisfirstlessonofnationalsecurityhasbeentheonethingwhichhasbeenconsistentlyignoredinourcountryeversincetheBritishleftthisland.Wishfulthinkingbornoutoflackofcouragetofacerealities,mouthingofhigh-soundingslogansbythepersonsatthehelmofaffairstocoverupthetragediesovertakingusoneafteranother,andopportunisticalliancesofpartiesandgroupswiththehostileelementstofurthertheirnarrowself-interests,haveallcombinedtomakethethreatofinternalsubversiontoournationalfreedomandsecurityveryacuteandreal.

First,letustakethecaseofMuslims.Eventothisday,therearesomanywhosay,‘nowthereisnoMuslim

problematall.AllthoseriotouselementswhosupportedPakistanhavegoneawayonceandforall.TheremainingMuslimsaredevotedtoourcountry.Afterall,theyhavenootherplacetogoandtheyareboundtoremainloyal.’…

Havethosewhoremainedherechangedatleastafter[thepartitionofIndia]?Hastheiroldhostilityandmurderousmood,whichresultedinwidespreadriots,looting,arson,rapingandallsortsoforgiesonanunprecedentedscalein1946–47,cometoahaltatleastnow?ItwouldbesuicidaltodeludeourselvesintobelievingthattheyhaveturnedpatriotsovernightafterthecreationofPakistan.Onthecontrary,theMuslimmenacehasincreasedahundredfoldbythecreationofPakistanwhichhasbecomeaspringboardforalltheirfutureaggressivedesignsonourcountry.

Theiraggressivestrategyhasalwaysbeentwofold.Oneisdirectaggression.Inthepre-independencedays,Jinnahcalledit‘DirectAction’.ThefirstblowgotthemPakistan.OurleaderswhowereapartytothecreationofPakistanmaytrytowhitewashthetragedybysayingthatitwasabrotherlydivisionofthecountryandsoon.ButthenakedfactremainsthatanaggressiveMuslimStatehasbeencarvedoutofourownmotherland.Fromthedaytheso-calledPakistancameintobeing,wehavebeendeclaringthatitisaclearcaseofcontinuedMuslimaggression.TheMuslimdesireeversincetheysteppedonthislandsome1200yearsagotoconvertandenslavetheentirecountrycouldnotbearfruit,inspite

oftheirpoliticaldominationforseveralcenturies,becausetheconqueringspiritofthenationroseintheformofgreatandvaliantmenfromtimetotime,whosoundedthedeath-knelloftheirkingdomshere.Buteventhoughtheirkingdomslayshattered,theirdesirefordominationdidnotbreakup.InthecomingoftheBritishtheyfoundanopportunitytofulfiltheirdesire.Theyplayedtheircardsshrewdly,sometimescreatingterrorandhavoc,andultimatelysucceededinbrowbeatingourleadershipintopanickysurrendertotheirsinfuldemandofPartition…

Thesecondfrontoftheiraggressionisincreasingtheirnumbersinstrategicareasofourcountry.AfterKashmir,Assamistheirnexttarget.TheyhavebeensystematicallyfloodingAssam,TripuraandtherestofBengalsincelong.Itisnotbecause,assomewouldlikeustobelieve,EastPakistanisinthegripofafaminethatpeoplearecomingawayintoAssamandWestBengal.ThePakistaniMuslimshavebeeninfiltratingintoAssamforthepast15years.DoesitmeanthenthatfaminehasbeenstalkingEastPakistanallthese15years?TheMuslimsareenteringAssamsurreptitiouslyandthelocalMuslimsareshelteringthem.WhatelseisthisbutaconspiracytomakeAssamaMuslimmajorityprovincesothatitwouldautomaticallyfallintothelapofPakistanincourseoftime?Asaresult,thepercentageofMuslimstherewhichwasonly11%in1950,hasnowmorethandoubled…

Infact,alloverthecountrywhereverthereisamasjidoraMuslimmohalla,theMuslimsfeelthatitistheirownindependentterritory.IfthereisaprocessionofHinduswithmusicandsinging,theygetenragedsayingthattheirreligioussusceptibilitiesarewounded.Iftheirreligiousfeelingshavebecomesosensitiveastobeirritatedbysweetmusicthenwhydon’ttheyshifttheirmasjidstoforestsandpraythereinsilence?Whyshouldtheyinsistonplantingastoneontheroadside,whitewashit,callitaprayerspotandthenraiseahueandcrythattheirprayersaredisturbedifmusicisplayed?

NotSocialismButHinduRashtraIn1962,afterIndia’shumiliatingdefeatatthehandsofChina,Golwalkar

arguedthatthenation’sweaknesswasaconsequenceofitsinsufficientcommitmenttoaHinduethos.Inthefollowingexcerpthejuxtaposesthe‘foreign’ideologyofsocialism,upheldbyhispoliticaladversary,JawaharlalNehru,tothe‘indigenous’modelofnationalism.ItisbasedonspeechesdeliveredinsouthIndiainNovember1963.3

…Ourgreatleadersarequiteintelligentandeducated.Theyalsorealizethatwithoutahighideal,therecanbenoinspirationforthepeopletowork.Hencetheytoohaveplacedanidealbeforethepeople.Intheirview,allthatisoldismereignorantcredulousnessandsuperstitionandonlythatwhichismoderndeservestobeanideal.Tothem,allthatcomefromEuropeandAmericaaremodern.IfitisRussian,thenitmustbeultra-modern!Butsinceeverythingofourlandisoldandancient,itisretrogressiveandhenceunworthyoftheirconsideration.Andso,theylookedtotheWestforsomeideal.Themostmodern‘ism’ofalltheWestern‘isms’being‘Socialism’,ourleadersoptedforitastheidealtobeplacedbeforeourpeople.Thelogicofthesevotariesofmodernismissimplywonderful!Anythingnew,i.e.,modernmustbesuperiortothingsofold.Themerefactofitslaterbirthgivesathinganinherentsuperiority!Sofromthatpointofview,deathissuperiortolife!For,doesnotdeathfollowlife?Likewise,anysonisgreaterthanhisfather!…

Now,letusseeifSocialismcanbeanidealforourcountry.Firstlyitisnotaproductofthissoil.Itisnotinourbloodandtradition.Ithasabsolutelynothingtodowiththetraditionsandidealsofthousandsofyearsofourhistory.Thatiswhyitisthoughtalientothemillionsofourpeoplehere.Assuchitdoesnothavethepowertothrilltheirhearts,andisincapableofinspiringthemtoalifeofdedicationandcharacter.Thusweseethatitdoesnotpossesseventheprimaryqualificationtoserveasanidealforournationallife.

Further,theveryideaofSocialismwasborninrankselfishness,inaspiritofenvyandhatred.IntheEuropeancountries,theushering-inofdemocracypracticallysynchronizedwiththecomingoftheindustrialage.Indemocracy,allpeoplehadequalopportunities.Thosewhoweregiftedwithmoreintelligenceandmoreabilitypounceduponalltheseindustrialdevelopmentsofscienceandbecameextremelyrich.Withtheirriches,theyalsocontrolledtheGovernmentstoanextentandthusbecamevirtuallymastersofthepeople.Therestofthepeoplehadonlytogrudge,havingbeenreducedtothepositionofslaves.Theycouldnotbeartoseeotherpeopleenjoyingtheirwealthwhentheythemselves

couldnotgettwosquaremeals.So,aspiritofenvyburntinthemandtherefore,theyroseagainstthatsystemtoensureabetterdistributionofwealth.ThisishowSocialismwasborn.

Thisisnottosaythattheprevioussystemwasinanywaygood,orthatthecommonmassofpeopleshouldhavecontinuedtosubmitmeeklytotheoppressionoftherich.Farfromit.Democracy,whichwasbornasareactionagainstthedespotickingshipofthosetimes,hadfastenednewchainsinplaceofold.Thehighsoundingconceptof‘individualfreedom’meantonlyfreedomforthetalentedfewtoexploittherestofthecommonpeople.Thatwas,indeed,anunbearablesituation.ButSocialism,whichwasborninthatcontext,wasagainamerereactionsolelyinspiredbyhatredtowardstheexploitingclass.Thenlateronpoliticalphilosopherscameforwardandsaid,‘No,no,thisisnotmerelyhatredandselfishness.Thisisthedialecticsofmaterialism,thisissocialjustice’.Alltheseexternalget-uptogiveadecentlookwereaddedlateron.However,itsentiretheoryisbasedonhate—classhatredandclassconflict.Thus,bornandbasedonthesolemotiveforceofhateandenvy,itcannotbeexpectedtobuildupgoodcharacterinanyhumanbeingfollowingthattheory…

Sowehavetofindoutaproperidealwhichbeatsinourhearts,throbsinourblood,andwhichhasbeenwithusforgenerations.Itisnouseplacingbeforethepeopleaformlessspiritasanideal.Itmaybeallrightfortheenlightened.Butordinarymenlikeusrequireanidealwhichwecaneasilysee,understandandexperience.Thenonlywilleveryonedevelopinhimselfadevotionforthatideal,andtheambitiontoleadalifeofpurecharacterwillberousedinhisheart.SuchanidealisourNationhood—thegreat‘HinduRashtra’.Now,manyofourleadersareemphasizinganumberof‘isms’.Buttheone‘ism’thattranscendsthemallisthereal,thorough-going‘nationalism’andthatnationalism,initspristinepurity,isourideal.TheHinduRashtraisthereforeourideal.

‘IamapartandparcelofthisRashtra.Forgenerations,myforefathershavebeenstrivingtodotheirmiteforthepropagationofthisgreatnationallife.Iwillalsodomyutmostforthesamepurpose.’Thisisthenaturalattitudewehaveinherited.But,thisattitudewehaveallowedtobeforgotten.Wehavetoforgetthisforgetfulness,reawakeninourselvesadominantunderstandingandloveforournationallifeandbuilduponthatsurefoundationourstrengthtomeetthechallengeofthetimes…

We,theHindus,havebeenlivinghereasthechildrenofthisland.Welovethislandasourmother.Ithasprotecteduslikeafather.Itisinthisholyatmosphereofourlandthatourforefatherswereabletounravelthemysteriesof

existenceandrealizetheUltimateRealitywhichiscalledbyvariousnames.Nothingcanbeholiertousthanthisland.Everyparticleofdust,everythinglivingornon-living,animateorinanimate,everystreamandreservoirisholyforus.Thistrainingisbeinggivenherefromtimesimmemorial,fromgenerationtogeneration.Whenachildtramplesonthegroundinplay,themothersays,‘DonotkicktheMother-Earth,dearchild’.Orifanailisdrivenintotheearth,shesays,‘Oh,no!dearchild,Motherwillbepained’.Suchisourtradition.Thisisnotamerelipexpression.Ithasbeendevelopedinusasanexperienceinourdailylife…

Buttoday,therearepeopleinourcountrywhocontemptuouslyconsiderthisconceptofmotherlandasameaninglessconceptbelongingtoabygoneage.Theyconsiderthemselvestobeintellectualsandprogressives.Sofarasweareconcerned,we,outofgratitude,calleverythingthatsupportsandbringsusup,asmother.Thewomanwhogavebirthtousisourmother.Thelife-givingriverisourmother.Thecowthatnourishesusbyherlife-juicerightthroughourlivesisourmother.Infact,thisfeelingisasignoftrueblossomingofculture,asignofexpansionofmind.WhatadivineandsublimeoutlookofminditistoviewthewholecreationasamanifestationoftheGreatMother!Butforsome,intellectiseverything.Theyforgetthatevenintellectualreasoninghasgotalimit.Forinstance,thehumanbodyisafterallmaterial.Thebodyofone’smotheralsoisasmuchmaterialasanyotherbody.Thenwhyshouldanyoneconsiderhismotherasdifferentfromotherwomen?Whyhavedevotionforher?Anintellectualhasnoanswerforthis.Takeanotherinstance.Thehumanbodyrequiresforitsnourishmentstarch,protein,fat,saltandwater.Andthesefoodcontentsarereadilyavailableinhumanflesh.Afterall,biologicallymanisnothingbutblood,fleshandbones.So,whynoteatupourneighbour?Butifaperson[talks]likethis,hemaybecalledascholarlylogician,butcertainlynotacivilizedman.Suchintellectualismleadsonlytocannibalism…

Itisthereforethatwehavetorevitalizethatlovewhichwillmakeussay,‘Everyinch,everyparticleofourmotherland,wewilldefendwithourlife-blood.Ourforefathersdidit,wewilldoit’.Thisdeterminationmustthrobintheheartofeveryoneofus.Day-inandday-out,inourwakefulconditionorinourdeepsleep,whatevertheworkweareengagedin,thismustbethesupremeideatospurusontoeveryactivity.Weareherchildren.Wehavebeenherchildrenforthousandsofyears.ItiswewhosaythatSheisourMother.ItiswewhosaythatSheisourDharmaBhumi,KarmaBhumi,PunyaBhumi,MokshaBhumi,PitruBhumiandMatruBhumi.TheBhumiistheholiesoftheholyforus.

Beforethisevenheavenhasnocharmsforus.This,weHindushavesaid.Whoelse?…

Andagain,wehavetorealizeonemoretruth,thatweHindushavebeenanationinthefullestsenseofthetermallalong.Wehavehadanideal,torealizetheUltimateTruth…Awholegalaxyofgreatpeoplehavebeenbornfromtheveryancienttimesrightuptothisday,whohavebeenequallyworshipfultoallofusbecausetheyhavesetbeforeustheideallifebywhichmancanattainthehighestgoalofhumanexistence.Wehaveourinterestsjoinedtooneanother.Wehavethesamefriendsandfoes.Alltheimpressionsthatwehavefromourpasthistoryarecommoninourhearts…

IthasbeeninourheartsfromtheverybeginningthatthisisourHinduNation.Wearenowadaystryingtoforgetit,sayingthatitisacommunalandnarrow-mindedidea.HadwefromtheverybeginningemphasizedthatthisisHinduRashtra,wewouldhaveknownhowtobehavewiththerestofthepeopleandhowtowinthemoverfortherebuildingofthisHinduRashtra.Butwegaveupthistruth.Wethoughtthatwecoulddowithoutthistruth.Thatiswhywearetodayfacetofacewithalltheevilsatpresentinfestingourlife.

ThisidealoftheHinduRashtra,wehavetoplacebeforeourpeople.Theyfeelitinourblood.Andtherefore,ifweplacethisideaofdevotionfortheHinduRashtra,thenforthepurposeofservingthisgreatnationalexistenceinwhichallofthemhavebeenlivingfromgenerations,theywillcurbtheirselfishness,becomemenofcharacterandbeabletostandfoursquarebeforethepresent-daydangerswhichthreatenourveryexistence.

ChapterSeventeen

TheIndigenousSocialistRammanoharLohia

Fromitsbeginningsin1925,theRashtriyaSwayamsevakSanghhadsetitselfinoppositiontotheCongress.ItsawthatpartyastoosympathetictotheMuslimsanditsleadersastooappreciativeoftheWest.ItstayedapartfromthecampaignsagainstcolonialruleconductedbytheCongress.OurnextmakerofmodernIndia,ontheotherhand,wasforverymanyyearsamemberoftheIndianNationalCongress.AfterIndependence,however,heleftthepartyandbecameanuncompromisingcriticofthepoliciesoftheparty’sleaderandthecountry’sprimeminister,JawaharlalNehru.

ThisrebelandhereticwasnamedRammanoharLohia.Lohiawasbornin1910inthetownofFaizabad,inpresent-dayUttarPradesh,intoafamilyofhardwaremerchants.HewaseducatedinBombay,wherehepickedupMarathi;inCalcutta,wherehelearntfluentBengali;andinBanaras,wherehemayhavebeenmostcomfortable,sinceHindiwashismothertongue.Bythetimehereachedhisteens,hewasaconvincednationalist—thusin1928,hetookpartindemonstrationsagainsttheall-whiteSimonCommissionforconstitutionalreforms.

LohiathenwenttoBerlinforhigherstudies.WatchingGandhi’sSaltMarchfromafar,hewroteadoctoraldissertation,inGerman,ontheeconomicsofsalt.HissupervisorwasthegreatsociologistWernerSombart(theauthorof,amongotherworks,aclassicstudyofwhytheUnitedStateshasnoindigenoussocialisttradition).LohialeftGermanyjustastheNaziswerecomingtopower.Hadhestayed,hewouldsurelyhavefallenfoulofthenewrulersonpolitical,ifnotracial,grounds.

LohiareturnedtoIndiain1934,ananti-imperialistandsocialist.HewasanearlyrecruitintotheCongressSocialistParty.In1936LohiabecamesecretaryoftheCongress’snewdepartmentofforeignaffairs,wherehebecameveryinterestedinthefateofIndiansoverseasandinfreeingtheenclaveofGoafromPortugueserule.

Lohiawasjailedin1940forhisspeechesagainstBritishrule.Twoyearslater,hebecameaherooftheQuitIndiamovement,operatingundergroundforayearandninemonths,issuingpamphletsandlettersfromhissecretlocations.HewasfinallyarrestedinBombayinMay1944andtakentoLahoreFort,wherehewastorturedandkeptinsolitaryconfinement.Releasedin1946aspartofageneralamnesty,hewenttoGoatocampaignforitsfreedom.Hewasarrested,torturedanddeportedbacktoBritishIndia.

AfterIndiabecameindependent,thesocialistsinthepartylefttheCongresstoformtheirownorganization.In1952theSocialistPartymergedwiththe

KisanMazdoorPrajaParty(foundedbytheveteranGandhianJ.B.Kripalani)toformthePrajaSocialistParty(PSP).Lohiaservedbrieflyasgeneralsecretary.In1955aradicalgroupledbyhimleftthePSP.Thetwofactionswerereunitedin1964toformtheSamyukta(orUnited)SocialistParty(SSP).In1965thepartysplitagain—Lohia’sgroupkepttheSSPlabel,whilehiscriticsstartedafreshPSP.

InandoutofBritishjails,RammanoharLohiawasalsoarrestedseveraltimesinindependentIndia—foropposingtaxlaws,forenteringtherestrictedareasoftheNorthEastFrontierAgency(NEFA)withoutavalidpermit,forprotestingariseinprices.Once,in1964,hewasevenarrestedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,fordefyingthelawsofracialsegregationinMississippiandenteringtheall-whitesectionofahotel.

Afterseveralunsuccessfulattempts,LohiaenteredtheIndianParliamentthroughaby-electionin1963.Here,hemademanyprovocativespeechesagainsttheCongressandagainstNehruandhislegacy.HebelievedthattherulingpartyanditsleadershaddeliberatelydistancedthemselvesfromthepeopleofIndia,economically,linguisticallyandsartorially.Theywereanewelite,brownincolour,butwhiteinlanguage,customsandmanners.

Ontheeconomicfront,Lohiawasacriticofbothcapitalismandcommunism.Heargued,precociously,forathirdway,foranewpoliticalandeconomicsystembasedonthedecentralizationofpoliticalpower,ontheuseofsmall-scaletechnologyandonfulfillingthebasicneedsofthepoorratherthanonthecreationofwealthperse.

Lohiawasbothbrilliantandsectarian.Hiscriticswithinthesocialistmovementaccusedhimoffosteringapersonalitycultaroundhimself.Onecanseehim,withqualifications,asanIndianTrotsky—scholarly,wellread,articulateinmanylanguagesandwithadeepinterestinliteratureandthearts.LikeTrotsky,heattractedtheattentionanddevotionofmanygiftedwritersandartists.LikeTrotsky,formuchofhislifehewasmarginalizedbypoliticianshebelievedtobegreatlyinferiortohimself.Therewasonenotabledifference,however—whileTrotskywasunashamedlyelitist,Lohiaaffectedaloveofthepopularandthedemotic.

RammanoharLohiadiedin1967,agedfifty-seven.

CasteandClassIn1956LohiaandB.R.Ambedkarmettodiscussthepossibilityoftheir

partiescollaboratingforthenextyear’sgeneralelections.Unfortunately,Ambedkardiedsoonafterwards.But,asthefollowingexcerptshows,Lohia’sthoughthadmuchincommonwithAmbedkar’s,notablyinitsidentificationofcaste,ratherthanclass,asthechieforganizingprincipleofIndiansociety.Inthisessayof1958LohiabrilliantlyanalysedthecontinuingholdofthehighercastesinindependentIndia.1

…Casteshaveenduredoverthousandsofyears.Theyhavebredcertaintraitsandaptitudes.Somekindofaselectionhastakenplacethatissociallyassignificantasanaturalselection.Certainskillsoftrade,craft,husbandryoradministrationorhandlingofprincipleshavebecomehereditary.Arealbreak-throughisalmostalwaystheworkofagenius.Withsuchcaste-wisedeterminationofskills,onemightexpectgreatadvantagestoflowoutofsuchage-longselections.Thatwouldhavebeensoifallskillsfetchedanequalsocialstatusormonetaryreward.Theyobviouslydonot.Someskillsarebelievedtobeunbelievablysuperiortoothersandthereisaninterminableseriesofstepsintheladder.Castesofinferiorskillsaredowngraded.Theycongealintoanalmostlifelessmass.Theyceasetobethereservoirfromwhichthenationmayrefreshandrenewitself.Numericallysmallcastesofthemostsuperiorskillsarethehabitualprovidersofthenation’sleadership.Inordertomaintaintheirmostunnaturaldominance,theybecomeaseethingmassofchicanerybutsurfaciallymostsmoothandcultured.Themassesarelifeless,theelitearechicane.Castehasdonethat…

Thesystemofcastesisaterrifyingforceofstabilityandagainstchange,aforcethatstabilisesallcurrentmeanness,dishonourandlies.Anunholyfearprevails,lestifsomemeannessorlieweretotumble,thewholestructuremighttopple.Post-freedomIndiaisbutastrictcontinuanceofBritishIndiainmostessentialways.TheIndianpeoplecontinuetobedisinherited.Theyareforeignersintheirownland.Theirlanguagesaresuppressedandtheirbreadissnatchedawayfromthem.Allthisisdonefortheallegedsakeofcertainhighprinciples.Andtheseprinciplestieupwiththesystemofcaste,thegreatchasmbetweenthefewhighcastesandthefourhundredmillionofthelowercastes.Thesehighcastesmustmaintaintheirrule,bothpoliticalandeconomicand,ofcourse,religious.Theycannotdoitalonethroughthegun.Theymustinstilasenseofinferiorityintothosewhomtheyseektogovernandexploit.Thistheycanbestdobyturningthemselvesintoaselectcastewithspeech,dress,manners

andlivingofwhichthelowercastesareincapable.TheattitudeofIndia’spoliticalpartiesisgovernedbythissupremeconsiderationofhavingtoinstilacomplexofinferiorityamongthemassofthepeople.Peoples’languagesareundeveloped,theirhousingandgeneralstylesoflivingincapacitatethemfromgoodorgreatactionandtheirmindisnotworthconsidering.Somustthehighcastesweavethenetofillusion.CurrentpoliticalopinionsinIndia,becausetheyreflectthefalseandunnaturalinterestsofthehighcastes,arenotworthyofconsideration.

Thepoliticalbehaviourofthelowercastesisamazing.Whytheyshouldbecomeawillingpartofthisconspiracyisbeyondunderstanding.Onereasonisclearenough.Castegivestheminsurance,indeed,onlessthanananimallevel,morethanitdoestothehigh-castes.Theywouldfeelhelplesswithoutit.Ofttimes,onegetstheimpressionabouttheselowercastesasthoughtheirstrenuouslabourofthedaywerebutapreparationforthecastefeastsandritualsthataretofollow.Theyaretherealthingandallelseisbutashadow.Anythingthatinterfereswiththemmustappeartothemashighlyundesirable.Theyhaveinfactlegendsandmythsthatjustifytheirlowlysituationandtransformitintoasymbolofsacrificeandlustre.TheKahars,variouslyknownasMallahs,Kaivarts,Naviks,whoprobablynumbermorethanacrore,tellstoriesabouttheirmythicalancestors,whoweresimple,ungreedy,braveandgenerousandwholosttootherancestorsofKshatriyasandotherhighcastesbecauseoftheirgreatergreed,wilinessanddeceit.Takenso,theircurrentlifeofmiserymustappeartothelowercastesasanunendingsuccessionofsacrificialactsforthesakeofhighprinciples…

Thepoliticalbehaviourofthelowercasteswouldappeartobealittlelessinexplicableontheassumptionthatalongtraditionofideologicalsubjectionhasmadethemstagnate.Thisassumptioniswhollyfounded.Centurieshaveinstilledintothemameekacceptanceoftheexisting,aversiontochange,stickingwiththecasteintimesofadversityasofgoodluck,andthesearchforhighlifethroughworship,ritualsandgeneralpoliteness.Thiscanchange.Infact,thismustchange.TherevoltagainstcasteistheresurrectionofIndiaor,shallwesay,thebringingintobeingofauniqueandahithertounrealisedoccasion,whenIndiashallbetrulyandfullyalive.Issucharevoltpossible?Scholarsmay…denyit.Menofactionwillcontinuetoaffirmit.Somehopeofsuccessarisesatthepresenttime.Theattackoncasteisnotsingle-barrelled.Itdoesnotclimaxintoashrillcrydevoidofaction.Itisinfactaspoliticalasitissocial.Fromthepoliticalattackoncaste,inthesenseofdrawingthenation’sleadershipfromall

thecastesinthecountry,maycomethatrevolutionwhichgivestoallIndiansocietythesolidarityandreinsurancenowgiventosmallergroupsbycaste.

ElsewheremaybefoundextractsfromtheConstitutionandtheannualreportoftheCalcuttaClub.2ThisclubisthetopmeetinggroundoftheCalcuttabourgeoisie,whichisthelargestsegmentoftheIndianbourgeoisie.Itsmainactivitycentresaroundwinebibbing,whileitspatronisthePresidentoftheRepublic.India’sRepublicispledgedtothepolicyofprohibitionwithveryconsiderablepolicerepressionasaconsequenceincertainareas.ThatthePresidentofanalcohol-repressingrepublicshouldbethepatronofanalcohol-drinkingclub,isameasureofthefraudandperfidywhichIndia’shighercastesarepractisinguponthecountryandthemselves.ThePresident,butmoresothegovernmentwhichadviseshim,areguiltyoftreasonagainsttherepublicinayetmoremajorway.EuropeansinIndiaareoneinthreethousandandmoreofthepopulation.OfCalcutta’spopulation,theyaresurelynomorethanoneinfourhundred.TheyenjoyfargreatercomfortandsecuritythananysectionofIndia’spopulation.Andyettheyareaccordedequalrepresentationonthecommitteeofthisclub.Thisequalityofrepresentationisguaranteedbytheclub’sstatutes.TheclubcontinuestothinkthatEngland’smonarchstillrulesIndiathroughherviceroy,althoughthePresidentoftheRepublicisitspatron.Somemaybeinclinedtopassthisoverasarelicofthepastwhichhasescapednotice.Theseactsareinrealitytheresultofdeliberatedesign.India’sbourgeoisieiseverimperilled.Avastseaofmiserablehumanitysurgesaroundit.Itclutchesatallkindsofsymbolsoldandnewandallkindsofauthoritybothsubstantialandemptyinordertokeepitselfafloat.India’shighercastesandtheirgovernmenthavethereforetopractisecontinuallytreasonagainsttheirRepublic…

ForeignrulesettheHinduagainsttheMuslim,butthatdoesnotruboutthediscordwhichnativereligionshadcreatedinthecountry.Thepolicyofdivideandrule,whichgovernmentspursue,mustfastenonalreadyexistingelementsofdivision.BritishruleinIndiahadmadeuseoftheelementofcasteinthesamemannerthatitmadeuseoftheelementofreligion.Asthedivisiveforceofcastewasnotnearlyasstrongasthatofreligion,theeffortmetlimitedsuccess.TheMarathaPartyinWesternIndiaandalsothatoftheScheduledCastes,theJusticePartyintheSouthandthemission-ledblockofAdivasisinEasternIndiawerefruitsofthiseffort.TothemmustalsobeaddedtheblockofnativeprincesandbiglandlordsinEasternIndia,whichfollowedtheleadofforeignruleand,duringitslastdays,appeareddiscreditedbeyondrecovery.

AtthetimetheBritishmadethiseffort,theywerejustifiablycondemned.

Foreignrulehabituallyaccentuatesandwidensdifferences;itdoesnotcomposethem.Itmustbecondemned.Butsuchcondemnationdoesnotremovethegroundonwhichdifferencesoriginateandthrive.BritishrulehasendedbutthecastepartiesthatitgavebirthtohavecontinuedintofreeIndiaandareenjoyingfreshaccessofstrength.TheWorkersandPeasantsPartyandtheRepublicanPartyofWesternIndia,theDravidaMunetraKazhagamofSouthIndiaandtheJharkhandPartyofEasternIndiaalongsideoftheGanatantraandJanatapartiesarenotonlyregionalpartiesbutalsocasteparties.Infact,theyrepresentandembodyregionalcastes.Theseregionalcastesaredecisivelynumerousintheirarea.TheAdivasisofChhotaNagpurarethelife-bloodoftheJharkhand,theMaharsoftheRepublicans,theMarathasoftheWorkersandPeasants,theMudaliarsbutalsoothernon-BrahminsoftheDravidaMunetra,andtheKshatriyas—thoughnotnearlyasmuch—oftheGanatantraandtheJanata3…

ThecastesthatwanttoformtheMaratha,JusticeorScheduledCastepartiessufferedill-treatmentfromsociety.TheBritishrulersmadeuseofthissenseofgrievanceandinjury,averybaduseindeed,buttheydidnotandcouldnothavecreatedit.Thatiswhytheproblemhaspersisted.Insomecases,thecastethathassufferedtheinjuryandthatwhichhascausedithavechangedplaces.Butthatdoesnotsolvetheproblemofinjury.Furthermore,numberlesscasteshaveyettomakethemselvesvocalandeffectiveandaretodaycontenttoplayapassiveorasubsidiaryroletothecontendinggiants.Thisisthechiefsourceofinjuryandinjustice.

Thepoliticalinter-playofcasteshasunfoldeditselffascinatinglyinMaharashtraandthedramaisnotyetover.Until1930andalittleafter,theMaharashtrascenewasbafflinglysimple,anditsbackdropwasBrahminversustherest…TheMarathawasthespearheadoftherevoltagainsttheBrahmininMaharashtraalthoughotherdowngradedcastesassistedhiminvaryingdegrees.Therevoltwaspro-Britishinthebeginning,becausetheBrahminswereonthewholeanti-British,butthenationalistmovementprovedstrongenoughtoabsorbit.TheMarathaenteredthepartyofnationalism,theCongressParty,andalmosttookitover.Thephenomenonofcasteexclusionwaswitnessedagain,withtheroleschanged.Ontheonehand,theBrahminbegangraduallytolosehismonopolyofpoliticalpowerand,ontheother,theMarathadidnotsharehisnewfoundauthoritywiththeotherdowngradedcastes…They[theMarathas]provedtobeasgreedyforpowerandmonopolisticasany.Theyusedtherevoltofthedowngradedcastesfortheassertionoftheirownsupremacyandnotforthedestructionofcastesassuchandtheinjusticethatgoeswiththem.Everand

everagain,therevoltofthedowngradedcasteshasbeenmisusedtoupgradeoneoranothercasteratherthantodestroytheentireedificeofcaste…

Theexclusionofthehighcastefrompoliticalpowerdoesnotnecessarilyimplytheirexclusionfromeconomicandothertypesofpower.Inthefirstplace,suchpoliticalexclusionhasnowherebeentotal,notevenintheSouth.TheBrahminshaveinrecentyears,asthesolerepresentativesofthehighcaste,beenincreasinglyeliminatedfromlegislativeandadministrativepowerinTamilnad.Evenso,theystilloccupyafantasticallyprivilegedposition.Althoughonlyfourpercentofthepopulation,theirshareinthegazettedservicesoftheadministrationmustbearoundfortypercent.Atonetime,itwasnearlyseventypercent.Asecond,moreremarkable,developmentistheacquisitionofeconomicpowerbytheTamilBrahmin.HehasincreasinglybeenbuyingupMountRoadfromtheretiringBritish.Itwouldthereforebenotcorrecttodescribethehighcastesintermsofanygeneraldeclineortobemoantheirfateinanypartofthecountry…

Threedistincttypesofoppositiontocastemaybenoted,onewordy,thesecondlow-levelandmixed,andthethirdreal.Thewordyoppositionistheloudestinrespectofsuchgeneralizedcondemnationofcasteasleavestheexistingstructurealmostintact.Itcondemnsthecastesystemaswhollyevil,butwouldequallycondemnthosewhoresorttoactivestepstodestroythesystem.Itsanctifiestheprinciplesofrisingstandardsoflivingandofmeritandequalityofopportunityassolventsofcaste.Raiseeverybodyeconomically;giveeverybodyanequalopportunity!Sosaythesefalseadvocatesofdestructionofcaste,asthoughrisingstandardsandopportunitieswouldberestrictedtothelowcaste.Wheneverybodyhasanequalopportunity,casteswiththefive-thousand-year-oldtraditionsofliberaleducationwouldbeontop.Onlytheexceptionallygiftedfromthelowercasteswouldbeabletobreakthroughthistradition.ThisiswhatIndia’spoliticalparties,Congress,CommunistandPrajaSocialists,underMr.Nehru’sleadershiphaveinmind.Theywouldwantmenandwomenofexceptionalabilityfromthelowercastestojointheirranks.Buttheywouldwantthestructureasawholetobekeptintact.Theyarethemselvesdrawnoverwhelminglyfromthehighercastes.Theyhavenohesitationindenouncingtheircasteorthedistinctionofhighandlowcastes,solongastheirsocialgroupbasedontraditions,abilityandmannersisleftunaffected.Ifanybodyqualifiesinabilityandmannersfromamongthelowercastes,heiswelcome.Buthowmanywouldqualify!Veryfew.Itwouldbethebattleoffivethousandyearsofoppressivetrainingandtraditionagainstanindividualtalent.Onlythegeniusor

theexceptionallyablewouldwininthisbattle…Avested-interestsocialismtalksofpoliticalandeconomicrevolutionalone,

meaningtheawardofincreasedwagesorbonusonthelowestlevelandthedestructionofprivatepropertyinfactoriesandthelikeonthehighestlevel.EvenintheEuropeofchangingclasses,sucharevolutionwouldkeepintactthedistinctionbetweenmanualworkersandthosewiththebrain.In[an]Indiaoffixedcastes,thisdistinctionwouldspellruintothehealthofsociety.WorkerswiththebrainareafixedcasteinIndiansociety;togetherwiththesoldiercaste,theyarethehigh-caste.Evenafterthecompletedeconomicandpoliticalrevolutiontheywouldcontinuetosupplythemanagersofthestateandofindustry.Themassofthepeoplewouldbekeptinastateofperpetualphysicalandmentallowliness,atleastcomparatively.Butthepositionofthehigh-castewouldthenbejustifiedongroundsofabilityandineconomictermsasitisnowongroundofbirthortalent.ThatiswhytheintelligentsiaofIndiawhichisoverwhelminglyhigh-caste,abhorsalltalkofamentalandsocialrevolution,ofaradicalchangeinrespectoflanguageorcasteorthebasesofthought.Ittalksgenerallyandinprincipleagainstcaste.Infact,itcanbemostvociferousinitstheoreticalcondemnationofcaste,solongasitcanbeallowedtobeequallyvociferousinraisingthebannerofmeritandequalopportunity.Whatitlosesinrespectofcastebybirth,itgainsinrespectofcastebymerit.Itsmeritconcerningspeech,grammar,manners,capacitytoadjust,routineefficiencyisundisputed.Fivethousandyearshavegoneintothebuildingofthisundisputedmerit.Atruedoctrineofequalopportunitywouldhavetoundotheworkoffivethousandyearsbygivingpreferentialtreatmenttothelowercastesoveraperiodofatleastafewdecades…

Onnoaccountdothehighcastescomprisemorethanone-fifthofIndia’spopulation.Buttheykeeptothemselvesalmostfour-fifthsofthenation’sleadership.Inrespectofthetopleadershipofthefourmaindepartmentsofnationalactivity—business,army,highcivilservicesandpoliticalparties—thehigh-casteseasilycomprisefour-fifths…Whenmorethanfour-fifthsofanation’svitalleadershipistraditionallyselectedfromamongone-fifthofitspopulation,astateofatrophyisboundtoensue.Four-fifthsofitspopulationsinksintoastateoflistlessnessandinefficiency.Thenationissickandcontinuallyonthepointofdeath.Torevitalizesuchanation,adesignedselectionofleadershiphastobemade.Atleasthalforsixtypercentofthenation’stopleadershipmustbeselectedbydesignfromamongthelowercastes.Thisneednotbedonebylaw.Ithadbetterbedonethroughapurposeful

understanding…[T]heattempttorevitalizethenation’sleadershipintermsofcastemustbemadeagainandagainuntilitsucceeds…

Thefirstwordywaroncaste,ledbytheDwija,4isevenlymatchedbythesecondemptystruggleagainstcasteledbyselectSudragroups.AmongtheSudras,certaincastesarenumericallypowerful,evenoverwhelminginsomeareas.Theageofadultfranchisehasplacedpowerintheirhands.SomecastesliketheReddysandMudaliarsofsouthIndiaandtheMarathasofwestIndiahavemadeuseofit.They,andnottheDwija,arethepoliticaloverlordsoftheirareas,though,evenherethehigh-castehasstrengthenedhiseconomicgripandismakingmostcleveranddeceptiveeffortstostageapoliticalcomeback.Thisispossiblechieflybecausetheseareemptystrugglesagainstcaste.Theydonotchangethesocialorderinthesenseofmakingitmorejust,mobileoractive.Theydonotgivepowertoallthelowercastes,butonlytothelargestsinglesectionwithinthem.Theydonotthereforedestroycaste,butmerelycauseashiftinstatusandprivileges.Someofthetrappingsofthehigh-castebelongingtotheBrahminorVaishyaarestrippedoffthemandpatchedontotheMarathaortheReddy.Thissolvesnoproblem.Rather,itdisgustsalltheotherlowercastesandenragesthehighcaste.Caste,withallitsdebilityandsomemoreofitsirritations,remains…

Sectionalelevationisdangerousinyetanotherway.Thoseamongthelowercasteswhorisetohighpositionstendtoassimilatethemselvestotheexistinghighcastes.Inthisprocess,theyinevitablyappropriatethebaserqualitiesofthehigh-caste.Everybodyknowshowthelowercastes,ontheirrise,tendtosegregatetheirwomen,whichagainisaqualitynotofthetophigh-castebutofthemediumhigh-caste.AlsothelowercastesthatrisebegintowearthesacredthreadoftheDwija,whichhassolongbeendeniedtothembutwhichthetruehighcastehasbegundiscarding.Allthishasanadditionalresultofperpetuatingthedistinction.Furthermore,sucharisedoesnotcauseageneralfermentamongthelowercastes.Therisenarealienatedfromtheirowngroups;insteadoffermentingtheirownoriginallowergroupstheyseektobecomepartofthehighercastestowhosepositionstheyrise.Thisprocessofanextremelysectionalandsuperficialrisegivesbirthtoanothermisfortune.Thelevertotheriseissuppliednotbythecultivationofgoodqualitiesortalentbutbythearousingofbittercastejealousiesandtheplayofintrigues…

ThisbringsustothethirdandtruestruggleagainstcastenowontheagendaofIndia’shistory.Thisstruggleaimstopitch-forkthefivedowngradedgroupsofsociety—women,Sudras,Harijans,MuslimsandAdivasis—intopositionsof

leadership,irrespectiveoftheirmeritasitstandstoday.Thismeritisatpresentnecessarilylow.Thetestsofmeritarealsosuchastofavourthehigh-caste.Whatlongagesofhistoryhavedonemustbeundonebyacrusade.Theinclusionofallwomen,includingDwijawomen,whichisbutright,intothedowngradedgroupsofsocietyraisestheirproportiontotheentirepopulationto90%.Thisvastseaofsubmergedhumanity,nineoutofeverytenofIndia’smenandwomen,hasdrowsedintosilenceor,atbest,someroutinenoisesofseeminglife.Economicandpoliticaluplift,byitself,mayputsomefatontheirleanlimbs.Arestorationofself-respectthroughtheabolitionofcaste,ofcourse,whenitgoessidebysidewitheconomicuplift,canrousethemintotheactivityoffullmenandawakenedpeoples.Letitnotbeforgottenthatthehigh-castes,Dwija,havealsosufferedgrievouslyfromthisatrophyofthepeople,[for]theireducationandculturehides,undertheveneerofgoodspeechandmanners,thedeadlypoisonofthelieandself-advancementthroughdeceit.Acrusadetoupliftthedowngradedgroupswouldrevivealsothehigh-caste,wouldsetrightframesandvalueswhicharealltodayaskew.Thiscrusademustneverbeconfusedwiththeniggardlyawardofpreferentialpositionstoafewscoresamongthelowercastes.Thisonlyirritatesthehigh-caste.Ahowlgoesup.Itdoesnotatallfermentthelowercastes.Whatmattersifadozenortwoofthelowercastesareaddedtothehigh-casteoligarchyofseveralthousandsinanysphereoflife?Thereisneedtoaddthembythehundredandthethousand.Thatwillturnintoacrusadewhatistodayonlyavote-catching,quarrel-makingandjealousy-inspiringdevice…

Thispolicyofupliftofdowngradedcastesandgroupsiscapableofyieldingmuchpoison.Infact,caremayonlymitigatesomeoftheworstaspectsofthepoison;itcannotbetotallyeliminated.Afirstpoisonmaycomeoutofitsimmediateeffectsonmen’sminds;itmayspeedilyantagonizetheDwijawithoutasspeedilyinfluencingtheSudras.Withhisundoubtedalertnesstodevelopmentsandhiscapacitytomislead,theDwijamaysucceedinheapingdirectorindirectdiscreditonthepractitionersofthispolicylongbeforetheSudrawakesuptoit.Secondly,thecolossiamongthelowercastesliketheChamarsandAhirsmaywanttoappropriatethefruitsofthispolicywithoutsharingthemwiththemyriadotherlowcastes,withtheresultthattheBrahminandChamarchangeplacesbutcasteremainsintact.Thirdly,thepolicymaybemisusedbyselfishmenamongthelowercastesforindividualadvancement,whomayadditionallyuseweaponsofintrigueandcastejealousies.Thiswouldrendsocietyfurtherapartandsubjectittogrosserselfishnesswithoutbringingitanybenefitsofweakeningandexpansion.Fourthly,everysinglecaseofelectionor

selectionbetweenaSudraandDwijamaybecometheoccasionforacrimoniousexchanges.Thebaserelementsamongthedowngradedcasteswoulduseitasaconstantweapon.Intheirover-weeningdesiretoeliminatetheparticularDwijaagainstwhomtheyareranged,theywouldintotalseektooustallDwijasortofilltheairwithdarkersuspicionswhentheyfail…

Suchisthepoisonthatthispolicymaybringforth.Continualawarenessofthispoisonmaycheckitingreatmeasure.Butthefearofthepoisonshouldnotblindustothemiraculouspowerofthispolicytocreateandcure.Indiawillknowthemostinvigoratingrevolutionofherhistory.Thepeoplewillhavebecomealiveasneverbefore.Shemayalsohaveindicatedintheprocessalessonortwotomankind.KarlMarxtriedtodestroyclass,withoutbeingawareofitsamazingcapacitytochangeitselfintocaste…Forthefirsttime,anexperimentshallhavebeenmadeinthesimultaneousdestructionofclassandcaste.

Theyounghigh-castemustnowrisetohisfullmeasure.Insteadofseeinginthispolicyanattackonhisinterest,heshouldviewitforitscapacitytorenewthepeople…Theyounghigh-castemustdecidetoturnhimselfintomanureforthelowercastes,sothatthepeoplemayforonceflowerintotheirfullyglory.Ifhumannaturewerecapableofinfinitesacrifice,wewouldhavethehigh-castebecomeadvisers,whiletheexecutivesarealllow-caste.Ifthisisnotpossibleeverywhere,letitbesoinasmanyplacesaspossible.WithfaithinthegreatcrucibleofthehumanraceandequalfaithinthevigourofalltheIndianpeople,letthehigh-castechoosetomingletraditionwithmass.Simultaneously,agreatburdenrestsontheyouthofthelowercastes.Nottheapingofthehigh-casteinallitstraditionsandmanners,notdislikeofmanuallabour,notindividualself-advancement,notbitterjealousy,butthestaffingofthenation’sleadershipasthoughitweresomesacredworkshouldnowbethesupremeconcernofwomen,Sudras,Harijans,Muslims,andAdivasis.

BanishEnglishInthe1950sLohiacalledfortheformationof,amongotherthings,a‘Caste

AbolitionCommittee’,a‘PriceFixationCommittee’andan‘EnglishRemovalCommittee’.HesawEnglishasaforeignlanguage,promotedbytheIndianelitemerelytofurthertheirinterests.HeoncetimedanEnglishRemovalconventiontocoincidewiththevisitoftheBritishmonarch,QueenElizabeththeSecond,toIndia.ThefollowingexcerptsexplainwhyhewasopposedtoEnglishbeingusedinadministrationandasamediumofinstructioninschoolsandcolleges.5

Inourowncountry,Ioftenfeel—andperhapsyoutoofeelthatway—asifwehavebeenevictedfromourfieldsandhomesandthatsomeintruderhasusurpedthelandsandwe,therealoccupants,arethrownoutwringingourhandshelplesslyindespair.Onecanreconciletosuchanuglysituationafterhavingfailedtosettleone’slandarrearsoranswerone’sdebts.Butwhensuchaconditionisintriguedandforcedupononethroughforgeddocumentsandbook-manoeuvring,itisagraveassaultonjustice.Indiatodayfacessuchanimpossiblesituation.Sittingtightonthehighpedestalofofficesthetopmenadvocatea‘go-slow’policyregardingtheremovalofEnglish.Havingbeendeprivedofallourbelongings,wehavebecomestrangersinourownhomes.Thetenyearsofourfreedomhavecommittedustoaveryparadoxicalsituation.TherealownersofthesoilhavebeenestrangedandaforeignFuhrerwithallhismightandauthoritylordsoverus…

Youareanemployeeinthetramways,youorganizeyourownunions.Butwhatisthelanguageinwhichyoucarryonyoureverydayworkandcorrespondence?ObviouslyEnglish.Buthowmanyamongyou,9,000workmen,knowthisforeignlanguage?Problemsconcerninglabouraretalkedfromtheplatformanddiscussedinthepressonbehalfofthelabour,inamediumwhichaworkerisunabletounderstand.AllIndianlanguagesareoutlawed.Thishasitsattendantevil.Aleadershipishardlyevolvedfromamongtherankandfileoftheworkersthemselves.Thustheveryrootsarecut,nottheearthaloneonwhichacommonwage-earnerstandsandaspirestouseitasaspring-boardtoleadership.Companymanagement,tradeunionandcivilservicehaveconspiredintoatriplealliance.Intimesofemergency,theyunitetheirforcestothwartthejustclaimsoflabour.ThistripleleagueisboundtocontinueitsoppressionoverthemaslongasEnglishcontinues.

Iftheentireadministrativeworkofthegovernmentanditsintellectualactivitiescontinuetobecarriedoninthelanguageoftheminoritythenwhoseinterestswillsuchagovernmentdefend?Onwhichsidewillitlean?Outof40

crores,Englishhastouchedafringeof40lakhIndiansonly.Thegovernmenthasitseyessetonthisprivilegedclassof40lakhs.Towardstherestithasturneditsback.Theproblemsthatconcernthe40croreunderdogsgoneglected,theirneedsremainunanswered.Whatmatterstothegovernmentaretheinterestsof40lakhswhichaloneseemtoassumeanallIndiacharacterand,hence,nationalimportance.

ProblemsrelatingtopricesoffoodgrainsandhungerwillremainunsolvedwhileEnglishcontinuestothriveontheIndiansoil.Thebureaucracytillthatdatewillstandatthebeckandcalloffortylakhsalone.Thedumbmasseswillneverattractitsattentionandtheircriesshalleverfallonitsdeafears.Atleastacroreoracrore-and-a-halfinhabitantsofthissubcontinenttaketheirdailydipinthewatersoftheGangaandtheKaveri.Anotherfiftylakhsdependfortheirdrinkingwaterontheirperennialstreams.Butisnottheirwaterpollutedbytheguttersthatdrainthecities?Andyetthereisnoonetotakeupthisissue.Totheadministrativebossesthesearebutminorproblemsandofnoconsequence.RepresentativesofthefortylakhEnglish-versedaristocracyareenthronedinpower.ThebanishmentofEnglishwillbetheirdethronement.Forthesedrowningbig-wigsEnglishservesasalaststraw.TheyknowwellthatwiththeremovalofEnglish,thegovernment,thelawoftheland,thetradeunions,publicinstitutionsandtheleadingmenwillhavetotakecognizanceofthefortycrores.Thiswouldmeanagreatrevolution.Itwillshaketheveryfoundationoftheirfeudalempire.Take,forinstance,thedefenceservices.WhatarethenecessarymeritsforanIndiansoldiertoriseabovetherankofacolonel?Undoubtedly,itisnotbeingconversantintheartofwarfare,butathoroughproficiencyin[the]Englishlanguage.TheabilitytodictatenotesinEnglish,theadeptnesswithwhichonecanconverseinEnglishatthediningtableandtheeasewithwhichonecanholdtheknifeandtheforkaresomeofthefewdecisivefactors.Notgallantry,nay,nottheknowledgeofwarfare,butthemereacquaintanceoftheEnglishlanguage,isthesolecriterion…

Letusnowcometotheproblemofthebelly.Whodominatetheeconomiclifeofthecountrytoday?AnoverwhelmingmajorityofIndiansuse‘neem-sticks’andcharcoalpowdertocleantheirteeth.Whoaregenerallytheconsumersoftoothpaste,automobiles,facepowder,creamandothercosmetics?Newspapersoverflowwiththeiradvertisements.InmodernIndia,thesaleofthesefashionablearticlesofuseisconfinedtothefortytofiftylakhsofEnglish-educatedpeople.Asectionoftheruralpopulationinthecitiesmayswellthisfiguresayatthemosttoacroreorso.Itistomeettheneedsofthesefashionable

peoplethatourdailypressadvertisersdisplaytheirwares.Itisnowlefttoyouandyourjudgmenttodecidewhichwaytheeconomiclifeofthenationreallymoves.Whetherinthesphereofproductionorthatofconsumption,theeconomiclifeofthenationstandstunedtothislimitedsectionoffortylakhs.Theproblemsofthesefewbecometheproblemsofall.

Thesefortylakhsprovideafertilesoilforthegrowthofleadershipofallpoliticalopinions.Theseleadersareatthehelmofaffairsofallpoliticalparties.Thisexplainsthereactionaryandconservativenatureoftheirleadership.ModernizationisthecryofIndiatoday,itisahighandlaudableideal.Thisprivilegedclassoffortylakhssupportedbytheleadershipinvariouspoliticalgroupsisunanimousinitsviewandvoice—thisisanindicationofitscorruptandreactionarymind—thatthesaleofthesearticlesofluxuryshouldnotonlybemaintainedbutfurtherencouragedsimultaneouslywiththeretentionandpropagationofEnglish.Thesetwotrendsareheadingthenationtowardsruination.Thefortycroreswillhavetobealert.Theymuststandfirmtotheirgroundandforgeaheadtowardsarevolution…

Manyaridiculousargumentisheardinthisrespect.OneofthemisthatBengali,Hindi,Marathi,Tamilandseveralothernativelanguagesarestillundeveloped.They,therefore,cannotgiveusup-to-dateideasandinformation.Awell-developedWesternlanguagethusbecomesindispensable.Suchapleaisuntenable.ComparedwithFrench,Indianlanguagespossessatreasurefourorfivetimesricher.ThevocabularyofHindiorBengaliistwiceasrichasthatofEnglish.WiththehelpofSanskrittheselanguagesyieldaninexhaustibleminetocoinnewwords.Admittedly,thereisonemarkeddifference.Inthelastcenturyandahalf,Westernlanguageshaveacquiredaprecisevocabulary,depictingallspecificshadesandhues.Indianlanguagesarestillwantinginthisquality.Theircoinagesuffersfromalackofstabilityandprecision.ItiswrongtosaythatknowledgecannotbeimpartedthroughIndianlanguages.IftheRussianscientistsweretolearnEnglishobligatorily,perhapstheworldwouldnothaveheardoftheSputnik…

AnIndianchildisdrivenmadrightfromtheageoffiveandhesuffersthisdisabilitythroughouthislife.Overburdenedwiththelearningofaforeignlanguage,hehardlyreachesthecoreofasubjectandattainsdepth.Ouruniversityscholarssufferasimilarfate.Theyhavebeenreducedintobeastsofburden.Thisisclearlyshownbyacontrastwithotherpeoples.ScientistsofRussiaandJapanarenotburdenedwiththetaskofacquiringaforeignlanguageandsotheirknowledgeofsubjectsbecomesdeepsothattheyareenabledto

makegreatdiscoveriesandinventionsonthestrengthofsuchknowledge.Weshouldunderstandthedifferencebetweenthelearningofalanguageandtheknowledgeofasubject.IfthechildinIndiaisrelievedfromthisburdenoflearningaforeignlanguage,hisknowledgewillbewidenedanddeepened,undoubtedly.

RescuetheIndianschoolboy,hismindandbody,fromtheinhumanburdenofEnglish…Englishisacompulsorysubjectinoureducationalcurriculum.Amajorityofcandidatesfailinitandtheircareersareshipwrecked.Whatacolossalwasteofnationalwealthandtime!Launchinganation-widecampaigninJulyandAugustyou6mustfranklyproclaim,‘RidourmindsoftheimpedimentofEnglish.Wewanttoacquireknowledgeinsubjects.Thatishowwecanbuildastrongnation.’…

2500millionsoulsinhabitourplanet.300millionoutoftheseknowEnglish.SomepeopleareinfatuatedbyamiragethatEnglishwillbecometheinternationalvehicleofthoughtandcommerce.Suchwill-of-the-wisphashauntedpeopleinalltimes.Inthe19thcentury,itwasbelievedthatFrenchwasaninternationallanguage.IntheatomicagetherearesomewhoclaimthatplaceforEnglish.Inthe8thand9thcenturiesworldopinionmighthaveattributedsimilarcredittoArabic.TwothousandyearsagoSanskritwouldhavebeenthechoice.Theriverhaschangeditscourse,renderingthebridgeofEnglishuseless.Russianlanguageisalsomakinghugestrides.Thedownstreamofpublicopinionisflowingtowardsit.Aftersometime,Russianlanguagewillflauntthesameclaim.TheclashbetweenEnglishandRussianmayleadtoadualrace.ThatEnglishwillrisetothelevelofaninternationalmediumisamyth.

ChapterEighteen

TheGrass-RootsSocialistJayaprakashNarayan

Foundedin1934,theCongressSocialistPartyhadaformalexistenceuntiltheQuitIndiamovementof1942.InthisbriefperioditnurturedagroupofmenandwomenwhowentontoplaypivotalrolesinthepoliticsandcultureofindependentIndia.However,thecontributionsofthesocialiststendtobeunderplayedinIndianhistoriography,whichhasbeendominatedbyschoolsowingallegiancetotheofficialCongressmovementandthecommunistsrespectively.TheCongresshasbeeninpowerformuchoftheperiodsinceIndependence;whereasMarxismhasbeenhegemonicwithintheacademy.Theonehasofferedpatronagetoscholars;theother,theseductionsofanoppositionalworldviewwithglobalramifications.Thelong-defunctCongressSocialistscanofferneither;withtheconsequencethatthebrillianceandoriginalityoftheirworkandthoughthashadnotrumpeters—withinthecommunityofprofessionalhistorians,atanyrate.

ThisbookhasalreadypaidtributetotworemarkableCongressSocialists—KamaladeviChattopadhyayandRammanoharLohia.Wenowturntoathird,JayaprakashNarayan.NarayanwasborninruralBiharin1902,intoafamilyofKayasths,scribeswhohadtraditionallyworkedasofficials,teachersandlawyers.Narayan’sownfatherworkedinthestateirrigationdepartment.TheboystudiedinavillageschoolandwasthensenttoPatna,wherehematriculatedwithdistinctionin1918.

In1920NarayanmarriedPrabhavati,daughterofaGandhian,whohadbecomeadiscipleoftheMahatmaherself.Whenthenon-cooperationmovementstarted,heleftcollegefollowingitscall,attractingtheangerofhiscareer-mindedparents.However,themovementwascalledoffafterprotesterssetfiretoapolicestationintheUnitedProvincesinFebruary1922.Soonafterwards,Gandhiwasjailed.TheyoungNarayanwasgreatlydisillusioned,sincefreedomhadnotcome,aspromised,withinayear.Atthisstage,afriendinAmericasuggestedthatheovercomehisdisappointmentbygoingtostudythere.

Sointhesummerof1922NarayansetoutfortheUnitedStates.Hespentsevenyearsinthatcountry,studyingsuccessivelyatuniversitiesinCalifornia,Iowa,WisconsinandOhio.Tomakeendsmeet,hedidavarietyofoddjobs,cleaninggrapesinavineyardandwashingdishesinarestaurant.Thiswashisfirstexperienceofmanuallabour,whichsurelywouldneverhavecomehiswayhadhestayedbehindinIndia.AttheUniversityofWisconsin,then(asnow)acentreofprogressivethinking,hebecameasocialist.Hisstudiesconfirmedhispoliticalorientation,sincethesubjectshespecializedinweresociologyandpoliticalscience.

In1929Narayanwasawardedamaster’sdegree.HewantedtocarryonforaPhDbut,learningthathismotherwasseriouslyill,chosetoreturnhome.AshisbiographersAllanandWendyScarfewrite,‘JayaprakashreturnedfromAmericatoIndiaconvincedthatthecentralproblemofhumansocietywasinequalityofwealth,property,rank,cultureandopportunity.’

OncomingbacktoIndiaNarayanwasreunitedwithhiswife.ShewasnowpartofGandhi’sinnercircle,whichposedaparticularproblem—namely,thatshehad,athermaster’sinstance,takenavowofcelibacy.TherewereotherreasonswhyGandhiwasnotsoappealingtoNarayan.HesawhimasaneconomicconservativeandwasattractedrathertothemodernismandsocialismofJawaharlalNehru.UnderNehru’sguidance,NarayanjoinedtheCongressandurgedthepartytotakeamoreactiveinterestintheproblemsofindustriallabour.

Narayanwasarrestedin1932duringthecivildisobediencemovement.Injailhecameintocontactwithcommunists,whoseworshipofaforeigncountry(Russia)disgustedhim.Hesoughtwithhisfriendstomarrysocialismwithpatriotism,anendeavourthatresultedintheformation,whentheywerereleasedfromjailin1934,oftheCongressSocialistParty.

Nowknownbythediminutive‘JP’,Narayanwasarrestedagainin1941.InNovember1942heescapedfromHazaribaghJailandwentunderground.Fromhisvarioushidingplacesheissuedaseriesofletterscallingforasocialistrebellion.HetravelledincognitoallovernorthIndia,spenttimeinNepal,andwasfinallydetectedandarrestedinSeptember1944.LikehisfriendRammanoharLohia,hewasdispatchedtoLahoreFort,tortured,butreleasedattheendoftheSecondWorldWar,aspartofadealbetweentheCongressandthegovernment.

In1948,JPhelpedformthenewSocialistParty.Heservedasthepresidentofall-Indiaunionsofrailway,postalanddefenceworkers,thusbeing,ineffect,theleaderofmorethanamillionmen.AftertheCongressdefeatedallcomersinthe1952elections,NehrucalledNarayanfortalkstoexplorethepossibilityoftheSocialistsrejoiningtheCongress.Thetalksfailed,butbythistimeJPwaslosinginterestinpartypoliticsaltogether.HehadbecomeincreasinglyattractedtotheprogrammesoftheGandhianVinobaBhave,whowascampaigningforrichlandlordstodonate,tothepoor,excessland(bhoodan)and,wherepossible,entirevillages(gramdan).Narayanwasinspiredtodoajivandan,namely,toofferhisownlifetotheserviceofthissocialmovement.HewasalsoreconsideringhisapproachtoGandhi,whonowappealedtohimforhisadvocacyofvillageself-ruleandhiscritiqueofgreedandmaterialismin

economiclife.Throughthe1950s,JPtouredthevillagesofBihartryingtogetlandforthe

landless.Inthe1960sthisactivitywascoupledwithattemptstoreconcilethepeopleofIndia’sborderlandstotheIndianConstitution.Allthroughthisperiodhekeptintouchwithpoliticiansandpolitics,writingfrequentlytoJawaharlalNehru,and,whenshebecameprimeministerin1966,tohisdaughterIndiraGandhi.HealsoremainedincontactwithhisoldsocialistfriendswhowereintheOpposition.

Aftertwodecadesinsocialservice,Narayandramaticallyre-enteredpoliticsin1974toleadanall-IndiamovementagainstthegovernmentofIndiraGandhi,whichhe(andhisassociates)heldtobecorrupt,authoritarianandindifferenttotheneedsofthepoor.WhenastateofEmergencywasdeclaredinJune1975,NarayanwasarrestedalongwithotherOppositionpoliticians.Hewasreleasedafterafewmonthsowingtohisill-health(hehadaseriousdiabeticcondition),butremainedunreconciledtotheruleofIndiraGandhi.WhenelectionswerecalledinMarch1977hecampaigned,despitehisageandill-health,foranowunitedOpposition.Thisnew‘JanataParty’cametopowerwithJP’sblessings,butitsdisintegrationintorivalfactionsdeeplydisheartenedhim.HediedinOctober1979.

InthehistoriographyofmodernIndia,JayaprakashNarayanisrememberedchieflyforhisheroicroleinthe1942QuitIndiamovementandhisleadership,thirtyyearslater,ofthe‘Indira,Quit’movement.Thisisbecauseprotestandoppositionhaveacertainglamourattachedtothem.Itmaybe,however,thatNarayan’squiet,patientworkatthegrassrootsshallbeofmoreenduringsignificance.Thatiscertainlytheviewofthiswriter,whohas,forthisanthology,disregardedhisfieryandangryspeechesof1942and1974infavourofhismorereflectivewritingsofthe1950sand1960s.

APleaforPoliticalDecentralizationIn1959JayaprakashNarayanpublishedatractadvocatinganalternative

politicalsystemforIndia,basedontherevivalandrenewalofthevillagecouncil,orpanchayat.Thissystemwouldinvertthetop-downmodelofparliamentarydemocracybyworkingfromthebaseupwards.Narayan’sschemewasanelaborationofGandhi’sideaofoceaniccircles,outlinedinChapterThirteen.Narayan’sproposalswereignoredatthetime,butinthe1990saConstitutionalamendmentmandatedthecountrywidecreationofamodifiedschemeofPanchayatiRaj,orvillageself-government.Theemphasesintheexcerptthatfollowsaretheauthor’s.1

…Thefoundation[ofourpolity]mustbeself-governing,self-sufficient,agro-industrial,urbo-rural,localcommunities.ThehighestpoliticalinstitutionofthelocalcommunityshouldbetheGeneralAssembly—theGramSabha—ofwhichalltheadultsshouldbeconsideredmembers.TheselectionoftheExecutive—thePanchayat—shouldbebygeneralconsensusofopinionintheSabha.Thereshouldbeno‘candidates’,i.e.,nooneshould‘stand’foranypost.Thereshouldbeclear-cutqualifications,asinancienttimes,laiddownforallselectiveposts.Noindividualshouldholdthesamepostformorethanadefinedperiodoftime.Thepanchayatshouldfunctionthroughsub-committees,chargedwithdifferentresponsibilities.ThereshouldbenoofficialormemberappointedornominatedbytheStategovernmentinthepanchayatoritssub-committees.

Itmaybequestionediftherecaneverbeageneralconsensusofopinionamongstvillagerswhoaredividedintocastesandfactionsandhaveconflictinginterests.WehaveseenalreadyhowforthousandsofyearsthevillagesofIndiaelectedtheirexecutivecouncilsbygeneralagreement.Thosevillageswerebynomeanshomogeneousandidealcommunities.Therefore,thereisnoreasontobelievethattheexperienceofcenturiescannotberepeatedagain.Wemayalsorecallthattheonlyalternativemethodofelectionofvillagecouncilsorpanchayatswasthatofdrawinglots.Thereisnothingundemocraticinselectionbylots…Therefore,Iamemphaticallyoftheviewthatthevillagesshouldbegivenanoptiontochoosebetweenthemethodsofselectionbygeneralagreementorbydrawinglotsor,alternatively,itmightbeprovidedthatthevillagesfirsttrytheformermethod,andfailingthereintakerecoursetothelatter…

Thequestionmayalsobeaskedifthevillagepanchayats,astheyaretoday,wouldbeabletofunctioninthemannervisualizedabove.Thereisnobetterwaytoteachtheyoungexceptbygivingthemresponsibility.Inthesamemannerthe

onlywaytomakethevillagesself-governing,self-reliantandself-sufficientistothrowuponthemrealresponsibilities.TherewasatimewhentheIndianvillagerepublicswereself-created,liketheSwisscommunesandtheirpowersandfunctionswerenotgiventothemfromabove.Butinthepresentconditionstheyhavetobere-createdbyadeliberateandboldprocessofdevolutionanddecentralization,ifIndiandemocracyhastohaveafirmbaseandlivingreality.Ibelievethattheresponsibilitygiventothegramsabhaandthepanchayatshouldbeinthingsthatreallydomatter.Forinstance,itshouldbetheresponsibilityofthegramsabhaanditspanchayattoensurethatnooneinthevillagewentwithoutfood,clothingandshelter;nochildwentwithoutprimaryeducation;everyonereceivedprimarymedicalcare.Thesabhaandpanchayatshouldseethatthevillagebecameself-sufficientinthematteroffoodandclothingassoonaspossible.Further,theyshouldsoplanthatwithinfiveyears,letussay,therewasnounemploymentinthevillageandeveryfamilyreachedaminimumstandardofliving.Self-government,tobereal,shouldbeaboutessentialproblemsoflife…

Thedevelopmentoftherestofthepolityneednotwaittillthevillagesandtownshipsbecomerealcommunitiesasvisualizedhere.Ourworkmustbeginatalllevelssimultaneously,otherwiseitwillnotsucceedatanylevel.

Thenextlevelofthepoliticalstructurewouldobviouslybethatoftheregionalcommunity.Here…thegrampanchayatswillhavetobeintegratedintothePanchayatSamiti…[T]henatureandfunctionsoftheSamitishouldbethoseofanautonomousself-governingcommunity…theSamitishouldhavepowersandobligationstodoallthatmaybewithinitscompetence.

ThereisoneimportantpointwhichIwishtoemphasiseinconnectionwiththeformationofthepanchayatsamiti.Thesamitishouldbeelectedbythegrampanchayatsandnotbytheirmembers.Thisatfirstmightappeartobeadistinctionbetweensixandhalf-a-dozen.Butthatisnotso.Wehavehereamajorprincipleofcommunallifeinvolved.Itisthegrampanchayatasabodythatrepresentsthevillagecommunityandnotitsmembers.Thepanchayatsamiti,initsturn,isarepresentativeofthegrampanchayats,anditisthelatterthatshouldberepresentedassuchandnottheirmembers…

[T]hepoliticalstructurewouldrisestoreybystoreyfromthefoundation.ThenextstoreyabovethepanchayatsamitiwouldbethatoftheDistrictCouncil(orwhatevernamebegiventoit),whichwillbeformedbytheintegrationofthepanchayatsamitisofthedistrict—againthesamitis,assuchelectingtheirrepresentativesandnottheirmembers.Thedistrictcouncils,intheirturn,should

haveallthepowersandobligationsnecessarytodoeverythingthatmaybewithintheircompetence.

InasimilarmannerallthedistrictcouncilsofaStatewouldcometogethertocreatetheStateAssembly.TheStateAssemblies,inlikemanner,wouldbringintobeingtheLokSabha.Thusthepoliticalinstitutionateachlevelisanintegrationofalltheinstitutionsatthelowerlevel…

MyaimhereisnottowriteanewConstitutionforIndia.Ihavetriedmerelytodiscusssomeunderlyingprinciplesandtoindicatethegeneralpatternofthesocialandpoliticalorganization.However,itmaybeusefultodealwithafewpointsofdetailbywayoffurtherclarification.

First,letmetakethequestionoftheExecutiveatthedifferentlevels.AtthePrimaryCommunitylevelthePanchayatistheexecutive:itmight

allotdifferentexecutivefunctionstoitsindividualmembersortosmallcommittees.

AttheRegionalCommunitylevel,thePanchayatSamitiistheexecutivebodyanditwouldfunctionthroughcommittees.

AttheleveloftheDistrictCommunity,theDistrictCouncilwouldbetheexecutivebody,anditwouldalsofunctionthroughcommittees.

AttheleveloftheProvincialCommunity,thePrantaSabhawouldappointcommitteeswhichwouldbetheexecutivebodies,responsibletotheSabha.

Likewise,attheleveloftheNationalCommunity,theRashtraSabhawouldappointcommitteeswhichwouldbetheexecutivebodies,responsibletotheSabha.

Whowouldexercisethelegislativepowers,itmaybeasked.Accordingtomyconception,eachcommunityhaspowerstomakerulesandlawsinordertomanageitsinternalaffairs,providedtheydonotconflictwiththeinterestofothercommunitiesatthesamelevelandwiththerulesandlawslaiddownbythecommunitiesathigherlevels.Thehighercommunalbodieswilllegislateintheirallottedspheres.Rulesandlawsmaybepassedbyothercommunalbodiestoo,suchaseducationalandeconomicassociations.

Thecommitteesshouldbesmall,workablebodieswithpowerstoco-optexpertswhowouldparticipatefullybutwithouttherightofvote.

Eachcommitteewouldhaveachairmanandasecretary,but,apartfromperformingthefunctionsoftheiroffice,theywouldenjoynospecialpowersorprivileges.

Eachcommitteewouldbedirectlyresponsibletothegeneralbodywhichwouldappointit.

Inordertoco-ordinatetheworkofthedifferentcommittees,therewouldbeaCo-ordinatingCommittee,constitutedofonerepresentativefromeachcommittee:therepresentativemaybethechairman,secretaryoranymemberofthecommitteeconcerned.ThedecisionsoftheCo-ordinatingCommitteewouldbebindingoneveryothercommittee.

Uptothedistrictlevel,theco-ordinatingcommitteewouldbethepanchayat,thepanchayatsamitiandthedistrictcouncil,whichwouldmeetatfixedtimes.

Everycommitteewouldhavecollectiveresponsibility.Therepresentativecommunalbodieswouldmeetperiodically,butthe

committeeswouldbeinperpetualsession.Matter[s]ofpolicywouldbedecidedupon,onthemotionofacommitteeor

anindividualmember,bytherepresentativebodiesconcerned.Thecommitteeswouldexecutethepolicies.

ItshouldbeclearfromthisthatattheProvincialandNationallevelstherewouldbenoMinisters,ChiefMinistersorPrimeMinisterasatpresent.Asstatedabove,governmentwouldbeconductedbycommitteesoftherepresentativebodies.TheinstitutionofPrimeMinisterandChiefMinister,whichconcentratestoomuchpowerintothehandsofsingleindividuals,isundemocraticandsmacksofthegun-powderoftotalitarianism.Itfurtherleadstosuchdangerouspsychologicaldevelopmentsasthe‘hero-cult’orthe‘cultoftheindividual’.

ThePresidentofthedifferentrepresentativecommunalbodieswillhavenoadministrativefunctions.Butitwouldbehisresponsibilitytoseethattherepresentativebodyofwhichheispresidentfunctionsproperlyandaccordingtotheruleslaiddown.Hewouldalsohaveextraordinaryemergencypowersincaseofthebreak-downofthedemocraticapparatusofthecommunityconcerned.

ThePresidentoftheRashtraSabha,inadditiontothepowersmentionedinthelastpara,wouldalsobetheCommander-in-ChiefofthearmedforcesandresponsibletotheSabhaforthedefenceoftheNation.Hewouldbeassistedbyacommitteefordefence,ofwhichhewouldbethechairman.

IntheirtaskofadministrationtheCommitteeswouldbeassistedbypaidCivilServants.AteachlevelthecivilservantswouldbeappointedbythecorrespondingAuthoritycreatedforthatpurposebytherepresentativebodyconcernedandontermslaiddownbythelatter.Thiswillbeasovereignrightofthecommunities:toappointanddismissitsservants.Attheleveloftheprimarycommunitythecivilservantmightbeanhonorary,part-timeorfull-timevolunteer.Evenathigherlevelstheremightbehonorarycivilservants.

Itshouldbepointedoutherethatbecauseofthedecentralizedpatternofthe

social,politicalandeconomicorganization,theadministrationwouldnotbetop-heavyandfar-removedfromthepeopleasatpresent.

Inthelightoftheabove,itmightbeusefultoturnforamomenttowhatisperhapsoneofthemostseriousproblemsofthepresentday:theproblemofbureaucracyandcorruption.Somethinkthatonesolutionofcorruptionisdictatorship.Butevendictatorshipisnosolutionofbureaucracy.Tothecontrary,weknowthatdictatorshipbreedsbureaucracyfasterthanothersystemsofgovernment,and,inthebargain,makesitall-powerful.

Evenasregardscorruption,itisnotgenerallyrealizedthatthereiscorruptiononagiganticscaleinthedictatorships—onlyitsformischanged.Insteadofcorruptioninthesenseofbriberyandthelike,thereisgrossercorruptionintheformoflying,deceit,intrigue,terror,enslavementofthehumanmind,crucificationofthedignityofman.Allthiscorruptshumanlifefarmorethanbriberyandsimilarthings.

Theonlytruesolutionoftheproblembothofbureaucracyandcorruptionisdirectself-governmentofthepeopleanddirectandimmediatesupervisionandcontroloverthecivilservantsbythepeopleandtheirelectedorgans.Intheprimarycommunities,asIhavesaidabove,thereneedbenopaidcivilservants.Inthelargercommunitiesthecivilservantwouldbedirectlyunderthecontrolandsupervisionofthecommunalbodyconcerned.Further,itwouldobviouslybeintheinterestofthecommunitiestokeepthecostoftheadministrationaslowaspossible.So,therewillbeanaturalcheckonproliferationofthebureaucracy.Thusasself-governmentdevelops,thecivilservantbecomeseitherunnecessaryorsubjecttotheimmediateelectedauthority.

Theremay,however,beonedangerinallthis.Ifthecommunalrepresentativebodiesandtheirmembersthemselvesbecomecorrupt,therewouldbelittlecheckoncorruptioninthisschemeofthings.Iadmitthatitisquitelikelythatinthebeginningitmightwellbeso,butIrefusetobelievethatsuchasituationcouldlastlong.Iftheresponsibilitywerereallythrownuponthepeoplesothattheycouldseeclearlythattheirsufferingwasduetothefactthattheyhadchosenthewrongtypeofpeopletomanagetheiraffairs,therelationshipbetweenthepeople,theirrepresentativesandcivilservantswouldbesointimateanddirectthatitshouldnottakelongforthepeopletoremedythesituation…

Itisnotpossibleinthispapertoconsiderwhatdepartmentsofadministrationaretobeentrustedtowhichcommunity.Ihaveemphasizedthegeneralprinciplethateverycommunitywouldhavepowerstodoallthatmaybewithinitsnatural

competence.Sincethereisgeneralinertiaamongthepeopleatpresent,thismaynotbemuch.Powerswouldhavetobe‘given’fromabove.IshouldthereforesaythatIwouldtakecourageinbothhandsandgivetothecommunitiestheutmostpowerspossible.Someofthepowersmightnotbeused,somemightbeabused.Butthepeoplewouldlearnanditwouldbethejobofthevoluntarysocialworkerstohelpthemtolearn.

Ishouldthereforesaythatpolice,justice,taxation,collection,socialservices,planning,shouldallbedecentralizedtothemaximumpossibleextent.Asthepeoplelearnandacquireself-confidence,theprocessofdecentralization,insteadofstartingfromabove,wouldbenormalizedandbegintooperatefrombelow.

Anewpoliticalstructureliketheoneenvisagedherewillnotbebuiltinaday,iffornothingelse,forthereasonthatthefoundationwillhavetobelaidfirstandthestructurebuiltfrombelow,storeybystorey.Theeconomicstructuretoowouldhavetobebuiltalongwith[it].Allthiswouldtaketime,sotherewillhavetobeaperiodoftransition.

Villagepanchayatshavebeenestablishedinthegreaterpartofthecountry.Thesehavetoberemodelledaccordingtotheprinciplesputforwardinthispaper.

ThenextstagewouldbetheestablishmentofPanchayatSamitis.Thishasalsobeenstartedalready,suchasinRajasthan.Butagaintheconceptionbehindithastoberadicallychanged.

Whenpanchayatsamitisareestablished,theDistrictCouncilswouldhavetobeconstituted.

Theeconomicinstitutionswouldalsohavetobeorganizedsidebyside.Planningandthewholesystemofeducationwouldhavetobere-oriented…ThepicturedrawnhereofthepolityforIndia,andofsocialorganizationin

general,mightperhapsappeartobeidealistic.Ifso,Iwouldnotconsiderthattobeadisqualification.Anidealcannotbutbeidealistic.Thequestionisiftheidealisimpractical,unscientificorotherwiseill-conceived.Ihavetriedintheprecedingpagestoshowthatallrelevantconsiderationsleadirresistiblytowardsit.

Theachievementofthisidealwould,however,beacolossaltask.Thousands,perhapshundredsofthousandsofvoluntaryworkerswouldbeneededover[a]numberofyearstoaccomplishit.

Thegovernmentsshouldlendtheirfullsupport;butitisnecessarytorememberthatthemainburdenofthetaskwouldhavetobebornebyvoluntarypoliticalandsocialworkersandinstitutions.Theheartoftheproblemistocreate

the‘spiritofcommunity’,withoutwhichthewholebodypoliticwouldbewithoutlifeandsoul.Thisisataskofmoralregenerationtobebroughtaboutbyexample,service,sacrificeandlove.Thosewhooccupyhighplacesinsociety—inpolitics,business,theprofessions—beartheheavyresponsibilityofleadingthepeoplebypersonalexample.

Thetaskalsoisoneofsocialengineering,needingthehelpoftheState;ofscientists,experts,educationists,businessmen,experimenters;ofmenandwomen;ofyoungandold.

Itisataskofdedication;ofcreation;ofself-discovery.ItisataskthatdefinesIndia’sdestiny.ItspellsachallengetoIndia’ssons

anddaughters.Willtheyacceptthechallenge?

TheTragedyofTibetIn1959theChinesegovernmentcamedownheavilyonarebellioninTibet,

forcingtensofthousandsofTibetanstofleetoIndia.Simultaneously,theystrengthenedtheirmilitarypresencein,andpoliticalcontrolover,thatterritory.Intheseexcerptsfromspeecheshemadeatthetime,JayaprakashNarayanoutlinestheimplicationsofthecrisisinTibetforIndia,Chinaandtheworld.Thisremainsacompellingcritiqueoftotalitarianismintheoryandpractice.Theemphasesinthetextaretheauthor’s.2

…Oneofthegreattragediesofhistoryisbeingenactedinfullviewoftheworld.TibetisbeinggobbledupbytheChinesedragon.Acountryoflessthantenmillionsoulsisbeingcrushedtodeathbyacountryofsixhundredandfiftymillionpeople.Patriotism,courage,faithcanperformmiracles.TheTibetanslovetheircountry;theyarebrave;theyaredevotedtotheirreligionandtheirDalaiLama.Yet,1to65isanoddthatevenanationofHerculeseswillfinditdifficulttoovercome.

Theattentionoftheworldiscurrentlyturnedelsewhere.Moreover,Tibetformostcountriesoftheworld,exceptitsimmediateneighbours,isanobscure,distant,benightedland—notworthbotheringabout.ThismakesthetragedyofTibetdeeper.

India,asanimmediateneighbourofTibet,andasacountryregardedforitsmoralposition,itsdetachmentandfreedomfrompowerpoliticshasagreatresponsibilityinthismatter.TheworldlookstoIndiaforaleadandIndiamustnotfail.

Itisnotonlyaquestionofthefateoftenmillionpeople.Thatofcourseisimportantandwouldbesowhateverthenumber.Butthereisalsothequestion—andthisisofmuchgreaterimportance—ofthebasisofinternationaljusticeandpeace.Isworldpeacepossibleifthestrongarefreetooppresstheweakwithimpudence?Suchaworldwouldbedominatedbyafewpowerfulnationsandpeacewouldconsistinanyuneasybalanceofpowerbetweenthemandthesmallnationswouldbeattheirmercy.

ThissurelyisnotthepictureofthefutureworldorderthatIndiahasinview.Webelievethatjustasinsidenationstheruleoflawmustbeestablishedtosecurehumanrights,sointheinternationalcommunitytoomusttheruleoflawbeenforcedsoastoensurethefreedomandrightsofnations.Thatruleoflawcanonlybebasedonaninternationalmoralitywhichisuniversallyaccepted.Eventhestrongestpowerthenmightfinditdifficulttogoagainstthemoralverdictoftheworld.Frommypointofview,thegreatestvirtueofourforeign

policyofnon-attachmentandindependenceofjudgmentisthatitenablesustocontribute,becauseofthatverynon-attachment,tothedevelopmentofinternationalmorality.

Indiathereforemustnotshirkherresponsibilityatthistestingmoment.HerresponsibilityisfargreateratthistimethanitwasatthetimeofHungary.ThisissonotonlybecauseTibetisonourfrontierandwhathappensthereaffectsoursecurity,noronlybecauseofourspiritualandculturalbondswithTibet.ThePanchenLama,bytheway,twittedustheotherdayforshowingsuchsolicitudeforBud[d]hismabroadwhenwehadnotcaredtopreserveitathome.ThelearnedLamaforgetsthattheBud[d]ha’steachingshaveverylargelybecomeapartofHindulifeandthoughtandtheBud[d]hahimselfisworshippedasourlastAvatar[ofVishnu]…[O]urbondswithTibetarethereandtheynodoubtdetermineourattitudetowardstheirpresentplight.ButourconcernforandresponsibilitytowardsTibetspringmainlyfromthefactthatTibetisaneighbourwhohasbeenwronged.Theresponsibilityisincreasedwhenitisrecalledthattheneighbourhadputtrustinourassurances.

Inthisconnection,therehasbeensomeglibtalkofwar.Ifyoudothisorthat,itwouldmeanwarwithChina,itissaid.Itisamazingthatpeopleshouldtalkofwarinthisloosemanner.Thewholeworldknows,andChinamorethanthemall,thatIndiahasnodesirewhatevertostartawarwithanyone.Ontheotherhand,IndiahasrepeatedlyreiteratedherfirmdesiretocontinueherbondsoffriendshipwithChina.ButifChinaseekstoexploitthatdesireforunjustpurposes,Indiacannotbepartytoit.NorcanIndiabebrow-beatenintodoingsomethingthatsheconsiderswrongnorpreventedbythreatsfromdoingtheright.

ThemainelementsoftheTibetsituationhavebeenclearenoughfromthebeginning.

TibetisnotaregionofChina.ItisacountrybyitselfwhichhassometimespassedunderChinesesuzeraintybyvirtueofconquestandneverbyfreechoice.ChinesesuzeraintyhasalwaysbeenofthemostnominalkindandmeanthardlymorethansometributepaidtoPekingbyLhasa.AtothertimesTibetwasanindependentsovereigncountry.Forsometimeinthe8thcenturyPekingpaidayearlytributeof50,000yardsofChinesebrocadetoTibet.

AfterthefalloftheManchuempirein1911,Tibetfunctionedasanindependentcountrytill1950,whentheChineseCommunistGovernmentinvadedit.Inbetweentherewereattemptstore-imposeChinesesuzeraintybytreatyinwhichtheBritishGovernmenttookaleadinghand.Pressedfromboth

sidesbytwopowerfulforces,Tibethadlittlechoice.Neverthelessnothingcameoutoftheseattemptsandtillthecommunistinvasion,Tibetwasafreecountry.

TheBritishhadtheirownselfishmotiveforagreeingtoChina’ssuzerainpowersinTibet.Beingimperialiststhemselvestheyhad,ofcourse,noqualmsinthematter.TheirmotivewastobribetheChineseintorecognizingthemonopolyofeconomicrightsofBritaininTibet.

ItwasthispolicyborninimperialistsinthatfreeIndiainherited.VeryrightlyIndiarenouncedalltherightssheenjoyedinTibetbyvirtueofthatinheritance.Butcuriouslyshere-affirmedthatpartofthesinfulpolicythatrelatedtoChina.IndiagaveherassenttoChina’ssuzerainpositioninTibet.

Thatwasamajormistakeofourforeignpolicy.Themistakewastwofold.Thefirstwasthatweacceptedanimperialistformula.Theveryideathatonecountrymayhavesuzerainpowersoveranotherisimperialistinconception.Thesecondmistakewastobelievethatapowerfultotalitarianstatecouldbetrustedtohonourtheautonomyofaweakcountry.

ItistruethatwecouldnothavepreventedtheChinesefromannexingTibet.Butwecouldhavesavedourselvesfrombeingpartytoawrong.Thatwouldhavebeennotonlyamatterofmoralsatisfaction,butitwouldhavealsosettherecordright,sothatworldopinion,particularlyintheAfro-Asianpartoftheworld,couldhaveasserteditself.ThatmighthaveevenhaltedtheChinese.Thecommunistsareanxioustopresentthemselvesasliberators,sowhenAfro-AsianopinionwouldhavecondemnedtheirTibetactionasaggressiontheywouldhavefounditimmenselydifficulttogoonwithit.India’sacceptanceofthesuzeraintyformulagavetotheChineseactionamoralandlegalsanctionandpreventedtheformulationofanAfro-Asianopiniononthequestion.ItthuspreventedthetrueaggressivecharacterofChinesecommunismfrombeingrealizedbythebackwardpeoplesofAsia,aggravatingthedangeroftheirbeingenslavedinthenameofliberation.

Ithasbeensaid,moreinwhisperthanaloud,thatnon-recognitionofChina’sclaimsofsuzeraintywouldhaveearnedforusthehostilityoftheChineseGovernment.Inthefirstplace,issuesofrightandwrongcannotbedecidedonconsiderationsofpleasureordispleasureofthepartiesconcerned.Inthesecondplace,itshouldhavebeenforeseenthatsoonerorlatertheChinesewouldtrytodestroytheTibetanautonomyandthenaconflictofpolicieswouldbecomeinevitable.

Furthermore,wecouldhavemadeitclearthateventhoughwewereopposedtoChina’ssuzeraintyoverTibet,wewere,onourside,keenanddeterminedto

pursueourpolicyoffriendship.IndiahadstronglyopposedrecentAnglo-FrenchaggressioninEgypt,butonthataccountshedidnotchangeherpolicyoffriendshiptowardsEnglandandFrance.NorwasIndia’sactionconstruedbythosepowerfulcountriesashostile,nordidtheythemselvesonthataccountbecomehostiletoIndia.

TherearesomewhosaythatfactsofhistorymustbetakenintoaccountandifTibethassometimesbeenunderChina,itisirrelevanttoraisethequestionofTibetanindependencenow.Thisisanamazingargument.Anyonewhobelievesinhumanfreedomandtherightofallnationstoindependence,shouldbeashamedtotalkinthisfashion.Accordingtothelogicofthisview-point,Hungary,forexample,havinglongbeenapartoftheAustro-HungarianEmpire,shouldneverbeentitledtoindependence.Wouldanysensiblepersonagreewiththisview?Letusnotthereforeslipintothehabitsoflazythoughtandgiveapprovaltowrongsofhistory.

Foryearsanillusionwasinthemaking.ItwassaidthatChinawasdifferent.Ithadanancientcivilization.ThereforeChinesecommunismwasdifferentfromRussianandsoonandon.ThatillusionhasbeenshatteredtothegreatgoodfortuneofthepeoplesofAsia,whohavebeenwarnedintime.

Chinarantsincessantlyaboutimperialistsandexpansionists.ButChinaherselfhasbeenrevealedasacruelimperialpower.Ifcommunismhadbeenatrulyliberatingandanti-imperialistforce,theChinesecommunists,onassumptionofpower,shouldthemselveshaveproclaimedtheindependenceofTibetandforesworntheoldimperialistnotionofsuzeraintyandmadeatreatywithTibetofequalityandfriendship.ButcommunismunderRussianandChineseguidancehasbecomeexpansionistandaggressive,justasnineteenth-centurycapitalismundertheleadershipofBritain,France,Germanyhadbecomeaggressiveandexpansionist.SomewhereortheotherMarxismhasgonewrong.Leninwroteafamousthesisonimperialismasthelastphaseofcapitalism.Someoneshouldwriteanotherthesisoncommunismasthefirstphaseofanewimperialism!…

HavingannexedTibetbyinvokinganoutworn,imperialistformula,theChinesecommunistswereinnohurrytogoonwiththeirplansofsubjugatingthecountry.Theyalsoneededtimetobuildroadsandmilitaryestablishmentsandtohauluparmstotheroofoftheworld.Whentheyhadsufficientlyentrenchedthemselves,theybegantotightenthescrews.Itwasnotaquestionofreforms.ThequestionplainlywasthatofsubjugationofTibet.TheChineseinterferedineverything,inthematterofreligionaswellasadministration.

ReveredLamaswerepurposelyill-treated,humiliated,imprisoned,tortured.Thesanctityofshrinesandimageswasviolated.Monasteriesweredemolishedandtheirpropertiesconfiscated.Anewsystemofadministrationwasimposed,inwhichChinesewerepostedatallkeypoints.ThePost&Telegraph,theMint,theHydro-electricplantweretakenover.PrintingofTibetancurrencywasprohibited.ChinesePostalstampswereintroduced.ThepowersandfunctionsoftheDalaiLamawereclipped.AvastschemeofcolonizationbyChinawassetonfoot,sothatlargepartsofTibetshouldceasetobeTibetanandbecomeChinese.ThatwasaprocessofstealingTibetfromtheTibetansthatcauseddeepanxietyandarousedbitterresentment.Centuries-oldgranaries,someofthemwithgrainreservestolastforyears,wereemptiedandthegrainseizedbytheChinese.Reservesofgoldandsilverbullionwereappropriatedonthepretextoftakingitonloan.Theso-calledlandreformswereintroduced,softlyatfirst,butlaterwiththeusualcommunistdisregardforpopularfeeling.Forcedlabour,soforeigntoTibetantradition,wasintroducedonabigscale.ThePressandallothermeansofinformationweretakenoverbytheChinese.

AllthiswashappeningoveranumberofyearsandtosomeoftheadministrativeandconstitutionalchangestheTibetanswereforcedtogivetheir‘assent’.Therestwasdoneatthesweetwilloftheover-lords.

Resistancetosuch[a]stateofaffairswasnatural.Soonittooktheformofanationalresistancemovement.

[The]MarxismofKarlMarxwasmeanttobeanobjectivescienceofsociety.Butpresent-daycommunismisnothingifnotacompletetravestyofobjectivity.Haditnotbeenso,allthewildchargescouldneverhavebeenmadeagainstIndiaandIndians.Haditnotbeensoagain,theTibetanupsurgecouldnothavebeenrepresentedbytheChineseasonlyaminordisturbancecausedbyahandfulofreactionaryLamasandlandlords.Itisnotthatcommunistsdonotknowthetruth.Itisonlythatcommunismcannotbearthetruth.Truthiscommunism’sdeadlyenemy.

Thereisnodoubtthatthevestedinterestsarealsowiththeresistance,butitscharacterisnationalratherthanclass.TheTibetansarefightingtowintheirnationalfreedomandnottodefendthefeudalrightsofafewnoblesandmonasteries.Theleadersofthemovementarenotfeudalreactionaries,butthemostprogressiveelementsinTibetansociety,whostandforreformandchange.

ThetruehistoryoftheTibetannationalmovementhasyettobetold.ThereareTibetansnowinIndiawhocangivetheworldanauthenticaccount.Butonedoesnotknowwhentheywillconsidertheopportunemomenttohavearrivedto

telltheirstory.InspiteofallthathashappenedtheyperhapsfeelthatasettlementwiththeChinesemightstillbepossible.Oneadmiresthefaithofthesebravereligiouspeopleandpraysthattheirfaithmaybevindicated.Onenecessaryconditionforthatseemstobeunambiguousexpressionandassertionofworldopiniononthesideoftruthandjustice.

Thereisapointofviewthatisnotsomuchexpressedpubliclyasprivatelycanvassed.ItissaidthateveniftheChinesearebehavingalittleroughlyinTibet,whybesosqueamishaboutit?AretheynotforciblyrescuingtheTibetanmassesfrommedievalbackwardnessandforcingthemforwardtowardsprogressandcivilization?

Itisstrangethatassoonassomepeopleputthemselvesoutsidetheirowncountry,theybecomescreamingimperialists.Iftherightisconcededtonationstothrustprogressforciblydownthethroatsofothernations,whywerenottheBritishwelcomedastorchbearersofprogressinIndia?ButthedefendersoftheChinesecivilizersofTibetwillbethefirsttodisownanysuchsacrilegiousthought.Theymight,however,bethrownintorealconfusioniftheRussiansortheChineseweretotakeitintotheirheadstomarchuponIndiatosaveherfrom‘foreignimperialists’andleadhertoprogress!

Secondly,thequestionmaybeaskedwhatisprogress.Tosome,industrialization,risingproductionstatistics,communes,Sputniks…mightmeanprogress.Thereisanotherviewthatregardsprogressintermsofhumanity—thegrowthofhumanfreedom,thedeclineofselfishnessandcruelty,thespreadoftoleranceandcooperation,andsoon.FormeStalinwasnoimprovementontheCzarandalltheSputniksofRussialeavemecoldwhenIknowthatasensitiveandhonestwriter,Pasternak,thefirstliterarygeniusinRussiasinceGorki,iscondemnedraucouslybyso-calledmenofletterswhohavenotevenreadtheoffendingwork.Fromthepointofviewoftheprogressofman,asdistinctfromtheprogressofthings,RussiaappearstometobelivingintheDarkAges.

ItwashopedthatChina’sancientcivilizationwouldpreventthatgreatcountryfrombeingplungedintothesamedarkness,butTibethasshownthatthesunofhumanityisasmuchundereclipseinPekingasitisinMoscow.

Apartfromtheprogressofthings,importanceisattachedtochangeofinstitutions.Destructionoftemporalandspiritualfeudalismmightbeconsideredtobeanadvance,butwhenthatisreplacedbyastillmoreseverefeudalismofPartyandBureaucracy,Iforoneamnotpreparedtocallitanadvance,farlessarevolution.Theyokeofthenativemedievalismwassurelygoingtobeputdown

soonerorlater.Butwhocantellwhentheforeignyokeofcommunistmedievalismwillbeoverthrown?WhocantellwhenLatvia,EstoniaandLithuaniawillbefree?AndHungaryandtherestofthem?

ThequestionthatIwishtoconsiderfinallyisonethatisoneveryone’slipsnow;howcanTibetbesaved?Hewouldbeaboldpersonwhowouldventuretosuggestadefiniteanswer.Afewconsiderationsmay,however,beadvanced.

ThereisonethingofwhichIamabsolutelyclear:theneedtocreateapowerfulworldopiniononthisquestion.TheTibetsituationshouldbepresentedtotheworldinallitsnakedreality.Noattemptshouldbemadeforreasonsofdiplomacytoplaydown,coverup,belittleormisrepresentwhatishappeninginTibet.Diplomacyhasavastdealtoanswerforinhistory,andIdoferventlyhopethatdiplomacy,likethecoldwar,iskeptoutoftheissue.ThebroadfactsoftheTibetsituationareclear.Thosefactsmustbebroadcast,andontheirbasisastrongandunitedworldopinionmustbecreatedagainstChineseaggressionandforTibetanindependence.

Letnoonecry‘coldwar’atthis.ThisisnotapartofBlocpolitics.ThisisafightfortheRightsofMan.Didanyonethinkthattheworld-widecondemnationoftheAnglo-FrenchattackonEgyptwasapartofthecoldwar?

TheGovernmentofIndiaiscommittedtotheformulaofTibetanAutonomyunderChinesesuzerainty.Thatformulaisinruins…Butneverthelessthiswholequestionwillhavetobereconsideredsoonerratherthanlater.Whathappenswhentheautonomyofacountry(oraregionforthatmatter)isdestroyed?Whathappenswhenthatautonomyisnotrestored?Whathappens,inshort,whenaggressiontakesplaceandsucceeds?Itwouldnotdotoevadethesequestions.Tillthesequestionsareanswered,thereisnohopeoftheGovernmentofIndiadiscoveringthenextstep.Paralysisofactioninafast-developingsituationmaybedangerous…

ItwillberecalledthatwhentheChineseaggressionbeganin1950,theTibetanGovernmenthadmovedtheUnitedNations.TheElSalvadoreandelegatehadformallycalledontheUNtocondemnChinaforher‘unprovokedaggression’againstTibet,andhadproposedthecreationofaspecialcommitteetostudywhatmeasurescouldbetakenbytheGeneralAssemblytoassistTibet.ThematterwenttotheAssembly’sSteeringCommitteewhich,onthestrengthoftheassurancesofIndia’srepresentative,decidedtoshelvetheTibetancomplaintindefinitely.

ThefullfactsofthataffairandofourpartinithavenotbeenmadepublicandIcannotsaywherethematterstandsnowaccordingtotheworkingsofthe

UnitedNations.Nevertheless,itseemstobeutterlywrongthatsuchanimportanteventasthesuppressionofthefreedomofanationshouldtakeplaceandtheworldorganizationshouldnoteventakenoticeofit.ItisnotthatthemereraisingofanissueintheUnitedNationsmeansthatasolutionwillbefound.Wehavesomeexperienceoftheworkingofthataugustbodyourselves.But,afterallissaidanddone,theUNistheonlyorganizationthehumanfamilyhasthatgivessomeguaranteethattheworldwillnotbeconvertedintoajunglewherethestrongwilleatuptheweak.IhavenodoubttherewillbemanyconstitutionalbarriersandsuchthingsasvetoesinthewayoftheTibetissueenteringtheportalsoftheUN.Butifrulesandproceduresandtechnicalitiesstandinthewayofinternationaljustice,itisnotthelatterbuttheformerthatshouldsuffer.InwhicheverformtheTibetquestionispresentedtotheUN,IhavenodoubtthattheAfro-Asianblocmustpresentacommonfront.ThisistheleastthatthecountriesofAsiaandAfricamustdotodefendtherightofsmallnationstofreedomandalsotoassureagainstthedangertotheirownfreedomfromboththeoldandnewimperialism.

ItisnotformetoadvisetheTibetans.Thereisonethought,however,whichIcannothelpexpressing.Tibet,beingadevoutlyBud[d]histcountry,couldperhapshaveturneditsmomentoftragedyintooneofprofoundvictory—ifitcouldhaveturnedtotheCompassionateOneandmethatewithlove,oppressionwithsuffering,violencewithnon-violence.Maybe,eventhenTibetwouldhavebeendestroyed,butnotthesoulofTibet,nottheReligionoftheBud[d]ha.

Then,isTibetlostforever?No,athousandtimesno.Tibetwillnotdiebecausethereisnodeathforthehumanspirit.Communismwillnotsucceedbecausemanwillnotbeslaveforever.TyrannieshavecomeandgoneandCaesarsandCzarsanddictators.Butthespiritofmangoesonforever.Tibetwillberesurrected.

AFairDealforKashmirConsistentwithhisconcernforsmallminoritiesattheedgeoflargenation-

states,JayaprakashNarayanbelievedthatIndiahadtobemorerespectfuloftherightsoftheresidentsofthedisputedKashmirValley.Whatfollowsisfromapressstatementonthequestion,issuedbyNarayaninCalcuttainDecember1964.3

ThequestionwemustsquarelyfaceiswhetherconstitutionalintegrationofKashmirwithIndiaismoreimportantinthenationalinterestthanfriendshipwithPakistanandjusticetothepeopleoftheValleyofSrinagar.Legaltechnicalitieswillnotprovidetheanswer.Whatisneededisamatureandrealisticreckoning.AsfarasIcansee,thedisadvantagesofthepresentpolicyfaroutweightheadvantages.

LetmetakeupfirsttheissueofjusticetothepeopleoftheValley.Therehasbeennocredibleproofyetthattheyhavefreelyacceptedthelegalfactofaccession.Constitutionalintegrationhaslittlemeaningintheabsenceofemotionalintegration.Inthisageandtime,itisimpossibletoholddownbyforceanysizeablepopulationpermanently.Ifwecontinuetodoit,wecannotlooktheworldstraightinthefaceandtalkofdemocracyandjusticeandpeace.Nor,onaccountofthehistoricalcircumstances,canwetakeshelterbehindtheinternationallyrecognizedlimitationsoftherighttoself-determination.Perhapsthemostharmfulconsequencesofthepolicyofforcibleintegrationwouldbethedeath-knellofIndiansecularismandenthronementofaggressiveHinducommunalism.ThatcommunalismisboundintheendtoturnupontheHinducommunityitselfanddestroyit.

AsforfriendshipwithPakistan,letuscalculatedlydeterminehowdearlyweneedthatfriendship.Nocountrycanaffordtobuyfriendshipatanycost.Solettherebeareckoningofgainsandlosses.Firstofall,letusbematureenoughtounderstandthatifwepersistinourpresentKashmirpolicy,therecanbenofriendshipwithPakistan.Theleadersofthatcountryhavenotleftusinanydoubtonthatscore.Ifwedisbelievethem,weshallhaveonlyourselvestoblame.

HereisthepricingofIndo-Pakfriendshipasitappearstome.First,ifPakistanturnshostile,asIfearitwouldifwepersistinthepolicyoffullconstitutionalintegration,thedefenceofthecountrywouldbecomeahundred-foldmoredifficult.Certainpartsofit,suchasAssam,NEFAandNagalandwouldbenexttoimpossibletodefend.Indo-Pakamityontheotherhandwouldautomaticallyresultinlargescaledis-engagement,thusstrengthening

considerablyourdefencecapability.Ourcommunicationstoowouldbeautomaticallystrengthenedtenfold.AsfarasthedefenceofLadakh,IamsureanyamicablesettlementoftheKashmirissuewouldmakeaprovisionforit.

Second,bothhistoryandgeographydestinedthesub-continentofIndiatoplayakeyroleinSouthandSouth-EastAsia.ButaslongasIndiaandPakistanremainatloggerheads,India’s,asalsoPakistan’scapacitytomanoeuvreinthisarea—remainsdrasticallyrestricted.NoinitiativetakenbyIndiacanhavethesamevalueandattractionforthecountriesofthisregionunlessIndiaandPakistanmovedjointly.Atpresent,theycancelouteachother,creatingapowervacuumthatnoonebutChinacanfillefficiently.

Third,whatistrueoftheSouth-EastAsiaregionisverylargelytrueoftheworld.India’spostureontheworldstageisveryconsiderablydeterminedbyherobsessionwithKashmirandherconsequentrelationswithPakistan.IntheAfro-Asiaworld,thisquarrelbetweenthetwobigAsiancountrieshascostbothheavilyinprestigeandinfluenceanddiplomaticeffectiveness.

Fourth,thereisthevasteconomicharmthequarreliscausingbothcountries.Itisbeyonddoubtthatthedevelopmentofeachwouldhavebeenmuchfasterhadtherebeencooperationbetweenthemintheeconomicfield.

Thelastandinsomewaythemostdisastrousconsequenceofthequarrelisitshumanandmoralcostandthealienationofpeoplesthatitthreatenstobringabout.Ifthequarrelcontinues,MuslimsinIndiaandHindusinPakistanwouldcontinuetoliveundertheshadowofsuspicionandsufferseverespiritualunrest.Thedangerofcommunalriotingwouldbeeverpresent.Theseconditionswouldbesuretocausemasshumandegradationonbothsides.Thepoliticaldivisionofthesub-continentcannothidethefactthatthepeoplesofIndiaandPakistanarereallyonepeople.ThisisnotthefirsttimethatIndiahasbeendividedpolitically.Buttherehadalwaysbeenafeelingofonenessandidentityamongthepeopledividedbetweenkingdomsandrepublics.Today,theBengalisoftheWestandEastareonepeople,irrespectiveofregion;soarethePunjabis.Inlikemanner,theBengalisandPunjabisandSindhisandPathansandJatsandRajputsandothersofbothcountriesmakeuponesingleIndianpeople,whoaredistinctfromallotherpeoplesoftheworld.Statesarepassingshows,butthepeopleareeternal.Therefore,IwouldconsiderthisalienationofthepeopleofIndiaandPakistanfromoneanothertobethemostdisastrousconsequenceofthepresentquarrel.

Thisbrieflyisthebalance-sheetasIseeit.Letlogicandreasonratherthanchildishemotionguidethedebateandtheultimatedecision.

IamawarethatsettlementoftheKashmirissuewouldnotinitselfmeanestablishmentoffirmIndo-Pakfriendship,butitwouldcertainlyremovethegreatestobstacleonthewayandcreatethenecessarypsychologicalconditions.Iamalsoawarethatfriendshipisnotone-sided.ButIamconvincedthatfriendshipisaspreciousforPakistanasforIndiaandtheywillbefoundtobeaskeenforitaswepersuadeourselvestobe.

Alastwordtotheleadersofthegovernment.Atthiscriticalmomentinthecountry’slife,itistheirdutytoleadandnottobeled.Thecripplingfearofpublicopinionandpartyrankandfileisonlyareflectionoftheleadership’sownweaknessanddivision.Itisfortheleaderstoshapepublicopinionandeducatethebackbenchers.Iftheyfailinthis,theywilldodisservicetothecountryinthishourofdecision.

TheQuestionofNagalandIn1964–65JayaprakashNarayanwaspartofathree-memberpeacemission

tothetroubledstateofNagaland,inthenorth-eastofIndia.AlargesectionoftheNagaswereunreconciledtobeingpartoftheIndianUnion;theywantedasovereignnationoftheirown.Throughthe1950s,abloodywarragedbetweentheIndianArmyandtheNagainsurgents.In1964theBaptistChurch(towhichmostNagasowedallegiance)wasinstrumentalinbringingaboutaceasefire.TalksbetweentheGovernmentofIndiaandtherebelscommenced.ThepeacemissionofwhichNarayanwaspartwasalsothechurch’sinitiative.On30January1965—theanniversaryofMahatmaGandhi’sassassination—Narayandeliveredalectureinhishometown,Patna,ontheconflictinNagaland.ThiswaslaterexpandedandpublishedasabookletinHindi,fromwhichthefollowingexcerptsaretaken.First,NarayanexplainswhytheNagashaveneverbeenpartoftheIndianculturalmainstream.4

TraveltotheremotestcornersofIndia,andyouwillfindthingsthatarelinkedtoourepicsandscriptures.ThePandavasaresaidtohavetakenrefugeinsomanyplacesonevisits.OrthatBhim,Arjun,orRamchandracamethere.Somanyhabitationsarenamedafteroursagesandsaints…WhenwespeakoftheunityofIndia,wedonotreallymeanitspoliticalunity.Chinamaybedefinedbyacertainpoliticalunity,butIndiaismarkedontheotherhandbyaculturalunity.Inthepast,whatwenowknowasIndiawasneverunderasinglestateorpoliticalunit.ThiswasnotthecaseinthetimeoftheMauryasoroftheGuptas…

However,NagalandwasneverpartofthisbroaderIndianculture.Callitamisfortuneoran‘accidentofhistory’!InNEFA5wefindsomeBuddhistcommunities…InManipurthefollowersof[theVaishnavasaint]ChaitanyaMahaprabhusettledandmadethepeopleVaishnavites.TheyusetheBengaliscriptthere…AmongthemthereareBrahmins,Kshatriyasandothercastes.

ButonlyNagalandhasstayedalooffromIndiancultureandcivilization…Asaconsequence,theNagasdonotreallyfeelIndian.EventhoseNagaswholiveinIndiaandparticipateinIndianpolitics,donothavethesentimentofbeingIndian.OneNagaleader,whoisaMemberofParliament,oncetoldme:‘NoNagaconsidershimselfanIndian.’…However,thisisnotasentimentthatweshouldfear,ordismissasanti-patriotic.ThetruthisthatthepeopleofIndiahaveneverventuredintotheseareas.TheBritishdidnotpermitustogothere.Attheriskofourliveswecouldhavegonethere,butwedidn’t.Wedidnotgoto

Nagalandtopromoteourreligions,orourculture,orindeedtodosocialservice.Itwasinabouttheyear1870thattheBritishgraduallyestablishedtheirruleovertheNagas.Butevenaslateas1947therewerepartsoftheNagaHillsthatwereundernoadministrationatall.EventheBritishhadnotmadetheirpresencefeltthere.Ontheonehanditwasinacornerofthesub-continentandontheotheritwaslonelyandremote,awilderness.ThismaybethereasonwhythepeopleofIndianeverreachedNagaland.

IamacquaintingyouwiththesefactssothatyoumayunderstandwhythismovementbeganinNagalandsayingwearedifferentfromIndia.TheNagassaythattheyarenothostiletoIndia,merelydifferent—andhencetheydemandaseparatenation.NowmanypeoplearesuspiciousoftheChristianfaith.TheythinkthatChristianpreachersmayhavespreadthissentimentofseparatismamongtheNagas.Butthisisnotso.Theywereofadifferentcultureandethnicity;althoughtheBritishcouldhavetriedtobringthemslowlyintoIndia.TheBritishdidnotallowHindustoenterthisterritory,buttheyallowedtheChristianmissionaries.SomewereWelshBaptists,othersAmericanBaptists.IamoftheviewthatifRomanCatholicsorpriestsfromtheChurchofEnglandhadgonetoNagaland,perhapsthesentimentofseparationmayhavediminished.Themissionarieswhowenttheredidnotintensifythisfeeling,nordidtheyreduceit—thatwasnottheirfocusanyway…

Second,NarayanexplainswhytheNagascanlivefreelyandhonourablyundertheIndianConstitution.

…FromthetimethattalkscommencedwithleadersoftheNaga‘underground’IhavebeenurgingthemtoremainwithintheUnionofIndia…IkeptontellingtheNagasthatthereisnoneedforyoutodemandaseparatenation,sinceyoucanbefullyfreewithinIndia.ThereisagreatdifferencebetweenyoursituationunderBritishcolonialruleandyourstatusasapartofindependentanddemocraticIndia.Thenyouweresubjugated,indeedallofIndiawassubjugated.Nowyouarefree,justasallofIndiaisfree.NoweverycitizenofIndiaisfreeandequal.WhichalienpowerisnowrulingoverAssam?WhoisrulingoverBengal?OroverBihar?IsitIndia?Indiaisconstitutedbyjoiningalltheseprovincestogether.ThesestateshavecollectivelycreatedaCentralGovernmentandallocateditcertainrights.IfthesestatesweretonowsaythatwewantaparticularrightbacktheCentrewillhavetoreturnit.Afterall,itistherepresentativesofthesestateswhositintheParliamentinDelhi.Soiftheychoosetodecidethatcertainrightsmustbewiththem,thentheycantakethemback.ItistheMembersofParliamentfromthestateswhodecidewhichrights

shallbewiththeCentre,andwhichwillnot.Inanycase,thisgivingupofcertainrightstotheCentreisnotdonetopermitIndiatosubjugatetheprovinces,butrather,tosafeguardtheUnionofIndia.

Takethearmy.ThatthereshouldbeaseparatearmyforBihar,andanotheroneforBengal,thiswillnotbeappropriate.IfthereisadisputebetweenBiharandBengal—saywithregardtowhetheraparticulardistrictbelongstooneortheother—theniftherewereseparatearmiesforeachstatetheywouldgotowar.Itistopreventthisthatwehaveasinglearmy.Thiswouldhavesoldiersfromallthestates,Bihar,Bengal,Assam.IssuessuchasdefenceandforeignaffairsmustbetheresponsibilityoftheCentre.ThatBiharforgearelationshipwithAmericaandthatBengaldosowithanothercountry,thisshouldnothappen.ThisiswhytherelationswithothercountriesarebestdealtwithbytheCentre.Inthesamemanner,thecountrymusthaveasinglecurrency.IfBiharhaditsowncurrency,andBengalitsowntoo,imaginewhatconfusionwouldarise.However,alltheothersubjects,suchasirrigation,education,etc.,mustbewithinthecontrolofthestates.ThesituationtodayissuchthatwithoutassistancefromtheCentrethestatesarenotabletofunction.Forschools,etc.,theCentrehastogivethemmoney.If,however,theythinktheyhavethecapacitytohandlethem,thenthestatescantakefullresponsibilityforthesesubjects.

ThisiswhatwetoldtheNagas.YouhaveyourownstateofNagalandnow,wesaid;whyareyoustillunderground?YoucanchooseyourownChiefMinisternow.Youarenolongersubjugatedbutfreetomanageyourownaffairs.Whyyoustillwantanindependentstatewecannotunderstand.WealsotoldthemthatwereNagalandtobeaseparatenation,therewouldberealfearsaboutitsfreedom.Burmaisnextdoor,Chinaisnotfarawayeither.[East]Pakistanisalsoonlytwohundredmilesaway.Thesecountriescanallputpressureonyou.WhetheranindependentNagalandwillbesecure,wecannotsay.Inthissituation,whythinkofbeinganindependentnation,separatefromIndia?Youarealreadyfree,reallyfree.JustaseverypartofIndiaisindependent,youaretoo.AretheIndianssuppressingyouinthewaytheBritishdid?Thatisnotthecase…

Finally,NarayanexplainswhytherestofIndiahasmuchtolearnfromtheindependenceandcommunityspiritoftheNagas.

…Gandhiusedoftentotalkofvillageself-rule.Ifyouwanttoseevillageself-ruleinpracticegotoNagaland.Thewaythatvillagesruntheiraffairs,thestrengththeydisplay,istrulyadmirable.KohimatownisthecapitalofNagaland

state.Thistownhasnoroomtoexpandbeyonditspresentborders.TheGovernmentofNagalandthuswantsthevillagecouncilofKohimatogiveitland[tobuildhomesandoffices].TheysaythattheGovernmentcannottakeoverthelandwithouttheconsentofthevillagecouncil.Butwhatisthesituationinotherstates?There,tomakeroads,airports,etc.,thegovernmentcanuprootvillageaftervillagewithouttakinganyone’spermission.ButthisissimplynotconceivableinNagaland…

Peoplehere[intheIndianheartland]thinkofNagasasuncivilized.6Butifonetravelsthereoneseeshowadvancedtheyare…Letmegiveyouanexample.NearthetownofMokokchungisavillagenamedUgma,whichisperhapsthelargestvillageinNagaland.Aboutfourthousandpeopleareresidenthere.Thereisaverybigchurchthere.ThisisbiggerthananychurchfoundinAssamorelsewhereinthisregion.Ithasaseatingcapacityoffivethousand.Youwillbeastonishedtolearnthatthechurchwasbuiltentirelybythevoluntarylabourofvillagers.Theyusednomaterialnoranyexpertisefromoutside.Youmaynotbelievethis,buttheydidnotevenneedanengineerfromoutsidetohelpthemconstructthischurch.Thepeopleofthevillagebuiltitthemselves.Andthechurchissobeautiful!Notjustthischurch,evenhighschoolswerebuiltbythevillagersthemselves.Andtheseschoolsareveryprettytoo.Woodandbambooarefreelyavailablehere…Butthemostremarkablethingistheirspiritofservice.ANagaevenifhehasaB.A.orM.A.Degree,doesnotconsiderphysicallabourtobebeneathhisdignity.ThedeficienciesthatonefindsineducatedpeopleelsewhereinIndiaareabsenthere.Ifaboycomeshomeonholiday,hewouldhappilyhelphisparentsinthefieldsorinhousework.Whatwe[Gandhians]trytoteachundertherubricof‘basiceducation’isalreadypartoftheteachinghere…ThegreatestqualityoftheNagasisthedignityoflabourindailylife,whichwecanlearnfrom.

ChapterNineteen

TheGandhianLiberalC.Rajagopalachari

Thischapter,likethetwoprecedingit,isaboutsomeonewhowasonceJawaharlalNehru’sfriendandpartycolleaguebutlaterbecameabitterpoliticalopponent.ThismanwasconsiderablyolderthanLohiaandJayaprakashNarayan.Unlikethem,heenjoyedhighofficebothbeforeandafterIndependence.HisseniorityanddistinctionlentevengreatersubstancetothecriticismshewastomakeoftheprimeministerandtheCongressParty.

ThisveteranCongressman-turned-anti-CongressmanwasChakravarthiRajagopalachari.Hewasbornin1878,sonofavillageheadmanintheTamilcountry.HewassenttoschoolinBangaloreandtookhisfirstdegreeinthatcity’sCentralCollege.HethenproceededtoqualifyasalawyerinMadraswhere,stillastudent,hewasmovedandinspiredbyBalGangadharTilak’sarrestin1898.

Aftertakinghislawdegree,RajagopalacharimovedtothetownofSalemtopractise.Heattendedthe1906CongressinCalcuttaandwaselectedtotheSalemMunicipalCouncilfiveyearslater(heeventuallybecamechairmanofthecouncil).HefollowedGandhi’sstrugglesinSouthAfricawithkeeninterestandcollectedandsentRs1,500(thennotaninsignificantsumofmoney)forhismovement.

In1919RajagopalacharimovedtothePresidencycapital,Madras,whichprovidedabiggerstageforthelawandforpublicservice.Thesameyear,hemetGandhiandatoncebecamehisdevoteddiscipleandadmirer.TheMahatma,inturn,trustedandrespectedhisintegrityandhisacumen.Rajagopalacharichosenowtoonlywearhomespunclothandgaveuphislawpracticetodevotehimselffull-timetothenationalistcause.

Bynowwidelyknownbythediminutive‘Rajaji’,Rajagopalachariwenttojailinthesatyagrahasofthe1920sand1930s.However,whatbroughthimevenclosertoGandhiwashisinterestinabolishinguntouchabilityandpromotingHindu—Muslimharmony.HewasmorecommittedtotheseprogrammesthanmanyotherfollowersofGandhi,whowereinterestedintheattainmentofpoliticalfreedomalone.

In1937,whentheCongresscametopowerinMadras,Rajajiwasunanimouslyelectedprimeminister.Heranagovernmentthatwasefficientbutalsocontroversial,notablyforitspromotionofHindi.InOctober1939heresignedalongwithotherCongressministers/ministriesinprotestagainsttheviceroy’srefusaltoconsultIndianopinioninthematteroftheSecondWorldWar.Then,inadaringbreakwithhisparty—andmentor—heopposedtheQuitIndiamovementof1942,askingthattheCongressinsteadworkhardertofind

commongroundwiththeBritish.HebecameevenmoreestrangedfromhisoldcomradeswhenheadvocatedarapprochementwiththeMuslimLeague.

RajagopalacharihadresignedfromtheCongressin1942.Readmittedin1945,heservedasthefirstIndiangovernorofWestBengalandthenasthefirst(andlast)IndianGovernorGeneral.Afterwards,hejoinedtheUnionCabinet,beforereturningtoMadrasaschiefminister.In1954hewasforcedtoresignfromthepostandwentintoretirement.

Whenhedemittedoffice,Rajajiwasinhismid-seventies.Hehadbeencontinuouslyinpubliclifeforclosetofourdecades.Partofhimnowsimplywantedtoreadandwrite.Hewasanautodidact,withaextraordinarilywiderangeofinterestsandreading.Hisbiographer,RajmohanGandhi,tellsusthatwhenhewenttojailin1921hetookwithhimeditionsoftheMahabharatainTamilandEnglish,theBible,avolumeofShakespeare,Defoe’sRobinsonCrusoe,abookonSocratesandacopyoftheancientclassicofTamilliteratureandphilosophy,theKural.Thirty-fiveyearslater,whenanIndianjournalistwenttoseehiminhismodestMadrashome,hefound,stackedneartheoldman’sbed,thecollectedspeechesofEdmundBurke,G.K.Chesterton’sFatherBrownstories,abookbytheAmericanculturalcriticLewisMumford,aSanskriteditionofValmiki’sRamayana,andsomeworksinTamil.

Rajajiwasanaccomplishedwriterhimself.HehadwrittenpioneeringshortstoriesinTamil,andinthe1940s,hadpublishedanabridgedversionoftheMahabharata.Now,inretirement,hewroteaversionoftheRamayanawhich,likeitspredecessor,wasabest-sellerinmanylanguages.

However,therewasapartofRajajithatcouldnotkeepoutofpoliticsaltogether.HehadchangedhismindaboutHindi,whichhenowdidnotwantimposedonthesouth.Hewasconcernedabouttheglobalnucleararmsrace.Aboveall,hewasworriedaboutthelackofoppositiontotheCongressParty.In1959,agedeighty,hestartedtheSwatantra(Freedom)Party.Heundertookthiswithsomereluctancefor,ashetoldayoungercolleague,hewas‘tooold,toolongaCongressmanandtooclosetoNehrupersonallytoconsideranactivere-entryintopolitics’.

UnderRajaji’sleadership,theSwatantrahadmixedelectoralsuccess—winning22seatsinthegeneralelectionsof1962,44in1967andamere8in1971.Itservedincoalitiongovernmentsinsomestates.However,itschiefcontributiontoIndiandemocracywasintellectualandideological,throughitssearchingcriticismsoftheeconomicandforeignpoliciesoftherulingparty.Itachievedasortofposthumoussuccesswhenkeyelementsofitscredo—outlined

intheexcerptsthatfollow—were,muchlater,adoptedbytheCongressPartyitself.

AcolonialgovernoroncecalledRajagopalacharithe‘wisestmaninIndia’.ThesentimentwasendorsedbyGandhi,whodescribedhimasthe‘keeperofmyconscience’.RajajihadasharpanalyticalmindandwroteEnglish(and,ofcourse,Tamil)extremelywell.Hiswritingswereoftenprecocious,asforexamplehiswarningin1942thatQuitIndiawouldalienatetheCongressfromboththeBritishandtheMuslims.Forthisbook,however,wehaveusedhislaterwritings,fromthe1950sand1960s,whichspeakmoredirectlytotheproblemsofIndiandemocracytoday.

C.RajagopalacharidiedonChristmasDay,1972.

OurDemocracyIn1957theCongresscomprehensivelywonthesecondgeneralelections.It

wasalsoreturnedtopowerinallstatesexceptKerala,wheretheCommunistPartyofIndiacametopower.Despitebeingalong-timememberoftheCongress,C.RajagopalachariwasdeeplyworriedabouttheconsequencesofthisdominanceforthehealthofIndiandemocracy.LookingtotheolderandmorestabledemocraciesintheWest,hearguedinanessayofAugust1957,reproducedbelow,thatastrongtwo-partysystemwasalsoneededinIndia.Notethatthiscallfortwoall-Indiapartiesisconsistentinhisviewwiththeriseofregionalpartiesinthestates.1

Thesuccessfulworkingofparliamentarydemocracydependsontwofactors:firstonabroadmeasureofagreementamongallclassesofcitizensabouttheobjectivesofgovernment;secondly,ontheexistenceofatwo-partysystem,inwhicheachofthebigpoliticalgroupspossesseseffectiveandcontinuousleadershipandisstrongenoughtotakeovertheresponsibilitiesofgovernmentwhenthemajorityofthecountry’svoterswishit.Ifpoliticalopiniondoesnotsucceedincrystallizingintotwofairlyevenlybalancedgroups,thesemblanceofdemocracymaysurvivebutrealparliamentarydemocracywillnotbethere.Whenonepartyremainsalwaysinpower,anddissentisdissipatedamongunorganizedindividualsandrelativelyinsignificantgroupswhichdonotandcannotcoalesce,governmentwillinevitablybecometotalitarian.

AstrongOppositionisessentialforthehealthofdemocraticgovernment.Inademocracybasedonuniversalsuffrage,governmentofthemajoritywithoutaneffectiveOppositionislikedrivingadonkeyonwhosebackyouputthewholeloadinonebundle.Thetwo-partysystemsteadiesmovementbyputtingafairlyequalloadintoeachpannier.Inthehumanbodyalso,twoeyesandtwoearsaidapersontoplacetheobjectsseenandheard.Asingle-partydemocracysoonlosesitssenseofproportion.Itsees,butcannotplacethingsinperspectiveorapprehendallsidesofaquestion.ThisisthepositioninIndiatoday.

ThedominationbytheCongressPartyofthepoliticalsceneisaproductofhistoryratherthanofelectoralsuccess.Electoralsuccessesaretheresultofthisdomination,notitscause.Inordertojustifytheleadershipthathasresultedfromhistory,theCongressPartyhasswungwelltotheLeft…[A]saresulttheRightelementsaredepressedanddisorganized,leavingtheCongressPartyinirremovablepower.Irremovability,infact,makesparliamentarydemocracynonexistent.InsuchcircumstancesitisinevitablethatthepartyshouldbecomemoreimportantthanParliament.Differencesofopinionmayexhibitthemselves

withintheparty.Ifthedisciplineandauthorityofthepartyexecutivedoesnotaltogetherchoke‘self-criticism’,atwo-partypatternmaydevelopwithinthepartyitself.Theleaderwilltakedecisionsinaccordancewithmajorityopinionintheparty.Thismaybedeemedtobeapartialalleviationoftotalitarianism,buteventhismaynothappeniftheleaderbeanoverwhelmingforcebyhimself,inwhichcasethepartymaynotbeabletodivideitselfevenwithincloseddoors.Themechanicsofunadulterateddictatorshipwouldthenoperateunhindered.

WhatiswantedtosaveparliamentarydemocracyisanOppositionthatwilloperatenotprivatelyandbehindthecloseddoorsofthepartymeeting,butopenlyandthroughtheelectorate…Since,asIhavesaid,theCongressPartyhasswungtotheLeft,whatiswantedforthebodypoliticisnotanultraorouter-Left,butastrongandarticulateRight.ThepeopleofIndia,howeverdociletheymayordinarilyappear,arenotjustclay.Life,notbeingamechanicalsystemofforcesbutfullofcomplexsentimentsandfeelings,thecreaksandjoltscausedbychangearepainfulrealitiesthathavetobebornebylivingpeopleinallgradesofsociety,whosepatternsoflifearetheproductoflonghistory.Thedistressisnotdissipatedintothestratosphere,butstrikesattheliving,sensitivenervesofmen,womenandchildren.

Thepainofchangeisasimple-lookingphrasethatsumsupallthatfollowsfromover-taxation,disemployment,highprices,exploitationbythenewly-favouredclassesandgroups,unbalancedfamilybudgets,andthehysteriaresultingfromallthesethingsinthemselves,andfromtheordinaryindividual’ssenseofhisownimpotenceinfaceofthem.Thosewhosuffertheseimpactswouldwelcomeaparliamentarypartythatwouldcompelattentiontothesecreaksandjoltsanddisturbancesinlife,andwhichwouldmeettheLeftonleveltermsand,bytestingandmeasuringbothproposedlegislationandday-to-dayadministration,wouldchallengethewisdomofthegoverningpartyandcompelmodificationwhenthoseinpoweractinawaywhichwouldproducemorepainthanprofittothecommunity.ThisisthefunctionoftheRight,andthereisawidespreaddemandforsuchaparty…

AlthoughthereistodayabundantmaterialforapowerfulOpposition,hypnoticfearandthepressureofindividualinterestsoperatetopreventthegatheringtogetheroftheforces.Day-to-daylifecannotbecarriedonwithoutappealsforfavoursofallkindsfromthegovernmentinpower,andanyeffortinthedirectionofforminganOppositionpartymustinvolvesacrificeandconsiderableriskonthepartofthosewhowouldmakesuchaventure.Sacrificecomesnaturallywithrevolutionsbutconservativewisdomdoesnotexcitea

similaremotion.Reasongeneratesfear,andmenofexperienceareinclinedtopoliticalcautioninthepersonalsense.Distressisacceptedwithfatalism,notwiththespiritofsacrificewhichisdeterminednottoallowsimilardistressestobeinflictedonothers.Unlesstheconservativesrealizetheirduty,throwofftheirdejection,overcometheirfearsandunitetobuildaworthyOpposition,parliamentarydemocracyinIndiahasadismalfuture.PartieswhicharetotheleftoftheCongresscanneverhopetofunctionasmorethanproddingginger-groups,sinceitisquiteunrealisticforthemtoimaginethemselvesasalternativestoagovernmentwhichisitselfpreparedtogoasfartotheleftasitispossibletodoandwhichhasinstalleditselfonthecrestofhistoricsuccess.

ThereisanotherfactorthatmustbetakenintoaccountinIndia.Thecentrifugalforceofregionalinterestcutsacrossallpoliticalissues.Inacountryofthissize,withallthedifferingconditionsprevailinginthevariousStates,regionalinterestsandissuesarisingfromthemintheefforttobuildwelfareovershadowothermatters.Thiscreatesanadditionalandgreatobstacletotwo-partypolarizationinpolitics.Eachregionalinterestisasolidreality,andthisfacttendstoimposeonParliamentachequeredpatternwhichinWestminsterisonlyfaintlyperceptibleinScottishandWelshnationalism.

Thesolutionforthisproblemisnottokeepblowingscornatregionalfeelings,buttoconcedegreaterautonomytotheStates,soastominimizeregionalthinkingandeliminatethepressureofregionalinterestsattheCentre,andtomaketheCentreaninstrumentforthebroadestpoliciesandnot,asnow,onefordealingwitheverytankbund,school,hospitalandsocialserviceclub.ThisstatementabouttheCentremayseemexaggerated,butitisnot.Duringthelastfewyearsthetendencytocentralizehasgrowntoproportionswhicharebothridiculousandalarming…

[T]hemainremedyliesnotintheremodellingoftheCouncilofState,butinamuchgreaterautonomyoftheStatesthemselves.ThelegislaturesoftheStatesandtheadministrationoftheirgovernmentsshouldberunontheparliamentarymodel,whiletheCentregraduallycrystallizesintoatruefederalauthority.Federalpowers,onissuesotherthanforeignaffairsanddefence,shouldshrinktothebarestminimum,whilethepowersexercisedbytheStatesshouldexpandverygreatly.

Duringtheperiodoftransitiontogreaterregionalautonomy,politicsintheStatesmaytakeacuriouscourse.ConflictofopinionwillnaturallydeveloparoundtheissueofdivisionofpowersbetweentheStatesandtheUnion.TheCongressPartyinalltheStatesduringthisperiodisboundtobeaUnionistor

Centristparty,theOppositionbeingapartypledgedtoconserveandincreaselocalautonomy.Untilabalanceisreached,centristswouldtrytocreateemotionaroundslogansofnationalunity,whileprovincialistswouldfightzealouslyfortheinterestsoftheregion.Thesehealthystruggleswouldcutacrossandminimizecasteandsub-castepolitics,whichinitselfwouldbeagreatgainforefficiencyandintegrityinadministration.ThegrowthofavigorouslocalistpartyineachState,withoutdistinctionsarisingfromcastefeeling,willsaveprovincialgovernmentsfromdeteriorationonaccountofuncheckedpowerinthehandsofamajority.

Whatevermaybethepoliticalstructure,thepeoplewantfairandimpartialaswellasefficientadministration.Inanenvironmentdominatedbyfamilyandcommunalloyaltiesandattachments,parochialauthorityquicklycausesdeteriorationamongofficials.All-roundprogressandtheeliminationofunhealthypracticeswouldbelargelysecuredif,whiletheStatesaregivenlargerpowers,thepersonnelofadministrationalloverIndia—FederalaswellasState—arekeptunderthestrictandindependentguardianshipofanall-Indiabody,consistingofveryseniorofficials,whoseconcernwouldbetomaintainprofessionalqualityinthevariousservices,andtoprotecttheofficialsagainstpoliticalpressuresandvictimization.ThisshouldnotinterferewithgreaterdevolutionofauthoritytotheStates.Theprofessionalaspectofadministrationisdifferentfromtheexecutionofpolicy.Thedefenceforces,thepolice,andtheadministrativeservicesshouldbetruetotheirownstandardsofefficiencyandcharacterandbeabovepartypolitics.Theyshouldcarryoutgovernmentpoliciesirrespectiveofwhateverpartymaybeinpower.Theirdisciplinemustthereforebeself-sustained.Efficiency,independenceandintegrityinofficialsarenecessarybothforFederalandStateaffairs,andthemoretheservicesarereleasedfrompoliticalpressureandtemptationstodiscriminateunfairlyonaccountofpoliticalorcommunalinfluences,thebetteritwillbeforallconcerned;forgovernmentaswellasOpposition,andcertainlyforthepeoplegoverned.Anefficientadministrativemachineisabsolutelynecessaryifdemocracyistoresultinthatgeneralhappinesswhichisouraim.

Wanted:IndependentThinkingInthisnextexcerpt,fromanarticlepublishedafewmonthslater,

RajagopalacharispeaksofhowtheoverwhelmingpoliticaldominanceoftheCongresshadledtothedeclineofindependentthinkingwithinthepartyandinthecitizenryatlarge.2

ThepoliticalorganizationthatsuccessfullyfoughttheBritishpowerinIndiawas,atthecloseofthatstruggle,putinpowerbythelatter.TheBritishParliamentnotonlyacknowledgedtheindependenceofIndiabuttransferredthereinsofexecutiveauthoritytotheCongressPartytostartwith.Thispartycontinuestogoverntheaffairsofthecountryaftertenyearsofthatevent.Itiswellknownor,tousethesaferjournalisticphrase,itcannotbedeniedthatthereisconsiderablesearchingofheartatthepresentmomentamongtheleadersoftheIndianNationalCongress.Allisnotwell,itisfelt,butnoremedyhasbeenfoundthatmeetsthesituationandconsequentlythecustomaryattitudeinsimilarsituationsinthecaseofindividualsicknessisadopted,tosaythatthereisnothingveryserioustoworryabout.

Itis,foranyone—andmuchmoresoforonewhohasspentthebestpartofhislife-timeservingtheorganizationandwhoowesmanyhonoursandkindnessestoit—anundertakingofsomedegreeofdelicacytoexamineintothecauseofthepresentdiscontentabouttheCongress.Ifheavoidsvaguenessandvisionarylanguageandtouchesthetruerootsofthemalady,hemay‘comeneartopersonsofweightandconsequencewhowillratherbeexasperatedatthediscoveryoftheirerrorsthanthankfulfortheoccasionofcorrectingthem.Butinallexertionsofdutysomethingistobehazarded.’Ihavefoundthewordsinthewritingsofoneofthegreatestpoliticalphilosophersofmoderntimes,andinthatmoodIventuretocriticize.

AsaresultoftacitsubmissiononthepartofthepeopleofemancipatedIndia,afewgoodpersonsatthetop,enjoyingprestigeandpower,areactinglikeguardiansofdocilechildrenratherthanasleadersinaparliamentarydemocracy.Mutualencouragementhasledtothisconditionofaffairs.Meninastateamountingtotutelagehavenochancetodeveloptowardsmaturity.ThiswasMilton’semphaticopinionanditisastruetodayasinthedaysofCromwellandastrueinonecountryasinanother.Althoughmenare‘fallen’,tousethepoet’sexpression,theyretainenoughoftheoriginalgiftofGodtogrowtowardsfreedom.Butachancemustbegiventothemtodiscoverthepreciousgiftthatlieshiddenwithinthemselves.Thesortoftutelagethatnowprevailsgivesnosuchchance.

Notheoryofcivillife,no’ismwillworksatisfactorilyunlessthecitizensinthedemocracyarewillingtoundertaketheresponsibilityofthinkingandjudgingforthemselves…Insteadofindependentthinkingandfreejudgment,themannersofparrotshavebeengrowingamongmen,evenamongthoserightlycreditedwithintellectualcapacityofahighorder.Theyrepeatthewordsutteredbytheestablishedguardianswithoutpayingthoughttothemeaningandtheimplications.Iamnotobjectingtoanyparticularopinionbuttotheparrotculturethathasseizedthecountry.

Forinstance,andonlyforaninstance,thereismorethanoneroadtonationalwelfare.TheWelfareStatewasthefirstformulaadoptedbytheleaders;itwassoonfollowedbythe‘socialisticpattern’andthencamethesocialistState.Didpeoplewhosuccessivelyre-utteredthesephrasesfollowthevariousmeaningsofthevariousphrases?Hastherebeenanyknownpublicorevenprivatediscussionofthemeritsofthevariousidealsconnotedbytheseterms?Domenandwomenwhorepeattheword‘socialism’,asanameforwhatisclaimedtobethestraightwayleadingtowelfare,rememberwhatGandhijisaidaboutit—Gandhijiwhomtheyprofessnotonlytoadmirebutalsotofollowinallthings?Dopeople,whonowacceptnationalsocialism,dosoafterhavingconsideredandrejectedthedoctrineoftrusteeshipwhichGandhijitoldhisdiscipleswashiswayandwaspreferabletotheegalitarianismofthesocialistsandtheinterferencebylawwithownershipofproperty,anditstraditionalincidentsandobligations,whichsocialismmeant?Havementhoughtaboutthematterandallitsconsequencesincludingtheconcentrationofalleconomicpowerandinfluenceinthosewho,forthetimebeing,wieldauthority?Havetheyeventhoughtaboutwhetherthemanagementofthingsbymenislikelytobecarriedoutbetterwhentheyhaveaproportionateinterestinthegoodstewardshipandinitsresult,orwhentheydoitonsalariesandonbehalfoftheState?Orhassocialismbeenadoptedonlyasparrotslearntospeak?

Thisisonlyaninstance.WhatIpleadforisaclimateofindependentthinkingamongcitizens.Itisnogoodimaginingitistherewhenweseenosignorsymptomofit.Withoutthisessentialaccompaniment,self-governmentthroughdemocracywillproveitselftobeahouseofcards.

Thereasonforagradualcollapseofindependentthinkingistheconfusioninthepeople’smindsbetweenapoliticalstruggleagainstforeigndominationanditsdiscipline,andday-to-daygovernment:betweenrevolutionandadministration.Thefiguresofspeechemployedinappealsandmanifestos,oralandwritten,encouragethisconfusionbetweenbattleandgovernmentand

betweentherespectivedisciplinesrequiredforthem.Thelongreignofpopularfavourites,withoutanysignificantopposition,isprobablythemaincauseforthecollapseofindependentthinking.‘Youhavenotgonefarenough’,‘youdonotmeanwhatyousay’—thesearetheonlycriticismsthatsomepeopleventuretooffer.Noonedarestosay‘yourpolicyiswrongandmustbere-examined’.Theoppositionisatbestachargeofinefficiencyincarryingoutpolicyorasuspicionofinsincerity.Thereisnoattackonthepolicyitself.

Democraticcivillifecallsforindependentthinkingamongthecitizens—amongthegovernedasamongthegovernors.Criticismandreply,andcounter-replymakeforhealthintheair.Diseasesofcorruptionandintriguearebyaprocessofnaturalhygienedrivenoutinsuchanatmosphere.Burkesaidheliked‘clamour’.‘Iamnotoftheopinion,’hesaid,‘ofthosegentlemenwhoareagainstdisturbingthepublicrepose.Thefire-bellatmidnightmightdisturbyoursleep,butitkeepsyoufrombeingburnedinyourbed.’

Ifsubservienceandslavishadulationtaketheplaceofindependentthinkingandcriticismisneverresortedtobutwithfearandtrepidation,theatmospherequicklybreedsthepoliticaldiseasespeculiartodemocracy.Ifwehavenotthefreeandcriticalatmosphereofawell-balanceddemocracy,aWelfareStateismostfavourablesoilforthegrowthoftheweedsofcareerism,intrigueandvarioustypesofdegreesofdishonesty.AnOppositionisthenaturalpreventiveforsuchpoisonousweeds.AnOppositionisthereforetheurgentremedyindicatedbythesymptoms—notmerepsycho-therapy.‘Youareallright.Indeedyouarebetterthanyouwere.Don’tbelieveyouaresick.Youarenotsick!’—thiscannotrestoreafracturedleg.WeneedanOppositionthatthinksdifferentlyanddoesnotjustwantmoreofthesame,agroupofvigorouslythinkingcitizenswhichaimsatthegeneralwelfare,andnotonethatinordertogetmorevotesfromtheso-calledhave-nots,offersmoretothemthanthepartyinpowerhasgiven,anOppositionthatappealstoreasonandactsonthefirmfaiththatIndiacanbegovernedwellasademocraticRepublic,andthatthehave-notswillnotrejectsoundreason.

Itisnotthequalityoftruefaithindemocracytofearthattruthwillnotsucceedwiththeelectors.Whatwillleadtopermanentwelfarethevoterswillaccept,ifnotatonce,atleastincourseoftime.Wemusthavethefaiththattheywillseethroughthecorruptoffersofimmediategainsatthecostofinjurytothegeneralwelfare.OnsuchfaithanOppositionshouldcomeintobeingthatwillsetaproperbalancetotheauthorityofthepartyinpowerandputourfreeCommonwealthonitstwofeet.

SuchanOpposition,evenifitshouldnotsucceedinoustingapowerfulmajorityfromitsseat,mayatleastseethatitspowerisnotabsolutepower,whichcorruptsabsolutely,butsomethingcontrolled,sothattheevilsthatflowfrompowermaybekeptwithinlimits.

Somepeople,frightenedbythehopelessprospectofbiddingagainstasocialistGovernmentforthefavourofthehave-nots,believethattheonlycourseopenistowaitforthefadingawayoftheCongressbyreasonofitsownweaknessanddiseasesandthentoformanewpoliticalpartyonrightlines.Thiscannotbedone.Nopartycanissueoutofchaosexceptonebackedbyphysicalforceandterrorism.Ifwedesireaparliamentarypartytocomeintobeingforsteadyingthemachineryofgovernment,itmustbeaccomplishedwhenthegovernmentisrunningunderCongressrule.Itwouldbefataltowaitforitsdisintegrationwhichwillresultonlyinrulebyforce.

TheCasefortheSwatantraPartyFinally,Rajagopalacharidecidedtotaketheinitiativehimselfinfosteringa

politicalandideologicalalternativetotheCongressParty.ThiswastheSwatantraParty,whosefirstmanifesto,draftedbyitsoctogenarianfounder,isexcerptedbelow.3

…TheSwatantraPartystandsforminimumgovernmentandminimumStateinterference,forminimumexpenditureinadministrationandforminimumtaxation,forminimuminterferenceintheprivateandprofessionalaffairsofcitizensandforminimumregulationinindustryandtrade.Asagainstthisarethedeclaredpolicies,intentionsandtendenciesoftheCongressPartyinfavourofwhathasbeencalled‘socialism’whichisStatecontrolofeverything.ThethesisoftheCongressPartyisthatwelfareandsocialjusticecanbesecuredonlybyincreasingStatecontrol,asagainsttheantithesisthatprosperity,welfareandjusticecanbemoreeffectivelyachievedbyminimizingStateinterferenceandenlargingindividualincentiveandfaircompetition.TheSwatantraPartystandsforthelatterpropositionandallthatfollowsfromitundermodernconditions.

TheSwatantraPartydoesnotdenytheneedforregulation,butholdsthatregulationmustbelimitedtorequirementandnotexpandedtothepointofkillingindividualincentive.Aggregatewealthandproductiondependonindividualincentiveandproduction.StatemanagementandStateinvestmentinvolvemaximumwasteandmaximumexpenditure,asagainstthefrugalconditionsaccompanyingallindividualenterpriseanddecentralizedeffort.Responsibilityisreducediftheindividualdisappearsandmultipleownershipanddelegatedauthoritytakeoverthemanagement.

TheCongressPartyhassofarrunwithoutatrueOpposition.Ithasrunwithacceleratorsandnobrakes.Ithasputintoeffectpoliciesandplansthathaveincreasedadministrativeexpenditureandcausedinflation.Priceshavegoneupallroundandtaxationhasreachedthebreakingpoint.ThewasteassociatedwithStatemanagementisbroughttolightoneveryoccasionwhenawindowisopened.Widespreaddissatisfactionoverthesethingsisundeniableandthereisnoneedtogivedetails.

Thebasicneedforprosperityisadequatefoodproduction.Itisadmittedonallhandsthatattemptsategalitariandistributionofwealthwouldbeutterlyfoolishbeforethedeficitinfoodproductionissetrightandmuchmoreproductionallroundisassured.Egalitariandistributionofdistressandpovertyisnotwhatanybodywants.

TheCongressPartyhasunfortunatelyresolvedtotinkerwiththebasic

machineryoffoodproductionontheassumptionthatthefaultliesthere.Ithasresolved,ontheonehand,onfragmentationand,ontheother,ondestroyingindividualincentiveandhandingoverfarmproductiontomultipleownershipwithoutindividualincentive.Thisisthemeaningandtheeffectoftheproposalsforputtingaceilingontheextentofindividualownershipoflandandplacingtheexpropriatedexcessunderwhatiscalledco-operativemanagement,whichineffectmeansdelegatedauthoritytopaidofficials4…

TheSwatantraPartyhasbeenbornoutofthisconflictbetweenrealityontheonehandandinexperiencedambitionontheother.TheSwatantraPartystandsfornon-interferencewiththeownershipofland,andagainstanypolicythatextinguishesindividualincentiveinthatfieldandseekstosubstituteofficialmanagementforowner-management…

[G]oingintotheaffairsofthepoliticalpartywhichtheIndianNationalCongresshasconverteditselfinto,therehasbeenagreatdeteriorationinwhatmattersmost,namely,themoralqualityoftheelementscomposingtheparty.Careerismhastakentheplaceofcharacter,andmaterialdesiresthatofpatriotism.ThepublicreputationandpresumptionofhighmindednesswhicheveryCongressmanassuchenjoyedwhenwefoughttheforeignregimeisnolongerthere.AgeneralfeelingofaversionhastakentheplaceoftheuniversalrespectandaffectionwhichwereoncetheprivilegeoftheCongressman.Thisalongwiththeprevailingfeelingofuncertaintyinallmatterswheretherulingpartyexercisesauthority—andthatisawidefield—makestheorganizationofanewpartynecessarytorestoreconfidenceandinterestinpubliclife.

ItisnotpossibletoimprovetheCongressfrominside.Peoplehavetriedit.Butvestedinterestspreventthis,andherethephrasehasitsrealderogatorymeaning.AllthemenwhocontrolthedecisionsoftheCongressastoitscompositionororganizationareagainstanychangesthatwillalteritspresentdeterioratedcharacter,fortheyareinterestedinitscontinuingasaninstrumentfortheirownindividualadvantage.Anexternalattackmayhoweverchangethesituation.Reformmaysetinasadefence.

TheSwatantraPartybelievesthatsocialjusticeandwelfarecanbereachedmorecertainlyandproperlyinotherwaysthanthroughthetechniquesofso-calledsocialismwithallitsaccompanimentsofinjustice,expropriationandrepudiationofobligations…ItisnotgoodforthenationtoallowtheState,whichbeitrememberedmustalwaysbeinthegripofsomepoliticalpartywithitsownmotivesandinterests,torunallthebeneficentactivitiesofthenationasitsexclusivemonopoly,atthesametimetaxingthepeopleforallthewasteful

costofthatmonopolizedcharity.ThepartybelievesthatalltheeducationalactivitiesoftheGovernment,

directandindirect,shouldbesuchastoemphasisethemoralobligationofthosewhopossesswealthtoholditintrustforsociety,andadoctrineoflifebasedonthatmoralobligationasdistinguishedfromseekingtoestablishasocialisticstructurebasedonlegislativesanctions,involvingexpropriationandlossofincentivefortheindividualtoworkandincreasingdependenceontheStateanditsofficialsineverywalkoflife.ThepartyisopposedtoallthosepoliciesandforecastsoffutureGovernmentalactionwhichhavecreatedanall-pervadinganddeepsenseofuncertainty,dryingupallinterestinlandandfactoryalike.

Thepartyrecognizestheparamountneedforincreasingfoodproductionandbelievesthatitisbestattainedthroughthecontinuanceoftheself-employedpeasant-proprietorwhostandsforinitiativeandfreedomandisinterestedinobtainingthehighestyieldsfromtheland.Thepartybelievesinanintensiveprogrammeofagriculturalimprovementwithoutdisturbingtheharmonyofrurallifeamongsttheelementsthatcomposeit,andbypromotingthematerialandpsychologicalinducementformodernproduction.Thepartyseekstointroduceamoreintensiveprogrammethanisnowbeingfollowedinrespectofthesupplyofmaterial,implementsandcredittothefarmerwithoutanydiscriminationamongindividualsandwithoutinanywayinterferingwiththecultivator’srightsofownership,managementandcultivationoftheland.Thepartyisopposedtocultivationthroughorganizationswhicharealoosekindofmultipleownership,certaintosaptheincentiveofthefarmer,reducefarmoutputandendinacollectiveeconomyandbureaucraticmanagement.

Thepartystandsforraisingtheleveloflifeofthefarmerbytakingstepstomaintainareasonableandfairpriceforhisproduce.InIndustry,thepartystandsfortheincreaseofincentivesforhigherproductionandexpansionwhicharepromotedbycompetitiveenterprise,withadequatesafeguardsagainstexcessiveandunreasonableprices,profitsanddividendswherethecompetitionitselfdoesnotsecuretheseends.ThepartywouldrestrictStateenterprisetoheavyindustriestosupplementprivateenterpriseinthatfield,nationalservicessuchastherailwaysandthestartingofpioneerindustrieswhereprivateinitiativeislacking.Thepartywantstaxationtobekeptatsuchalevelthatitdoesnotinterferewithreasonablelivingstandardsforthepeople,bothruralandurban,andwhich,whilebeingnecessaryandsufficientforcarryingonadministrationandsuchsocialservicesasmustbeundertaken,isyetnotsohighandexactingorsoubiquitousastopreventcapitalformationandinvestmentbyindividuals;itis

opposedtohastyandlopsideddevelopmentbasedonheavytaxation,deficitfinancingandforeignloansoutofallproportiontoeconomicrepayment-capacity,leadingtoexcessiveinflation…

ThephilosophyoftheSwatantraPartyhasthusbeensetoutinconcreteshape.Itstandsfortheindividualtoretainhisidentityandhismotivesforhonestendeavourandforhisservingthecommunitywithawillingheartandnotoutofcompulsion…Thosewhoaremateriallyprosperousshouldconsiderthemselvesboundtohelpthelessfortunate.Peopleshouldceasedeceivingoneanotherandbeginhonestlytohelpthosewhocometothem.Ifwehavenofaithinourpeople,ifwedonottrustoneanother,democracywillbeapoormake-believeandwillbreakdownwithanarchyintorulebyforce.SocialCo-operationhasalwaysbeenourDharma.TheStateshouldrecedeintocomparativeinsignificanceandDharmashouldberestoredtoitsoriginalpositionassovereignovermen,womenandgovernment.

ReformingtheSystemofElectionsinIndiaIn1962,aftertheCongresshadwonitsthirdsuccessivegeneralelection,

RajagopalachariarguedthattheelectoralsysteminIndiawasbiasedtowardstherulingparty.Further,itwassubjecttotheinfluenceofbigbusinessandnottransparent.Inournextexcerpt,heoutlinedhowelectionsinIndiacouldbemademoreefficientandtransparent.ThisisthelastoffouressaysbyRajagopalachariwhich—intheviewofthiseditor—collectivelydemonstratethatnoone,beforeorsince,hasthoughtthroughtheproblemsofIndiandemocracywithsuchacuityandinsight.5

ReformofelectoralprocedurehasbeentalkedaboutanditseemsasiftheCongressGovernmentissatisfiedthatallthatisneededhasbeendone.TheCongressPartydoesnotseemtoobjecttoelectionsbeing,byandlarge,aprivateenterprise,asithascapitalenoughtorunthemassuch.WhyshouldtheGovernmentnotarrangetogivetoeveryvoterhisorheridentificationcardandserialnumber?Thiswouldsubstantiallyreducetheexpenseforthecandidate.ItistheexpensivenessoftheelectioncampaignsandthemonopolyoffundsthatitcommandsthatchieflycontributetotheCongressParty’ssuccess.Nothingisbeingdonetowardsreducingtheexpensesofcandidatesorofparties,whichisthesamething…

TheIndianelectoratesuffersfromwell-knowndefectsfromwhichWesterndemocraciesarerelativelyfree.TheIndianvotersareingreatmeasurepoorandvulnerabletobribery:evenaday’sexpenseforfoodservestobuyalargenumberofthepoorvoters.Theyareinagreatmeasureignorantanddonotknow,forinstance,whypricesrise.TheyareignorantoftheconnectionbetweenGovernmentpoliciesandtheirconsequencesinanation’slife.Theyaremovedbycasteandcommunityaffiliations.Theyliketovoteforthepartylikelytosucceed,irrespectiveofpoliciesormerits.

ItisthereforehighlyunsatisfactorythatthepressshoulddayinanddayoutpublishduringthecriticalfortnightcaptionsforecastingsuccessfortheCongressParty.ThefreedomofthepressissacredandIamasmuchadefenderofitasMiltonorJohnStuartMill.Butthisisdefinitelyriggingthecontestinfavouroftherulingparty.Amongthemanydifficultiesmentionedabove,thisisanadditionalhandicapforoppositionpartiesforwhichthepressisresponsible,possiblywithoutintendingit…

ThereisnowayofsalvagingdemocracyinIndiaunlesstheformerElectionCommissioner6withhisgreatexperienceworksoutaveryinexpensiveelection

procedureputtingamaximumshareofthecostontheStateandsavingtheexpenseforcandidates.Wemustchoosebetweenevilsandcannothopetohaveeverythinggood.IwouldputtheburdenofdistributingidentificationslipsontheGovernment.Iwouldalsolikemobilearrangementsforcollectingvotesatthevoters’residences.

WecaneventhinkoftwostagesintheGeneralElections,thefirststagebeingtheelectionofafront-rankleadertoleadtheGovernmentofIndia,andthesecondstagebeingtheelectionofallMPsafterthepublicknowstheresultofthefirststage.ThismaybetreatedasacompromisebetweentheAmericanandtheBritishsystem.WearenotinthesamesituationaswewereinthefirstdecadeofIndependencewhenwehadquiteafew‘oldguard’menavailablewhowereknownandrespectedalloverIndia…

AtlonglasttheElectionCommissionhasexpressedthedesiretoworkoutaplanbywhicheveryvotercastshisvoteathisdoorstep.Thishasbeenmycryalltheseyears.Ihopetheplanwillnotbegivenuponaccountofseemingdifficultiesandobjections,butwillbeworkedoutproperly.Itwillreducecorruptionaswellasintimidation.Itwillreducetheexpenseofelectionsandmakeitpossibleforcandidatestostandwithoutdependingonmoneytobeobtainedfromothers.Itisaboldstepthatisinvolved.IhopetheElectionCommissionwillnotretreatbutpressonwiththisfar-reachingreform.

Theone-manElectionCommission,wearetold,isthinkingofhavingmobilepollingboothsin‘risky’areasandplaceswhereviolenceandintimidationarerife.Thosewhoknowhowmuchmoneyisspentbypartiesandcandidatesinelectionsandhowitisspent,wouldtelltheElectionCommissionthatcorruptionwouldbemuchminimizedandhonestywouldhaveachanceifhouse-to-housetakingofvotesinmobileboothscouldbeintroducedeverywhere.TheGovernmentshouldspendmoreandtheactualexpensesofpartiesandcandidatesshouldbeconsiderablyreduced.

ItappearsfromwhathasbeenreportedinthepressthattheElectionCommissionerobjectstocandidateswriting,typingorrubber-stampingtheirnamesontheidentityslipstheygivetothevoters.ThisisajustobjectionthattheElectionCommissionerhastaken.Ifelectioneeringmisdemeanoursaretobereducedtotheminimum,theStateshouldrecognizeandfulfilitsdutytoacquainteachvoterofhisrighttovote,andgivehimacardshowinghisnameandnumberintheroll,andnotleaveittothecandidatestodothiswork.Itisthisthatgivestheopportunityformisdemeanours.TheCommissioner’sobjectionconfirmsthevalidityofmylongstandingproposalthattheGovernmentshould

givecardsofidentificationtovotersandalsocollectthevotesontheappointeddaysinmobilepolling-boothssoastokeepcandidates’conveyancesoutofthefield.

TheduplicationofexpensesincurredintellingthevoterthathehasavoteandpersuadinghimtogototheboothtolodgehisvoteoughttobeavoidedandtheStateasawholeshouldincurthetroubleandtheexpense.Thecandidatesshouldbelefttoearntheirpreferencesbytheirmeritsandtheircampaigningandnotbyreasonofhavingtakenthetroubletoacquaintthevoterofhisrightandbyreasonofmakingiteasyforhimtogotothepolling-booth.Ourvotersaresimple-mindedandtheyfeelittheirmoraldutytoobligethosethattakesometroubleontheirbehalfduringthepollingweek.Thisleadstomakingtheelectionamerebargain.

ThereformIhaveproposedandwhichIhavekeptinsistingupon,shouldbemadetheruleasearlyaspossible.Mobileboothstocollectvotesmayappeartobearatherexpensivescheme.But…[t]hetotalnationalexpenditureontheelectionswouldbeless,moreburdenfallingontheGovernment,andmuchlessonthecandidates,whichisjusttherightthingifwedesiretogiveanequalchancetoallthecandidates,richorpoor.Letusnationalizetheelectionsbeforewenationalizebusinessconcernswhichwillsufferandnotimprovebynationalization…

PothanJoseph,writingintheSundayStandard,windsupamostreadablereviewofMr.Nehru’scampaign-languagethus:

‘Thestandardof1962oratorydidnotcontributetoagloriouschapterofsobereducationforthe210millionadultsinthevoters’lists.’

Whatistobedeploredmostintherecentelections,however,isnotthelanguagebuttheterribleriseinelectionexpenditureandthemannerinwhichmoneyflowedforthepurchaseofthevotesofthepoorandilliterate.Moneyrunningsoalarminglyaheadofeducation,leadsonetoaskwhathopeorwayoutistherefordemocracy.Thehungerforgoodgovernmentthusfoiledinevitablyleadstosomeformofviolentescapewhichspellsdisasterfordemocracy.

ItshouldbemadeabindingrulethatnoMinisterresponsibleforIndustries,eitherattheCentreorintheStates,shouldundertakecollectionoffundsfortherulingpartyforthecominggeneralelections.Otherwiseitisopenlarge-scalecorruption,whatevermaybethecamouflagessetup.Itisnotenoughthatthisconventionispubliclyacceptedifindirectarrangementsareputintomotioncontrarytotheprinciple…

Allkindsofcollectionofmoneyaregoingon,called‘voluntary’donations

forunofficialfundsinwhichtheCongressPartyisinterested,andinwhichofficialsofthestatusofcollectorsofdistrictsandministersofStatesareaskedtotakeadirectpartandconsiderableinterest.Theotherdayacollectorgavetenlakhsofrupeesasthe‘quota’forhisdistrictfortheNehruFund…

WecannotsavedemocracyforIndiaunlesswemakeelectionslessexpensivethantheyaretoday.Theofficiallyordainedceilingdoesnottellustherealstory.Theexpensetobeincurredwhetherbythecandidateorthepartyisfartoogreatandwemustinvestigateandseewhatwecandotomakeitpossibleforadecentmanofmoderatemeanstogetelected.Ihavebeenadvocatingmobilepollingboothsandplacingtheresponsibilityontheadministrationofgivingtoeveryvoterhisidentitycardwithhisorhernameandnumberintheelectorallist.Atpresentallthisworkisofthenatureofprivateenterpriserunbycandidates.IfwhatIhavebeensuggestingisnotsatisfactory,someothermeansmustbefound.Butthatelectionsshouldbemademuchlessexpensiveisanimperativenecessity.

Theelectionscostcandidatesfabuloussumsofmoney—notparticularlyonaccountofbribing,butbyreasonofnecessaryexpenditureonmentobeengagedinthevarioustransactionsinvolvedintheprocessofdirectelectionsbasedonadultsuffrage.Thewholestructuremustbreakdownundertheweightofthisexpense,whenthesubservienceofindustrytopoliticsisgotridof,asitmustbe,oneday.Shareholders’moneyisnowbeingmisusedbythemanagingagenciesforpoliticalpurposesasaresultofgovernmentbeingaPermit-LicenceRaj;butthiscannotgoonforlong.Onedayorother,abanwillhavetobeplacedoncontributionsbycompanymanagementsofshareholders’moneytopoliticalpartiesfordistributionamongtheircandidatesforelectioneeringexpenses.Thenthisexpensivestructuremustbreakdown…

Allchangesinvolvetroubleinthebeginning.Evenverydesirablereformsinvolvetrouble.Conservativeofficialsnotwishingtoincurthesetroublesmaypresentimpedimentsandobjections.Butunlesstheseareover-ruledandmobileboothsgoroundandcollectvotes,electionswillbetooexpensiveforourcountry,itspeopleandthecandidates.Moneywillruleandnotopinions.

Anyamountoftalkmaygoontobeguilepeople.Butuntiltheelectionprocedureisalteredradicallysoastothrowthegreatburdenofidentificationandgettingthevoterstocasttheirvotes,ontheGovernmentwithoutmakingitanexpensivehandicapforpoorcandidatesandpoorparties,practicallydeemingelectionstobeaprivateenterprise,therecanbenorealsocialism.Expropriationandcurbinganddiscouragingfreeproductiondonotmakesocialismbutmake

poverty.Envyisnotsocialism.Whatisatthebasisofallpresent-dayerrorsintheartofgovernmentisthatreformisbasedonconflictandenvyandnotongoodsense.

FreeingtheEconomyTheeconomicpoliciesofJawaharlalNehru,andoftheGovernmentofIndia,

assignedakeyroletothestate.Rajagopalacharithoughtthesepoliciesconstituteda‘permit-licence-quotaRaj’thatstifledentrepreneurshipandprivateinitiative.Hisowneconomicideasaresuccinctlysummarizedinournextexcerptfromhiswriting.7

Itisremarkablethatinthisscientificandrationalisticage,centralizedeconomicplanningbytheStatehasbeenraisedtothepedestalofaholycult.ThedominantthemeinIndiaforsomeyearspasthasbeentheeconomicupliftofthemasses,andcentralizedall-outplanninghasbeenresortedtoasthemeansofpromotingthatobject.Andthis,inspiteofreiteratedlip-servicetodecentralization.Themajorfaultofcentralized,comprehensiveplanningisthatitimposesamonolithicburdenonapeoplecomposedofdiverseelementsatalllevelsandinalloccupations.Theachievementsthatitmightshowinafewselectedareasareboughtatthecostofthefreedomandenterpriseoftheindividual.Theindividualandhiscreativeabilityaresmotheredbyaproliferatingbureaucracyandinnumerablerulesandregulations…

[P]lanninghasproceededinourcountryontheassumptionthatpeopledonotknowwhatisgoodforthemand,therefore,theymustbetoldwhattodo.Ithasproceededonthebasisthatafewbrightpersonsareomniscientandarecapableofdirectingthedestiniesofthenationinaninfalliblemanner.Wehavehadmanywarningstoteachushumility.TheBhakradam,whichwasdescribedasthenewandrealtempleforIndia,canbeaptlydescribedastheprojectionofourfollyinthinkingthatbigdamsarethebestthings.Itmustcomeasarevelationtoallofusthat,apartfromcroresofrupeessunkintothismammothproject,thedangerofanythinggoingwrongwiththedamwouldbeaninundationofindescribablemagnitude.Thebiggeramanbuilds,thesmallerbecomeshiscontroloverthethingshebuilds.WhatIdeploreisnotthebuildingofthisparticulardambutthemegalomaniaforbigprojects.Theseprojectshaveapoliticalcorollary—thecentralizationofallauthority,tothedetrimentofthefutureofthenation.Untilandunlesswedeveloptoastagewhentherequisiteadministrativeset-up,technicalskilland,aboveall,conscienceareallgearedtotheneedsofsuchprojects,itisfoolhardytoventureonthem…

Whatweneedisnotjustbigprojects,butusefulandfruitfulprojects.Thereisnothinginherentlywrongwithbigness,justasthereisnothinginherentlygoodinbigness.Bigdamsaregood,butmoreessentialarethousandsofsmallprojectswhichcouldbeandwouldbeexecutedbytheenthusiasmofthelocalpeople

becausetheydirectlyandimmediatelyimprovetheirlives.Soalsointhesettingupofindustries,thereshouldbeencouragementtoindustriesproducingconsumergoods,whichgivecontentandmeaningtothephrase‘standardofliving’andwhichcanbeproducedinsmallandmediumscaleindustries.Privateenterpriseshouldbefosteredbyeverymeansavailableandnottreatedasadangerousenemy.Industrialenterprisewouldthenspreadatvariouslevelsinthecountrysideandreducethetensionsthatattachtocentralizedindustrialism.

ThefederalstructureofIndiaisnotonlynotusedbutissoughttobesabotaged.Forinstance,althoughindustriesaretodaylistedbytheConstitutionundertheStateSchedule(exceptingstrategicindustries),thosewhowishtostartindustriesmustallrushtoNewDelhiforpermitsandcomplywithorotherwisenegotiateahostofregulations.Asaconsequence,unemploymentstandsunchanged.Itwillbearguedthatthereshouldbeco-ordinationanduniformity.Buteconomicdevelopmenttakesplacefasterwhendiversityispermittedandthefullestuseismadeoflocal,physicalandsocialconditionsbythosewhoknowthem.

Oneofthemostneglectedaspectsofplanninginthiscountryisthegearingupoftheadministrativemachineryandthesimplificationofprocedures.Itisnousedirectingappealsofpatriotismtoclerkswhosepersonallivescannotpermitroomforanythoughtbeyondtheirday-to-dayhouseholdtroubles.Unlessconditionsareradicallychangedtoprovideincentives,toremoveinefficiencyandtofixresponsibility,economicdevelopmentinthiscountrywillbehamperedbytheveryadministrativemachinerywhichissupposedtohelpit.

TheroleoftheGovernmentshouldbethatofacatalystinstimulatingeconomicdevelopmentwhileindividualinitiativeandenterprisearegiventhefullestplay.TheGovernmentcandoagreatdealbywayofprovidinganetworkofhighwaysandvillageroads,inimprovingwaterwaysanddevelopingsmallharbours,improvingcommunicationandtransitfacilities,whichwouldallservetoboosttheeconomy.ManyimportantthingshavebeenneglectedbecausetheGovernmenthasforgottentheminitsobsessionwitha‘commandeconomy’.WiseplanningmeansGovernmenthelptofosterprivateenterpriseandself-helpamongindividuals.Otherwise,therecanbenorealprogress.

AssistingtheBackwardTheIndianConstitutionhadmandatedaffirmativeactionfortheformer

Untouchablesandtribals.ApercentageofseatsinParliamentandstateassemblies,andingovernmentjobs,werereservedforthem.TherewerecontinuingpressurestoexpandtheseprogrammestoincludeOtherBackwardClasses.Inournextexcerpt,Rajagopalachariarguesthatallsuchschemesshouldbebasedoneconomiccriteriaalone.8

Thereisaprobleminourpublicaffairswhichisalmostinterminable—thatofthecommunityasawholeactingthroughtheStatehelpingthebackwardelementstorisetoabetterlifeinmaterialtermsandtoahigherlevelofculture.Weseektodoawaywithallcastedivisionsbutallstatutoryandotherconcessionsgivenfortheupliftofthebackwardelementsareprescribedonthebasisofcaste,althoughcastesandsub-castesarebrandedaswickedandstandabolishedinthenationalideology.Castewasandstillcontinuestobedeemedasthebestmeansofidentifyingthebeneficiariesanddistributingtheconcessions.Ithas,however,beenincreasinglyfeltthatthisisabasicallyerroneousprocedure,beinginconflictwiththeno-casteideologyofthenation.Itisseenmoreandmoreclearlythatitcreatesavestedinterestinbackwardnessandinbelongingtoaparticularcaste.Itiseasilyexploitedtotheadvantageofafewindividuals‘belonging’toa‘backward’caste,thesebeneficiariesthemselvesbeinginnosensebackward.Notonlydoesthecommunityremainbackward,notwithstandingtheconcessionsandassistancegivenbytheState,butthebenefitingindividualsinsistonclassifyingthecommunityasbackwardand[are]thereforeinterestedinkeepingitasbackward.Thisisinincreasingmeasurerecognizedbythegeneralbodyofeventhosecastes.Theythemselveshaveoftenprotestedagainstexploitationbyfavouredindividualsoftheassistancegiventothecommunityorsub-communityconcerned.

Thequestion,therefore,mustsoonbetackledboldlywhetherthecaste-wiseapproachshouldnotbegivenupandaseculareconomicaltestsubstitutedforalltheStateassistanceandconcessionstobegivenfortheupliftofthebackward.Adefinitionbasedoneconomicconditionwouldpreventexploitationandbecapableofmoregeneralapplication,soastoavoidthechargethattheseupliftconcessionsarefundamentallydiscriminatory,andbysuchdiscriminationcreatingnewclassesofunder-privilegedpeople,whilenothelpingtheoldbackwardclasses.Thewholequestionshouldbeexaminedinthedrylightofjusticeandreasonableness,andaformulaarrivedatwhichwoulddecidewhoneedshelpandwhatconcessionsshouldbegiventohimtodohimjustice.The

formulamustnecessarilybeinindividualeconomictermsandnotonebasedonlocalityorcommunity.Localityandcommunitycombinedmaybeaconvenientbasisforenquiry,butshouldnotitselfbethefinalgroundsforclassification.

Thetermsprivilegedandunder-privilegedaresometimesusedinconnectionwiththeneedforStateassistance.Privilege—ortheoppositeofit,disability—appliestoaconditiondeterminedbyworldlypossessionsorcasteconventionsconferringmaterialadvantagesorimposingdisabilities.ThereisinIndianoquestionnowofanylegalstatusassociatedwithcaste.Ifanyadvantageordisabilityexistedonceuponatime,basedoncaste,itnolongerexists.Whatexistsispovertyinvaryingdegrees.Thisisaconditiondemandingattentionwhereveritexists,thatistosay,whatevercastetheindividualbelongsto.Otherwise,iftheindividualshouldbebenefitedbyasubsidyoraconcessiononaccountofhiscaste,itbecomesanewprivilegewhichitisnotgoodpolicytocreateorperpetuate.Thereshouldbenoslackeningorreductionofassistancetoindividualsdeservingit.Butitshouldnotbedonebyreferencetothecastetowhichtheindividualbelongs.

Atthebaseofanyprogrammeofhelpingthebackward,educationmustplaythelargestpart.Boysandgirlsfallingwithintheeconomicdefinitionarrivedatmustbegiveneducationinschoolsorganizedforthem,whereinallthefacilitiesdecideduponmaybegiventoallthepupilswithoutreferencetocastesorsub-castesforthepurposeofgivingsuchhelp,andwithoutperpetuatingaclassificationwhichwewanttobeforgotten.Itwouldthusbeallreducedtofinancialtermsandbepartofgeneralfinancialpolicyinsteadofakindofcommunaldiscriminationforpurposesofuplift.Wewillhavetoallotfundsforinstitutionsinwhichtherewouldbenochargefortuitionorboardforpooranddeservingpupils.ThepresentschemeofconcessionshasgonesofartoperpetuatecastethatChristiansandMuslimsclassifythemselvesundertheirIndiancastenamesoforigin,althoughwhenadoptingthesefaithstheintentionwastowipeoutallformsofuntouchabilityorisolation,andtoforgetit.TheveryagentswhobroughtabouttheconversiontoIslamorChristianity,pleadforrecognitionoftheir‘Harijan’statusinordertoobtainthegovernmentconcessionsfortheirprotégés…

Asimpleeconomicbasisunconnectedwithcasteshouldbesubstitutedforthecastebasisonwhichtheconcessionsarenowgiven.Itwouldstopthecompetitionforbackwardnessandtheincreasingjealousiesbetweencommunityandcommunityarisingoutofthegrantoftheseconcessionstosomeandrefusaltoothers,althoughtheindividualsconcernedareequallyinneedofthem.

WhyWeNeedEnglishWhereRammanoharLohiahadopposedtheuseofEnglishasanofficial

languageinIndia,Rajagopalacharisupportedit.Thiswasinparttheproductofanorth-southdivide—forsouthernpoliticiansfeltthatEnglishwasmoreacceptableascomparedtothenorthernlanguagesomewantedittobesubstitutedby,Hindi.Inthenextexcerpt,RajajimakesthecaseforEnglishinhischaracteristicallyeconomicalanddirectprose.9

AllthereasonsthathavebeenadvancedtoretainEnglishastheofficiallanguageoftheUnionandnottoseektoreplaceitbyHindi—andtheyaresubstantialreasons—havebeenleftunanswered,buttwoargumentsarerepeatedlyadvancedbytheHindiprotagonists.OneisthatEnglishisalanguageofforeignoriginandnotoneoftheIndianlanguages,andthereforeitwouldbederogatorytonationalprestigetoallowittocontinueasthemediumofofficialworkinIndia.

OurnationalprestigehasnotsufferedduringthesetenyearsafterIndependenceanditisnotgoingtobeadverselyaffectedifwemakenochangebutgoonindefinitelywithEnglish.Thosewhosemother-tongueisHindiandwhoexpectedittobemadetheofficiallanguagenotonlyintheirownStategovernmentsbutalsoattheUnionlevel,mayfeeldisappointedandevenangrythattheyhavehadtoyieldtotheprotestsofnon-Hindipeople,butthis,farfromlowering,willenhancetheprestigeofIndiandemocracyandstrengthenconfidenceinIndiaherself.

EnglishnodoubtenteredIndiaasthelanguageoftheforeignpeoplewhomweallowedtotakepossessionofIndia.Butthesecretofitsstrongentrenchmentwhereitwasplaced,eventhoughitwasforeignsoil,isthatithasbeentousthegatewayofallmodernknowledgeandmodernprogress.ItiserroneoustosupposethatithasstruckrootinIndiabyreasonofofficialpatronage.ThatwestucktoitevenafterIndependencewasnotduetoanypressurefromabroadorforceofhabitonly.Itwasduetoourappreciationofitsutilityinmorethanonerespect.Allourhopesinthematerialplanearecentredontheadvancementofmodernknowledge,andtheEnglishlanguagecannotbutbeassociatedintimatelywiththosehopes.Itisthevastnewknowledgethatitbrought,andhasyettobring,thatisthesecretofthewidespreadattachmentinIndiatotheEnglishlanguage.Theclaimsofmerepatrioticsentimentmustrecognizeandyieldtothis.

TheotherargumentadvancedfordoingawaywithEnglishinfavourofHindiisadoctrinalone.Inademocracy,itisargued,thereshouldbeidentityof

mediumbetweengovernmentandthepeople.Thelanguageofthepeoplemustbetheofficiallanguage,otherwiseitwouldbeafailureofdemocraticintegration.Idonotdenytheforceofthisargument.ButIclaimthatthedoctrineofidentityoflanguagebetweengovernmentandthepeopleisfulfilledifeveryoneoftheStatesintheUnionfunctionsinthelanguageofthearea.ThereareoveradozenlanguagesinIndiaandmillionsarethevotariesofeachoneofthem,andtheyarelocatedintheterritoriesofeachlinguisticState.IfeachStatefunctionsintheregionallanguage,thedoctrineofidentityofmediumiscompletelyfulfilled.Thewholeisthesumofitsparts,andnothingremainstobedonetofulfilthedemandsofthisdoctrine.Ontheotherhand,ifHindiismadethelanguageoftheUnionGovernment,therewillbenoidentitybetweenthatandthelanguageofthepeopleofBengalorMadrasoranyothernon-HindiState.Itisnot,beitremembered,amatterofconsentorprotestbutaquestionofidentityoflanguageandwecandevisenotrickbywhichwecandiscoveralanguagefortheUnionGovernmentwhichwillnotleavetensofmillionsandvasttractsoutsideitsvogue.TheargumentthatHindiwillhelpustofulfilthedoctrineofidentityoflanguagebetweenthepeopleandgovernmentisbasedonadelusion,eitherthatconsentmakesupforadeficiency,orthattwo-fifthsisenoughfulfilment.Itboilsdown,ifwegetridofthefallacies,toasimplepreferenceforanIndiantoaforeignlanguage,eventhoughineithercasethedoctrineofdemocraticidentitywiththepeople’slanguageisnotreallysatisfied.OnceagainthereforewegobacktothesentimentalargumentagainstEnglish.

ButletusseewhetherandhowfarthesamedoctrineofidentitybetweengovernmentandthepeopleisfulfilledinthecaseoftheEnglishlanguage.AlltheeducatedpeopleofIndiainalltheStates,alltheofficialsoftheUnionandStategovernmentsalloverIndia,haveaveryfairacquaintancewithandcommandovertheuseofEnglish,whereasthesameisnotthecasebyanymeanswithHindioranyvariantofit.Sothenitwillbeseenthat,althoughthereareadozenlanguagesspokeninIndia,theeducatedsectioninanypartofIndiacommandsaknowledgeofEnglishandnoothersinglelanguagehasthisvogue.

Andthiswillcontinuetobeso,becauseitisadmittedonallhandsthatasoundknowledgeofEnglishisanessentialpartandwillcontinuetobeanessentialpartofeducationinIndiainalltheStates,whereasaknowledgeofHindiisstillonlyadesideratuminmostpartsofIndia,andisstillacontroversialitemincertaineducationalcircles.Thefactofthematteristhatinterestinlanguagegoeshandinhandwiththemodernknowledgeitbrings.Thesubstanceofknowledge,forwhichEnglishbooksserveasmedium,isthemotivepower

behindtheattentiontothatlanguage.WhatmodernknowledgenoworinthefuturewillHindibring?Canwebereallydependentontranslatedmaterial,translatednotbymeneminentinthescienceorthetechnologyofwhichthebookisanexpositionbutbymeretranslatorsofwords?Thefactofthematteristhatnewknowledgebringsitsownlanguage,thelanguageofthemenwhohavemadeandaremakingthatscienceorotherbranchofmodernknowledge.Anythingelseissecond-handandwehavenotime,neitherwenortheyoungpeopleinschoolsandcolleges,towasteonprestigewhenprogressdependsonknowledge.

Thenthereisathirdfallacy.WehavetodiscardthemaayathatHindiisrichenoughandgoodenoughforallourpurposes.Governmentisnotaneasyorsimpleaffairinthepresentdays.Thesemi-educatedmayfancythathismother-tongueisasgoodasEnglishandcanserveeverypurpose.Theeducatedmayfancythatwithalittleexertionalldeficienciesmaybesupplied.ButlanguageisnotamerecollectionofsymbolsmadeandbroughttogetheranyhowandwecannotbutgoterriblywrongifwethinkwecanmakeHindiasrichasEnglishstraightaway.

ItisadelusionagainthatHindi,suchasitis,iseasytolearnforallthepeopleofIndia.Itisbynomeanseasyforthemillionswhoselanguagesarenotofthesamestock.Therearefundamentaldifferencesthatmakeitdifficult.Yet,IknowthatmostHindiprotagonistswhohavenoknowledgewhatsoeveroftheSouthernlanguageshonestlybelievethatitisonlylazinessorcussednessthatpreventsHindibeinglearnt.Everyonebelievesthathismother-tongueistheeasiestofalllanguagesandthosewhoobjecttolearnitarejustunwillingpeople.TheclaimmadeonbehalfofHindihasasubtleillusionbehindit.ThosewhospeakHindiandwhofinditspokenallroundthem,believethatitwillonedaybecomethemother-tongueofallthepeoplesofIndia.Ineedhardlypointoutthatthisfourthdelusionisadangerousandvainnotion.TheotherlanguagesofIndiawillnotdie,leavingplaceforHinditobecomethemother-tongueofthepeoplenowspeakingTamil,KannadaorBengali.Itisnotlikethecaseofafewsettler-familiesadoptingthelanguageoftheplaceandforgettingtheirownmother-tongue.ThemassandthedistributionofthepeoplespeakinglanguagesotherthanHindirenderanysuchhopeanunthinkableproposition.

Fifthlyandlastly,thereisthegreatestfallacyofall,thenotionthatunityisbroughtaboutbytheadoptionofHindiastheofficiallanguageoftheUnion.Whatisbroughtaboutisprotest,dissatisfactionanddiscord,notunity.Hostilitycanbeovercomebypoliticaldodgingorpressurebutthatwayheart-ranklingis

produced,notunity.Wheretheprincipleofjusticeismateriallyignored,wecauseawoundwhichwillnothealeasily.Hewhopointsthisoutisnottheoffender,buthewhoinflictsthewound.

IappealtomybrethrenandfriendsintheNorthtoabstainfromthisplanandtojoinwithmeinaskingthatPartXVIIoftheConstitutionbesuspended10asanerroneoussteptakenwhenthoughtwasnotripe.ItwouldbeagestureofgreatvaluefortheunityandemotionalintegrationofIndia.LetnooneimaginethatIhavelostmyloveforIndiaormyconcernforallitsparts.Indeeditisgreaterthanever,anditisthatwhichnowmakesmetalkandwriteinthisunpleasantway.TheHindi-speakingpeopleinjurethemselvesinthelongrunbypressingthattheirmother-tongueshouldbeacceptedastheUnionofficiallanguagebythosewhodonotspeakit.IbegofthemtoconcentrateontheirworkatState-levelanddeclarethematchdrawnattheUnionlevelandleavethestatusquointactwithnothreatshangingovertheheadsofpeople.LetEnglishcontinue.

‘Thisstonewhichthebuildersrefusedisbecometheheadstoneofthecorner.’SothePsalmistsang.Thebuildershadrejecteditasbeingofcuriousshape,notarectangleandnoneofitssidessquareoroblong.Butitbecamethekey-stoneofthearchanditsstrangeshapewasitsmerit.Notoneofourownlanguagesbutthisstrangeonewillkeepthearchfirmandallthelanguagestogether.ItistheLord’sdoingandmarvellousinoureyes!Sobeit.

TheIndiaWeWantOurlastexcerptfromRajagopalachariisfromanessayhewroteinOctober

1961,afterhisoldfriend-turned-politicaladversary,JawaharlalNehru,hadvisitedMadrasandmadesomecriticalremarksabouthimatapublicmeeting.NehruhadreferredtoRajajiasbeing‘continuallyangry’.11

NehrucametoMadraswithalltheparaphernaliaofthePrimeMinisterofIndiaandattemptedinhisspeechtoanswermyoft-repeatedcharges;hemadecounter-chargesagainstmeofspeakinginangerandintheconfusionofmindcausedbyunaccountableanger.Iamgratefulfortherespecthecontinuestohaveforme.HewantsmetosaypreciselywhatIwantandpaintthepictureofIndiaasIdesireittobe.TheSwatantramanifestoanswersthischallengeandnotevenadversenewspapershavefounditwantingindefinitenessorclarity.But[as]Nehruhashadnotimetoreadit,hereismypicture.

IwantanIndiaclearoftheatmosphereoffearinwhichitisnowenveloped,wherehonestmenengagedinthedifficulttasksofproductionortradecancarryontheiroccupationwithoutfearofruinatthehandsofofficials,ministersandpartybosses.

IwantanIndiawheretalentandenergycanfindscopeforplaywithouthavingtocringeandobtainspecialindividualpermissionfromofficialsandministers,andwheretheireffortswillbejudgedbytheopenmarketinIndiaandabroad.

Iwantthedensepermit-licencefognottositonus.IwantStatismtogoandGovernmentreducedtoitsproperfunctions.

Iwanttheinefficiencyofpublicmanagementtogowherethecompetitiveeconomyofprivatemanagementcanlookafteraffairs.

Iwantthecorruptionsofthispermit-licencerajtogo.Iwanttheofficialsappointedtoadministerlawsandpoliciestobefreefrom

thepressuresofthebossesoftherulingparty,andgraduallyrestoredbacktothestandardsoffearlesshonestywhichtheyoncemaintained.

Nehrusayshehasnotbeenapproachedbyanypermit-seeker.True.Buthehasanarmyof150ministersunderhimandnumerousprofessionalCongressmenbusyinthisnewoccupationofassistingmentogetquotasandpermits.

Iwantrealequalopportunitiesforallandnoprivatemonopoliescreatedbythepermit-licenceraj.

IwantanIndiawherethepeasantsarenotintimidatedorbeguiledintogivinguptheirlands…tobuildcastlesintheairthroughco-operativefarming.

Iwantsecurityforallownersofproperty,landorotherformsofacquisitions,withoutaSwordofDamocleshangingoverthemthreateningexpropriationwithoutpaymentofjustandfullcompensationasfixedbyjudicialauthoritiesoncorrectprinciplesandnotaccordingtothedictationofpoliticallegislation.

Iwantthefundamentalrightstoberestoredtotheiroriginalshapeandkeptintact.

IwantanIndiawhereheavydirectandindirecttaxesdonotpreventthebuilding-upofprivatecapital,discouragingenterpriseandeffort.

IwantanIndiawherethebudgetoftheCentredoesnotcauseinflationandsoaringprices.

IwantanIndiawheretheStatedoesnottaxforcapitalinvestment,makingthepresentgeneration’slifemiserable.

Iwantthemoneypowerofbigbusinesstobeisolatedfrompolitics.DemocracyishardtobeworkedanditshouldnotberuinedbymoneypowerandrenderedintoasimulacrumbyexpensiveelectionsandbigbusinesssupportingtherulingpartywithfundsinreturnforprivilegesorinfearoftheState’sregulatorypowers…

IwantthespiritofcompassionandbenevolencetohavefreeplayandnotbestifledbyStateschemesofmonopolizingallwelfarebyover-taxationandover-centralization.

IwanttheStatetoknowitslimitationsandfunctioninhumilityandthecitizenstorealizespiritualitythroughthetraditionalchannelsinheritedbytheminthatregard.

Iwantastrongpartytobeinrealoppositiontotherulingparty—whicheverpartyitmaybe—sothatthewheelsofdemocracymayrunonthestraightroad.

IwantIndiatoregainhermoralstatureabroadandIdonotwantourpeopletobebamboozledintothinkingthatwehavenotlostwhatmoralauthoritywecommandedduringGandhiji’sdays.

ChapterTwenty

TheDefenderoftheTribalsVerrierElwin

Inabout1900GopalKrishnaGokhalewrotethat‘theIndiaofthefuturecouldnotnowbeonlyaHinduIndiaoraMuhammedanIndia;itmustbecompoundedofallelementswhichexistedinIndia—Hindu,Muhammedan,Parsee,Christian,aye,andtheEnglishmanwhoadoptedIndiaashiscountry’.InaddingthatlastcaveatGokhalemayhavehadinmindthefounderoftheIndianNationalCongress,AllanOctavianHume,aswellastheIrishwomanwhohadrecentlymadeherhomeinIndia,AnnieBesant.Atanyrate,theremarkwasprescientaswellasgenerous,openingthewayforotherBritishmenandwomentoexchangetheirnationalityforthatofacountrywhichhadoncebeenundertheirsubjection.

AremarkableEnglishman-turned-IndianwasVerrierElwin,theOxfordscholarwhobecametheforemostspokesmanforIndia’stribalpeoples.Bornin1902,thesonofacolonialbishop,Elwinwasrearedinafiercelyevangelicalfamily.ItwastoescapethisbackgroundthathecametoIndiain1927,afreshlyordainedpriest,withfirst-classdegreesinEnglishandtheologyunderhisbelt.HejoinedtheChristaSevaSangh(CSS),anorganizationthatsoughttorootChristianityinIndiansoilandwhosemembersworehomespuncloth,atevegetarianfoodandincorporatedIndianmotifsintotheirliturgy.

TheCSSwasbasedinPoona.Elwinthusbecameacquaintedwiththatcity’sreformistandliberaltraditions.HealsobefriendedKamaladeviChattopadhyay,whowaslivinginPoonainthelate1920s.ButhismostconsequentialcontactwaswithGandhi,whooftenvisitedPoonaandwhoseownashraminAhmedabadwasbutanight’strainjourneyaway.ElwinwasdeeplyattractedtoGandhi,whomhesawasthefinestmoderninterpreterofthemessageofChristhimself.

In1931ElwinlefttheCSStoengagemoredirectlywiththelivesoftheIndianpoor.HefirstthoughtofmakinghishomeinanUntouchablequarterofBombay,buteventuallydecidedtoworkwiththetribalpeopleofcentralIndia.WithaCSSfriend,ShamraoHivale,hemovedtoavillageintheupperNarmadavalley,wherehesoughttobringmoderneducationandhealthcaretotheGondtribals.Seekingtoupliftthetribals,hewasconvertedbytheminstead,enchantedbytheirloveofmusicanddanceandtheirliberatedattitudetosexandmarriage.Atthesametime,hewasgreatlyexercisedbytheireconomicplight,thelossoftheirlandtomoneylendersandthelossoftheirforeststothestate.

In1936ElwinwasdelicensedbytheChurchofEnglandforhisrefusaltotaketheGospeltothetribes.FouryearslaterhemarriedaGondgirl,deepeninghisidentificationwithherpeople.(Themarriagebrokeupafteradecade,

whereuponElwinmarriedanothertribal.)Meanwhile,hehadbegunpublishingessaysandbooksondifferentaspectsoftriballifeandculture.Someofhisworksweredescriptiveandethnographic—others,analyticalandpolemical.HehadgonetotheGondcountryasasocialworker,butnow,ashetoldafriend,‘thepenisthechiefweaponwithwhichIfightformypoor.’

Aswehaveseen,Gandhipaidcloseattentiontotheproblemsofwomen,MuslimsandUntouchables.However,despitebeingsome8percentofIndia’spopulation,thetribalshadbeenignoredbythenationalmovement.Norhadotherpoliticalthinkersandactivistsfocusedonthem.Once,whenchargedwiththequestionofwhyhedidn’ttakeuptribalquestions,B.R.Ambedkaranswered:‘Ihaveneverclaimedtobeauniversalleaderofsufferinghumanity.TheproblemofUntouchablesisquiteenoughformysufferingstrength.’Thiswasreasonable,butitstillleftalargeandvulnerablesectionunrepresentedinpublicdiscourse.ThiswasthegapthatVerrierElwinsoughttofill.

Throughthe1940s,Elwinpublishedaseriesofmajorbooksonindividualtribes.Healsowrotemanyarticlesinnewspapersandmagazinesonpolicymatters.Therangeandsheerbulkofhisworkwasmatchedbyamanifestsympathywithhissubject,withthefindingsofhisresearchcommunicatedwithagraceuncharacteristicofacademicwriting.

AfterIndependence,ElwinbecameacitizenoftheIndianrepublic.In1954JawaharlalNehruappointedhimadviserontribalaffairstotheadministrationoftheNorthEastFrontierAgency(NEFA).Thiswasalargeterritoryatthetri-junctionofIndiawithChinaandBurma,inhabitedbyverymanydifferenttribeswhowerelargelyunknowntotheadministration.ElwinwaschargedwithdesigningpoliciestofacilitateandsmoothentheirculturalintegrationwiththerestofIndia.

Elwinspenttenyearsinthenorth-east,travellingtoallpartsofNEFAandalsospendingextendedperiodsoftimeinAssamandNagaland.Asbefore,hewroteabouttribalartandfolklore,butalsoaboutlandandforestpolicies.Hediedin1964,anesteemedifalsosomewhatcontroversialpublicfigureinhisadoptedhomeland.

VerrierElwinisrepresentedinthisbookbecauseofthequalityofhisthought(andprose),andbecausehefocusedattentionontheproblemsofthetwolargeconcentrationsoftribalsinthecountry.TheseresideintheforestedhillsofcentralIndiaandthenorth-eastrespectively.TheformerisnowtheepicentreofaMaoistrebellion;thelatter,hometoapparentlyintractableinsurgencies.Intrinsicworth,aswellascontemporaryrelevance,thusjustifythechoiceof

ElwinasamakerofmodernIndia.

FreedomfortheTribalsIntheearly1940stheword‘freedom’wasbeingubiquitouslyused.Gandhi

talkedoffreedomforIndians;JinnahoffreedomfortheMuslims.TheBritishprimeminister,WinstonChurchill,arguedthatthewarthenunderwaywasabattleforfreedomversustyranny.TheAmericanpresident,FranklinDelanoRoosevelt,spokeoffightingforfourfreedoms—thefreedomofexpression,thefreedomofworship,thefreedomfromwantandthefreedomfromfear.Inthefollowingexcerpt,VerrierElwininvokesthepoliticians’rhetorictoaskforfreedomforIndia’slong-neglectedtribalpeople.1

Letusmakeabriefsummaryofthethingsthathavebrokenthenerveanddepressedthespiritoftheoncehappyandfreetribesmen.Firstandforemostisthelossofland.Theindolentandpleasure-lovingtemperamentofthetribesmenhasalwaysrenderedthemaneasypreytotheeducatedcunningandintelligenceofthemenoftheplains.Itisadeplorablefactthatithasbeenactuallyproposedasameasureofsocialuplifttobringthehillmendowntotheplainsandthusexposethemtotheseadventurers.Thosemoreorlessnomadictribeswhohadlivedbyshiftingcultivationlostallrightsovertheforestswheretheyoncefreelyroamed,andmanyofthemtodayarelandlesscoolies.

TheestablishmentofForestDepartmentstoprotecttheforest,inmanyrespectsinevitable,provedanotherseriousblowtotribesmenwholivedbyaxe-cultivation,diggingforrootsandhunting…

Thedisappearanceoftheritualhunt,whichinmanytribesprecededtheirmajorfestivals,thecancellationoffishingrightsandthesuppressionofthehomedistillerysuggestedtotheaboriginalsthatcivilizationwashostiletotheirmostcherishedtraditions.Liquor,forexample,isanecessaryingredientinallformsofaboriginalworshipandsocialceremonies.TheCongresshashereshownaliberalspiritandhasdeclaredthatitwillnotapplytheprohibitionlawstothetribesmen.But,asusual,puritanreformersaretryingtoforcetheirhand.Everyonewillwishtoseehabitsoftemperanceextended,buttoprohibitliquor-drinkingaltogetherwillbetodeprivethehillmenofavaluabletonicandstimulantandwilldrivethemtothefarmoreinjurioususeofopiumandotherdrugs.

Theeffectofliteraryeducationonpeoplewhocanneveraffordabooktoreadorapieceofpapertowriteonhasgenerallybeendeplorable.PrimaryeducationinthetribalareasisinthehandsoftheDistrictCouncils,bodiescomposedoflandlords,lawyersandbusinessmenwhohaveoftenrisentopowerbyexploitingtheaboriginalsandwhoseinterestsaredirectlyopposedtotheirs.

Schools,totallydivorcedfromthelifeofthepeople,staffedbythemostinferiortypeofteacher,whichteachthetribesmentodespisetheirownculture,toabandontheirnaturalandsimpledress,dancingandotherrecreations,areopenedintheremotestareasandthereisadesireonthepartofsomepoliticians—althoughMahatmaGandhiandtheCongresshavecondemnedthistypeofeducationinthemostemphaticterms—tointroduceitonacompulsorybasiswherevertheycan.Theopeningofworkshopsinwhichcarpentry,agricultureandanyothermeansofteachingthepeopletomakeusefulandbeautifulthingswould,ofcourse,beinvaluable.Butthemiserablelittleschoolsforintroducinganunwantedliteracyareworsethanuseless.Thetroubleisthatthepresentunregulatedsystemofeducation,farfrompreservingordevelopingaboriginalculture,destroysit.Theschoolsaregenerallysituatedincentresofthenon-aboriginalpopulationandthejunglechildgrowsupamongthosewhoregardhimandhiswayoflifewithscorn.Evenwherethisisnotso,theteachersareusuallyurban-minded,regardthemselvesandtheircivilizationasinfinitelysuperiortothe‘savages’amongwhomtheyhavetolive,andeitherignoreorcondemntheirinstitutions.Hindu,MuslimandChristian,butnotaboriginal,festivalsaremarkedbyholidays.Thechildrenlearntochantinanasalsing-songandpraytoaliengods,butnevertotheoldgodsofthesoiltowhoseworshiptheirparentsaredeeplyattached.Theystudyinwhatistothemaforeignlanguage.TheyreadthelivesofIndianLiberalleadersorEnglishViceroys,buthearnothingoftheirowncult-heroesorleaders.HowmanyGondschoolboyscouldrecitethebeautifullegendofLingo,themythicalfounderoftheirtribe,orsayhowmanyGondRajastherewereinIndia?Theaestheticeffectofeducationisdisastrous.HowbeautifulisaMuriaorUraonboyfreshfromtheforest,withhislongcurlylocks,hisbrightnecklaces,thefeathersandflowersinhishair!Buttheschoolmasterplucksthefeathersfromhishair,shaveshiselfinlocks,derideshisornaments;asmallroundcapreplacesthebecomingturban,andsoonfilthykhakishortsandadirtylittlecoatcover‘theeternallydressednakednessofthebrownskin’…

IndiaisalltoofullofpeoplelikeMr.Pumblechook2who,itwillberemembered,couldnotseeasmallboywithouttryingtobenefithimbysettinghimproblemsinmentalarithmetic.ThePumblechooksofIndiatryveryhardtomaketheaboriginalgood:theyonlysucceedinmakinghimdull.Itishardtoconvincethemissionaryandreformerofwhateverreligionthattheromanceandgaietyoftriballifeisnecessaryforitspreservation.Butitistrue.‘Thetribethatdancesdoesnotdie.’

Butarewetoregrettherapiddecayofcustomsandsuperstitionsthatcanhavenoplaceinamodernworld?Certainlynot,ifthosesuperstitionsandcustomsarereplacedbysomethingbetter.Unfortunatelythealmostinevitableresultofunregulatedculturalchangeisnotrealimprovement,butdecay.Moreover,inspiteofcertainadmittedevilsinaboriginallife(anditshouldberememberedthattheseevilsarenotworsethanthosewhichmaybefoundinotherpartsofIndiaandoftheworld)therearemanyelementsthatarewellworthpreservation;elementsinwhichthetribesmenmaynotindeedbesuperiortothefinestflowerofOrientalorEuropeancivilization,butinwhichtheyhaveagreatdealtoteachtheirsupposedlymorecivilizedneighbours.

Theaboriginalshavetoaveryhighdegreedevelopedtheartofrecreation,anartwhichislamentablyabsentfromtheordinaryIndianvillage.WemaynotethemagnificentdancesoftheNagasandoftheBison-hornMarias,themimeticballetoftheJuangs,thehauntingmusicoftheBaigaKarma.ThroughouttribalIndiatherearesongsofrarebeautyanddeepsimplicity.Children’sgamesarehighlydevelopedamongcertaintribes;forexample,overfifty,someofthemmostexcitingandamusing,havebeenrecordedamongtheMuria.

Thetendanceofthedead,devotiontothesoil,thepowertostageamagnificentandcolourfultribalfestival,thedisciplineoftriballaw,arethingswhichmodernvillagereligionshouldnotwillinglyletdie.Inthespiritofeconomicfellowshipandthetraditionofcommunalliving,someprimitivevillagesareahundredyearsaheadofthemodernworld.Thiscommunallifeofthewilderpeople,inwhichalmosteverythingissharedandinwhichthejoyorsorrowofoneisthejoyandsorrowofthewholecommunity,isabeautifulthingtowitness,andittooperishesimmediatelybeforethechillbreathofeducationandadvancement.Equallyperishablearetheaboriginalvirtuesofsimplicityandhonesty,franknessandhumour.

Theunspoiltaboriginalisnotableforthepurityofhistaste,andthebeautyofsuchsimpleartisticcreationsasthematerialsavailabletohimmakepossible.Heisanexpertintheartofpersonalornamentation,inthedecorationofhishouse(whenhehasahouse),inthecarvingofmasks,combs,snuff-boxes,intheuseofcowriesandbeads.Itisatragedythatweavingisgenerallytabootohim;similarlypotteryinwhichhemightexpresshimselfisthemonopolyofaminorHinducaste.Butstillmoretragicisthewayinwhichtheaboriginal’sinstinctforbeautifulandartisticcreationdisappearsdirectlyheiseducated.

Domesticfidelityisanothervirtueinwhichtherealprimitivesmightstandasanobject-lessontothewholeworld.WhenIrecentlyconductedasurveyof

domesticlifeamongtheMuriasofBastarState,Ifoundthatoutof2,000marriagesexaminedallbut43husbandswerelivingwiththeirownoriginalwives.Adulterywasalmostunknown,anddivorceexceptional…[I]nmosttribalsocietieswomanholdsahighandhonourableplace.Shegoesproudlyfreeaboutthecountryside.Infieldandforestshelaboursinhappycompanionshipwithherhusband.Sheisnotsubjectedtoearlychild-bearing:sheismarriedwhensheismature,andifmarriageisafailure(whichitseldomis)shehastherightofdivorce.Thelamentablerestrictionsofwidowhooddonotawaither:shouldherhusbanddie,sheisallowed,evenenjoined,toremarry;andinmanytribesshemayinheritproperty.Herfreeandopenlifefillshermindwithpoetryandsharpenshertonguewithwit.Asacompanion,sheishumorousandinteresting;asawife,devoted;asamother,heroicintheserviceofherchildren.Herbrave,laborious,faithfullifeisaninspiration…

Thataboriginallifeismarkedbycrudesuperstitionsandotherevilsnoonewilldeny.Forexample,someoftheNagasenjoy(alongwiththemostadvancednationsofEurope)thecustomofhead-huntingandthepracticeofhumansacrifice.Theonlydifferenceisthatthepooraboriginalsacrificesonlyoneortwohumanbeingsinthenameofhisgods,whilethegreatnationsofferupmillionsinthenameofempireandenlightenment.Thebeliefinwitchcraftalsosometimesleadstheaboriginals(liketheireducatedneighbours)intoexcess,andtheyhavemanysuperstitionswhichlikethesuperstitionsofadvancedIndiansocietyandthecapitalsofEuropearetoberegrettedandifpossiblecured.Butaftertenyearsoflifeinclosestandmostrealisticcontactwiththeaboriginals,IcansaythatthoughIhavefound‘evils’Ihavefoundnonethatdonotexistinamorevirulentformin‘civilized’society.Theideathatthereissomethinginherentlyviciousinprimitivelifemustbeabandoned…

Myownplanfortheaboriginalshasnoclaimtoscientificauthority.ItisasimplepracticalschemethathasbeenimpresseduponmebytheactualrealitiesoflifeduringtwelveyearsinaGondvillage.Itisbasedonmydivisionoftheaboriginalsintodifferentclasses.Thetwentymillion,whoarealreadyincontactwithsomesortof‘civilization’andarelikelyinthenextfewdecadestobeoverwhelmedbyit,donotultimatelypresentaproblemverydifferentfromthatofotherpeasantsthroughoutIndia.Theaboriginalproblemcannotbeconsideredapartfromthegeneralvillageproblem.ThegreatmajorityofIndianvillagersarestillilliterate;theyarestillattachedtoantiquatedandeconomicallyinjurioussocial,religiousandagriculturalhabits;theyhavelittlemedicalassistance,meagreeducationalfacilities,badcommunications;theyareexploitedand

oppressedjustastheaboriginalsare.Wiserheadsthanminewillplanandgreatpoliticalandeconomicmovementswilldeterminethefateofthesemultitudes.Thetwentymillionsemi-civilizedaboriginalswillhavetotaketheirchancewiththerestofthepopulation.Itisevidentthatthereislittlepossibilityofprotectingthem,althoughlocallyitmayoftenbepossibletoamelioratetheirlotbyspecialtreatment…ThetwentymillionaboriginalsneedwhatallvillageIndianeeds—freedom,prosperity,peace,goodeducation,medicine,anewsystemofagricultureandafairdealunderindustrialization.

Itistheremainingfivemillionswhopresentaproblemthatmaywelltaxourbrainsandpatience.Thedifficultyhereisthatnotonlyaretherenoworkersavailabletosolvetheproblem,butthatmanypeopleinIndiarefusetoadmitthatanyproblemexists.Theyareignorantoforhaveforgottentheappallingconsequencesofatoorapidacculturationinotherpartsoftheworld.Theyhaveapatheticfaithinthe‘marchofprogress’tosolveeveryhumanproblem.Thereisagreatdealofglibtalkinthecitiesabout‘uplift’andthemostreadywiththeiropinionsarethosewhohaveneverseentheaboriginalsandwhothemselveshavenevermovedafingertohelpthem.

Itislittleusetosaythatweshouldgivetheblessingsofcivilizationtotheremotestaboriginalswhenwecannotgiveittotheworkersinourgreatcitiesortothepeasantsinaccessibleareasintheplains.

Isuggest,therefore,thatuntilthesocialscienceshavecometomoredefiniteconclusionsaboutthesafeguardsnecessaryforprimitivepeopleadvancingintocivilizedlife,untilthereareproperlytrainedworkersandteachersofintegrityandenterprise,untilthereissufficientmoneytodothejobofcivilizingproperly,thefivemillionwilderaboriginalsshouldbeleftaloneandshouldbegiventhestrictestprotectionthatourGovernmentscanafford.Thisis,Iadmit,adesperatemeasureandonethatiseasilymisunderstoodandstillmoreeasilymisrepresented.Itisapurelypracticalmeasure.Itisbasedonnophilosophicprinciple.Leastofalldoesitsuggestthattheaboriginalsaretobekeptforeverprimitive.Ionlyurgethatunlesswecancivilizethemproperlyitisbetternottointerferewiththesmallminorityofthemostprimitivehillmenatall.Casualbenefitsonlydestroyanddegrade;itneedsalifetimeofloveandtoiltoachievepermanentadvance.

Thisviewishotlycontestedbypeoplewhoknownothingoftherealitiesoftheproblem.Ihaveheardverylittlecriticismfromthosewhohaveactuallylivedamongandstudiedtheseaboriginals.Themaninthecitycannotbelievethattheycanbehappywithouttheradioandthecinema,thattheycanhaveagood

physiquewithoutpenicillin,thattheycanbehonourableanddecentwithoutgoingtochurch,thattheyhavealifethatisgood,peacefulandfree.Theyfeelthattheverysuggestionisasortofcriticismoftheirownadvancement.Idonotsuggestthattheprimitivehillmanisbetterthanthefinestflowerofmodernculture,butmyexperience,whichisnowextensive,isthatthesetribesinthefreedomandgloryoftheirmountainsareinfinitelybetterandbetteroffthanthesemi-civilizedanddecadentclerksorcoolieswhichisallthatweseemabletoproducebyourpresentmethodsofupliftandreform.

Forthegreatmajorityoftheaboriginals,however,weshouldpressforwardwiththebestschemesofruralreconstructionandeducationthatourwisestbrainscandevise.Forthesmallminority,whoinanycasecanscarcelybereached,thereshouldbeatemporaryschemeofprotectionandisolation.Evenforthisminority,protectiondoesnotmeanthatnothingistobedone.Forthem,asfortheotheraboriginals,thereismuchthatallmenandwomenofgoodwillmaydoimmediately.

Wemayfightforthethreefreedoms—freedomfromfear,freedomfromwant,freedomfrominterference.Wemayseethattheaboriginalsgetasquaredealeconomically.Wemayseethattheyarefreedfromcheatsandimpostors,fromoppressivelandlordsandmoneylenders,fromcorruptandrapaciousofficials.Wemayseethattheygetmedicalaidfromdoctorswithsomesenseofprofessionalintegrity.Iftheremustbeschools,wemayseethattheseteachusefulcraftslikecarpentryandagriculture,andnotauselessliteracy.Wemayworktoraisetheprestigeandthehonouroftheaboriginalsintheeyesoftheirneighbours.Wemayguardthemagainstadventurerswhowouldrobthemoftheirsongs,theirdances,theirfestivals,theirlaughter.

Theessentialthingisnotto‘uplift’themintoasocialandeconomicspheretowhichtheycannotadaptthemselves,buttorestoretothemthelibertiesoftheirowncountryside.

Butwhateverisdone,andIwouldbethelasttolaydownageneralprogramme,itmustbedonewithcautionandaboveallwithloveandreverence.TheaboriginalsaretherealswadeshiproductsofIndia,inwhosepresenceeveryoneisforeign.Thesearetheancientpeoplewithmoralclaimsandrightsthousandsofyearsold.Theywereherefirst:theyshouldcomefirstinourregard.

NeitherIsolationNorAssimilationAsElwingrewolder,histonegrewlesspolemicalandmoreeven-tempered.

Thisismanifestinthisexcerptfromabookof1959,whereherevisitsthetribalquestion.Thathewasnowagovernmentofficialratherthanafreelanceradicalmayalsoexplainthemoremeasuredstyle.Thedefenceoftribalcultureandtribalrightsisundertakenmoregently,butwithnolessconviction.3

Istherenotacasefortheviewthatbyandlargethetribalpeoplewillprobablybehappieriftheyareleftalone,oratleastverylargelyalone,inthegrandeurandfreedomoftheirhills?Theylackmanyoftheamenitiesoflife,butontheotherhandtheyarefree:nooneinterfereswiththem;theyareabletoliveaccordingtotheirownreligionandtraditions.Voltaire’sCandide,afterexploringallthecivilizationofhiscontemporaryworld,cametothefinalconclusionthattherewasnogreaterhappinessthanincultivatingone’sowngarden.Whynotletthemdoso?

Ontheotherhand,itisargued,woulditnotbebetterto‘civilize’themasrapidlyaspossible?Theirlifeisnasty,brutishandshort;theirartiscrude,theirreligionamedleyofsuperstitions;theyaredirtyanddiseased.TheearlyexplorersandadministratorstumbledoveroneanotherintheiruseofuncomplimentaryadjectivestodescribethepeopleofNEFA.4TheSingphosaredescribedas‘arudetreacherouspeople’,theKhamptisas‘adiscontented,restless,intriguingtribe’,theNagasas‘averyuncivilizedracewithdarkcomplexionsandhideouslywildanduglyvisages’;theAborsare‘asvoidofdelicacyastheyareofcleanliness’…

Fewofustodaywouldadopteitheroftheseviewsintheirentirety,certainlynotiftheyareexpressedinsocrudeaform.Yetthetwopolicieshavebothbeenadvocated,andfollowed,inIndiaduringthepastfiftyyears.

TheBritishGovernmentinclined,onthewhole,toleavethetribesmenalone,partlybecausethetaskofadministration,especiallyinthewildborderareas,wasdifficultandunrewarding,partlyfromadesiretoquarantinethetribesfrompossiblepoliticalinfection,andpartlybecauseanumberofofficerssincerelyheldtheviewthatthepeoplewerebetterandhappierastheywere…

Letusbrieflyconsiderwhatiswrongwiththepolicyofisolation.Itisexposedtoatleastthreeimportantcriticisms.Inthefirstplaceithas

rarelybeenimplementedinpractice.TherearesometwentymilliontribalpeopleinIndia,andbeforeIndependencelittlewasdoneforthem.Atthesametime,theywerenotinactualfactleftalone.AsIhavesaid,theywereexploitedby

landlordsandzamindars,robbedbymoneylenders,cheatedbymerchants,andtheirculturewaslargelydestroyedbyforeignmissionaries.

Secondly,thebeliefinthehappycare-freeNobleSavageisamyth,exceptperhapsintheSouthSeaslongago.InNEFAatleastthepeoplehadnotenoughfood;theysufferedfromabominablediseases;theydiedyoung;theywereheavilyburdenedwithanxiety;theirlifewasdistractedbywar,kidnapping,slaveryandcruelpunishments.Theywerenotevenfree:weakertribeshadtopaytributetothestrong;richandpowerfulChiefsgrewricheronthelabourofhundredsofserfs;freedomofmovementwasseverelyrestrictedbyinter-villageconflict.

Andthirdly,whileisolationwaspossibleinthelastcentury,itisimpossibletoday.Modernindustryistransformingthewholeworld;thehumanitarianidealsofawelfarestatenolongerpermittheneglectofanysectionofthepopulation;politicalnecessitiesforbidtheexistenceofanyadministrativevacuumontheinternationalfrontier;triballeadersthemselvesdemandgreateropportunities.Andnoone(leastofallthescientist)wantstokeepthetribalpeopleasmuseumspecimensforthebenefitofscience…

Insharpcontrasttothefirstpolicyisasecondoneofassimilationordetribalization.ThishasnowbecomepopularandChristianmissionaries,socialreformersandvillageupliftersarefollowingit,sometimesonalargeandenthusiasticscale.Forthistoothereissomethingtobesaid.TheChristianmissionarieshaveproducedanumberofeducatedtribesmenwhoareprovingofgreatvaluetothecountry,andnotleasttotheNEFAadministration.AssimilationintoHindusocietyhassometimesledtoabetterwayoflivingandtoeconomicadvance.

Ingeneral,thesupportersofthispolicytakearatherpoorviewoftriballife:‘animism’shouldbereplacedbythepureridealsofChristianityorHinduism;thesocialorganization,the‘vices’,the‘superstitions’shouldgo;tribaldressisamarkofinferiorityandshouldbereplacedbyshortsandshirts,blousesandfrocks.Youcannotmakeanomelettewithoutbreakingeggs,andthecontinuedexistenceofthetribesastribesisregardedasoflessimportancethanthemarchofcivilization.

DetribalizationisapossiblesolutionofthefutureofIndia’stribesmen.Itissimpleandeasy,anditsometimesworks.Ithas,however,seriousdisadvantages.Itstypeofprogressisbyabreakwiththepast,notbyanevolutionfromit.Ittendstomakethetribesmanashamedofhisowncultureandreligionandsocreatesthatinferioritycomplexwhichisapoliticalaswellasasocialdanger.

Althoughitfavoursafewgiftedindividuals,whoareabletoassimilatethenewwayoflife,itgenerallydeprivesthemassofthepeopleoftheirstandardsandvalueswithoutputtinganythingcomparableintheirplace.Allovertheworldithasbeennotedthatthebreak-upoftribalsocietyleadstoalossofthetribalvirtuesandarapidacquisitionofthevicesofcivilization.

Theweakeningoftribalsolidarityandofthefolk-legalsanctionsdeprivestheyoungergenerationoftheirmooringsandsetsthemadriftinanunfamiliarworld.Alltoooften,theartsandcrafts,themusicanddancing,theformerself-relianceandindependence,thecorporatedisciplinedisappear.Atthesametime,throughouttribalIndiathereisatendencytowardsthetransformationoftribesintocastes,andthese‘castes’areusuallyatthebottomofthesocialscale.Inareaswherefreecommercialpenetrationhasbeenpermitted,therehasbeenmucheconomicexploitation,inevitableamongapeoplewhobutyesterdaylearnttheuseofmoneyandwhoaresimpleandtrusting…

Isthereanywayoutofthisdilemma?WeareagreedthatthepeopleofNEFAcannotbeleftintheirage-longisolation.Weareequallyagreedthatwecanleavenopoliticalvacuumalongthefrontier;thatwemustbringtoanendthedestructivepracticesofinter-tribalwarandhead-huntingandthemorallyrepugnantpracticesofslavery,kidnappingofchildren,cruelmethodsofsacrificinganimalsandopium-addiction,noneofwhicharefundamentaltotribalculture.Wewishtoseethatthepeoplearewell-fed,thattheyarehealthyandenjoyalongerspanoflife,thatfewerbabiesdie,thattheyhavebetterhouses,ahigheryieldfortheirlabourinthefields,improvedtechniquesfortheirhome-industries.WewouldlikethemtobeabletomovefreelyabouttheirownhillsandhaveeasyaccesstothegreaterIndiaofwhichatpresenttheyknowlittle.WewanttobringthemintocontactwiththebestpeopleandthefinestproductsofmodernIndia.

Aboveall,wehopetoseeastheresultofoureffortsaspiritofloveandloyaltyforIndia,withoutatraceofsuspicionthatGovernmenthascomeintothetribalareastocolonizeorexploit,afullintegrationofmindandheartwiththegreatsocietyofwhichthetribalpeopleformapart,andtowhoseinfinitevarietytheymaymakeauniquecontribution.

Andatthesametime,wewanttoavoidthedangersofassimilationanddetribalizationwhichhavedegradedtribalcommunitiesinotherpartsoftheworld…

Thisattempttosteeramiddlepathbetweenthetwoolderwaysofapproachishardanddelicate:itdemandsimagination,sincerityandconstantcare.The

assimilationordetribalizationpolicy,whichheld,aswehaveseen,thatthereisnotverymuchtobesaidfortriballife;thatifitdisappears,itwillnotmattergreatly;thatthe‘backward’mustbebroughtforwardandthelow‘uplifted’,issimpleandstraightforward;itislogicalanditbringscertainbenefits—ataprice.SodidtheoldBritishpolicyofleavingwellalone,thoughatadifferentprice…

Todaywecanseethetribalpeopleswithoutsentiment,butequallywithoutprejudice.Isolationinthemodernworldisimpossible;itwouldnotbedesirableevenifitwaspossible.Theoldcontroversyaboutzoosandmuseumshaslongbeendead.Wedonotwanttopreservetribalcultureinitscolourandbeautytointerestthescientistsorattractthetourists.Totrytopreserveanddevelopthebestelementsintribalart,religionandcultureissomethingverydifferentfromwishingtokeepthepeopleinazoo.

Wedonotwanttopreservethetribesmenasmuseumspecimens,butequallywedonotwanttoturnthemintoclownsinacircus.Wedonotwanttostoptheclockofprogress,butwedowanttoseethatitkeepstherighttime.WedonotacceptthemythoftheNobleSavage;butwedonotwanttocreateaclassofIgnobleSerfs.

WeseenowthatthetribalpeoplewillbeofthegreatestservicetoIndiaiftheyareabletobringtheirownpeculiartreasuresintothecommonlife,notbybecomingsecond-ratecopiesofourselves.Theirmoralvirtues,theirself-reliance,theircourage,theirartisticgifts,theircheerfulnessarethingsweneed.Theyalsoneedthecomradeship,thetechnicalknowledge,thewiderworld-viewoftheplains.Thegreatproblemishowtodevelopthesynthesis,howtobringtheblessingsandadvantagesofmodernmedicine,agricultureandeducationtothem,withoutdestroyingtherareandpreciousvaluesoftriballife.

Wecansolvethisproblemifwedonottrytogotoofast;ifweallowthepeopleabreathing-spaceinwhichtoadjustthemselvestothenewworld;ifwedonotoverwhelmthemwithtoomanyofficials;ifweaimatfundamentalsandeliminateeverythingthatisnotvitallynecessary;ifwegotothemingenuineloveandtruesimplicity.

PartVATraditionReaffirmed

IntroductiontoPartV

WhenJawaharlalNehrudiedinMay1964,hewasthesubjectofashortbutpeculiarlyaffectingobituarypennedbyC.Rajagopalachari.ThisiswhatRajajiwroteonthepassingofhisoldcolleague-turned-adversary:

Elevenyearsyoungerthanme,eleventimesmoreimportanttothenation,elevenhundredtimesmorebelovedofthenation,SriNehruhassuddenlydepartedfromourmidstandIremainalivetohearthesadnewsfromDelhi—andbeartheshock…

Theoldguard-roomiscompletelyemptynow…IhavebeenfightingSriNehruallthesetenyearsoverwhatIconsiderfaultsinpublicpolicies.ButIknewallalongthathealonecouldgetthemcorrected.Nooneelsewoulddaredoit,andheisgone,leavingmeweakerthanbeforeinmyfight.Butfightingapart,abelovedfriendisgone,themostcivilizedpersonamongusall.Notmanyamongusarecivilizedyet.

Godsaveourpeople.Gandhidiedwithinmonthsofthebirthofthenation.BythetimeNehru

passedon,Indiawasmoderatelywellestablished.Butthefuturelookeduncertain.ThedefeatatthehandsoftheChineseinthewarof1962hadledtoaseriouslossofnationalmorale.Despitehisweaknessesandmistakes,andhisill-healthduringhislastyears,Nehrutoweredabovehiscontemporaries.Itwashardtoseewho,ifanyone,couldreplacehim.

Intheevent,NehruwassucceededasprimeministerbyLalBahadurShastri,agreatlyunderratedfigurewhohasperhapsnotgothisduefromhistorians(stilllessfromthegeneralpublic).Shastrisetinmotionreformsthatwouldintimegreatlyaugmentagriculturalproductivity,andheledthenationwellwhenitwasattackedbyPakistanin1965.However,hediedsoonafterwards.HissuccessorwasthethenveryinexperiencedandvulnerabledaughterofNehru,IndiraGandhi.

The1960swereatimeofgreatfearandinsecurityinIndia.ThewarswithChinaandPakistanhadstunnedanationweanedontheGandhianidealsofbrotherhoodandnon-violence.Faminestalkedtheland.WithNehru’spassing,theforcesofmilitantHinduismsensedanopportunitytoregroup.Therewerefreshinsurgenciesinthenorth-eastandtheriseofaMaoistmovementintheheartofthecountry.ItisagainstthisbackdropofconflictandinstabilitythatourlastmakerofmodernIndiawrotetheessayswhichareexcerptedinthispartofthebook.

Theseessaysdealtwithatopicthathadremainedcurrentandurgentsincethelatenineteenthcentury—namely,thepresentandfutureofHindu–Muslimrelations.ThefirstbiographerofSyedAhmadKhan,writingwhenhissubjectwasstillalive,remarkedthat‘haditnotbeenforhisgreatefforts,the

MohammedanwouldhavebeenfarfurtherbehindtheHinducommunityasregardseducationthanitnowis;andifthemovementincreaseswiththerapiditywhichhashithertocharacterizedit,theMohammedanswillsoonbeabreastoftheHindus’.

Thehopeswereillusory.Inthenextcentury,Hinduscontinuedtobemorealerttotheopportunitiesprovidedbymoderneducation.Theytookingreaternumbers,andinhigherproportions,totheEnglishlanguage,tothestudyofscienceandengineering,andtoprofessionssuchasmedicineandlaw.ThisdiscrepancywasattherootofthepopularmovementforthecreationofPakistan.EducatedMuslimsacrossIndiasupportedJinnahandtheMuslimLeagueingoodpartbecausetheyhopedthatinPakistantheywouldnothavetofacecompetitionfromHindulawyers,doctors,teachers,civilservantsandbusinessmen.

ThecreationofPakistanledtoalargemigrationofMuslimprofessionalstothenewnationfromotherpartsofIndia—fromtheUnitedProvincesandBiharespecially,butalsofromtheBombayPresidency.TheMuslimswhocouldnotorwouldnotmigratewerepeasants,workersandartisans,whowerepoorandilliterate.Bereftofanintellectualandmodernleadership(thepotentialmembersofwhichwerenowinPakistan),theybecamecaptivetotheinterestsofaconservativeandbackward-lookingclergy.

ThedebateonhowtodealwiththeverylargeMuslimminoritythatremainedinIndiawaschieflyconductedbetweenthefollowersofJawaharlalNehruandM.S.Golwalkarrespectively.TheformerinsistedthatdespitetheprovocationsofPakistan,minoritieswereequalcitizensoftheRepublicofIndia.However,NehruwashimselftoopreoccupiedwithothermatterstoactivelypromotethemodernizationofIndianMuslims.TheCongresswascontenttoleavetheMuslimsinthehandsoftheclergy,solongastheyguaranteedthat,atelectiontime,theirflockwouldcasttheirvotesinfavourofthecandidatesoftherulingparty.Ontheotherhand,GolwalkarandtheRashtriyaSwayamsevakSangh(RSS)sawIndianMuslimsassecond-classcitizensatbestandastraitorsatworst.MuslimswerecontinuallybeingaskedbytheRSStoprovetheirloyaltytoIndiaandtotheallegedlyHinduessenceofthenation.

Thesole‘Maker’representedinPartVofthisbookstakedoutapositionratherdifferentfromthatoftheCongressandtheRSS.BornandraisedasaMuslim,hewasamodernizerfromwithinthecommunity.Hisideaswerepowerfulaswellasprescient—forexample,heanticipatedtheriseofHindufundamentalismfollowingthefailureofarobustandcrediblemovementof

modernismamongMuslims.HisargumentsarerelevanttoIndiansofallfaiths,forheworkedandhopedfor‘theemergenceandsustainedgrowthof…aclassofmodern,secular,dynamicliberals’whosememberswouldbeunencumberedbypublicallegiancetoanyreligionorcommunity.NorishisworkofinterestonlytoIndiaandIndians.Inapost-9/11world,hiswritingscan,Ithink,bereadwithprofitinallcountriesandcontinentswheremembersofdifferentreligionsseektolivepeaceablytogetherandwhoseleaders—wemayhope—wishtomakebeliefinapersonalgodcompatiblewithacollectiveandpubliccommitmenttodemocracyandmodernity.

ChapterTwenty-One

TheLastModernistHamidDalwai

OurlastmakerofmodernIndiawas,likehisfellowMaharashtrianTarabaiShinde,littleknowninhislifetimeandhasbeenlargelyforgottensince.LikeTarabaiagain,thedetailsofhispersonalbiographyareobscure.Theparallelscontinue—forwhatwedoknowofhislifeandworkislargelyowedtothedevotedlaboursofhiseditorandtranslator.

HamidDalwaiwasbornin1932onthesameKonkancoastwhereGokhaleandTilakfirstsawthelightofday.Therethesimilaritiesend;whereastheothertwoweremiddle-classBrahmins,Dalwaiwasborninaworking-classMuslimhousehold.Weknownothingofhisformaleducation.Hedoesnotappeartohaveattendedcollege.Inhisearlyteenshejoinedanationalistyouthorganization,theRashtraSevaDal,theonlyMusliminhisvillagetodoso.InhistwentiesDalwaimovedtoBombayandbecameactiveinsocialistpolitics.HealsobeganpublishingshortstoriesinMarathi.

FromthetimehecametoBombay,Dalwai’smaininterest,andperhapsobsession,waswithchangingtheattitudesofIndianMuslimstowardsdemocracyandmodernism.Tothisend,helefttheSocialistPartyanddevotedhimselffull-timetosocialreform.In1970hefoundedtheMuslimSatyashodhakSamaj,thenamedeliberatelyechoingthatoftheorganizationthatJotiraoPhulehadestablishedacenturybefore.ThisnewerorganizationfocusedontheenhancementoftherightsofMuslimwomen.Amongitscampaignswastheattempttoabolish,bylawandincustom,thepracticeoftripletalaq,wherebythehusbandcoulddivorcehiswifebyutteringasinglewordthreetimes.

HamidDalwaialsoadvocatedacommoncivilcodeforallIndiancitizens.Morebroadly,hewishedtoerasecommunalmarkersanddistinctionsinpubliclife,inpursuanceofacommoncitizenshipforallIndiansinagenuinelysecularanddemocraticnation.

Inthe1950sDalwaibefriendedDilipChitre,atalentedMarathiwriterandpoet.Inlateryears,Chitresetasidehisownworktotranslateandpublicizetheworkofhisfriend.InintroducingatranslationofDalwai’sessays,publishedin1970,Chitrewrotethat‘inadditiontobeingaYavantoHindus,hehasachievedthedistinctionofbecomingakafirtoMuslims’.DalwaichallengedthesanctityoftheQuran;inparticular,hefeltthatithadnorelevancetosocialorpoliticallife.Thiswasconsistentwithhisattitudetoreligioningeneral,whichheconsideredapersonalmatter,tobenegotiatedbetweenanindividualandhisgod—orgods—withnorelevancetotheworldsoflaw,economicsorsocialrelations.

Dalwaidiedin1977,agedforty-four,ofkidneyfailure.Inanessaypublished

in2002,DilipChitrelinkedhisfriendtoatraditionofradicalsocialreforminauguratedinMaharashtrabyPhuleandcarriedonbyAmbedkar.Whereashispredecessorshadcampaignedagainstthecastesystem,Dalwai’stargetwasorthodoxIslam.‘BothBrahminicalHinduismandfanaticalIslam,’wroteChitre,‘areiniquitoussocialideologiesthatimplicitlyencourageintraspecificaggressioninthenameofspiritualuplift.Ascategories,“dharma”and“adharma”areidenticalto“dar-ul-Islam”and“dar-ul-Harb”.’

Intermsofregionalidentity,DalwaiwaslinkedtoMaharashtrianreformerssuchasPhule,GokhaleandAmbedkar.Intermsofreligiousaffiliation,onecanthinkofhimasalatter-daySyedAhmadKhan.However,DalwaihopednotmerelytomakeMuslimsabreastofHindusintermsofaccesstomoderneducation,buttoliberatethemfromthetyrannyoffaithaltogether.ThehistorianFaisalDevjihascalledSyedAhmadanadvocateofan‘apologeticmodernity’.TherewasnothingapologeticaboutHamidDalwai,whosemodernismwasmilitantanduncompromising.

Dalwai’staskmayhavebeenharderthanSyedAhmad’s.Tragically,helivedamuchshorterlife.Inalateressay(publishedin2007),Chitre,withcharacteristicgenerosityandself-awareness,contrastshisfriend’ssocialcommitmenttohisownfocusonwritingandpaintingforthepurepleasureofit.‘Iwouldnot,’saysChitre,‘makethekindofsacrificeHamidmadedevotinghislifetochangingthehardenedmind-setsofobscurantistmullahs,populistcommunalpoliticians,husbandswhotreatedtheirwivesintheworstpossiblemalechauvinisttyrannicalfashion,andwomensufferingslaverybeforeapurdahtheydarednotlift.’Thisistrue,afterafashion,butweshouldnotdiscounteitherthesacrificeChitremadeinsettingasidehisowncreationstotranslate,forawiderandcontinuingaudience,hisfriend’swritingsandspeechesinMarathi,excerptedbelowintheirEnglishrenditions.

TheBurdenofHistoryOurfirstexcerptfromthewritingsofHamidDalwaiidentifiestheobstacles

tothecreationofaMuslimliberalismandexplainshowtheymaybeovercome.1ItisanoldhabitofIndianMuslimstoblameHindusfortheirwoes.

However,theIndianMuslimintelligentsiahasneverreallybeencriticallyintrospective.Ithasnotsoughttorelateitsproblemstoitsownattitudes.Ithasnotdevelopedaself-searching,self-criticalattitude.ComparedtotheHindus,theIndianMuslimsacceptedWesterneducationratherlate.Asaconsequence,theMuslimsremainedcomparativelybackwardinseveralfields.TherealcauseofMuslimbackwardnessisfoundintheMuslimoppositiontoeducationalreformduringtheearlydaysofBritishruleinIndia.Behindthisviewwasapeculiarsenseofresentment.MuslimsinIndiabelievedthattheBritishsnatchedawayfromtheirpredecessorswhatwasaMuslimempire.WhenSirSyedAhmedKhanurgedMuslimstoacceptmodernWesterneducationtheulemaofDeobandcameoutwiththefatwathatSirSyedwasakafir.HowcanoneblametheHindusforthis?

Muslimsremainedbackwardbecausetheywerereligion-boundrevivalistswhorefusedtomodernizethemselves.SirSyedAhmedKhaninthislightappearsasagreatvisionarywhoheraldedtheIndianMuslimrenaissance.ItwasduetohisgreateffortsthattherigidlyreligiousmindofIndianMuslimsbegantoshowthefirstsignsofathaw.EducatedMuslimsbegantoredefinelifeintermsofthemodernage.TheygaveupthegranddreamofconvertingIndiatoIslam.ThiswasthebeginningofagreatupheavalamongeducatedIndianMuslims.Aprocessoftransformationhadbegun.ItwasthisprocessthatshouldhavebroughtMuslimsclosetoHindusandbroadenedtheirviewofmanandsociety.ThetrendofthisprocesswastowardsaviewaccordingtowhichHindusandMuslimswouldhavebeenlookeduponasequals.

Thisprocesswas,however,ironicallyreversedbecausemodernIndianMuslimsprovedunequaltothetask.TheirmodernityprovedlimitedandtheylackedthebroadvisionthatcouldhaveensuredthecompletesuccessoftheAligarhrenaissance.Ironically,thisveryprocessseparatedtheMuslimsfromtheHindusinsteadofbringingthemclosertogether.TheoldMuslimhabitofblamingtheHindusfortheirproblemsreappearedandwassetmorefirmlythanever.AlthoughSirSyedAhmedKhanwasfreefromtheviceofreligiousfanaticism,helackedthevirtueofbeingfreefromtheatavisticvanityofaninheritoroftheMoghulpast.Inthisveryperiod,whenitwaspossibleforanationalconsciousnesstoemerge,SirSyedAhmedKhanhimselfsuccumbedto

theegoisticconceptionthatMuslimsweretheconquerorsofIndia.IthashewhowasthefatherofseparatistMuslimnationalism,andnotJinnahasitiserroneouslysupposed.JinnahisonlyalaterversionofSirSyed,revisedandenlarged.ThustheaberrantmodernMuslimhimselfwasresponsiblefirstforaseparatistMuslimnationalismandlaterforthecreationofPakistan.ThefoundationofMuslimnationalismisthepostulatethatHinduandMuslimsocietiesareautonomousandparallelsocialstructures…

Itisonlyonceinawhilethatanindividualorasocietygetsanopportunitytomakeormaritsownfuture.TheMuslimslosttheirrarechanceofembracingmodernitysimultaneouslywiththeHinduswhentheyyieldedtothepressureexertedonthembytheulemaofDeobandandrejectedEnglisheducation.Historygavethemanotherchancealittlelater—theopportunitytostrengthenIndiannationalismbyjoiningforceswiththeHindus.ButtheyletgoeventhisopportunitybysuccumbingtotheerroneousnotionthatHinduandMuslimsocietieswereautonomousandparallelsocialstructures.Theypaidscantheedeventogeographicalrealitiesandrefusedtoconsiderwheretheylivedandwouldliveinthefuture.TheproblemsfacedbyIndianMuslimstodaycanbetracedbacktothesetwolostopportunities.Ifachancethatcomesonlyonceinacenturyiswasted,ittakesanothercenturytomakeupfortheloss…

ItisatragicfactthattheredoesnotyetexistaclassofcriticallyintrospectiveyoungMuslimsinIndia.AsocietywhichputstheblameontheHindusforitsowncommunalismcanhardlybecalledintrospective.IfHinducommunalismisresponsibleforMuslimcommunalism,bythesamelogicitwouldfollowthatMuslimcommunalismisequallyresponsibleforHinducommunalism.ThetruthofthematteristhattheMuslimintelligentsiahasnotyetgivenupitspostulateofparallelsociety.Ithasstillnotlearnttoseparatereligionfrompolitics.TheirideaofreligiousfreedomismerelythatthestructureoftheMuslimsocietyinIndiashouldremainunaltered.Basically,theyarestill‘Muslimnationalists’.Theyhavenotacceptedthemodernconceptofnationalism,andhencetheirattemptstopreserveMuslimnationalisttrendsinthepresentstructureoftheIndianpolity…

WilltheyoungergenerationofIndianMuslimsfacethischallenge?Thisistheirthird,andperhapslast,chancetoliberateandmodernizethemselves.Iftheyavailthemselvesofit,theycanstillmakeupforthelosstheMuslimcommunityhassufferedbywastingthetwopreviousopportunitiestocreateatraditionofmodern,enlightenedliberalism.TheonlyeffectiveanswertotheproblemsofIndianMuslimswouldinvolveontheirpartatotalrejectionoftheprejudicesof

history.Onlywhentheyridthemselvesofthemisconceptionsthathistoryandtraditionproducecantheyarriveattheconceptionofafree,modernmindcommittedonlytofundamentalhumanvalues…

[T]heideaofacommonIndiannationalityrequiresthatMuslimsocietybeintegratedinthefabricofasecularIndiansociety.Theonlywayinwhichthiscanbeachievedisbyfirstcreatingasmallclassofmodern,liberalandsecularMuslims.Thisispreciselywhatpeoplelikemeareattemptingtodo.Personally,Ibelievethatnoreligioncanprovidethefoundationforanidealsociety.ItfollowsthatneitherIslamnorHinduismcanbethebasisofanidealsocialorder.SeveralpeopleaskmewherepreciselyIdifferfromcommunalHindus.ItshouldbefairlyobviousnowwhereIdifferfromthemandhowradicalthedifferencesare.However,Iagreewiththemoncertainpointsanditwouldbeworthwhiletodemarcateclearlytheareaofagreementbetweenus.IagreewiththemthatMuslimcommunalismisastrongforceinthiscountryatpresent.Ialsoagreewiththemthatinthisnationminoritieshaveaclaimtoequalrightsandequalopportunitiesbuttheyshouldnothaveaclaimtospecialstatusorprivileges.IalsoagreewiththemthatKashmirisapartofIndiaandthateveryPakistaniaggressiononIndiansoilmustbeansweredbyastrongcounter-attack…

However,IconsidersuicidaltheHinducommunalistattempttoanswerMuslimcommunalismbyobscurantistHindurevivalism.MuslimcommunalismwillbedefeatedonlywhentheHinduachievesagreaterdegreeofsocialprogressandmodernizeshimself.BymakingtheHindusmoreobscurantist—bymakingthemmorepuritanandorthodox—Muslimcommunalismcanneverbeeliminated.Themovementforabanoncow-slaughterprovidesanaptexample.Iopposethebanonagro-economicgrounds.ButIopposeitevenmorestronglyonnon-economicgrounds,becauseiftheHindubeliefinthesacrednessofthecowisencouraged,itwouldpreventtheHindusfrommodernizingthemselvesandfromachievingagreaterdegreeofsocialprogress.TheHindushaveslidbackwardonlybecauseoftheirreligiousobscurantism.MahmudGhaznavicoulddefeatHinduarmiessimplybyusingherdsofcowsasashieldforhisownarmy!Onehopesthatsuchhistorywillnotberepeatedinmoderntimes.Hindusmustdiscardallthosereligiousbeliefswhichhinderedtheirprogressanddeprivedthemoftheirfreedom…IattackallaspectsofmediaevalreligiousobscurantismwhetheritisMuslimorHindu.AndhenceIamopposedtothemovementforabanoncow-slaughter.Eighty-fivepercentofthepopulationofthiscountryisHinduandthereforetheprogressofthisnationdependsontheHindusbecomingdynamic,modernandadvanced.AndIwantthisnationtobeadvanced,

powerfulandprosperousbecausemyindividualfutureisinextricablytiedupwithit.IwouldgoevenfurtherandtellthecommunalistHindusthattheycannotfreeMuslimsfromtheshacklesoftheirownobscurantistbeliefsiftheHindusthemselvesremainreligion-bound.TomodernizeIndianMuslims,Hindusmustfirststrengthentheforcesofmodernizationamongthemselves…

History,whichhasbredprejudicesandanimosity,isahindrancetoallofus.Allofushavetocomeoutofthegripofourprejudiceswhichoriginateinourpast.Hinducommunalistsmustalsobreakawayfromthegripoftheirprejudices.ItisnotthefaultoftheyoungBrahminsoftodaythattheirancestorsgaveinhumantreatmenttotheuntouchables,andtoday’sIndianMuslimisnotresponsiblefortheoppressiontowhichMahmudGhaznaviorAurangzebsubjectedtheHindus.Fortunately,thereisaclassofHindustodaywhichbearstheburdenofitsancestors’sinsandconscientiouslytriestoundothedamagebyembracingsocialequalityasafundamentalvalue.Similarly,therehastoemergeaclassofMuslimswhichwouldacceptthesinsofAurangzeband,toundothedamage,wouldthereforeembracetheconceptofsecularcitizenship.Theemergenceandsustainedgrowthofsuchaclassofmodern,secular,dynamicliberalsistheonlyeffectiveanswertotheHindu—Muslimcommunalproblem…

TheChallengeofSecularismThesecondexcerptfromHamidDalwaimakesastrongcaseforthe

separationoffaithfromstateinmodernIndia.2Secularismimpliesadissociationofreligiousconsiderationsfrompolitical

andsociallife.Themodernviewofmanandsocietyincludesasecularattitudetoallpoliticalandsocialactivities.Itdoesnotinsistonabolishingreligionaltogetherbutregardsreligionasamatterofpersonalfaith.Theethicalvaluesonwhichmodernsecularsocietyisbasedaresecularethicalvalueswhicharerationallyderived.Religionsmayormaynotcontainanotionoffundamentalhumanrightsasweunderstandthemtoday.Asmodernmen,wedonotrelyonreligionforderivingourconceptofsocialconscience.Oursocialconscienceisinherentinthedemocraticsystemofgovernmentwehaveaccepted.Thedemocraticethicisliberalandisthereforeheterodox.Itisthusnecessaryforademocracytobesecular,thatis,totallydissociatedfromreligion,tobeademocracyatall.Allcommunitiesandindividualsinademocraticsocietyhavetoconformtothebasicliberaldemocraticethic.

Inmanyinstances,wewitnessaninevitableconflictbetweenhumanrightsandreligion-basedsocialattitudes.Insuchasituation,theonlychoicewehaveasmoderndemocratsistoeliminatetheobstaclestodemocracycreatedbycertainreligiousattitudes.TheveryfactthatinIndiawecallMuslimsaminorityandHindusthemajorityimpliesanon-secularattitude.Yetallpoliticalpartiesseemtoregardthisasaproperdivision.Aseculardistinctionbetweenpeoplewouldbeinthenatureofaclassdistinction.Forinstance,aleaderoftheworkingclassisasecularleader;aleaderofHindusorMuslimsisnot.

SecularisminIndia,althoughembodiedintheConstitution,isasyetonlyanaspiration.Ithasnotyetpermeatedoursociallife.Itisevenindangertoday.WithintheHindumajority,thereisastrongobscurantistrevivalistmovementagainstwhichwefindaverysmallclassofliberalsengagedinfight.AmongIndianMuslimsthereisnosuchliberalminorityleadingthemovementtowardsdemocraticliberalism.UnlessIndianliberals,howeversmalltheyareasaminority,aredrawnfromallcommunitiesandjoinforcesonasecularbasis,eventheHinduliberalminoritywilleventuallyloseitsbattlewithcommunalistandrevivalistHindus.IfMuslimsaretobeintegratedinthefabricofasecularandintegratedIndiansociety,anecessarypreconditionistohaveaclassofMuslimliberalswhowouldcontinuouslyassailcommunalistdogmasandtendencies.SuchMuslimliberals,alongwithHinduliberalsandothers,wouldcompriseaclassofmodernIndianliberals.

Liberalintellectualsemergeinanysocietyonlythroughalongandcomplexsocial,cultural,political,andhistoricalprocess.TodayHindushaveaninfluentialliberaleliteonlybecauseHinduismishistoricallyheterodoxandcanaccommodatedissent.ThemodernIndianliberaltraditionstartsfromRajaRammohanRoy,whowasaproductofHindusociety.Itleadsthroughsuchsecular(asagainstHindu)liberalsasNehrutothepresenttime.

ThetargetofHinduliberalshasbeenHinduorthodoxy.Andduetotheircontinuouscriticalevaluationandleadershipinsocialreform,Hindusocietyasawholehasbeenbenefitedtoacertainextent.IdonotwishtosuggestherethatHindusocietyhasacceptedtheliberaldemocraticethicandhasmodernizeditselftoanysatisfactoryextent;ithasnot.ButthiscontinuingliberaltraditionplacestheHinducommunityinaculturallybetterpositionthanthatofMuslimsinIndia.

WhydoMuslimsinIndialackaliberalelite?Theanswerhasmanyfacets.Butonethingiscertain.TheexplanationofMuslimbackwardnessistobefoundintheverymake-upoftheMuslimmind.

IndianMuslimsbelievethattheyareaperfectsocietyandaresuperiortoallothercommunitiesinIndia.OneofthegroundsforthisbeliefistheassumptionthattheIslamicfaithembodiesthevisionofaperfectsocietyand,therefore,beingaperfectMuslimimpliesnothavingtomakeanyfurtherprogress.Thisisanunacceptableclaimbymoderncriteria…

ThesecondreasonforthisbeliefisthefactthatIndianMuslimsresentbeingaminorityandstilldreamofspreadingtheirfaiththroughoutIndiaoratleastofrulingIndia.Theysufferfromdelusionsofgrandeurandalsofromapersecutionmania…Muslimshavealwaysbelievedthattheyareastatewithinastateandasocietywithinasociety.Theirideasofrepresentationarebasedonthisclaimandthereforetheyruncontrarytotheconceptofademocraticsocietyitself.Todaytheybelieveinaparallelcoexistencewiththemajority,withcompleteautonomyasacommunity.Thisexplainstheirresistancetoachangeintheirpersonallaw.But,goingevenfurther,IndianMuslimsopposefamilyplanningbecausetheyareobsessedwiththeideaofincreasingtheirnumberstobeeffectiveinpowerpolitics…

TheonlyleadershipIndianMuslimshaveisbasicallycommunalist.AnexceptionalMuslimlikeM.C.Chagla3hasnoplaceinIndianMuslimsociety.Norwillindividualmodernliberalssuffice.IndianMuslimstodayneedanavantgardeliberalelitetoleadthem.ThiselitemustidentifyitselfwithothermodernliberalsinIndiaandmustcollaboratewiththemagainstMuslimaswellasHindu

communalism.UnlessaMuslimliberalintellectualclassemerges,IndianMuslimswillcontinuetoclingtoobscurantistmediaevalism,communalism,andwilleventuallyperishbothsociallyandculturally.AworsepossibilityisthatofHindurevivalismdestroyingevenHinduliberalism,forthelattercansucceedonlywiththesupportofMuslimliberalswhowouldmodernizeMuslimsandtrytoimpressuponthemseculardemocraticideals…

TherearesomeMuslimswhoaremembersoftheIndianelitebutwhoareafraidoftheirowncommunity’sreactiontomodernattitudes.Theseuncommittedandhypocriticalliberalsarenotonlyofnouse,butarealsoahindrancetotheprogressofIndianMuslims.TheyareeithermoralcowardsorareapathetictoagreatsocialproblemwhichisalsoaproblemofdemocracyinIndia.Theymustmakeachoicenow.IftheydonotprovideliberalintellectualleadershiptoIndianMuslims,theyoungergenerationhastocommititselfandcarryoutthistask.

ItisoftenarguedthatMuslimcommunalismisonlyareactiontoHinducommunalism.Thisisnottrue.TherealconflictinIndiatodayisbetweenalltypesofobscurantism,dogmatism,revivalism,andtraditionalismononesideandmodernliberalismontheother.Indianpoliticiansbeingshort-sightedandopportunistic,communalismandorthodoxyisalwaysappeasedandseldom,ifever,opposed.Thisiswhyweneedanagreementamongallliberalintellectualstocreateanon-politicalmovementagainstallformsofcommunalism.Ifthisisnotdone,democracyandliberalismwillinevitablycollapseinIndia.Thestakesarehigh.Itisapitythatfewpeoplerealizethegravityofthesituation.Itisevenmoreunfortunatethattheyarehardlyinformedaboutthetruenatureoftheproblem.

ForAUnitedFrontofLiberalsInthislastexcerptfromDalwai,hecallsforHinduandMuslimliberalsto

cometogetheronacommonplatformtocreateasecularandmodernIndia.4…IbelievethatiftheHindusweresufficientlydynamic,theHindu—

Muslimproblemwouldbesolved.ForiftheHindusweredynamic,theywouldsubjecttheIndianMuslimstoseveralshockswhichhistoryhassparedthem.Muslimswouldbeleftwiththeonestarkalternative—toperishiftheydidnotwishtochange.Andanysocietypreferschangetoextinction.HinduscanacceptthechallengeofMuslimpoliticsinIndiaonlybydevelopingdynamismandabalanceofmind.ButtodevelopsuchdynamismHinduorthodoxyitselfhastobeliquidated.Thecastesystemhastobeeliminated.TheHindusmustembracemodernism.Theymustcreateasocietybasedonfundamentalhumanvaluesandtheconceptoftruesocialequality.Unfortunately,theHindumindlacksbalance.EventhoseHinduswhohaveacceptedmodernity,justiceandbrotherhoodastheirguidingprinciplessometimessupportMuslimcommunalism.Someavoidspeakingagainstitandsomeevenindirectlyencourageit.ThoseHinduswhooughttobecombatingcommunalismtodayseem,instead,tobetryingtoputtheclockback.Theyaresupportingobscurantism,revivalism,thecastesystemandthecultofthecow.ThisisaprocesswhichwoulddrainHindusocietyofwhateverlittledynamismitmaystillhave.TherehavetobeenoughHindustryingtomodernizetheHindusocietyand,atthesametime,opposingtheirrationalpoliticsofMuslimcommunalism.Ihopethiswouldhappen.ForthatwouldpreciselybetheprocessbywhichtheHindu–Muslimproblemcanbeeliminated.MuslimcommunalismtodaymakesthemostoftheriftbetweenliberalHindusandcommunalistHindus.ItisironicalthatMuslimcommunalistsgainthesupportofHindus,bothliberalandcommunalist.TheMuslimcommunalistdemandformakingUrduasecondofficiallanguageinUttarPradeshandBiharhasbeensupportedbytheso-calledmodernistHindusundertheimpressivelabelofsecularism.The‘secularism’ofsuchHindusencouragestheanti-secularismoftheMuslims.Theseso-calledsecularistHindusareopposedtothecreationofacommonpersonallawbecauseitmightdispleasetheMuslims…

Consider,next,theorthodoxHindu.Hestagesanagitationagainsttheproposedremovaloftheword‘Hindu’fromBanarasUniversity,andsecuresthesupportoftheMuslimLeague.Hewouldstartanagitationforabanoncow-slaughterandMuslimcommunalistswouldsupporteventhat.Forwhentheysupporthimonsuchissues,bothofthemcanestablishaunitedfrontagainstMr

Chagla,andthentheMuslimcommunalistwouldalsobeleftfreetostagenation-wideagitationsforare-displayoftheProphet’slosthair.HecanbullycriticsoftheProphet.Inshort,hewillalwaysturnHindurevivalismtohisownbenefit.Itmustberememberedthattheobscurantismofonecommunityhelpstostrengthentheobscurantismofothercommunities.IfHinduobscurantismisattackedandeliminated,itwouldalsobeastrongblowtoMuslimobscurantism.

WhothenisreallyfightingMuslimcommunalism?Theansweris,ahandfulofmodernMuslims.MrChaglainfactleadsthemodernliberalMuslims.AndallofusknowMrChagla’ssituationnow.HeisopposedbytheMuslimsandunsupportedbytheHindus.

ThereisnodoubtthatthepictureIhavepaintedofIndianMuslimsisterrible.Butitistrue.Onewouldbedeceivingoneselfifonetriedtobelieveitwasotherwise.

This,however,iswhatweobserveonthesurface.Onthesurface,Muslimsocietyappearstobemediaevalinitsmake-up.Yet,somewheredeepdown,achangeistakingplaceinthissociety.Thereisnothingdramaticaboutthischange.Itislargelyimperceptibleandindeedveryslow.Itisaprocesswhichbeganquiteafewyearsago.Ithasstilltocovermanystagesbeforeitreachesitscompletion.SirSyedAhmedKhanrepresentsthefirstphaseinthemodernizationofIndianMuslims.HewantedtomodernizetheMuslimsalthoughhewasstillopposedtotheHindus.JinnahandIqbalrepresentthesecondphase.Inthebeginning[when]theybegantotalkinthenameofIslam…neitherJinnahnorIqbalwasanti-Hindu.However,Islamismultimatelyledtoanti-Hinduism.ThisiswheretheprocessofMuslimmodernizationwasarrested.TheHindus,ontheotherhand,hadprogressedmuchfurther…

However,anewgenerationofMuslimsisemerginginIndiatoday.Onecanseethefirstglimmersofagenuinemodernhumanisminthem.InthevastmassofamediaevalMuslimsocietyonewitnessesafewyoungMuslimswhohaveamodern,humanisticandrationalattitude.Theyarestillscatteredandisolatedlikeislandsinavastocean.Theirmodernityisreflectedinwhattheyspeakandwrite.Itisseenintheiractions.

Itmaybeusefultociteafewexamples.SomeeducatedIndianMuslimsshowthesignsofanewlyemergingattitudeofunbiaseddetachment.Forinstance,ProfessorMohammadYasin’sbook,SocialHistoryofIslamicIndia,ProfessorAtharRizvi’sworkanalyzingMuslimrevivalisminthe16thand17thcenturies,andProfessorM.Mujeeb’sbookIndianMuslims,revealanewattitudeofcriticaldetachment.ThiskindofmodernattitudeisalsosharedbyProfessor

MohammadHabib[ofAligarhMuslimUniversity]andtheHeadoftheDepartmentofPoliticalScienceatOsmaniaUniversity,DrRashiduddinKhan.DuringmyrecentvisittoAligarhIhadachancetomeetandtalktosomemenandwomenstudentsaswellassomeoftheteachingstaff.EvenamongthemIfoundthehopefulsignsofacriticallyintrospectiveattitude.InmanycitiesinNorthernIndianotonlyisthepurdahfastdisappearingbutthereisalsoarapidspreadofeducationamongMuslimwomen.Manyofthesehavemarriedmenofotherfaiths.ItissignificanttonotethatthesemenofotherreligionswhomarriedMuslimwomenwerenoturgedtobecomeMuslims.AllthesetrendsindicatetheemergenceofmodernityamongIndianMuslims.

Arewegoingtowelcomethesenewtrends?Arewegoingtoencouragethemandletthemflourish?Thisiswhatwehavetodecidenow.WehavetocheckPakistaniexpansionismandprotectourborders.Wehavetoadoptaclearanddecisivelong-rangepolicytowardsPakistan.WehavetosupportMuslimmodernisminIndia.WehavetoinsistonacommonpersonallawforallcitizensofIndia.AllmarriagesinIndiamustberegisteredunderacommonCivilCode.Religiousconversionshouldnotbeallowed,exceptwhentheintendingconvertisadultandtheconversiontakesplacebeforeamagistrate.Childrenbornofinter-religiousmarriagesshouldbefreetopractiseanyreligionbutonlyaftertheyreachlegaladulthood.Ifeithera[Muslim]dargahora[Hindu]templeobstructsthepassageoftrafficonathoroughfare,itoughttoberemoved.Governmentshouldhavecontrolovertheincomeofallreligiousproperty.Thisincomeshouldbespentoneducationandpublicwelfarealone.Itshouldnotbeobligatorytomentionone’sreligionandcaste(eventoday,theadmissionformusedinschoolscompelsstudentstostatetheirreligion)…

Forallthistohappen,thepresentdivisionamongtheHindusshouldceasetoexist.ThoseHinduswhowanttocounterMuslimcommunalismunfortunatelytrytostrengthenHindurevivalism.AndthoseHinduswhowanttoleadtheHindusandultimatelythewholeofthisnationonthewayofmodernityareunfortunatelysupportingMuslimcommunalists.Thishastochange.IamonthesideofallHinduswhoopposeMuslimcommunalism;butwhenthesameHindushelpHindurevivalism,Iamopposedtothem.IsupportallthosewhowanttomodernizetheHindus;butwhentheyadoptapolicyofnotopposingMuslimcommunalism,Iopposethem.IftheHindusdevelopaproperbalanceofmind,Ibelievethepresenttensionswouldsoonbegintoresolve.

EpilogueIndiaintheWorld

IAstheprecedingpagesdemonstrate,theIndianpoliticaltraditionhasbeen

bothcontinuousaswellascumulative.Tobesure,thecontinuitiesmayhavebeenemphasizedbythewayinwhichthisbookhasbeenstructured.Butthetraditionitselfisbynomeanstheproductofaneditor’sartifice.Thewaysinwhichthinkerswhocomelaterrefertothosewhocamebefore,thewaysinwhichtheychallengeorcontestthosewhoaretheircontemporaries—thesemakeitclearthatwhatwehavehereisnotarandomcollectionofinterestingindividuals,butaconnectedpoliticaltradition.

Theessentiallydisputatiousnatureofthistraditionismanifestthroughoutthisbook.EventhoughIhavetermedhimthe‘firstliberal’,RammohanRoywasnotwritingonacleanslate.Inadvocatingafreepressandgreaterrightsforwomen,hewasarticulatingideaswhichchallengedboththedominantmoresofIndian(orspecificallyHindu)society,aswellasthepoliciespromotedbytheBritishinIndia.ThethinkersprofiledinPartIIweremoredirectlyarguingamongstthemselves.TilakandGokhaleweremajorleadersoftheIndianNationalCongresswhodisagreedaboutthedirectionthattheirpartyshouldfollow.NeitherPhulenorShindeweremembersoftheCongress,yetbothsharedahometown(Poona),alanguageandculture(MarathiandMaharashtrian)andapoliticalsituation(subjecthoodwithintheBritishEmpire)withTilakandGokhale.Theemphasisofoneontherightsofthelowercastesandoftheotheronthestatusofwomenwas,directlyorindirectly,arefutationofthecredothatGokhaleandTilak(albeitindifferentwaysandwithdifferentemphases)advancedwithregardtogreaterrepresentationforIndiansasawhole.AsforSyedAhmadKhan,hestoodoutsidetheambitoftheCongressandofHindusociety;inopposingtheformer,hewishedatthesametimetomakehisfellowMuslimsassensibleoftheneedformoderneducationasthelatter.

PartIIIfeaturesadifferentsetofprotagonistsandamoreintensesetofarguments.ThesecentreonthefigureofMahatmaGandhi.Aswehaveseen,GandhitookelementsfrombothTilakandGokhale,butnotmechanically.Rather,headapted,reinvented,refined,synthesizedandtranscendedtheirlegacyinforgingapoliticalprogrammehethoughtmoreappropriatetothetimes.Gandhi’sideas,inturn,wereexpandedbyKamaladeviChattopadhyay,contestedbyRabindranathTagore,challengedbyE.V.RamaswamiandrejectedbyB.R.AmbedkarandMuhammadAliJinnah.Sometimes,thesethinkersharkbacktoearlierandstillreveredmembersofthetradition—asinTagore’sinvocationofRammohanRoy.Moreoften,theyaddressthemselvesdirectlytoGandhi,whois

theiroftennamedandsometimesunnamedinterlocutorordisputant.Nordoesthedebatestopthere;forGandhi,inreactiontohiscritics,reformulateshisideastomakethemmoreconsistentormoreappealingtohisdiverseaudiences.

MovingtoPartIV,itisevidentthatNehrulocateshimselfinthetraditionofCongressnationalismthatGandhibestembodiedandwhoseotherexemplarsincludedTilak,GokhaleandTagore.Tobesure,likeGandhiagain,someideasareallNehru’sown(thoseonforeignpolicy,forexample).Yetotherideas(forexample,onHindu–Muslimharmony),whilederivingfromGandhi,arerestatedinwaysthatchallengeJinnah’sclaimthattheCongresscannotbefairtoMuslims,orM.S.Golwalkar’sclaimthatonlyHinduscanbereliablecitizensofindependentIndia.

Golwalkarhimselfcanonlybeunderstoodasbeing,inkeyrespects,theOtherofNehru—opposingorinvertingnotjusthisattitudetoIndianMuslims,buthiseconomicandforeignpoliciesforindependentIndiaaswell.Theotherthinker-activistsinthissectionhadmorecomplicated—and,dareonesay,moreinteresting—politicalgenealogies.Lohia,RajagopalachariandNarayanhadallbeendeeplyinfluencedbyGandhi.LikeNehru,theyconsideredthemselvesfollowersordisciplesoftheMahatma.However,theyreadthemessageofthemasterinwayscongenialtotheirownorientationandpoliticalpractice.LikeGandhi,LohiawasscepticaloftheusesofEnglish;likeGandhi,Rajagopalachariwasscepticaloftheprofessedlybenignintentionsofthemodernstate;and,likeGandhiagain,Narayanwasscepticaloftheefficacyofparliamentarydemocracy.Atthesametime,thesethinkerswerealsoinnovators.Lohia,withregardtocaste;Rajagopalachari,withregardtotheeconomy;andNarayan,withregardtothepeopleofIndia’sborderlands—allofferedperspectivesdifferentfromandinmanywaysopposedtothoseofNehru.

AsforVerrierElwin,hetooknewandadmiredGandhi.Yethebelievedthatthenationalmovementhadneglectedtheproblemofthetribals,incontrasttotheproblemsofwomenandlowercasteswhichtheyhadseriouslyreflectedupon.InhiswritingsbeforeandafterIndependence,Elwinsoughttomakepoliticiansandpolicymakersmoresensitivetotherightsandclaimsofthetribalsofcentralandnorth-easternIndia.

Ourlastexemplar,HamidDalwai,wasdeeplyawareofthislonglineageofdebateanddisputation.Inhiswritings,hereferstoRammohanRoy,SyedAhmadKhan,MohandasK.Gandhi,M.A.Jinnah,JotiraoPhuleandJawaharlalNehru;sometimesappreciatively,atothertimescritically.Heplaceshimselfinthistraditionexplicitly,bynaminghisorganizationtheMuslimSatyashodhak

Samaj,aswellasimplicitly,bycallingforaMuslimNehru(whomightindeedhavebeenhimself).

IIThisbookrepresentsthepublicfaceoftheIndianpoliticaltradition.But

therewasalsoaprivateface.Consider,forexample,thisfascinatingexchangebetweentwo‘makersofmodernIndia’atthetimeofthecountry’ssecondgeneralelectionsin1957.Whilethecampaigningwason,theprimeminister,JawaharlalNehru,receivedanextraordinaryletterfromacomrade-turned-politicaladversary.ThiswasJayaprakashNarayan,whobynowhadabandonedpoliticsforsocialwork,butwhononethelessmadespeechesonbehalfoftheOppositioncandidatesintheelections.Inhisletter,Narayansuggestedthattheprimeministerfunctionasa‘nationalratherthanapartyleader’;that,evenwhileheranthegovernment,heshould‘encouragethegrowthofanOpposition’soasto‘soundlylaythefoundationsofparliamentarydemocracy’inIndia.

Duringtheelections,Narayanhadtried,andfailed,togetOppositionpartiestoavoidthree-corneredcontestsinindividualconstituencies,sincefromadivisionofthevoteonlytheCongresswouldbenefit.‘Indoingso,’NarayantoldNehru,hewas

notguidedbydislikeoforhostilitytotheCongressasyouhaverepeatedlybeensuggestingbutmerelybycertaindispassionatepoliticalprinciples.Accordingtoparliamentarydemocracytheoryitisnotnecessaryfortheoppositiontobebetterthantherulingparty.Equallybadpartiesinoppositionareacheckononeanotherandkeepthedemocraticmachineonthetrack…[A]saSocialistmysympathiesareallwiththeBritishLabourParty,butIconcedethatwhenLabourisinpowertheConservativesperformavaluabledemocraticfunctionwithoutwhichtheLabourgovernmentmightbecomeamenacetothepeople.So,Irealisethatifmyadvicehadbeenfollowedbytheoppositionparties,itwouldhaveledtosomeundesirablepartiesgainingsomewhatinstrength.Iwasprepared,however,totakethatriskontheground(a)thatbetweenthetwoevilsofabsolutenessofpowerandalittleincreaseinthestrengthofcertainundesirableparties,theformerwasthegreatereviland(b)thattherewouldbefiveyearsaftertheelectioninwhichasoundoppositionpartycouldbecreated.Inoneofhisspeeches,NehruhadapparentlychastisedNarayanfor‘playing

hide-and-seek’betweenthepillarsofpoliticsandsocialservice.Theyoungerman,hesaid,‘claim[ed]tohavegivenuppolitics’but‘continue[d]todabbleinit’.Narayanrepliedthathedid‘notseewhyonlyactivepartyandpowerpoliticiansshouldexpresspoliticalopinionsandnoothers.Politicswouldthenbereducedtoasordidpartygamewithwhichthecitizenwouldhavenoconcern’.TherewasaparticularresponsibilityforGandhian‘constructiveworkers’tospeakout.Theseworkers,insistedNarayan,would

betraytheiridealsiftheydidnotboldlyplayacorrectiverole,offeringfriendly,constructive,non-partisanadviceandcriticismand,ifneedbe,evenoppositionintheformofnon-cooperationandthelike.Norcaneschewingofpartypoliticsmeanindifferencetothemannerandoutcomeofelections.True,thosewhohaveeschewedpartypoliticsarenotexpectedtotakeanypartisanstand,buttheymay,withcompleteconsistency,raisegeneralpoliticalandideologicalissuesfortheguidanceoftheelectorate,thepartiesandthecandidates.Narayanendedhisletteronasomewhatdespairingnote.Whateverthe

outcomeoftheelections,heremarked,

theverdictisinescapablethatthepresentpoliticalsystemhasprovedafailure.Therefore,theneedaftertheelectionsisfortheleadersofthecountrytogettogetherinordertofindoutifthereisabetteralternative.Ithinkthereisand,inthelargerinterestofthecountry,wemustseekitout.Itisherethatyourleadershipismostneeded,becausewithoutyouthiscannotbedone.Narayan’sletterextendedoversixtypedpages;Nehru’sreplywaseven

longer.Hehad‘quitefailedtounderstand’whatNarayanmeant‘bymybecominganationalleader,ratherthanapartyleader’.‘Whatdoesanationalleaderdo?’askedNehru:

Ifitismeantthatheshouldcollectanumberofimportantpeoplefromdifferentpartiesandformagovernment,surelythiscanonlybedoneifthereissomedominantcommonpurpose.Withoutsuchapurpose,nogovernmentcanfunction.Sometimes,suchnationalgovernmentsareformedinwartime,whentheonlydominantpurposeiswinningthewarandeverythingissubordinatedtoit.Evenso,theyhavenotbeenmuchofasuccessinparliamentarydemocracies.Apartfromawar,however,wehavetodealwithpoliticalandeconomicproblems,nationalandinternational.Theremustbesomecommonoutlookandunityofpurposeindealingwiththeseproblems.Otherwise,therewouldbenomovementatallandjustaninternaltugofwar.Nehruarguedthatbybeinga‘partyleader’hehadnotsacrificedanypolicy

thathemayhavefollowedhadhebeena‘national’leader.Theeconomicandforeignpoliciesofhisadministrationwere,hebelieved,inthebestinterestsofthenation.TheywerenotmerelyareflectionoftheCongressParty’sprejudicesorpreferences.IfthegovernmentthatNehruledhadmadeanycompromises,thiswas‘notbecauseoftheparty,butbecauseofthefactsthatencompassedus.WehavetofunctionasaGovernmentdealingwiththesefactsandnotwiththeoreticalpropositions’.

NehruthenturnedtothequestionofarobustOppositiontotheCongress.‘SofarasIunderstandparliamentarydemocracy,’hesaid,

itmeansthateveryopportunityshouldbegivenforanoppositiontofunction,toexpressitsviewsbywordorwriting,tocontestelectionsinfairconditions,andtotrytoconvertthepeopletoitsviews.Themomentanoppositionisgivensomekindofaprotectedposition,itbecomesratherabogusoppositionandcannotevencarryweightwiththepeople.Iamnotawareofanypatternof

parliamentarydemocracyinwhichithaseverbeensuggestedthattheoppositionshouldbeencouraged,exceptinthewaysIhavementionedabove.NehrudisagreedwiththeviewthattheOppositioninthelegislatureswasnot

adequate.OfthefivehundredorsomembersoftheLokSabha,aboutonehundredandfiftyweremembersofOppositionparties.Theywere‘virileandactive’,butbeinginaminorityweregenerallyvoteddown.‘Presumably,youwouldlikelargernumbersintheopposition,’saidNehrutoNarayan,adding:‘Eveniftherewerelargernumbers,itwouldbevoteddown.AndhowamItoproducethelargernumbers?’

NarayanhadaskedNehrutolookbeyondtheconfinesofthepartysystem,achallengetheoldermanthrewbackathim.ApartfromtheOppositionpartiesinthelegislatures,hepointedout,

inIndiathereareallkindsofdisruptiveandreactionaryforces.Thereisalsotheinertiaofages.Anditisveryeasyfortheinertmasstoberousedbysomereligiousorcasteorlinguisticorprovincialorlikecry,andthustocomeinthewayofallprogress.Thatistherealoppositioninthecountry,anditisatremendouslystrongone.Andthatiswhatyouseemtoignorecompletely.Wehaveconstantlytobattleagainstit…Nehruendedwithaqualifieddefenceofparliamentarydemocracy.Itwas,he

admitted,‘fulloffaults’,buthadbeenadoptedinIndiabecause‘inthebalance,itwasbetterthantheotherpossiblecourses’.1HedidnotagreewithNarayanthatitwasafailure.Likeanyothersystemofgovernance,parliamentarydemocracydependedonthequalityofthehumanbeingswhostaffedit.‘Idonotthinkthatthepresentsystemisafailure,’saidNehrutoNarayan,‘thoughitmayfailinthefutureforallIknow.Ifitfails,itwillnotfailbecausethesystemintheoryisbad,butbecausewecouldnotliveuptoit.Anyhowwhatisthealternativeyousuggest?’2

Thereare,Ithink,atleastfourreasonswhythisexchangeofpersonallettersbetweenJayaprakashNarayanandJawaharlalNehruisimportant.First,foritsintrinsicinterest,forthepassionandintelligencewithwhicheachpersonarticulatedhisviewofwhatdemocracymeant.Theideasofbothmenemergedfrommanyyearsofpoliticalengagement,butalsofromwidereadingandtheenlargementofone’svisionthatcomesfromtraveltoothercountries.Theirintelligenceiscomplementedandreinforcedbytheirsincerity.Thesewerebusymen,leadingveryfulllives,whoweresoengagedwiththepoliticalsystemoftheircountrythattheydevotedsomanyhourstodebatingitinprivate.

Second,theexchangewaspartofanongoingconversationthatwasintellectuallyaswellaspoliticallyproductive.Atthetimeofthefirstgeneral

elections,forexample,thetwomenhadarguedabouttheextenttowhichtheCongressPartyasawholereflectedthesocialistidealsoftheprimeminister.Theargumentsprovokedbythepollsof1957weretocontinue.NehruchallengedNarayantocomeupwithanalternativetotheparliamentarysystem;twoyearslater,NarayanwrotehisPleafortheReconstructionoftheIndianPolity,excerptsfromwhicharecontainedinthisbook.Thatpublicpamphletwouldmostlikelynothavebeenwrittenhadthoseprivatelettersnotbeenexchanged.3

Theremustsurelybefewotherillustrationsfromhistoryofsuchanexchangebetweenthemostpowerfulpoliticianinacountryanditsmostrespectedsocialworker.Inamoregeneralsense,however,theNehru–NarayandebateswererepresentativeofthewaysinwhichpoliticalargumentoperatedinmodernIndia.Thebooksandarticlesexcerptedinthesepageswereallwrittenascontributionstoanongoingdebateonhowtowinorexercisepoliticalpowerandhowtoreformorreshapesociety.Althoughtheycontainedsometimesstrikinglyoriginalideas,thesewerenotacademictreatisesbutpoliticalinterventions.Crucially,theseinterventionswereonbehalfofaparticularpolicyorprogramme,thispresumedtobesuperiortosomeotherpolicyorprogramme.

ThelastreasonforustoflagtheNehru-Narayanexchangeisthatwhile,fromtheperspectiveofitstime,itwasrepresentative,fromtheperspectiveofourtimesithasawhiffofthearchivalandthearchaic.Suchdebatesdonottakeplaceanymore,atleastnotamongfull-timepoliticians.Thetraditionthatthisbookhasshowcasedisdead.NopoliticiannowalivecanthinkorwriteinanoriginaloreveninterestingfashionaboutthedirectionIndiansocietyandpoliticsisorshouldbetaking.ThediscussionofwhatNarayan,inhislettertoNehru,hadcalled‘dispassionatepoliticalprinciples’hasnowbeenleft,asinotherdemocracies,tothescholars.4

IIIThehistorianGertrudeHimmelfarbhasprovocativelyand(tomymind)

persuasivelyarguedthattherewasaBritish‘Enlightenment’thatisasworthyofstudyandcelebrationasitsbetterknownAmericanandFrenchcounterparts.Eachtraditionhaddifferentorientationsandemphases.WhereastheFrenchEnlightenmentemphasizedscepticismandreason,andtheAmericanEnlightenmentexaltedlibertyandfreedom,theBritishEnlightenmentputthespotlighton‘socialvirtues’suchasbenevolence,compassionandtolerance.Thus,‘atacriticalmomentinhistory,thesethreeEnlightenmentsrepresented

alternativeapproachestomodernity,alternativehabitsofmind,ofconsciousnessandsensibility’.5

Himmelfarbiswritingoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,butnow,atourowncriticalmomentinhistory,itmaybeappositetoaddafourthnationalexperiencetothelist.Iammyselfuncomfortablewiththeword‘Enlightenment’.LetussimplysaythattheIndianpoliticaltraditionisasrelevanttothedilemmasoftheearlytwenty-firstcenturyasanyother.Thisrelevanceisinpartaproductofthedistinctivenessoftheindividualthinkersprofiledhere,butingreaterpartaproductofthedistinctivenessofthetrajectoriesofIndiannationhood.ForIndiawasthefirstcountrytowinitsfreedombynon-violentmeans,thefirstdemocracytobesuccessfulandsustainableinAsiaandAfrica,theonlynationtohaveasmanyasseventeendifferentlanguagesandscriptsonitscurrencynotes.

Inthisageofglobalization,thesemultiplehistoriesofmodernIndiamustsurelyhavearesonanceinotherpartsoftheworld—inAfricaandinEurope,inNorthAmericaandinLatinAmerica,wherepeopleofdifferentfaithshavelikewisetolearntolivewithoneanother,wherethedesiretoupliftandemancipatethepoorbystateactionlikewiseconflictswiththefreedomanddignityoftheindividual,wherenation-stateshavelikewisetochoosebetweenprivilegingasingle‘national’cultureorpermittingahundredflowerstobloom.

‘Itissinful,’writesHimmelfarb,‘totrytoparaphraseSmith,Burke,Tocqueville,theAmericanFounders,andotherswhoexpressedsotrenchantlyandelegantlywhatcouldonlybetrivializedandvulgarizedbysummaryorrestatement.’6Shethusquotestheirworksextensivelyinherbook.Ihavefollowedthisprincipleevenmorefaithfully—ordogmatically—byfashioningthisbookasaneditor-drivenanthologyratherthananintegratednarrativeappearinginthenameofasingleauthor.

Perhapsthisgreaterrelianceontheirownwordsmayhelpfurtherthecasethatmanyofthesethinkersshouldhaveawider,ortrans-Indian,relevance.Inthepast,itwasnotjustFrenchmenwhoreadVoltaire,ormerelyEnglishmenwhoadmiredJohnStuartMill,oronlyAmericanswhowereinspiredbyTomPaineorThomasJefferson.Likewise,asdemocracyseekstoestablishitself(withsomanyfalsestarts!)inthecountriesofAsiaandAfrica,itmayturnoutthattheideasofGandhiandNehruandAmbedkarareas,orperhapsevenmore,importanttothesestrivingsthantheideasofthegreatWesternthinkersoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.AndasthecountriesofEuropeandAmericabecomemorediverseowingtotheimmigrationoffollowersoffaithsand

speakersoflanguagesearlierconsideredalienorforeign,theseoldernationsmayyetbenefitfromasidewayslookatthehistoricalexperienceofthemostheterogeneoussocietyintheworld.TheIndianexperienceishighlypertinent,aswell,tothecountriesofLatinAmerica,whosedemocratictraditionsarelongerthanthoseinAfricabutmoreregularlyinterruptedthaninNorthAmericaorWesternEurope.MostLatinAmericancountriesseekalsotoharmonizedemocracywithculturalpluralism,aprocessinwhichtheideasofthesemakersofmodernIndiamaynotbeentirelyirrelevant.

ThefragiledemocraciesofAsiaandAfrica,thematuredemocraciesofEuropeandNorthAmerica,the‘in-between’democraciesofLatinAmerica—tothislistofnationstowhichthesedeadIndianthinkersspeak,letmeaddonemore:CommunistChina.FromRammohanRoy’sworriesaboutthedamagetosocietycausedbythestate’ssuppressionofthefreeflowofinformation,toTagore’spropheticwarningsaboutmilitaristicnationalism,toAmbedkar’sdefenceofdemocracy,viaGandhi’spleaforinter-faithdialogueandhisfaithinnon-violentresistance—thisanthologyhas,Ithink,materialsaplentyfortheChinesetostudy,betheypoliticiansinpowerorintellectualsindissent.

OneofmodernIndia’spotentialcontributionstotheworldisitslinguisticdiversity,whichisbothmandatedbylawandaffirmedbysocialpractice.Itwasoncebelievedthatasinglesharedlanguagewasconstitutiveofnationalidentity.Writinginthe1950s,D.W.Broganremarkedthat‘itisnotaccidentalthatnearlyallmodernnationalistrevivalshavebegunbydefendingtheclaimsofalinguisticculture’.Innineteenth-centuryEurope,forexample,‘itwasinthesubmergednations,inpartitionedPoland,inBohemia,inFinlandthatthelinguisticrevivalbecametheembodimentofthenationalspirit’.Moreover,‘stateswhichwerenotlinguisticallyunitedfacedareal,politicalproblem.For…therewereobviousadministrativeadvantagesinlinguisticunityandobviouspoliticaladvantagesinsecuringthekindofspiritualunitythatlinguisticunitymakespossible.’7

TwoinfluentialSouthAsianpoliticiansdrewthesamelessonfromEuropeanhistory.ThesewereMuhammadAliJinnahofPakistanandS.W.R.D.BandaranaikeofCeylon(laterSriLanka).Eachtriedtoimposeasinglelanguageonthecitizensoftheirnation.Incontrast,theleadersofindependentIndiapermitteddifferentlanguagesandscriptstoflourish,allowingpeopletobeeducatedandgovernedinthelanguageoftheirchoiceandtheirregion.InPakistan,thebidtoimposeUrduontheBengali-speakersoftheeastledtothesecessionofthatpartofthenation,whichemergedin1971asthesovereignstate

ofBangladesh.InSriLanka,thesuppressionofTamilandthepromotionofSinhalaprovokedacivilwarthatlastedthirtyyearsandcostmorethanahundredthousandlives.InIndia,ontheotherhand,theprotectionandpromotionofdifferentlanguageshasdeepenedthesenseofnationalunity.8

TheIndiansolutiontolinguisticdiversitywasinnovatedratherthantheorized.E.V.RamaswamiandC.Rajagopalacharididwriteatsomelengthaboutthedangersofasinglenationallanguage.Gandhispokeinfavouroflinguisticprovincesonseveraloccasions.However,thepoliticiansandadministratorswhoredrewtheprovincialmapofIndiainthe1950stocreatelinguisticstatesdidnotwriteaboutitatall.Likewise,thedecisionnottoimposeHindionsouthIndiainthe1960swastakeninresponsetoamassivepopularmovementopposingit,notasaconsequenceofwordsonthepage.

SixtyyearsofIndianhistoryhavedecisivelyrefutedtheEuropeanidea—orconceit—thatanationmustbedefinedbyasinglelanguagealone.Itsexperienceinthisregardisveryrelevantindeed.IthasalreadyhadasalutaryeffectonSouthAfricawhich,afterthedemiseofapartheid,officiallyconstituteditselfasamultilingualnation-state.Itmaystillpromoteamoresympatheticattitudetominoritylanguagesinnationswhoselawsandcustomsprivilegeonelanguagealone.

Admittedly,therehasinrecentyearsbeenabelatedrecognitionoftheIndianexperiment.Asotherex-colonialnationshavesuccumbedtomilitarydictatorsorone-partyrule,thefactthatthispoor,largeanddiversenationhasarobustmultipartysystembasedonfreeandfairelectionshascomeincreasinglytotheattentionoftheworld.(TheendoftheColdWarhashelpedhere,forwhilethatconflictlasted,India’srefusaltoentirelysidewiththeWesternblocwasdeemedmoreimportantthanitsdemocratictraditions.)Whilethefreedomofexpressionandthefreedomtochooseone’sleadersinIndiaisnowwidelyappreciated,howIndiasurvivesasasinglenationdespiteitsstaggeringdiversityisasyetimperfectlyunderstood.Formorethanscholarlyreasons,theinstitutionalandideationaloriginsofIndiandemocracyandnationhoodneedmorecarefulattentionthantheyhaveperhapsreceivedinthepast.

Tobesure,thelearningmustbereciprocal.Inthepast,theIndianpoliticaltraditioninnovativelyadaptedWesternidealsandvalues.RammohanRoyread,withinterestandprofit,theworksofRousseauandBentham.GokhalewasaliberalinthebestBritishtradition—heevenrenderedintoMarathiabookoncompromisebyJohnMorley,thefollowerandbiographerofGladstone.TagoretravelledacrossAsiaandLatinAmericaaswellasEuropeandAmerica.Inthese

travelshespoke,butalsolistenedandlearnt.GandhiwasdeeplyinfluencedbyWesternthinkerssuchasTolstoyandRuskin.AmbedkarwasinfluencedbythepragmatismofJohnDewey,whowasoneofhisteachersatColumbiaUniversity.Nehru,Kamaladevi,NarayanandLohiawereallinfluenced(albeitindifferentways)byEuropeansocialism.

Inthepresent,too,Indiahasmuchtolearnfromtheworld.Despiteitsabsolutism,theChinesestatehasbeenfarmorefocusedoncreatingequalityofopportunitythroughtheprovisionofdecenteducationandhealthcare.Westernpoliticalparties,unliketheirIndiancounterparts,arenotrunasfamilyfirms.AlsointheWest,publicinstitutionssuchasthebureaucracyandthejudiciaryfunctionwithgreaterefficiencyandhonesty.

Inabookonthedemocratictraditionsofhiscountry,RonaldDworkinremarksthat‘Americansofgoodwill,intelligence,andambitionhavegiventheworld,overthelasttwocenturies,muchofwhatisbestinitnow’.Hecontinues:

Wegavetheworldtheideaofaconstitutionprotectingtherightsofminorities,includingreligiousdissentersandatheists,aconstitutionthathasbeentheenvyofothernationsandisnowincreasingly,atleastindirectly,aninspirationforthem.WegavetheworldalessoninnationalgenerosityaftertheSecondWorldWar,andwegaveitleadershiptheninitsnewenthusiasmforinternationalorganizationandinternationallaw.Wegaveittheidea,strikinginmid-twentiethcenturyEurope,thatsocialjusticeisnotthepreserveofsocialism;wegaveittheideaofanegalitariancapitalismand,intheNewDeal,aseriousiflimitedsteptowardthatachievement.9

TheUnitedStateshasgiventheworldsomenoblesocialandpoliticalideals.SohaveFranceandtheUnitedKingdomandperhapsalsoIndia.InaDworkin-esquemodeIcouldthuswrite:‘Indiacangivetheworldtheideaofastateandconstitutionthatprotectsfargreaterreligiousandlinguisticdiversitythanisfoundinanyothernation.Wehaveshownotheryoungnationshowtonurturemultipartydemocracybasedonuniversaladultfranchise,masspovertyandilliteracynotwithstanding.Butoldernationsmaylearnfromourmodelofnationalism,whichisinclusivewithinandoutsideitsborders,andopentoideasandinfluencesfromeventhepowersthatoncecolonizedit.Wehavedemonstratedthatnationalismcanbemadeconsistentwithinternationalism;withouteverhavingwagedwaronanothernation,wehavecontributedtopeacekeepingeffortsinothercountriesandcontinents,andlentmoralandmaterialsupporttosuchcausesastheanti-apartheidmovementinSouthAfrica.Finally,despiteourownpasthistoryofhierarchyandinegalitarianism,wehavedesignedandimplementedthemostfar-reachingprogrammesofaffirmativeactiononbehalfofthediscriminatedandunderprivileged.’

IVTomaketheIndianexperiencemorecentraltoglobaldebatesisoneaimof

thisbook.Another,andperhapsgreateraim,istomakeIndiansmoreawareoftherichnessandrelevanceoftheirmodernpoliticaltradition.Unfortunately,theworkspresentedinthesepagesremainfarlessknownthanwemightsuppose.Onereasonisthebiaswithintheliteraturetowardseconomic,politicalandsocialhistory.Thusmanyscholars,Indianaswellasforeign,havewritteninsightfullyandatgreatlengthabouttheimpactofcolonialruleontheindigenouseconomy;aboutthevariouscompetingstrandsofIndiannationalismandhowtheyjockeyedforpositionduringthelastphaseofBritishrule;andaboutthecultureandsociallifeofpeasants,tribals,womenandothersubalterngroupings.

Withinthevastandstillproliferatingliterature,however,thehistoryofideasremainsapoorlytilledfield.10Thus,withtheexceptionofGandhi—whoseideashaveindeedbeencarefullyandsystematicallystudiedbyscholars—therearefewseriousbooksonthethought(asopposedtolife)oftheindividualsfeaturedinthisbook.11Astonishingly,thisistrueevenofsomehugelyinfluentialindividualssuchasTagore,NehruandAmbedkar.Wehavestudiesoftheirlives,theirpoliticalcareersand—inTagore’scase—oftheircreativewritings,yetnoscholarhaswrittenabouttheirpoliticalorsocialideaswithanyrigourordepth.

AsecondimpedimenttoadeeperunderstandingoftheIndianpoliticaltraditionissectarianismandpartisanship.RabindranathTagore,forexample,istreatedasaBengalipoet;B.R.AmbedkarasaDaliticonalone;JawaharlalNehruasthepropertyoftheCongressParty.ThiscapturingofindividualsbythesecttowhichtheyoriginallybelongedhasobscuredtheirwiderrelevancetointellectualandpoliticallifeinIndiaasawhole.Theappropriationisatoncedefensiveandaggressive;seekingtoclaimindividualsexclusivelyforaparticularsect,whileproclaimingtheirsuperiorityoverindividualsprivilegedbyanothersect.

This(tomymind)lamentabletendencyismanifestmostobviouslyinthesharpoppositionofAmbedkartoGandhibytheirlatter-dayadmirers.Theyaskthatwefollowonemancompletely,whilerejectingtheothermanintoto.Toalesserdegree,thiscompetitivepartisanshipvitiatestheunderstandingandappreciationofotherremarkableIndiansaswell.Thus,incurrentdebatesontheeconomy,free-marketadvocatesupholdRajagopalachariandvilifyNehru,whereasthoseinfavourofmorestateinterventiontendtodoexactlythereverse.

Theserhetoricalinvocationsareoftenbasedonacasualandsuperficialunderstandingofthethinkersthemselves.Theymakeithard,ifnotimpossible,foranyonetofollowacatholicapproach—tostudyandappreciatebothGandhiandAmbedkar,orbothNehruandRajagopalachari,onthebasisthattheselegaciesmaybeequallyrelevantorsignificant,albeitindifferentandarguablycomplementaryways.

Thethirdreasonwhyevenwell-educatedIndiansremainunacquaintedwiththesethinkersisthewidespreadnostalgiafortheverydistantpast.ThereisonekindofIndianwhothinksthatitwaswhentheHinduscriptureswerecomposedthathiscivilizationwasthemostadvancedintheworld.Thisorientsthemtowardsthestudyofthesagesandrulersofancienttimes,inthebeliefthatitmayhelptheHindusoncemorerule,oratleastdominate,theworld.IfonebelievesmoredeeplyinHinduideals,ifonemorevigorouslyaffirmsone’sloveforthedeitiesoftheHindupantheon,theargumentruns,thenoneiscertainto(oncemore)conquertheworld.12

LiberalandsecularIndianswhoareuncomfortablewiththiskindofHinduirredentisminsteadseekinspirationinancientrulersandinstitutionsthatowednothingtotheHindufaith.TheythusclaimthattheBuddhistcouncilsoftheMauryanperiodweretheprototypeofmodernelectoraldemocracyandthatthesyncretismoftheMughalemperorAkbarwasthebasisofIndiansecularism.13

ThefantasiesoftheHindusupremacistsarenotappealing.Atthesametime,theargumentthatmodernideasofdemocracyandsecularismhaveancientoriginsishardtosustain.TheIndianelectoralsystemisclearlybasedontheWestminstermodel.Further,asthesociologistImtiazAhmadhaspointedout,‘theevidenceofhistorydoesnotsupporttheviewthatsecularismasembodiedintheIndianConstitutionisderivedfromancientIndiantraditions,orthatthereisapre-existingplaceforsecularismintheIndiansystemofvalues.’HenotesthatunderHindukings,the‘systemofjusticeinancientIndiawasfoundedontheprincipleofinequality’andthat‘thereligiouspoliciesoftheMuslimrulerswerecharacterisedbybigotryandfanaticism’.Ahmadthensignificantlyadds:‘Akbarnodoubtgaveofficialencouragementtothespiritofreligioustolerance,buttheinstitutionalseparationofreligionandstatewasprobablyasforeigntohispoliticaltheoryasitwastothoseoftheancientHindukings.Inessence,therefore,theidealofsecularismasembodiedintheIndianConstitution…constitutesaradicalbreakwithIndia’spasttraditions.’14

Inmyopinion,therewaslittleinthehistoryandpoliticsofthesixthorsixteenthcentury(nottospeakoftimesevenmoreremote)thatcouldhaveaided

Indiansininterpretingandconfrontingtheprofoundchangesthatcameinthewakeofcolonialrule.Thenecessityofafreepress,theequalityofwomen,theabolitionofuntouchability,therightsofequalcitizenship,theendingofmasspoverty—theseidealsandaspirationswerebeyondtheexperienceandimaginationofancientormedievalscholarsandrulers.Rather,theyweretheproductofthenationalanddemocraticrevolutionsthattookplaceinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,andoftheurban,industrialandsocialrevolutionsthataccompaniedthem.

WhatItermed(intheprologue)the‘distant’traditionofargumentinIndiaremainsofinterestlargelytoscholars;whereasthe‘proximate’traditionshouldbeofinteresttoordinarycitizensaswell.ForthefiverevolutionsthatIhavespokenofareongoingandunfinished.Astheeconomyindustrializes,itproducestensionsbetweenurbanproducersandconsumersontheonehand,andfarmersandruralartisansontheother.Despitesixtyyearsofelectoraldemocracy,thepoliticalcultureofIndiaistoagreatextentmarkedbysycophancyanddeference.Despiteformalgenderequalityandthelegalabolitionofuntouchability,womencontinuetobeoppressedandlowercastesdiscriminatedagainst.Despitetheofficialcommitmenttosecularism,riotsbetweenHindusandMuslimsbreakoutatperiodicintervals.

AsIwrite,thenationalunityofIndiaisbeingchallengedbysecessionistmovementsinKashmirandthenorth-east.Theborderlandsaredisturbed;andsotooarethecountriesinourneighbourhood.Theplural,multipartypoliticalsystemofIndiaisbeingchallengedbytheriseofaMaoistinsurgencythatextendsoverawideswatheofthecountry.Thisinsurgency,whichaimstoconstructasingle-partystateontheChinesemodel,hasitsrootsinthedeprivationanddispossessionoftribalpeople.TheworkingsofIndiandemocracyarealsounderminedbythegrowinginefficiencyandcorruptionofthepoliticalclass,thecivilservice,thepoliceandthejudiciary.

Tounderstandthese(andother)problems,wemayturntothoseIndianswhohaveseriouslythoughtthroughtheseissuesinthe(comparativelyrecent)past.Thus,ofthenineteenthinkersrepresentedinthisbook,perhapssixteenspeakdirectlytotheconcernsofthepresent.15Thus,forexample,onemightturntoAmbedkar,Lohia,Phule,GokhaleandGandhitocontinuethestruggleagainstcastediscrimination;toSyedAhmadKhanandHamidDalwaitomodernizeIndianIslam;toTarabai,Kamaladevi,RammohanRoy,NehruandE.V.Ramaswamitofurthertheemancipationofwomen;toGokhale,GandhiandNehrutosustaingoodrelationsbetweenHindusandIndia’sreligiousminorities;

toJayaprakashNarayantopromoteunderstandingandgoodwillbetweentheIndianstateanditsstilldisturbedborderlands;toPhuletobringdignityandasecurelivelihoodtothefarmer;toGandhiandNarayantopromotethedecentralizationofpoliticalauthority;toVerrierElwintoprotectthetribalsfromdiscrimination;toRajagopalacharitoreformtheelectoralsystemandtocurbtheexcessesofapotentiallyoverbearingstate;toTagoretocultivateaproductiveandopen-mindedengagementwithothernationsoftheworld.16Inthissense,the‘Makers’inthebook’stitleisappropriateinmorethanthepasttense.TheseIndiansundoubtedlymadeIndiathenationitnowis,buttheirlegaciesmayyethelpmakeIndiaanationthatmorefullylivesuptoits(sofarimperfectlyrealized)ideals.

H.L.Menckenoncewrotethat‘politics,ashopefulmenpractiseitintheworld,consistsmainlyofthedelusionthatachangeinformisachangeinsubstance’.17Here,aselsewhere,oneadmirestheeleganceofMencken’sprosewithoutendorsinghiscynicismofoutlook.ThesemakersofmodernIndiadidnotthinkthattheirlife’sworkwasallshowandrhetoric.Norweretheynecessarilyself-deludinginbelievingthattheycouldcontribute,insomemeasure,tothediminutionofhumansuffering,thepromotionofreligiouspluralism,arespectfortherightsoftheindividualcitizen.Tobesure,Indiaremainsaless-than-unitednation,aless-than-perfectdemocracy,aless-than-equaleconomyandaless-than-peacefulsociety.Forthoseofuswhomightwishtoclosethegapbetweentheidealandthereality,thematerialsinthisbookmaynotbetheworstplacetostart.

FootnotesPrologue

ThinkingThroughIndia1Oneshouldperhapsmakeadistinctionherebetweenthe‘thinking

politician’andthe‘thinker-politician’.OftheleaderswhocameaftertheFounders,atleastfourAmericanpresidentshavereflecteddeeplyonquestionsofpoliticalandsocialreform—andthensoughttoactontheirreflections.TheseareAbrahamLincoln,WoodrowWilson,FranklinDelanoRooseveltand,mostrecently,BarackObama.However,thefirstthreedidnotleavebehindabodyofwritingthathasstoodthetestoftime.ThejuryisstilloutonObama:ontheevidenceofhistwomemoirs,hemightyet,oncehedemitsofficeasPresident,giveusanoriginalandinsightfulworkonhowdemocracyfunctions—ormalfunctions.

2SeeMukulKesavan,SecularCommonSense(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,2001),p.31andpassim.

3EscottReid,EnvoytoNehru(Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1981),p.227.

4‘FogoverFerney’(1958),reproducedinE.M.Forster,ThePrince’sTaleandOtherUncollectedWritings,editedbyP.N.Furbank(London:PenguinBooks,1999),pp.149–54.Asprimeminister,Nehruwasactuallyheadofgovernmentratherthanheadofstate,thelatterbeingthepresidentoftheIndianrepublic.

5ThenineteenareRammohanRoy(PartI);SyedAhmadKhan,JotiraoPhule,TarabaiShinde,GopalKrishnaGokhaleandBalGangadharTilak(PartII);M.K.Gandhi,RabindranathTagore,B.R.Ambedkar,M.A.Jinnah,E.V.RamaswamiandKamaladeviChattopadhyay(PartIII);JawaharlalNehru,M.S.Golwalkar,C.Rajagopalachari,RammanoharLohia,JayaprakashNarayanandVerrierElwin(PartIV);andHamidDalwai(PartV).

6ForthehistoryandpoliticsofthecommunistmovementinIndia,see,amongotherworks,JohnH.Kautsky,MoscowandtheCommunistPartyofIndia(NewYork:JohnWileyandSons,1956);GeneD.OverstreetandMarshallWindmiller,CommunisminIndia(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1959);T.J.Nossiter,CommunisminKerala:AStudyinPoliticalAdaptation(Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1982);Nossiter,MarxistStateGovernmentsinIndia:Politics,Economics,andSociety(London:Pinter,1988);MarcusF.Franda,RadicalPoliticsinWestBengal

(Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress,1971);SumantaBanerjee,IntheWakeofNaxalbari:AHistoryoftheNaxaliteMovementinIndia(Calcutta:Subarnarekha,1980);SudeepChakravarti,RedSun:TravelsinNaxaliteCountry(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,2008).

7AnthonyJ.Parel,‘GandhiandtheEmergenceoftheModernIndianPoliticalCanon’,TheReviewofPolitics,Volume70,Number1,2008,p.62.

8SeeLeonardGordon,BrothersAgainsttheRaj:ABiographyofSaratandSubhasChandraBose(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1990);RajmohanGandhi,Patel:ALife(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1991).

9KatherineFrank,Indira:ALifeofIndiraNehruGandhi(London:HarperCollins,2001);InderMalhotra,IndiraGandhi:APersonalandPoliticalBiography(London:HodderandStoughton,1989).

10PeterHeehs,TheLivesofSriAurobindo(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2008);SarvepalliGopal,Radhakrishnan:ABiography(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1989).

11SeeKennethW.Jones,Socio-ReligiousReformMovementsinBritishIndia(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990).

12OnIyotheeThass,seeG.Aloysius,NationalismwithoutaNationinIndia(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1998);V.GeethaandS.V.Rajadurai,TowardsaNon-BrahminMillennium:FromIyotheeThasstoPeriyar(Calcutta:Samya,1998).OntheenduringlegaciesofNarayanaGuru,seeRobinJeffrey,Politics,WomenandWell-being:HowKeralaBecame‘aModel’(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1992);DilipM.Menon,Caste,NationalismandCommunisminSouthIndia:Malabar,1900–1948(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994).

13SeeR.P.Masani,DadabhaiNaoroji:TheGrandOldManofIndia(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1939).TheHarvardhistorianDinyarPateliscurrentlyworkingonanewlifeofNaoroji.

14Amongthese‘Makers’wouldbesomeoutstandingnovelistswhoalsohappenedtobepoliticalessayists,suchasBankimChandraChatterjeeandMahaswetaDevi(Bengali),SubramaniaBharati(Tamil),FakirmohanSenapati(Oriya)andShivaramaKaranthandU.R.AnanthaMurthy(Kannada).

15Briefbiographicalportraitsoftheseindividualsareprovidedatappropriateplacesinthebook.

16RichardHofstadter,TheAmericanPoliticalTradition:AndtheMenWhoMadeIt(NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1948).

17AsampleoftheseworkswouldincludeRobertConquest,ReflectionsonaRavagedCentury(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2000);FrancisFukuyama,TheEndofHistoryandtheLastMan(NewYork:FreePress,1992);TimothyGartonAsh,FreeWorld:America,Europe,andtheSurprisingFutureoftheWest(NewYork:RandomHouse,2004);FrancoisFuret,ThePassingofanIllusion:TheIdeaofCommunismintheTwentiethCentury,translatedfromtheFrenchbyDeborahFuret(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999)—thelastbeingperhapsthemostwide-rangingandthoughtfulofthemall.

18Again,arepresentativesamplemightincludeSamuelHuntington,TheClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingofWorldOrder(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1996);BernardLewis,WhatWentWrong?:WesternImpactandMiddleEasternResponse(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2001);PaulBerman,TerrorandLiberalism(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2003);ChristopherCaldwell,ReflectionsontheRevolutioninEurope:Immigration,Islam,andtheWest(NewYork:Doubleday,2009).

19W.C.Smith,IslaminModernHistory(1957;reprintNewYork:MentorBooks,1959),pp.263–64.

20AmartyaSen,TheArgumentativeIndian:ReflectionsonIndianHistory,CultureandIdentity(London:AllenLane,2005).

21TheseparagraphscarryonaconversationthatbeganinthepagesoftheEconomicandPoliticalWeekly(EPW).SeeRamachandraGuha,‘ArgumentswithSen,ArgumentsaboutIndia’,EPW,20October2005;AmartyaSen,‘OurPastandOurPresent’,EPW,25November2006;JaithirthRao,‘HarkingBacktothePast’,EPW,14April2007.

1.TheFirstLiberal:RammohanRoy1Roy’sfirstnameissometimesrenderedas‘Rammohun’.However,

‘Rammohan’ismoreaccurate,phoneticallyspeaking.Ihavealsonotusedhistitle‘Raja’(awardedbytheMughals)—itcanperhapsbedispensedwithinthisrepublicanage.

2FromSophiaDobsonCollet,TheLifeandLettersofRajaRammohunRoy,editedbyDilipKumarBiswasandPrabhatChandraGanguli(fourthedition:Calcutta:SadharanBrahmoSamaj,1988—originallypublishedin1900),pp.94–96.

3TheexcerptsthatfollowarefromCollet,LifeandLetters,pp.390–93and406–19.

4Collet,LifeandLetters,pp.420–24.

2.TheMuslimModernist:SyedAhmadKhan1AswithRammohanRoy,IhaveusedwhatIconsidertobethemost

accurateofseveralvariantspellings.Likewise,IhavedispensedwithKhan’stitle,whichinthiscasecamefromtheBritishhavingawardedhimaknighthood.

2FromShanMohammad,editor,WritingsandSpeechesofSyedAhmadKhan(Bombay:NachiketaPublications,1972),pp.82–96.

3ThatdispatchforthefirsttimeacceptedtheresponsibilityofthestateforprovidingeducationtoitssubjectsinIndia.

4ReproducedfromG.F.I.Graham,TheLifeandWorkofSyedAhmadKhan(1885;reprintDelhi:Idarah-iAdabiyat-iDelli,1974),pp.76–81.

5AformergovernorofMadrasandmemberoftheviceroy’sExecutiveCouncil.

6ThetownofRoorkee,inthenorthernpartoftheUnitedProvinces,hadextensivecanalsaroundit—itwasalsohometooneofIndia’soldestengineeringcolleges.

7Mohammad,editor,WritingsandSpeeches,pp.159–60.8TheVindhyamountains,runningeasttowestinthemiddleofthe

peninsula,aregenerallysaidtodividenorthfromsouthIndia.ItisinterestingthatSyedAhmadKhanleavestheareasouthoftheVindhyasoutofhispurview,thisdespitethefactthatitwashometomillionsofHindusaswellasMuslims.ThismayhavebeenbecausetheMughals(hisframeofreference)hadneverreallypenetratedintothisregion.

9Mohammad,editor,WritingsandSpeeches,pp.181–86.10By‘ournation’,KhanmeanstheMuslimsofIndia.Thespeechwould

originallyhavebeeninUrdu—wherehemostlikelywouldhaveusedtheword‘qaum’,whichwouldmorepreciselytranslateas‘communityofbelievers’ratherthan‘nation’.

11‘Rais’mayberoughlytranslatedaslandlord.ItreferstoaclassofMuslimgentrywhowerewealthyaswellascultured.

3.TheAgrarianRadical:JotiraoPhule1Phule’sfirstnameissometimesrenderedas‘Jotiba’.2FromG.P.Deshpande,editor,SelectedWritingsofJotiraoPhule(New

Delhi:LeftWordBooks,2002),pp.103–12.3FromDeshpande,editor,SelectedWritings,pp.157–63,167–69and

179–82.TranslatedbyAniketJaaware.Notethatfor‘Brahmin’thistranslationusestheequallyacceptable‘Brahman’.

4Thecollectorusedtobethemostpowerfulstateofficialinadistrict.5Maharashtra,Phule’shomeland,hadnoindigenoustradingcaste,sothe

merchantsandmoneylendersweremostlymigrantsfromGujaratandfromMarwarinpresent-dayRajasthan.

6Containerstodrawwaterfromthewell.

4.TheLiberalReformer:GopalKrishnaGokhale1FromSpeechesofGopalKrishnaGokhale(secondedition:Madras:

G.A.Natesan,1916),pp.1054–59.2JosephChamberlainwasthenSecretaryofStatefortheColoniesinthe

Britishgovernment.3FromSpeechesofGopalKrishnaGokhale,pp.1134–42.4ReproducedinD.G.KarveandD.V.Ambekar,editors,Speechesand

WritingsofGopalKrishnaGokhale:Volume3:Educational(Bombay:AsiaPublishingHouse,1967),pp.187–91.

5.TheMilitantNationalist:BalGangadharTilak1FromanarticlepublishedinTheMahratta,24June1906,reproducedin

BalGangadharTilak:HisWritingsandSpeeches(Madras:GaneshandCo.,1918),pp.28–33.

2‘Anglo-Indian’thenmeantEnglishmenresidentinIndia.3FromaspeechmadeinCalcuttaon2January1907,reproducedinBal

GangadharTilak:HisWritingsandSpeeches,pp.37–52.4Namely,DadabhaiNaoroji.5TheLiberalPartyhadjustcomeintopowerinGreatBritain,raisingthe

hopesoftheIndianModeratesthattheirconcernswouldbemoresympatheticallyaddressed.

6JohnMorleyhadwrittenacelebratedlifeofthegreatLiberalleaderW.E.Gladstone.

7Awell-knownnationalistleaderfromthePunjab.8In1858,followingtherebellionofthepreviousyear,QueenVictoria

hadissuedaproclamationpromisingherIndiansubjectsgoodgovernanceandrespectforallfaiths.

6.TheSubalternFeminist:TarabaiShinde1FromRosalindO’Hanlon,editorandtranslator,AComparisonbetween

WomenandMen:TarabaiShindeandtheCritiqueofGenderRelationsinColonialIndia(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1994),pp.97–111.

7.TheMultipleAgendasofM.K.Gandhi1FromM.K.Gandhi,HindSwaraj,inTheCollectedWorksofMahatma

Gandhi(NewDelhi:PublicationsDivision,GovtofIndia,1958—hereafterCWMG),Volume10,pp.47–53.Allthroughthischapter,IhaveusedthestandardeditionoftheCollectedWorks,editedbyK.Swaminathan.Therewasalater,error-riddenedition(sincewithdrawn)andtherearealsoversionsontheWeb—thesefollowadifferentpagination.

2FromTheHindu,13August1920,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume18,pp.144–54.

3E.S.Montagu,atthetimeSecretaryofStateforIndiaintheBritishgovernment.

4Yajnaandkurbanibothmoreorlessmeanthesamething,namely,sacrifice.ThefactthatonewordisSanskritandtheotherUrduissignificant,inthatbyusingthembothinonebreathGandhiwassymbolicallysignallingtheimperativeofHindu—Muslimunity.

5FromYoungIndia,issuesof27Apriland4May1921,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume19,pp.573–74.

6FromYoungIndia,14January1926,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume29,pp.399–400.

7ThenamebywhichUntouchableswerereferredtoinsouthIndia—itliterallymeans‘ofthefifthclass’,thatis,outsidethefourordersofthecastesystem.

8FromHarijan,5January1934,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume56,pp.393–95.

9FromHarijan,9March1934,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume57,pp.259–62.

10InsouthIndia,HarijanswerevariouslyknownasAdi-Hindus,Adi-Dravidas,and—asalreadynoted—Panchamas.

11FromHarijan,16March1934,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume57,pp.285–86.

12FromYoungIndia,7May1919,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume15,pp.201–03.

13FromAmritaBazarPatrika,15August1925,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume28,pp.17–23.

14WilliamHunter,civilservantandscholar,wastheauthorofmanybooksonIndianaffairs,amongthemhistoriesofBengalandoftheIndianMuslims.HunterwasalsochairmanoftheEducationCommissionof1882to

whichbothSyedAhmadKhanandJotiraoPhuletestified.15Anineteenth-centuryBritishtheosophistandauthor.16Anineteenth-centuryBritisharmycommander,whoservedanddiedin

theSudanandisoneofthefoursubjectsofLyttonStrachey’sEminentVictorians.

17FromYoungIndia,17October1929,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume42,pp.4–6.

18TheSardaBill,inabidtostemthethenwidespreadpracticeofchildmarriage,forbadethemarriageofgirlsbelowtheageoffourteen.

19FromYoungIndia,3February1927,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume33,pp.44–45.

8.TheRootedCosmopolitan:RabindranathTagore1FromRabindranathTagore,GreaterIndia(Madras:S.Ganesan,1921),

translatedbySurendranathTagore,pp.79–101.2FromRabindranathTagore,Nationalism(1917;reprintNewDelhi:

PenguinBooksIndia,2009),pp.15–30and40–45.3FromRabindranathTagore,LetterstoaFriend,editedbyC.F.Andrews

(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1928),pp.128–37.

9.TheAnnihilatorofCaste:B.R.Ambedkar1FromArjunDangle,editor,PoisonedBread:TranslationsfromModern

MarathiDalitLiterature(Hyderabad:OrientLongman,1992),pp.223–33.Ambedkar’sspeechwastranscribedbyChangdeoKhairmodeandistranslatedbyRameshchandraSirkar.

2FromB.R.Ambedkar,AnnihilationofCaste(1936;reprintNewDelhi:ArnoldPublishers,1990),pp.47–84.

3This‘you’istheupper-castereformer.4AsreproducedinVasantMoon,editor,DrBabasahebAmbedkar,

WritingsandSpeeches,Volume9(Bombay:GovernmentofMaharashtra,1991),pp.262–69.

5Notreproducedhere.6A.V.Thakkarwasarespectedsocialworker,aseniormemberofthe

ServantsofIndiaSocietyandafriendofGandhi’s.

10.TheMuslimSeparatist:MuhammadAliJinnah1AsreproducedinJamil-ud-dinAhmad,editor,SomeRecentSpeeches

andWritingsofMrJinnah(fourthedition:Lahore:Sh.MuhammadAshraf,1946),pp.27and30–35.

2FromAhmad,editor,RecentSpeechesandWritings,pp.128–31.3FromthepresidentialaddresstotheannualsessionoftheAll-India

MuslimLeague,Lahore,March1940,inAhmad,editor,RecentSpeechesandWritings,pp.176–80.

4FromAhmad,editor,RecentSpeechesandWritings,pp.261–69.

11.TheRadicalReformer:E.V.Ramaswami1FirstpublishedinKudiarasu,11September1927.Translatedforthis

volumebyA.R.Venkatachalapathy.2Medievalsaint-poetsoftheTamilcountry.3OriginallypublishedinKudiarasu,23October1927.TranslatedbyA.R.

Venkatachalapathy.4OriginallypublishedinKudiarasu,22August1926,herereproduced

fromK.Veeramani,editor,PeriyaronWomen’sRights(Madras:EmeraldPublishers,1994),pp.26–31.ThetranslationisbyR.SundaraRaju.

5OriginallypublishedinKudiarasu,6April1930,herereproducedfromVeeramani,editor,PeriyaronWomen’sRights,pp.45–47.

6OriginallypublishedinKudiarasu,17August1930,herereproducedfromVeeramani,editor,PeriyaronWomen’sRights,pp.68–71.

7TheprincelystateofBarodawasknownforitsprogressivemaharajaanditsprogressiveadministration.

12.TheSocialistFeminist:KamaladeviChattopadhyay1FromthepresidentialaddresstotheAllIndiaWomen’sConference,

Bombay,7April1944,reproducedinKamaladevi[Chattopadhyay],AttheCrossroads,editedbyYusufMeherally(Bombay:TheNationalInformationandPublicationsLtd,1947)pp.90–99.

2ThisisareferencetothereformsofHindupersonallawsrecommendedbyacommitteeheadedbythecivilservantB.N.Rau.Thereforms,aimedatgreatlyenhancingtherightsofHinduwomen,cameintooperationadecadelater,inthemid-1950s.

3Arupeethencontainedsixteenannas.4In1943therehadbeenaseriousfamineinBengal,inwhichseveral

milliondiedowingtostarvation.5ThisreferstothefactthatmanyCongressmenwhohadparticipatedin

theQuitIndiamovementof1942werestillinprison.6FromaspeechtotheProvincialSocialistConvention,Mangalore,April

1947,reprintedinAttheCrossroads,editedbyMeherally,pp.90–99.7TheMuslimLeaguehadbeeninpowerinprovincessuchasSindand

Bengal.

13.TheRenewedAgendasofM.K.Gandhi1‘ThePoet’sAnxiety’,YoungIndia,1June1921,asreproducedin

CWMG,Volume20,pp.161–64.2AformerviceroyofIndia.3‘DrAmbedkar’sIndictment’,intwoparts,Harijan,issuesof11and18

July1936,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume63,pp.134–36and153–54.4FromHarijan,7July1946,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume84,pp.

388–89.5Acloseandlong-timeassociateofGandhi,basedinGujarat.6ReproducedfromCWMG,Volume76,pp.385–91.7AfamousMuslimscholarfromLucknow,whohadworkedwithGandhi

inthe1920s.8ThisisMaulanaAbulKalamAzad,thenthemostprominentMuslimin

theCongress.9B.S.MoonjeeandV.D.SavarkarwereleadersoftheHinduMahasabha,

apartywhichbelievedthatIndiawas(orshouldbe)astateforHindusonly.10FromCWMG,Volume90,pp.37–42.11FromCWMG,Volume90,pp.191–94.12FromHarijan,9January1937,CWMG,Volume64,pp.217–18.13C.F.Andrews,anEnglishpriestandwriter,anintimatefriendof

Gandhi’s(andTagore’s)andalong-timesupporteroffreedomforIndia,wasknownaffectionatelyas‘Deenbandhu’(friendofthepoor).

14FromHarijan,28July1946,asreproducedinCWMG,Volume85,pp.32–34.

15Ithadbeenannouncedthatanassembly,representingthewidestpossiblespectrumofIndianopinion,wouldbeconvenedtoframeaconstitutionforfreeIndia.

14.TheWiseDemocrat:B.R.Ambedkar1SpeechinConstituentAssemblyon4November1948,asreproducedin

ConstituentAssemblyDebates:OfficialReport(reprintNewDelhi:LokSabhaSecretariat,1988),Volume7,pp.31–44.

2C.T.Metcalfewasaninfluentialcolonialadministratoroftheearlynineteenthcentury,whohadservedasgovernorofAgra,lieutenant-governoroftheNorth-WesternProvincesandactingGovernorGeneralofIndia.

3SpeechinConstituentAssemblyon25November1949,asreproducedinConstituentAssemblyDebates,Volume11,pp.972–81.

4ThepresidentoftheConstituentAssemblywastheseniorCongressleader,RajendraPrasad.

15.TheMultipleAgendasofJawaharlalNehru1SeeJawaharlalNehru,LetterstoChiefMinisters,1947–1964,infive

volumes,editedbyG.Parthasarathi(NewDelhi:JawaharlalNehruMemorialFund,1985–89—hereafterLCM),Volume1,pp.2–4.

2M.A.Jinnah,thenGovernorGeneralofPakistan.3LCM,Volume1,pp.33–34.4LCM,Volume1,pp.48–49.5Gandhihadjustgoneonafastinprotestagainstthecontinuingattacks

onMuslimsinDelhiandEastPunjab.6LCM,Volume2,pp.375–80.7LCM,Volume3,pp.203–06.8LCM,Volume3,pp.252–55.9FromJawaharlalNehru,India’sForeignPolicy:SelectedSpeeches,

September1946-April1961(1961;reprintNewDelhi:MinistryofInformationandBroadcasting,1971),pp.249–53.

10Towardstheendoftheconference,Gandhididcomeandaddressthedelegates.SeeCWMG,Volume87,pp.190–93.

11FromNehru,India’sForeignPolicy,pp.50–55.12LCM,Volume3,pp.13–20.13LCM,Volume5,pp.285–88.14LCM,Volume5,pp.544–52.15LokSabhaDebates,Volume4,part2,22Aprilto7May,cols7954–68.

16.TheHinduSupremacist:M.S.Golwalkar1FromM.S.Golwalkar,BunchofThoughts(Bangalore:Vikrama

Prakashan,1966),pp.122–35.2FromGolwalkar,BunchofThoughts,pp.166–75.3ExcerptsfromM.S.Golwalkar,NotSocialismbutHinduRashtra

(Bangalore:KesariPress,1964),pp.15–45.

17.TheIndigenousSocialist:RammanoharLohia1FromRammanoharLohia,TheCasteSystem(1964;reprintHyderabad:

RammanoharLohiaSamataVidyalayaNyas,1979),pp.81–105.2Notreproducedhere.3Theregionalpartiesmentionedintheseparagraphswereveryactivein

the1950s;somecontinuetobeactivestill.4Thethreehighestcastes,Brahmin,KshatriyaandVaishya,were

collectivelyknownastheDwija.5FromRammanoharLohia,Language(Hyderabad:RammanoharLohia

SamataVidyalayaNyas,1986),pp.10–20.6This‘you’arehispartyworkers.

18.TheGrass-RootsSocialist:JayaprakashNarayan1JayaprakashNarayan,APleaforReconstructionofIndianPolity(Kashi:

AkhilBharatSarvaSevaSanghPrakashan,1959),pp.91–107.2FromTheTragedyofTibet:SpeechesandStatementsofJayaprakash

Narayan(NewDelhi:Afro-AsianCommitteeonTibet,1959),pp.8–21.3OriginallyfromtheJayaprakashNarayanPapersattheNehruMemorial

MuseumandLibrary,NewDelhi,herereproducedfromBalrajPuri,editor,JPonJammuandKashmir(NewDelhi:GyanPublishingHouse,2005),pp.61–65.

4JayaprakashNarayan,NagalandkaSaval(TheQuestionofNagaland)(Varanasi:SarvaSevaSanghPrakashan,1965),pp.11–14,22–24and28–31.TranslatedfromtheHindibyRamachandraGuha.

5ArunachalPradeshwasthenknownastheNorthEastFrontierAgency,orNEFA.

6ThewordNarayanusesis‘jangli’,literallyofthejungle,butconnotingbackward,primitive,evenbarbarian—hereglossedas‘uncivilized’.

19.TheGandhianLiberal:C.Rajagopalachari1OriginallypublishedinSwarajya,17August1957,andreprintedinC.

Rajagopalachari,SatyamEvaJayate:ACollectionofArticlesContributedtoSwarajyaandOtherJournalsfrom1956to1961,intwovolumes(Madras:BharathanPublications,1961),Volume1,pp.70–76.

2OriginallypublishedinSwarajya,10May1958,andreproducedinRajagopalachari,SatyamEvaJayate,Volume1,pp.149–53.

3ThisisfromamanifestoissuedinAugust1959,writtenbyC.Rajagopalachari,andprintedindifferentnewspapersandmagazinesinIndia.

4TheCongressPartywasthenthinkingofpromotingcollectiveorcooperativefarmingonthemodelofthesocialistcountries.

5ReproducedfromDearReader:WeeklyColloquyofC.RajagopalachariwiththeReadersofSwarajya,1961–1972(Coimbatore:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan,1993),pp.54–66.

6ThisisSukumarSen,themathematician-turned-civilservantwhohadsuccessfullysupervisedIndia’sfirsttwogeneralelections.

7ArticlewritteninDecember1959,andreproducedinRajagopalachari,SatyamEvaJayate,Volume1,pp.474–81.

8OriginallypublishedinSwarajya,8October1960,andreproducedinRajagopalachari,SatyamEvaJayate,Volume2,pp.643–45.

9Originallypublishedunderthetitle‘Panch-Maaya’[FiveIllusions]inSwarajya,15February1958,andreproducedinRajagopalachari,SatyamEvaJayate,Volume1,pp.135–39.

10Thismandatedthatfrom26January1965—fifteenyearsafterthepassingoftheConstitution—onlyHindiwouldbeusedinallcommunicationsbetweentheCentreandthestates.Tillthen,Englishwasalsotobeallowed.Intheevent,owingtoprotestsfromthesouth,this‘graceperiod’forEnglishwasextendedindefinitely.

11ReproducedfromVuppuluriKalidas,editor,RajajiReader:SelectionsfromWritingsofC.Rajagopalachari(Madras:VyasaPublications,1980),pp.130–32.

20.TheDefenderoftheTribals:VerrierElwin1FromVerrierElwin,TheAboriginals(secondedition:Bombay:Oxford

UniversityPress,1944),pp.14–19and29–32.2AcharacterinCharlesDickens’snovelGreatExpectations.3FromVerrierElwin,APhilosophyforNEFA(secondedition:Shillong,

AdvisertotheGovernorofAssam,1959),pp.44–60.4TheNorthEastFrontierAgency,towhoseadministrationElwinserved

asanadviser.

21.TheLastModernist:HamidDalwai1FromHamidDalwai,MuslimPoliticsinIndia(Bombay:Nachiketa

Publications,1968),pp.32–40.ThetranslatoroftheseandlaterexcerptsfromthisbookisDilipChitre.

2FromDalwai,MuslimPoliticsinIndia,pp.85–90.3M.C.Chaglawasadistinguishedjuristandpublicservantwhohad

servedaschiefjusticeoftheBombayHighCourt,asIndia’sambassadortotheUnitedStatesandasaseniorcabinetministerintheGovernmentofIndia.

4FromDalwai,MuslimPoliticsinIndia,pp.94–100.

Epilogue:IndiaintheWorld1ThisrecallsWinstonChurchill’sremarkthatparliamentarydemocracy

wastheworstformofgovernment,exceptforalltheothers.Theechowasprobablyunconscious.

2JayaprakashNarayantoJawaharlalNehru,7March1957;NehrutoNarayan,3April1957,bothinBrahmanandPapers,NehruMemorialMuseumandLibrary,NewDelhi.

3Inthe1990s,afterNehruandNarayanhadbothdied,theCongressgovernmentofthedaypassedalegislationmandatingthecreationofvillagecouncilsinallstatesoftheUnion.Thoseresponsibleforwhatwasnowthe73rdAmendmenttotheIndianConstitutiondidnotappeartorecognizethatthiswasincontinuationoftheeffortsofalong-timeopponentoftheCongressParty.

4Asin,amongotherworks,AndréBéteille,SocietyandPoliticsinIndia(London:AthlonePress,1987);Béteille,ChroniclesofOurTimes(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,2000);SunilKhilnani,TheIdeaofIndia(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,1997);NirajaGopalJayal,editor,DemocracyinIndia(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2000);PratapBhanuMehta,TheBurdenofDemocracy(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,2004);ParthaChatterjee,ThePoliticsoftheGoverned:ReflectionsonPopularPoliticsinMostoftheWorld(Delhi:PermanentBlack,2004);NirajaGopalJayalandPratapBhanuMehta,editors,TheOxfordCompaniontoIndianPolitics(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2010).Apartfrombooks,thesedebatesarealsoconductedinessaysinseriousjournalsofopinion,suchastheEconomicandPoliticalWeekly,publishedoutofMumbai,andthemonthlySeminar,publishedinNewDelhi.

5GertrudeHimmelfarb,TheRoadstoModernity:TheBritish,FrenchandAmericanEnlightenments(2004;reprintLondon:VintageBooks,2008).Somewritershavespokenofaspecific‘Scottish’Enlightenmentasdistinctfromamoregeneral‘British’one.Himmelfarb,however,collapsesthetwo,onthegroundsthatphilosopherslikeHumeandSmith‘chosetoidentifythemselvesasNorthBritonsratherthanasScots’(ibid.,pp.12–13).

6Himmelfarb,RoadstoModernity,p.xvi.7D.W.Brogan,ThePriceofRevolution(London:HamishHamilton,

1951),pp.111–13.8SeeRamachandraGuha,IndiaAfterGandhi:TheHistoryoftheWorld’s

LargestDemocracy(NewYork:EccoPress,2007),Chapter9andEpilogue.

9RonaldDworkin,IsDemocracyPossibleHere:PrinciplesforaNewPoliticalDebate(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2006),pp.163–64.

10AsillustratedbythetextandbibliographyofanexcellentsurveyofthehistoriographyofmodernIndia,SekharBandopadhyay’sFromPlasseytoPolitics(Hyderabad:OrientLongman,2004).Thefewbooksthatdoexistarewrittenbypoliticalscientistsratherthanhistorians;theyareinthenatureofgeneralsurveysratherthanworksbasedonprimaryresearch.See,forexample,A.Appadorai,IndianPoliticalThinkingintheTwentiethCenturyfromNaorojitoNehru(Bombay:OxfordUniversityPress,1972);K.P.Karunakaran,IndianPoliticsfromDadabhaiNaorojitoGandhi:AStudyofthePoliticalIdeasofModernIndia(NewDelhi:GitanjaliPrakashan,1975);and,mostrecently,V.R.MehtaandThomasPantham,editors,PoliticalIdeasinModernIndia:ThematicExplorations(NewDelhi:Sage,2006).

11Therelevantworksarecitedinthe‘GuidetoFurtherReading’thatfollows.

12M.S.GolwalkarthusaskseachHindutoremindhimselfthat‘forgenerations,mygreatforefathershavestriventomakethisthegreatestandnoblestnation—anidealnationofidealmen—onthefaceofthisearth’.Hefurtherasksthemtotake‘prideinourgloriousnationalpast,inouruniqueculturalheritageandaspirationtoseeourBharatMatareseatedinherpristinegloryandhonourinthecomityofnations…’andto‘praytotheAlmighty…[to]guideourleadersinthisdarkhourandinspirethemwiththerightunderstandingandinstilinthemcouragetotreadalongtherightpathforagloriousrevivalofourGreatPeople’.Golwalkar,BunchofThoughts(Bangalore:VikramaPrakashan,1966),pp.290,325and437.

13SeeAmartyaSen,TheArgumentativeIndian:ReflectionsonIndianHistory,CultureandIdentity(London:AllenLane,2005).

14ImtiazAhmad,‘SecularismandCommunalism’,EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,SpecialNumber,July1969,p.1139,emphasisadded.

15ThethreeIleaveoutareTilak,JinnahandGolwalkar—fordifferentreasons.Tilak’sradicalnationalistpoliticslostitsrelevancewiththeachievementofIndianindependence;sotooJinnah’sMuslimseparatismwiththecreationofPakistan.AsforGolwalkar,thesubsequentcareerofPakistanitselfactsasawarningtothosewhomightwishtomergeFaithwithState.AHinduRashtrawouldbebothinimicaltodemocracyandleadtoevenmorestrifebetweenreligions.

16Thislist,ofcourse,ismerelyillustrative.Readerswill,Itrust,find

otherthingsthatappealtothemintheworkandlegacyofthesesixteenmenandwomen.

17‘OnGovernment’,inH.L.Mencken,Prejudices:ASelection,editedbyJamesT.Farrell(NewYork:VintageBooks,1956),p.182.

GuidetoFurtherReading

InwhatfollowsIhave,wherenecessaryandrelevant,citedbooksrecentlypublishedandquiteeasilyavailable.Thatsaid,thisguideisbiasedtowardsolderworks,forthereasonthatpoliticalhistoryandbiographyhaveforsometimenowbeenoutoffashionwithintheacademy.Forthosewhodonothaveaccesstoadecentlibrary,Ishouldnotethattheout-of-printbooksthatIrecommendbelowareavailable—albeitinlimitednumbers—fromonlinestoressuchasAmazonandAbeBooks.

PartIForoverviewsofBritishruleinIndia,seePenderelMoon,TheBritish

ConquestandDominionofIndia(London:GeorgeDuckworth,1989),whichisespeciallystrongonmilitaryandadministrativematters;TirthankarRoy,TheEconomicHistoryofIndia,1857–1947(secondedition:NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2006),acool,judicioustreatmentofacomplexandcontroversialsubject;C.A.Bayly,IndianSocietyandtheMakingoftheBritishEmpire(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988);andJohnF.Riddick,TheHistoryofBritishIndia:AChronology(Westport,Conn.:PraegerPublishers,2006).OntheBritishimpactonBengalinparticular,seeP.J.Marshall,EastIndianFortunes:TheBritishinBengalintheEighteenthCentury(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1976);Marshall,Bengal:TheBritishBridgehead,EasternIndia,1740–1828(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987);A.F.SalahuddinAhmed,SocialIdeasandSocialChangeinBengal,1818–1835(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1965);andB.S.Kesavan,HistoryofPrintingandPublishinginIndia:AStoryofCulturalRe-awakening:VolumeI:SouthIndianOriginsofPrintinganditsEfflorescenceinBengal(NewDelhi:NationalBookTrust,1985).

ThemostexhaustivebiographicalstudyofRammohanRoyremainsSophiaDobsonCollet,TheLifeandLettersofRajaRammohunRoy,editedbyDilipKumarBiswasandPrabhatChandraGanguli(fourthedition:Calcutta:SadharanBrahmoSamaj,1988—originallypublishedin1900).AusefulshorterworkisBruceCarlisleRobertson,RajaRammohanRoy:TheFatherofModernIndia(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).RobertsonisalsotheeditorofTheEssentialWritingsofRajaRammohanRoy(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1999).Roy’spoliticalideasarethesubjectofarecentessaybyC.A.Bayly,‘RammohanRoyandtheAdventofConstitutionalLiberalisminIndia,1800–30’,ModernIntellectualHistory,Volume2,Number1,2007.

PartII

OnthedifferenttrendsinIndianpoliticsbetweenthefoundingoftheCongressandtheonsetoftheFirstWorldWar,seeSumitSarkar,ModernIndia,1885–1947(NewDelhi:Macmillan,1983);S.R.Mehrotra,TheEmergenceoftheIndianNationalCongress(NewDelhi:Vikas,1971);AnilSeal,TheEmergenceofIndianNationalism(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1968);andBritonMartin,Jr.,NewIndia,1885:BritishOfficialPolicyandtheEmergenceoftheIndianNationalCongress(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1969).OnthehistoryofMaharashtra(hometofourofthefiveindividualsfeaturedinthissectionofthebook),seeRavinderKumar,WesternIndiaintheNineteenthCentury:AStudyintheSocialHistoryofMaharashtra(London:RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1968);D.D.Karve,editorandtranslator,TheNewBrahmans:FiveMaharashtrianFamilies(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1963);B.G.Gokhale,TheFieryQuill:NationalismandLiteratureinMaharashtra(Mumbai:PopularPrakashan,1998);andG.P.Deshpande,TheWorldofIdeasinModernMarathi(NewDelhi:TulikaBooks,2009).OnMuslimpoliticsandidentityinthelatenineteenthcentury,seeM.Mujeeb,TheIndianMuslims(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1967);andDavidLelyveld,Aligarh’sFirstGeneration:MuslimSolidarityinBritishIndia(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1978).

AmongthemorevaluableofthemanyolderbiographiesofSyedAhmadKhanareAltafHusainHali,Hayat-i-Javed:ABiographicalAccountofSirSayyid,translatedfromtheUrdubyK.H.QadiriandDavidJ.Matthews(Delhi:Idarah-iAdabiyat-iDelli,1979);andG.F.I.Graham,TheLifeandWorkofSyedAhmadKhan(1885;reprintDelhi:Idarah-iAdabiyat-iDelli,1974).ForarecentassessmentofKhan’slegacy,seeFaisalDevji’sessay‘ApologeticModernity’,ModernIntellectualHistory,Volume2,Number1,2007.ForaselectionofKhan’sownwritings,seeShanMohammad,editor,WritingsandSpeechesofSyedAhmadKhan(Bombay:NachiketaPublications,1972).

JotiraoPhuleisthesubjectofamodelworkofintellectualbiography:RosalindO’Hanlon’sJotiraoPhuleandLowCasteProtestinNineteenth-CenturyWesternIndia(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985).SomevaluableinformationiscontainedinDhananjayKeer,MahatmaJotiraoPhooley:FatherofOurSocialRevolution(Bombay:PopularPrakashan,1964).Inthe1960sand1970s,theMaharashtragovernmentissuedseveralvolumesofPhule’swritings;thesearenowscarce,butforamorerecentselection,whichiscarefullyannotatedaswellaselegantlyproduced,seeG.P.Deshpande,editor,SelectedWritingsofJotiraoPhule(NewDelhi:LeftWordBooks,2002).

GopalKrishnaGokhaleisthesubjectoftwoexcellentbiographicalstudies:B.R.Nanda’sGokhale:TheIndianModeratesandtheBritishRaj(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1977),alsoavailableinanomnibuseditionoftheauthor’sworkspublishedbyOxfordUniversityPressin2004;andGovindTalwalkar’sGopalKrishnaGokhale:HisLifeandTimes(NewDelhi:RupaandCo.,2006).ToreadGokhaleintheoriginal,oneshouldconsultSpeechesofGopalKrishnaGokhale(secondedition:Madras:G.A.Natesan,1916),athousand-page-plusvolumewhichIown(andwhichtheWebinformsmehasbeenrecentlyrepublishedinafour-volumeeditionbyaDelhipublisher);ortheequallysubstantialthree-volumeselectioneditedbyD.G.KarveandD.V.Ambekar,SpeechesandWritingsofGopalKrishnaGokhale(Bombay:AsiaPublishingHouse,1967).

BalGangadharTilakisaonce-famousbutnowneglectedfigure.PerhapsthemostserviceableoftheolderbiographiesisD.V.Tahmankar,LokmanyaTilak:FatherofIndianUnrestandMakerofModernIndia(London:JohnMurray,1956).AlsousefulisStanleyWolpert’sTilakandGokhale:RevolutionandReformintheMakingofModernIndia(1961;reprintNewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1989).Forthisbook,IhaveusedBalGangadharTilak:HisWritingsandSpeeches(Madras:GaneshandCo.,1918),afewcopiesofwhichseemtobeavailableonwww.abebooks.com.

ForTarabaiShinde,seeRosalindO’Hanlon,editorandtranslator,AComparisonbetweenWomenandMen:TarabaiShindeandtheCritiqueofGenderRelationsinColonialIndia(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1994),whichprintsthetranslatedtextofShinde’ssolebook,prefacedbyabiographicalintroduction.ForperspectivesonthestatusofwomeninmodernMaharashtra,seeMeeraKosambi,CrossingThresholds:FeministEssaysinSocialHistory(Ranikhet:PermanentBlack,2007).Forabroadersamplingoffeministorproto-feministliterature,seeSusieTharuandK.Lalita,editors,WomenWritinginIndia,twovolumes(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1993).

PartIIIForoverviewsofthepoliticsoftheinterwarperiod,seeD.A.Low,Britain

andIndianNationalism:TheImprintofAmbiguity,1929–1942(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2002),andSumitSarkar,ModernIndia,op.cit.UsefulstudiesoftheCongressinitsregionaldimensionsincludeD.A.Low,editor,CongressandtheRaj:FacetsoftheIndianStruggle,1917–47(secondedition:NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2006);GyanendraPandey,TheAscendancyoftheCongressinUttarPradesh(1978;reprintLondon:Anthem

Press,2002);andDavidHardiman,PeasantNationalistsofGujarat(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1981).Gandhi’stransformativeimpactontheCongressisthesubjectofanoldbutstillvaluableessaybyGopalKrishna,‘TheDevelopmentoftheIndianNationalCongressasaMassOrganization,1918–1923’,JournalofAsianStudies,Volume25,Number3,1966;andofasuperbandenduringcollectioneditedbyRavinderKumar,EssaysonGandhianPolitics(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1969).OnMuslimpoliticaltrendsinthe1930sand1940s,seeDavidPage,PreludetoPartition:TheIndianMuslimsandtheImperialSystemofControl(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1982);andWilfredCantwellSmith,ModernIslaminIndia(1946;reprintDelhi:UshaPublications,1985).Onleft-wingtrends,seeGeneD.OverstreetandMarshallWindmiller,CommunisminIndia(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1959).

Fortheeconomiccontextofinterwarpolitics,seeBasudevChatterji,Trade,TariffsandEmpire(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1990).Forthesocialimpactofcolonialism,seeM.N.Srinivas’sSocialChangeinModernIndia(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1973).GeraldineForbes’sWomeninModernIndia(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1995)isaninformativesurveyofanimportantbutstilltoooftenneglectedsubject.ThecriticalroleplayedbythepressinthedevelopmentofGandhiannationalismisdealtwithinMiltonIsrael,CommunicationandPower:PropagandaandthePressintheIndianNationalistStruggle,1921–1947(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994).

OnGandhi,themostaccessibleandreadablesingle-volumeliferemainsLouisFischer,TheLifeofMahatmaGandhi,firstpublishedbyHarperandRowinNewYorkin1950andcontinuouslyinprinteversince.Forthemoredoggedanddevotedadmirer,thereisD.G.Tendulkar’seight-volumeMahatma:LifeofMohandasKaramchandGandhi(secondedition,1963;reprintNewDelhi:PublicationsDivision,GovtofIndia,1990).AmongtheverymanythematicstudiesofGandhi’sideas,IwouldespeciallyrecommendDavidHardiman,Gandhi:InHisTimeandOurs(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2004);DenisDalton,MahatmaGandhi:Non-ViolentPowerinAction(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1996);J.T.F.Jordens,Gandhi’sReligion:AHome-SpunShawl(NewYork:StMartin’sPress,1998);BhikhuC.Parekh,Colonialism,TraditionandReform:AnAnalysisofGandhi’sPoliticalDiscourse(NewDelhi:SagePublications,1989);andRajmohanGandhi,TheGoodBoatman:APortraitofGandhi(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,1995).To

readGandhiintheoriginal,thosewithmoretimeandgreaterinterestwouldwanttoconsulttheprintorWebeditionsoftheCollectedWorks;forthoseseekingasensibleshortcut,Iwouldrecommend,amongtheexistinganthologies,eitherRaghavanIyer,editor,TheMoralandPoliticalWritingsofMahatmaGandhi,inthreevolumes(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1987),orGopalkrishnaGandhi,editor,TheOxfordIndiaGandhi:EssentialWritings(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2008).Forthoseinterestedinspecificthemes,Gandhi’sownpublishers,NavajivanPress,havefromtimetotimeissuedvolumesofhiswritingsandsayingsoncaste,women,non-violence,communalharmony,etc.ThesecanbeobtainedatGandhianbookstallsacrossIndia.

OnRabindranathTagore,seethereadableandwell-researchedlifebyKrishnaDuttaandAndrewRobinson,RabindranathTagore:TheMyriad-MindedMan(NewYork:StMartin’sPress,1996).ArepresentativeselectionofhiswritingiscontainedinSisirKumarDas,TheEnglishWritingsofRabindranathTagore,threevolumes(NewDelhi:SahityaAkademi,1996).OnTagore’srelationshipwithGandhi,seeSabyasachiBhattacharya,editor,TheMahatmaandthePoet:LettersandDebatesbetweenGandhiandTagore(NewDelhi:NationalBookTrust,1997).Finally,Tagore’sseminaltract,Nationalism,wasrepublishedin2009asaPenguinModernClassicwithanintroductionbythepresentwriter.

B.R.AmbedkarhasbeenthesubjectofanumberofreverentialstudiesinEnglishinrecentyears.However,nonecanmatch,forsheermassofdetail,theolderbiographybyDhananjayKeer,DrAmbedkar:HisLifeandMission(thirdedition:Bombay:PopularPrakashan,1971;reprintedseveraltimessince).ValuableanalyticalstudiesofhisthoughtandlegacyincludeEleanorZelliot,FromUntouchabletoDalit:EssaysontheAmbedkarMovement(NewDelhi:Manohar,2001);andD.R.Nagaraj,TheFlamingFeet:AStudyoftheDalitMovementinIndiaandOtherEssays,editedbyPrithviDattaChandraShobhi(Ranikhet:PermanentBlack,2010).Ambedkar’scollectedwritingswerepublishedinanowscarcemulti-volumeeditionbroughtoutbytheGovernmentofMaharashtra.Ahandyone-volumeselectionisavailableinValerianRodrigues,editor,TheEssentialWritingsofB.R.Ambedkar(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2002).

ThetwobeststudiesofMuhammadAliJinnah,albeitfromcontrastingperspectives,areStanleyWolpert,JinnahofPakistan(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1985)andAyeshaJalal,TheSoleSpokesman:Jinnah,theMuslimLeagueandtheDemandforPakistan(Cambridge:Cambridge

UniversityPress,1985).Forthisbook,IhaveusedaneditionofJinnah’sspeechesfromthe1940s;amorerecenteffortinthisdirectionisS.S.Pirzada,editor,TheCollectedWorksofQaid-e-AzamMohammadAliJinnah,threevolumes(Karachi:EastandWestPublishingCompany,1996).

ThereisnoproperbiographyofE.V.RamaswamiinEnglish.However,hisideologyandlegacyhavebeentreatedin,amongotherworks,MargueriteRossBarnett,ThePoliticsofCulturalNationalisminSouthIndia(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1976);NarendraSubramanian,EthnicityandPopularMobilization:PoliticalParties,CitizensandDemocracyinSouthIndia(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1999);andV.GeethaandS.V.Rajadurai,TowardsaNon-BrahminMillennium:FromIyotheeThasstoPeriyar(Calcutta:Samya,1998).AselectionofhiswritingsandspeechesintranslationiscontainedinK.Veeramani,editor,CollectedWorksofPeriyarE.V.R.(Chennai:ThePeriyarSelf-RespectPropagandaInstitution,2007).

DespiteherbeingarguablythemostremarkableIndianwomanofthetwentiethcentury(aswellasthemostinfluentialapartfromIndiraGandhi),theliteratureonKamaladeviChattopadhyay’slifeandcareerissurprisinglyscarce.Sheseemstohavekeptnolettersorpapers,whichiswhyherbiographersrelysolargelyonanecdotesandinterviewmaterial.ButworthconsultingnonethelessareReenaNanda,KamaladeviChattopadhyaya:ABiography(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2002);andSakuntalaNarasimhan,KamaladeviChattopadhyay:TheRomanticRebel(NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers,1999).Kamaladevi’sownmemoirs,writtenordictatedtowardstheendofherlifeandhencesomewhatfragmentary,areentitledInnerRecesses,OuterSpaces(NewDelhi:NavrangPublishers,1986).HerlaterassessmentofthepositionofwomeniscontainedinIndianWomen’sBattleforFreedom(NewDelhi:AbhinavPublications,1983).

PartIVForapoliticalandsocialhistoryofIndiasinceIndependence,see

RamachandraGuha,IndiaAfterGandhi:TheHistoryoftheWorld’sLargestDemocracy(London:Macmillan,2007).ThemajorpoliticaltrendsarealsoanalysedinthecontributionstoNirajaGopalJayalandPratapBhanuMehta,editors,TheOxfordCompaniontoIndianPolitics(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2010);andintwoimportantbooksbyAndréBéteille,SocietyandPoliticsinIndia(London:AthlonePress,1987)andChroniclesofourTimes(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,2000).ThechangingdimensionsofthecastesystemarebestfollowedthroughtheworkoverfivedecadesofIndia’spre-

eminentsociologist,M.N.Srinivas—seeespeciallytheessaysreproducedinA.M.Shah,editor,TheOxfordIndiaSrinivas(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2009).GranvilleAustinhaswrittenoutstandingstudiesofthemakingandworkingoftheIndianConstitutionrespectively:TheIndianConstitution:CornerstoneofaNation(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1966)andWorkingaDemocraticConstitution:TheIndianExperience(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1999).DebatesoneconomicpolicyarediscussedinA.H.Hanson,TheProcessofPlanning:AStudyofIndia’sFive-YearPlans,1950–1964(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1966);andinFrancineFrankel,India’sPoliticalEconomy:TheGradualRevolution(secondedition:NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2004).Onsecularismandreligiousidentity,see,fortheperiodjustafterIndependence,D.E.Smith,IndiaasaSecularState(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1963);and,forlaterdecadesanddebates,RajeevBhargava,editor,SecularismanditsCritics(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1999).ForinsightsintothepredicamentofIndia’slargestminority,consultA.G.Noorani,editor,TheMuslimsofIndia:ADocumentaryRecord(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2003).

FortheseriousstudentofthelifeandlegacyofJawaharlalNehru,thethree-volumebiographybySarvepalliGopal,publishedbyOxfordUniversityPressbetween1975and1984,isindispensable.MichaelBrecher’sJawaharlalNehru:APoliticalBiography(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1958)remainsvaluable.AnexcellentshorterstudyisWalterCrocker,Nehru:AContemporary’sEstimate(1966;secondedition:NewDelhi:RandomHouseIndia,2009).NehrualsoloomslargeinSunilKhilnani,TheIdeaofIndia(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,1997)andinmyown,IndiaAfterGandhi.ThethreebooksNehruhimselfwrote(allpublishedbeforeIndianindependence)areavailableinPenguinClassics.Ofthese,theonemostrelevanttounderstandinghisthoughtisTheDiscoveryofIndia,writteninprison,andfirstpublishedbyTheSignetPress,Calcutta,in1946.TheseriousstudentmustgobeyondthesetohiswritingsafterIndependence,especiallythefivevolumesofhisLetterstoChiefMinisters,publishedbytheJawaharlalNehruMemorialFundbetween1985and1989.ArepresentativeselectionofhiswritingsbeforeandafterIndependenceiscontainedinSarvepalliGopalandUmaIyengar,editors,TheEssentialWritingsofJawaharlalNehru,twovolumes(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2002).

M.S.Golwalkarisbeststudiedthroughhisownwords,especiallyhisBunchofThoughts(Bangalore:VikramaPrakashan,1966).AfineshortstudyofhisideasisJyotirmayaSharma,TerrifyingVision:M.S.Golwalkar,theRSSand

India(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,2007).ForbroaderanalysesofthedevelopmentoftheRashtriyaSwayamsevakSanghanditsassociatedorganizations,seeChristopheJaffrelot,TheHinduNationalistMovementandIndianPolitics:1925tothe1990s(secondedition:NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,1999);B.D.Graham,HinduNationalismandIndianPolitics:TheOriginsandDevelopmentoftheBharatiyaJanaSangh(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990);andWalterK.AndersenandShridharD.Damle,TheBrotherhoodinSaffron:TheRashtriyaSwayamsewakSanghandHinduRevivalism(NewDelhi:VistaarPublications,1987).

ForLohia,seeIndumatiKelkar,Dr.RammanoharLohia:HisLifeandPhilosophy(NewDelhi:AnamikaPublishersandDistributors,2009),areverentialyetinformativework.AlsousefulisChitritaChaudhuri’sRammanoharLohiaandtheIndianSocialistThought(Calcutta:MinervaAssociates,1993).Lohia’swritingshavebeencollectedandpublishedinthematicvolumesbyagroupofhisadmirersbasedinHyderabad(RammanoharLohiaSamataVidyalayaNyas,4–5-46,SultanBazar,Hyderabad500001).Aone-volumeselection,tobepublishedbyamore‘mainstream’press,iscurrentlybeingpreparedbyYogendraYadavandRajaramTolpady.

Lohia’sone-timecomradeJayaprakashNarayanisthesubjectoftwobiographicalstudies:AllanandWendyScarfe,J.P.:HisBiography(NewDelhi:OrientLongman,1975)andAjitBhattacharjea,UnfinishedRevolution:APoliticalBiographyofJayaprakashNarayan(NewDelhi:RupaandCo.,2004).AlsoworthconsultingisMadhuDandavate,JayaprakashNarayan:StrugglewithValues(NewDelhi:AlliedPublishers,2002),anaffectionateappreciationbyalatter-daysocialistpolitician.Narayan’swritingshavebeenbroughtoutinsevenvolumesissuedundertheimprintoftheNehruMemorialMuseumandLibraryandeditedbyBimalPrasad.Ahandyone-volumeselectionisJayaprakashNarayan,NationBuildinginIndia(Varanasi:NavachetnaPrakashan,1975),editedbyJP’slong-timesecretaryBrahmanand.

C.RajagopalachariisthesubjectofathoroughbiographybyRajmohanGandhi,Rajaji:ALife(NewDelhi:PenguinBooksIndia,1997).AninsightfulrecentstudyofhisthoughtisVasantiSrinivasan,Gandhi’sConscience-Keeper:C.RajagopalachariandIndianPolitics(Ranikhet:PermanentBlack,2009).ThecredoandcareerofthepartyhefoundedaretreatedinH.L.Erdman,TheSwatantraPartyandIndianConservatism(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1967).Asforhisownwritings,thosefromthecrucialdecadesofthe1950sand1960sarecontainedinC.Rajagopalachari,SatyamEvaJayate:A

CollectionofArticlesContributedtoSwarajyaandOtherJournalsfrom1956to1961,intwovolumes(Madras:BharathanPublications,1961),andinDearReader:WeeklyColloquyofC.RajagopalachariwiththeReadersofSwarajya,1961–1972(Coimbatore:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan,1993).

VerrierElwinistheauthorofacharmingautobiographycalledTheTribalWorldofVerrierElwin(Bombay:OxfordUniversityPress,1964).Amonghisotherbooks,IwouldrecommendespeciallyTheBaiga(London:JohnMurray,1939)andAPhilosophyforNEFA(secondedition:Shillong:AdvisertotheGovernorofAssam,1959).Elwin’slifeandthoughtarethesubjectofRamachandraGuha,SavagingtheCivilized:VerrierElwin,HisTribals,andIndia(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1999).AselectionofhiswritingsiscontainedinG.N.Devy,editor,TheOxfordIndiaElwin(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2009).

PartVThereligiouspoliticsofthe1950sand1960sistreatedinDonaldE.Smith,

editor,SouthAsianPoliticsandReligion(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1966)andinMushirulHasan,LegacyofaDividedNation:India’sMuslimsSinceIndependence(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1997).HamidDalwai’spoliticalessaysarereproducedinMuslimPoliticsinIndia(Bombay:NachiketaPublications,1968).ThisworkhasbeeneditedandtranslatedbyDilipChitre,ashasDalwai’snovellaaboutsmall-townlifeincoastalMaharashtra,publishedinEnglishunderthetitleFuel(NewDelhi:NationalBookTrust,2002).

Acknowledgements

IfirstbroachedtheideaofthisbooktoRaviSinghofPenguinBooksIndiainaBangalorerestaurantinthesummerof2008.Ravigavetheprojecthisenthusiasticendorsement;asdidSharmilaSenofHarvardUniversityPress,whenIsentheraproposalbyemailafewmonthslater.Betweenthem,thequietandunderstatedRaviandtheeffervescentandbubblySharmilahavesustainedthisbookfromstarttofinish.

Beyondtheseproximatedebtsliesomemoredistantones.MyinterestintheIndianpoliticaltraditionstemsfromtwosources:timespentcommentinginpubliconcurrentaffairs,andtimespentmorereclusivelyinthestacksandmanuscriptcollectionsoftheNehruMemorialMuseumandLibrary(NMML)inNewDelhi.DespiteEstablishmentapathy(andworse),thewonderfullygiftedandcommittedstaffoftheNMMLhavehelpedandencouragedmeforsomethreedecadesnow—astheyhavemanyotherscholarsforlesserorlongerperiodsoftime.MakersofModernIndiaisbasedingoodmeasureonbooksandpamphletsreadorfirstencounteredintheNMML.Iamalsogratefultotwoindividualswhohavesuppliedmeasteadystreamofout-of-printmaterials—VijayKumarJainofPrabhuBooks,Gurgaon,andK.K.S.MurthyoftheSelectBookshop,Bangalore.

Inconstructingthisanthologyanddraftingitsprologueandepilogue,IhavehadthebenefitoftheadviceandsupportofMichaelAdas,RukunAdvani,RukminiBanerji,MillicentBennett,DeepaBhatnagar,DavidGilmour,KeshavaGuha,NirajaGopalJayal,SunilKhilnani,EnugaS.ReddyandNandiniSundar.Thesehavebeenfriendsandcounsellors.Inanothercategory,ofmentors,fallthewisestmaninIndia,AndréBéteille,andtheCatalanpolymath,JoanMartinez-Alier.ProfessorBéteillehasmademelessdeficientinmyunderstandingofIndiansocietyandpolitics;ProfessorMartinez-Aliermadememoreawareofpoliticaldevelopmentsinotherpartsoftheworld.

IamthankfultoprofessorsG.P.DeshpandeandRosalindO’Hanlonforpermittingmetoreproducetranslationssupervisedorconductedbythem(ofJotiraoPhuleandTarabaiShinderespectively);toProfessorA.R.VenkatachalapathyforfreshlytranslatingsomespeechesbyE.V.Ramaswamiforthisvolume;andtoRavelaSomayyaforsendingmesomeveryscarcematerialsonandbyRammanoharLohia.VeenaSoansexpertlyrenderedhundredsofpagesofxeroxedmaterialsintosoftcopyfittoedit(and,intime,toprint).NandiniMehtasensitivelyeditedthefinalmanuscript;Iamgratefultoherforthatandforherfriendshipandencouragementovertheyears.

Myfinaldebtsaretomywifeandchildren,withoutwhoseindulgenceI

wouldnothavebegunthisbook(oranyother);andtomyagent,GillColeridge,whosecounselhas,asalways,beencritical.

CopyrightAcknowledgements

Gratefulacknowledgementismadetothefollowingforpermissiontoreprintmaterialfrompublishedworks:MrsLilaElwinfortheexcerptsfromTheAboriginalsandAPhilosophyforNEFAbyVerrierElwinMrsMeherunnisaDalwaifortheexcerptsfromMuslimPoliticsinIndiabyHamidDalwai

MinistryofInformationandBroadcastingfortheexcerptsfromIndia’sForeignPolicy:SelectedSpeeches,September1946–April1961byJawaharlalNehruJawaharlalNehruMemorialFundfortheexcerptsfromLetterstoChiefMinisters,1947–1964byJawaharlalNehru,editedbyG.ParthasarathiWhileeveryefforthasbeenmadetotracecopyrightholdersandobtainpermission,thishasnotbeenpossibleinallcases;anyomissionsbroughttoourattentionwillberemediedinfutureeditions.

NEWFROMRAMACHANDRAGUHA

PATRIOTSANDPARTISANS‘Iamapersonofmoderateviews,’writesRamachandraGuha,‘these

sometimesexpressedinextremefashion.’Inthiswide-rangingandwonderfullyreadablecollectionofessays,Guhadefendstheliberalcentreagainstthedogmasofleftandright,anddoessowithstyle,depthandpolemicalverve.ThebookbeginswithabrilliantoverviewofthemajorthreatstotheIndianrepublic.OtheressaysturnacriticaleyeonHindutva,theCommunistleftandthedynasty-obsessedCongressparty.GuhathenexploresthecontemporaryrelevanceofGandhi’sreligiouspluralism,andanalysesthefallinJawaharlalNehru’sreputationafterhisdeath.

TheessaysinPartIIofthisbookfocusonwritersandscholars.Guhaexplainswhybilingualintellectuals,oncesodominantinIndia,arenowthinontheground.Hepresentssensitiveportraitsofamagazineeditor,abookshopowner,agreatpublishinghouseandafamoushistoricalarchive.

Whetherwritingaboutpoliticsorculture,whetherprofilingindividualsoranalysingsocialtrends,RamachandraGuhadisplaysamasterlytouch,confirminghisstandingasIndia’smostadmiredhistorianandpublicintellectual.

Non-fictionRs699

FORTHCOMINGINREVISEDEDITIONS

ACORNEROFAFOREIGNFIELDTheIndianHistoryofaBritishSport

WinneroftheUKCricketSocietyJubileeAwardandtheDailyTelegraph/CricketSocietyBookoftheYearPrize

‘Anexcellentandground-breakingbook’—TheFinancialTimesACornerofaForeignFieldseamlesslyinterweavesbiographywithhistory,

thelivesoffamousorforgottencricketerswithwiderprocessesofsocialchange.C.K.NayuduandSachinTendulkarnaturallyfigureinthisbook,butso,too,inunexpectedways,doB.R.Ambedkar,MahatmaGandhiandM.A.Jinnah.TheIndiancareersofthosegreatBritishcricketers,LordHarrisandD.R.Jardine,provideawindowintotheoperationsofEmpire.TheremarkablelifeofIndia’sfirstgreatslowbowler,PalwankarBaloo,providesanarrestingnewperspectiveonthestruggleagainstcastediscrimination.LaterchaptersexplorethecompetitionbetweenHinduandMuslimcricketersincolonialIndiaandthedestructivepassionsnowprovokedwhenIndiaplaysPakistan.

Forthisnewedition,RamachandraGuhahasaddedalongepiloguebringingthestoryup-to-datetocover,amongotherthings,theadventoftheIndianPremierLeagueandtheIndianteam’svictoryintheWorldCupof2011,theselinkedtosocialandeconomictransformationsincontemporaryIndia.

Apioneeringwork,essentialforanyoneinterestedineitherofthosevastthemes,cricketandIndia,ACornerofaForeignFieldisalsoabeautifullywrittenmeditationontheramificationsofsportinsocietyatlarge.

‘[A]fluentandentertainingsocialhistoryofIndiancricket’—TheEconomist‘[A]wonderfulbook...anoriginal,scholarlyandhighlyentertaining

work’—TheSpectatorNon-fiction

SAVAGINGTHECIVILIZEDVerrierElwin,HisTribals,andIndia

‘[A]vastlyenjoyablebook...anexcellentbiography,thebestexampleofthegenrebyanIndianformanyyears’—TheTimesLiterarySupplement

Thisevocativeandbeautifullywrittenbookbringstolifeoneofthemostremarkablefiguresoftwentieth-centuryIndia.VerrierElwin(1902–64)wasananthropologist,poet,Gandhian,hedonist,Englishman,andIndian.

SavagingtheCivilizedrevealsamany-sidedman,afriendoftheelitewhowasathomewiththeimpoverishedandthedestitute;acharismaticcharmerofwomenwhowascomfortablewithintellectualssuchasArthurKoestlerandJawaharlalNehru;ananthropologistwholivedandlovedwiththetribesyetwhowroteliteraryessaysandmonographsforthelearned.

SavagingtheCivilizedisbothbiographyandhistory,anexplorationthroughElwin’slifeofsomeofthegreatdebatesofourtimes,suchastheimpactofeconomicdevelopment,andculturalpluralismversusculturalhomogeneity.Forthisnewedition,RamachandraGuhahasaddedalongnewintroduction,stressingtherelevanceofElwin’sworktocurrentdebatesonadivasis,NaxalitesandIndiandemocracy.

‘Awrenchingandgrandbiographyintheclassicalmould...Inthelargenessofthetheme,inthewriter’stirelesseffortstogetintothemindandsoulofhis

subject...inthefinesseoflanguageandexecution,thisbookisbeyondallotherIndianattemptsatlife-sketching’—Outlook

‘Abrilliantachievement...neitherhistory,norsociologynorpsychology,butallintherightmeasure...mustbemadecompulsoryreadingforeveryeducated

Indian’—SeminarNon-fiction

ENVIRONMENTALISMAGlobalHistory,c.1800–2000

‘Thisisthefirsttrulyglobalhistoryofenvironmentalthoughtandactivism.Superblycrafted,itdeservestobereadbyallconcernedwiththewell-beingof

theenvironment’—TheHinduAnacclaimedhistorianoftheenvironment,inthisbookRamachandraGuha

drawsonmanyyearsofresearchinthreecontinents.Hedetailsthemajortrends,ideas,campaignsandthinkerswithintheenvironmentalmovementworldwide.AmongthethinkersheprofilesareJohnMuir,MahatmaGandhi,RachelCarson,andOctaviaHill;amongthemovements,theChipkoAndolanandtheGermanGreens.

Environmentalism:AGlobalHistorydocumentstheflowofideasacrosscultures,thewaysinwhichtheenvironmentalmovementinonecountryhasbeeninvigoratedortransformedbyinfusionsfromoutside.Itinterpretsthedifferentdirectionstakenbydifferentnationaltraditions,andalsoexplainswhyincertaincontexts(suchastheformerSocialistBloc)thegreenmovementismarkedonlybyitsabsence.

Massiveinscopebutpointedinanalysis,writtenwithpassionandverve,thisbookpresentsacomprehensiveaccountofasignificantsocialmovementofourtimes,andwillbeofwideinterestbothwithinandoutsidetheacademy.Forthisnewedition,theauthorhasaddedafreshprologuelinkingthebook’sthemestoongoingdebatesonclimatechangeandtheenvironmentalimpactsofglobaleconomicdevelopment.

‘Guhahaswrittenacompellingandhighlyreadablehistoryoftheenvironment’—ContributionstoIndianSociology

Non-fiction

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PenguinBooksIndiaPvt.Ltd,11CommunityCentre,PanchsheelPark,NewDelhi110017,IndiaPenguinGroup(USA)Inc.,375HudsonStreet,NewYork,NewYork10014,USAPenguinGroup(Canada),90EglintonAvenueEast,Suite700,Toronto,Ontario,M4P2Y3,Canada(adivisionofPearsonPenguinCanadaInc.)PenguinBooksLtd,80Strand,LondonWC2R0RL,EnglandPenguinIreland,25StStephen'sGreen,Dublin2,Ireland(adivisionofPenguinBooksLtd)PenguinGroup(Australia),707CollinsStreet,Melbourne,Victoria3008,Australia(adivisionofPearsonAustraliaGroupPtyLtd)PenguinGroup(NZ),67ApolloDrive,Rosedale,Auckland0632,NewZealand(adivisionofPearsonNewZealandLtd)PenguinGroup(SouthAfrica)(Pty)Ltd,BlockD,RosebankOfficePark,181JanSmutsAvenue,ParktownNorth,Johannesburg2193,SouthAfrica

PenguinBooksLtd,RegisteredOffices:80Strand,LondonWC2R0RL,EnglandFirstpublishedinVikingbyPenguinBooksIndia2010

PublishedinPenguinBooks2012www.penguin.co.inCopyright©RamachandraGuha2010,2012CoverphotographbyPrashantPanjiar/OutlookCopyrightAcknowledgementsisanextensionofthecopyrightpage

AllrightsreservedTheviewsandopinionsexpressedinthise-bookaretheauthor’sownandthefactsareasreportedby

himwhichhavebeenverifiedtotheextentpossible,andthepublishersarenotinanywayliableforthesame.

ISBN:978-0-143-41924-2Thisdigitaleditionpublishedin2013.

e-ISBN:978-8-184-75289-2ForsaleintheIndianSubcontinentonlyThise-bookissoldsubjecttotheconditionthatitshallnot,bywayoftradeorotherwise,belent,

resold,hiredout,orotherwisecirculatedwithoutthepublisher’spriorwrittenconsentinanyformofbindingorcoverotherthanthatinwhichitispublishedandwithoutasimilarconditionincludingthisconditionbeingimposedonthesubsequentpurchaserandwithoutlimitingtherightsundercopyrightreservedabove,nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinorintroducedintoaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans(electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise),withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofboththecopyrightownerandtheabove-mentionedpublisherofthise-book.