ED 338 012 EC 300 754 TITLF Trainer's Resource Guide ...DOCUMENT RESUME ED 338 012 EC 300 754 TITLF Trainer's Resource Guide: Program Planning Ideas and Trainer's Resource GUide: Training

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 338 012 EC 300 754

TITLF Trainer's Resource Guide: Program Planning Ideasand Trainer's Resource GUide: Training Materials

Design Guidelines.INSTITUTION Council for Exceptional Children, Reston, VA. Center

for Special Education Technology.SPONS AGENCY Special Education Programs (EVOSERS), Washington,

DC.PUB DATE Sep 91CONTRACT 300-87-0115NOTE 109p.PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Agency Cooperation; College School Cooperation;

Competency Based Teacher Education; *Disabilities;*Educational Media; Elementary Secondary Education;Higher Education; Inservice Teacher Education;*Instructional Design; *Material Development;Preservice Teacher Education; Program Development;*Special Education I:4chers

ABSTRACT

The first of the two guides presented in thisdocum ent is intended for preservice and inservice teacher trainerswho want to include technology as an integral part of specialeducation training. The guide is divided into five sections. Thefirst summarizes planning issues for university-based programs. Thesecond kxplores the planning of inservice training programs. Thethird section describes collaborative efforts among educationagencies and institutions of higher education. The fourth sectionincludes planning ideas tor individual training events, whetherworkshops, classes, or seminars. The final section discussesoutcomes, including the competencies of training. Inserts throughoutthe guide provide the thoughts and ideas of experienced trainers.Appendixes include listings of technology competencies for specialeducation teachers used by the University of Kentucky, State ofMichigan, and Trenton State College (New Jersey) and forms allowingteachers to evaluate their own technology competence. The secondguide offers guidelines for designing any of five types of trainingmaterials: authoring courses; desktop publishing; hypermedia; video;computer instruction; and interactive videodisc materials. Referencesaccompany each chapter. Also included are lists of trainerrecommended software products and training resources in the areas ofword processing, desktop publishing, authoring, presentationsoftware, graphics, -iodicals, and professional associations.(DB)

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Trainer's Resource GuideProgram Planning Ideas

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOther, ot Educational Research and improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERICI

Xis document has been reproduceu isreceived from the person Or organizationoriginating it

1' Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction Quality

Points Ol vie* or opinions Slated in this clock,merit 00 net necessarily represent ottiCill

CISZ

Rl position or policy

Ca;

Center forSpecial Education

lbchnology

MIIFA Project ofThe Council for Exceptional Children

Ftinded byOffice of Special Education ProgramsU. S. Department of Education

Technology Training:A Thematic Focus of the Center

2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

September 1991

Center for Special Education TechnologyThe Council for Exceptional Children

1920 Association DriveReston, VA 22091

Center forSpecial Education.-.`1.3.-'-'4-- Itachnology

The information in this document is in the public domain. Readers are encouraged to copyand share it, but please credit the Center for Special Education Technolog.

This material was developed by i.he Center for Special Education Technolog under Con-tract No. 300-87-0115 with the Office of Special Education Programs. U.S. Department ofEducation. The content, however, does not reflect the position or policy of OSEP/ED, andno official endorsement of the materials should be inferred.

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Contents

Preface v

Introduction 1

infusion into University-Based Training 3

A Starting PointTrenton State College 4

Faculty Productivity: A Solid, No Frills ApproachWestern Michigan University 6

A Blueprint for PlanningUniversity of Kentucky 7

ExtensionsPeabody College, Van 4erbilt University 8

State Perspectives on Inservice Training 11

A Statewide NetworkFlorida 12

A Centralized SystemMissouri 13

A State PlanMichigan 16

Strengthening Training Efforts: Empowerment of Teachers Oregon . 17

Strengthening Training Efforts: incentivesMassachusetts 19

Collaboration by Consortium 21Pennsylvania Consortium 21

Michigan Consortium 21

Planning Individual Training Events 23Audience 23

Topics, Goals, Competencies, and Objectives 25

Prerequisite Skills 26

Length of Training 26

Key Points and Activities 27

Materials and Resources 28

Adult Learner Characteristics 28

Size of Training Groups 29

Trainer Qualifications 29

Outcomes and Competencies 31

Development of Competencies 31

Uses of Competencies 32

Appendix 35

PREFACE

Technology training is a theme forseveral information activities of CEC'sCenter for Special Education Technology,a federally funded information center.This document, Trainer's ResourceGuide: Program Planning Ideas and itscompanion document, Trainer's ResourceGuide: Training Materials DesignGuidelines, are part of a series ofproducts developed by the Center forSpecial Education Technology under itstechnology training theme.

This guide was developed for trainers atboth preservice and inservice levels. It in-chides program planning ideas for use atcolleges and universities, as well as stateeducation departments, regional servicecenters, and local school districts. Theguide describes how to include technologyboth as an integral part of special educa-tion training and as a tool in the trainingprocess. However, the real value of thisdocument lies in the advice from experi-enced trainers. They share their thoughts,ideas, and successes or what we refer to

as "pearls of wisdom" in the many boxesscattered throughout this guide.

We thank our technology training ex-perts who contributed their ideas to thisguide. We thank the following people: A.Edward Blackhurst, University of Ken-tucky; Gayl Bowser, Oregon TechnologyAccess Project; Amy Dell, Trenton StateCollege; Dave Edyburn, Peabody College,Vanderbilt University; Betsy Knafo, BankStreet College of Education; ColleenHaney, Pennsylvania Assistive Device Cen-ter; Alonzo Hannaford, Western MichiganUniversity; Janice Light, PennsylvaniaState University; Valita Marshall, Univer-sity of Missouri-Kansas City; LucianParshall, Michigan State Education De-partrnent; Eileen Pracek, FDLRS/TECH;Penny Reed, Oregon Department of Educa-tion; Herb Reith, Peabody College,Vanderbilt University; Jennifer Taylor,Delaware Learning Resource System; andJoan Thormann, Lesley College.

The Center would also like to thank thereview panel members, who providedvaluable suggestions throughout the devel-opment of both guides: Joan Basile,Georgia Learning Resource Systems; Mi-chael I3ehrmann, George MasonUniversity; Janis Bing, Texas EducationService Center, Region 6; Kathy Hurley,IBM; Jeffrey Messerer, NortheasternIllinois University; Lewis Polsgrove, Indi-ana University; Barbara Reeves, OhioUniversity: and Pamela Ross, INNOTEK.

INTRODUCTION

We live in the Information Ageand theinformation is constantly changing.Technology has brought an array ofnewinformation to the school door. Aseducators, we must be technologicallyliterate. As self-motivattd learners, wemust assume the respomibility to seeknew information and learn how to apply itto education. Trainers have an evengreater responsibility. Both preserviceand inservice trainers must ensure thatnot only are they niformed themselves,but also that they inform others. Trainersmust move educators at all levels from abasic awareness of technology to higherlevels of knowledge, including ways tosuccesrfully integrate and applytechnology in the classroom. Trainingmust be ongoing, with plenty of follow-upsupport. With well over 300,000 specialeducators currently teaching or about toenter the teaching force, it's a formidabletask.

The principles for training in the area oftechnology are similar to those for anytraining event. However, technology isnew to many teachers, and this unfamiliar-ity often causes apprehension. Forexample, teachers report that it takes Ihreor six years to feel comfortable and be-come knowledgeable about usingcomputers for teaching (Sheingold & Had-ley, 1990). Even when teachers aretrained and feel comfortable with the tech-nology, the information changes and newlearning is required. In addition, technol-ogy training requires more time to

implement, more sophisticated equip-ment, and more resources than otherinnovations in education.

The expectations of administrators arehigh for technology. Administratois wantnew teachersfrom kindergarten throughgrade 12to be trained to operate micro-computers (Peyton, 1989). AlthoughPeyton's study found that K-12 teacher re-cruitment did not depend on teach irs'possessing microcomputer skills, it is ourbelief that when all other factors remainthe same, administrators hiring new spe-cial education staff will select teacherswho are competent in technology use.

The guide was developed to assist train-ers in their planning efforts. It providesprogram planning ideas and concrt.te ex-amples of how to incorporate technologyin the training of special educators. Theguide is divided into five sections. Thefirst summarizes planning issues for tut-versity-based programs. The secondexplores the planning of inservice trainingprograms. The third section describes col-laborative efforts among educationagencies and institutions of higher educa-tion. The fourth section includes planningideas for individual training events,whether workshops, classes, or seminars.The final section discu&ses outcomes, in-cluding the competencies of training.

Experienced trainers share theirthoughts, ideas, and successes in themany boxes scattered throughout thisguide. The ideas incorporated into thisguide are by no means exhaustive. Thepurpose of this guide is to stimulatethought and discussion among trainersboth at the preservice and inservice level.We hope that by sharing the lessonslearned from other experts. that the taskof training will be made easier. Most im-portantly, we hope to encourage trainersto infuse technology into their trainingprograms.

INTRODUCTION

6

References

Peyton, M. (1989). An identification ofthe microcomputer skills and under-standings needed by preserviceteachers. Dissertation Abstracts.

Sbeingold, K., & Hadley, M. (1990). Ac-complished teachers: Integratingcomputers into classroom practice.New York, NY: Bank Street College e fEducation.

2 INTRODUCTION

INFUSION INTOUNIVERSITY-BASEDTRAINING

Many institutions of higher educationrecognize the need to address technologyin their special education programs.Including technology in the curriculum,however, is not always easy for severalreasons. First, state mandates often placepressure on special educationdepartments to develop curricula thatmeet the demands for initial certfication.Colleges and universities must determinehow to address technolov: should it be aseparate course, a sequence of courses,or integrated into existing core courses?Many special education programs arecrowded with required courses and

content that leave little room for additionsof any sort. Second, some institutionshave a very stable (and sometimen older)faculty that may be resistant to change. Insome cases, faculty also require training.Most colleges and universities face thequestion of how to motivate faculty toincorporate technology into their courses.("Motivating the Faculty" and "ChangingFaculty Activities" below, provide severalinsightful answers.) Finally, almost allinstitutions face budget constraints.Funds are not always available fortraining, equipment, and resources.

Planning a program that includes tech-nology can be divided into five stages.Fi) st is an analysis of the current pro-gram with an identification of itsstrengths and weaknesses. Second, plan-ners set goals and structure the overalldesign for technology inclusion. The devel-opment of the program can then proceed.Implementation of the plan is next, fol-lowed by ongoing evaluations andrevisions of the program.

This section presents sevei al models of'technology training at the preservice level.Featured are innovative programs fromTrenton State College, Western MichiganUniversity, the Ure.versity of Kentucky.

Motivating the Faculty

How do we get faculty members to incorporate technology into theircourses? How do we overcome their fears, their ignorance, and insome casestheir hostility? I must admit that I continually deal withthose questions. I've found that you need to develop faculty consensuson the integration of technology. 'You won't be successful until you getfaculty members saying. "Yes, we want to do it." To obtain consensus,you need to develop techniques and procedures that will make it easy.For example. I ask students in my specialist training program enrolledin curriculum methods courses to focus their projects on technologyapplications for that course. Students are encouraged to design andpresent the Information in a modular format that is ezsy to use. So thenext time the course is offered, even if a technology major is not avail-able, the faculty member can implement the module with little effort.

Mike BehrrnannGeorge Mason University

.11111.

INFUSION INTO UNIVERSITY-BASED TRAINING 3

Changing Faculty Attitudes About Technology

Changing the outlook of our colleagues isessential to the integration process. For themost part, we have not shown teachers andteacher educators the payoff, For many peo-ple, getting access to a computer, learninghow to use it, and finding the right softwareare tasks that require significant amountsof time with very little personal benefit. Weneed to find ways of streamlining the pro-cess of integration so busy faculty memberscan spend less time with technology issuesand more time on instructional concerns.We need to be aware of how technology ap-plications will fit in with what ourcolleagues are already doingand will helpthem do their jobs better. We need to be onthe lookout for interesting and new technol-ogy applications and say "Hey, does thatfit?" and "If so, where?"For example, if a colleague is teaching com-munication strategies, augmentativecommunication is a natural extension. Weneed to be on the look-out for those coursetopics in our curriculum that have a logicaltechnology connection. Then the inclusionof technology becomes easya natural ex-tension of the course content.

Dave EdyburnPeabody College, Vanderbilt University

What we really need to do is make it easierfor our colleagues. We are the ones whohave caught the "bug' and sit and play withall these "toys." When we come across

things that would be really goodnotmaybe, not marginally, but idealfor acourse that's being taught, we need to passthem on to our colleagues.For example, some of the videotapes avail-able from the Pennsylvania Assistive DeviceCenter are outstanding, and they are basi-cally free. So, if one of those tapes isespecially relevant to a course that some-body else teaches, lend your colleague thattape, or maybe even give it away. Ask gradu-ate assistants, student assistants, or otherknowledgeable personnel to do a computerdemonstration. Then the faculty membercan present information while the assistanttakes care of booting up the software, bring-ing up menus, and demonstratingprograms. In this way, you've made it easierfor a resistant colleague to get involved.

Amr DellTrenton State College

Learning a computer application that ispersonally useful serves the dual purposeof reducing computer phobia and examin-ing one's own learning style. When teachersare asked to analyze their own learning pro-cesses as they learn to use a wordprocessor or database, the focus is re-moved from the technology and plazed onthe learning experience. Making such c:r.nections for themselves is necessar.teachers are to use technology tc,the learning process for their studecl,

and Peabody College at Vanderbilt Univer-sity. These institutions have developedmany creative solutions to the problem ofincluding technology in an alreadycrowded curriculum; for brevity's sake,however, we have touched on only a few.

A Starting PointTrenton State College

How do you begin a technology trainingprogram at a small, publicly supportedcollege with limited resources and a strictstate mandate on the maximum number

of credits (35) for the special educationprogram? In 1988, this college had a spe-cial education undergraduate enrollmentof 100 and a graduate enrollment of 200in special education. Unable to add a sepa-rate course, Trenton State applied for andreceived a grant from the U. S. Depart-ment of Education, Office of SpecialEducation and Rehabilitation Services, todevelop a systematic plan to infuse tech-nology into existing undergraduatecourses.

4 INFUSION INTO FINIVERSITY-BASED TRAINING

Trenton State Plan for Technology Infusion(as of June 1990)

Course

Freshman YearSED 101Survey

Sophomore YearICD 240 Computer LiteracySED 205 Professional ExperienceSED 207 Growth & Development

Junior YearSED 309 Language Arts

SED 305 Curriculum

SED 312 ReadingSED 320 Mental RetardationSED 324 Learning DisabilitiesSED 322 Multiple Disabilities

Senior YearSED 415 Practicum

SED 321 Education

SED 435 Behavior ManagementSED 498 Advanced Writing

SED 402 Assessment

SED 490 Student Teaching

Topic of Module

Technology for PeopleWho Are Blind or Deaf

Word Processing for ProductivityPrompted Writing ProgramsNone

*Introduction to Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)Reading and Language Arts*CAI: Subject SoftwareCreating Teaching MaterialsIntegrating CAI: Remedial ReadingMinlauthoring programsComputers as Tool for Writing*Adaptive Switcues*Access to Computers

*Augmentative Communication

Competencies**

1.2, 6.2

7.13.2

2.1, 2.2.1.2.1, 2.2, 6.1.27.32.42.33.1, 3.25.01.1-1.4,6.2.14.0, 6.2.2

Determining Students' TechnologyNeeds 1.5, 2.4.2Software for Work & Play 3.4(Spreadsheets, Database, Music)Data Collection 7.6Using Telecommunications &CD-ROM for Research

Assessing Students'Computer SkillsPlan for Classroom Use

Note: SED = Special Education; ICD = Instructional Computing DevelopmentThese modules are developed and field tested.

* See Appendix A for list of Trenton State College competencies

6.1.1, 6.2.47.2

2.4.26.0

INFUSION INTO UNIVERSITY-BASED TRAINING1 0

5

An analysis of Trenton State s specialeducation program indicated that technol-ogy-related topics were randomlyintroduced, with no sequential building ofskills. To systematize the department'splan, the faculty decided to identify tech-nology-related skills crucial for theirundergraduates and then infuse theseskills into existing courses.

They modified and validated a list ofcompetencies from the University of Ken-tucky (Blackhurst, 1990) to meet theparticular New Jersey state requirementsand needs of their students. Next, the fac-ulty matched competencies with con.courses. They then assigned technologytopics and competencies to 15 of the 16special education core courses. (See"Trenton State Plan for Technology Infu-sion" below, for the distribution oftechnology modules among variouscourses.) Each year the infusion plan isreviewed and revised as needed.

A series of training modules addressingtechnology topics and skills is plannedfor each course. By June 1990, 6 of the;18 modules were developed and fieldtested. Modules are designed with hands-on experiences. Portions of the contentfor modules were adapted from other suc-ces..,ful training programs. Each moduleincludes competencies, rationale, prereq-uisites, evaluation, class activities,suggestions for instructor preparation,readings, and student assignments. Mod-ule activities vary in length from 30 to 75minutes and take place over three to fourclass sessions.

Faculty Productivity: A Solid, No-FrillsApproachWestern Michigan University

When change is introduced slowly,there is often a high success rate. Hanna-ford (1990) describes this as the "snailmodel," a slow but sure way to bringabout change. That premise guided the de-velopment of a plan to infuse technologyuse in special education at Western Michi-gan University.

Conditions for SuccessfulInfusion

* Available equipment. Do whatyou can with what you have.

Trained personnel. Train themwithout a great deal of addedburden; it's a sell job that takesmore than overnight.Time for development. Unlesstechnology is integrated into whatpeople believe, they won't use it.

* Accessibility. Technology must beavailable when staff and studentsneed to use it.

Efficiency. Technology shouldincrease the efficiency of what youare currently doing; if not, it won'tbe used.

Effectiveness. Incorporatingtechnology into education shouldmake teachers and students moreeffective.

Utility. Technology must be usedfor a purpose.

Alonzo HannafordWestern Michigan University

Faced with a stable and older faculty,somewhat resistant to change, WesternMichigan University focused efforts firston awareness of technology as a tool to in-crease the personal productivity of thefaculty. Relying solely on internal funding,the university developed a practical planto do "what they could with what theyhad." Faculty members were encouragedto take computers home over weekendsto become familiar with the equipment..The university found inexpensive ways torelease the faculty for training, such ashaving other staff members cover theirclasses. Graduate students and part-timeaids were available to assist the faculty,

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6 INFUSION INTO UNIVERSITY-BASED TRAINING

Critical Look at How to Incorporate Technology Into the Curriculum

Six Premises for Technology Infusion

Bend the technoloV to fit the objective(s), not the objective(s) to fit the technology.Reasons for using the technology must outweigh the reasons for not using thetechnologybe a critical consumer.If you have to "strain" to use the technology to attain a particular objective don't useitit's probably not appropriate.Focus the use of technologyuse it for a specific purpose.Scratch the learner's itch, not your ownuse should be matched to learner's needs.Don't duplicate, don't make extra work. If what you are doing works, dun'tsubstitute technologyit's nice, but not necessary.

Alonzo HannafordWestern Michigan University

troubleshoot, and offer assistance in mate-rials production. Several factors thatfacilitate the infusion of technology wereidentified. (See "Conditions for SuccessfulInfusion" above.)

Because of these efforts, faculty produc-tivity has increased: staff members usetechnology in telecommunications, CALspreadsheets, word processing, grading,student records, and databases. Both stu-dents and faculty now routinely usetechnology to assist in the preparation ofmaterials for classroom use. The univer-sity also took a hard-nosed approach todetermine what role technology play inthe curriculum without forcing technol-ogy use (see "Six Premises for TechnologyInfusion" above). One course in technol-ogy is currently offered, with technology-related information infused into other se-lected courses. More technology contentmay be added to other courses, but onlyin a slow, measured way.

A Blueprint for PlanningUniversity ofKentucky

The faculty the Department of Spe-cial Education at the University ofKentucky fully embrace technology. They

have systematically infused technologyinto many aspects of the special educa-tion program. Nine core courses, pluspracticu:n txperlence, address the appli-cations :'.f technology in special education.The university offers three graduate pro-grams (M.S., Ed.S., and Ed.D.) as well asa postdoctoral program for leadership per-sonnel who are interested in developingor improving their technology skills.

The comprehen..iive model for plannaigthat has been successfully used by theUniversity of Kentucky for more than noyears to guide special education deve:op-ment was used to design the infusion oftechnology into the special education pro-grams. This master plan has nine steps(see also "Importance of a PhilosophyStatement," below):1. Develop a mission and philosophy

statement.2. Define the roles and function of future

program graduates.3. Identify competencies associated with

each role.4. Develop objectives and criteria for

each competency.5. Identify, select, or develop content.

INFUSION INTO UNIVERSITY-BASED TRAINING 7

Importance of a Philosophy Statement

The first step, developing a statement of philosophy, is important.You need to begin with a well-articulated mission; it provides a oon-ceptual underpinning, if you will, for everything that follows. It shouldinclude values and beliefs of the faculty or trainers involved in the de-sign of the inservice program or courses. A mission statement defineswhat we do, why we do it, and how we do it. In my experience, mostcurriculum development efforts do not pay enough attention to devel-oping a mission statement. If you don't do this earlyparticularlywith a big curriculum development effortpeople working in teamsbegin to have disagreements and even reach stalematesand all be-cause not enough attention was paid up front to the philosophicalaspects of the design.

Many curriculum development efforts often begin in the middle, bydesigning the structure of the program (step 6 of the University of Ken-tucky model). Staff often say, "Well, we need a course in this area" or"We need to redesign this course." But that is an inappropriate placeto start. Rather, the information gleaned from the first five stepsshould precede discussions about what kinds of courses or inservicetraining you need. Invariably, if you start at Step 6. two years lateryou're going to say, "Wow, we left a lot of stuff out" or "We've pack-aged it inappropriately."

A. E. BlackhurstUniversity of Kentucky

6. Design structure of program andinstructional alternatives.

7. Implement training program.8. Evaluate training program.9. Refine and revise program.10. Maintain management system and

conduct formative evaluationg

This model demonstrates how system-atic planning can yield a responsive,dynamic. and fully integrated program. Ex-tensive effort went into the developmentand validation of specific competenciesfor each program. The faculty developedcompetencies to meet student needs andto respond to a state mandate for technol-ogy competence. Student skills relating tothese competencies are assessed with per-formance-based assessment instruments.These competencies are discussed laterin this guide.

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ExtensionsPeabody College, VanderbiltUniversity

When technology can enhance effectiveand appropriate instruction, It is infusedinto both undergraduate and graduate spe-cial education courses at Peabody College.The faculty, the dean, the provost, andthe chancellor all strongly support infu-sion. At the undergraduate level,instruction on principles of effective in-struction includes the appropriate use oftechnology. Graduate-level training em-phasizes research on the use oftechnology as well as using technolo& toconduct research. Administrators providesupport to the faculty by providing re-sources and by modeling technolo& use(see "Change as a Process," below).

At Peabody, a contextual framework in-corporates the philosophy of all facultymembers. Resources funded partlythrough grant programs provide assis-tance to instructors who use technology

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Change as a ProcessChange must occur as part of a process; technology must serve as a tool to helpstair and faculty.

Personal involvement If the change agent is helpful. As chair, I work with Lcultyto individually examine coumes that can be infused with technology.Change must be presented in such a way that faculty have the opportunity tochange the model if they choose.

Change is a continuous process of participation and evaluation. Collect data tosee how the program is working and share information whenever possible.Strong administrative support is necessary Provide a supportive environment.Resources supporting change are needed. Provide systematic instruction to staffand provide equipment resources.

Herb RiethPeabody College, Vanderbilt University

as a part of their instructional approach.Other staff, consultants, and graduate stu-dents assist the faculty in the infusion oftechnology into course content. Other re-sources allow faculty members to modelthe use of technology through instruc-tional applications (see "An Example ofSupport Materials," below).

An Example of SupportMaterials

Peabody College has found sev-eral creative ways for facultymembers to model technology useand deliver content at the sametime. For example, many facultymembers indicated that students atall levels need instruction and prac-tice in writing behavioral objectives.A self-contained unit on this topic isavailable as an interactive computer-based instructional program. Whenstudents need to brush up on writ-ing behavioral objectives, they canwork with this program until theyreach proficiency.

Herb RiethPeabody College, Vanderbilt

Peabody takes a proactive stance whenit comes to technology infusion. Facultymembers constantly look for ways tech-nology can serve as a tool to upgrade andupdate their program. The search is ongo-ing at faculty meetings, presentations, andworkshops. Every semester, a fewcourses are targeted for infusion. Facultymembers are offered a menu of options,which allows them to tailor courses tomeet specific individual needs. Optionsrange from low technology support, suchas transparency development, to high sup-port, such as videodisc production. Noone set of guideiines is presented to thefaculty. This approach allows instructorsto merge technology use into theircourses without the pressure of man-dates. When appropriate, they sharesuccessful approaches with other faculty.

References

Blackhurst, A. E. (1990). Planning spe-cial education technology pre-serviceand in-service training (A presentationhandout). Lvangton, KY: University ofKentucky, Department of Special Edu-cation.

1 4INFUSION INTO UNIVERSITY-BASED TRAIN 'NG 9

Hannaford, A. (1990). Infusing technol-ogy into special education.Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan Uni-versity, Department of SpecialEducation, INSTEP? Center.

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STATE PERSPECTIVESO ON INSERVICE

TRAINING

gik

Many people believe that a good trainingdesign will accommodate both preserviceand inservice audiences. Although this

may be true, experienced trainers suggestdesigning training at the inservice leveldifferently because the 'reeds of thisaudience are distinct. Teachers at theinservice level have good teaching skills,good grounding in education, andmotivation to improve their skills.Teachers who are either not usingtechnology or using it inappropriatelyusually lack skills and knowledge. Onceproperly trained and equipped with thenecessary resources, most teachers willdo their best. However, there wil! alwaysbe a few teachers who are reluctant to usetechnology. (See "Enticing the ReluctantLearner below).

When planning an inservice program, atrainer should conduct a needs analysis

Enticing the Reluctant Learner

There are always a few reluctant learners who are not quite ready for technol-ogy. We have found several ways to "hook" these teachers. First, we attendeducational conferences that typically do not offer sessions on technology. In-stead of making formal presentation we set up a table in the hall. The tablesare equipped with computers and printers with colored ribbons. We usesome type print program such as Print Shop. Garfield. or CertificateMaker. Our b.aff wear blinking buttons to attract teachers. As teachers movefrom session to session we encourage them to stop and make a card, certifi-cate, banner, or whatever they want. In ju short amount of time they havea finished product to take home, and they ia.ive found that technology is notthat difficult to use. We give each teacher a bright fluorescent sticker thatsays, "I did it at the Make-n-Take." We have "hooked" more teachers on tech-nology by this approach than any other single activity. We call this the"Electronic Make-and-Take Strategy."

Because it is impossible to reach everyone at these conferences, we use a sim-ilar strategy at the local level. FDLRS Centers may set up a table for a day ina media center or teacher's lounge located within a school. This gives teach-ers an opportunity to stop by during a break or after school. We try to showteachers how technology can assist them as a teaching tool or how it can beincorporated into content areas and give them an opportunity to copy publicdomain software. For example, with the recent move toward whole languagewe have teachers making their own big books.

Some FDLRS Centers also work with schools to provide a substitute teacheron the day they visit their media center. This provides release time for teach-ers so they can spend more time with the technology opportunities offered inthe media center.

Pracek. FDLRSITECH

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STATE PERSPECTIVES ON INSERVICE TRAINING 11

il

Training the Trainers

Network training should model best practices.Training and resources for training should concentrate on technologytopics that are critical to exceptional education.When building skills, training should always be hands- on.Specific resources needed for duplicating training should be provided toFDLRS centers.When resources are provided, FDLRS centers should make a commitmentto use them by implementing training, establishing demonstrationclassrooms, alid/or by developing products to be used by all centers.

Whenever possible, network training sessions should coincide with otheractivities to make maximum t. se of resources.Target groups for network trfuning should include core trainers and,depending on the topic, other related personnel.Successful practices from district training sessions should be identifiedacid shared.Successful practices from other state and national projects should beidentified and shared.Summer institutes should be held each year to deliver intense training inidentified areas of special need.

Eileen Pracek, FDLRSffECH

of the audience. Training programsshould address the various levels of tech-nologv skills and knowledge ofparticipants. Frequently, inservice is aone-shot deal. However, if long-term gainsare to be made, teachers must be offeredongoing training, with ample hands-on cx-pe and follow-up support.

Inservice training usually takes placewithin the context of an education agencyat the state, regional, or local level. Thevariables for each setting are different andaffect the final desigi for training: thenumber of requests for training, stafmembers available to provide training,the time to present and learn new technol-ogy, money to purchase resources, andthe waingness of staff to learn new prac-tices. Moreover, some training programsshoyld be individualized to provide directtrailltng in certain adaptive devices thatbecome available to a school or an individ-ual m.udent. For more discussion on this

topic, see the section, "Planning for Indi-vidual Training Events" on page 23.

This section presents five inservicemodels from Florida, Missouri, Michigan,Oregon, and Massachusetts. Like pre-service efforts, these models vary in theirdesign. Although this section focuses onstate-level inservice models, parts of themodels are appropriate for local efforts.

A Statewide NetworkFlorida

In Florida, training personnel who workwith exceptional students is one of thefunctions of the Florida Diagnostic andLearning Resource System (FDLRS), astatewide network of 18 associate and 10specialized centers. Since 1974, FDLRShas served as a support service to excep-tional student education; it has receivedfederal and state funding to provide train-ing and other resources since 1983.

7

12 STATE PERSPECTIVES ON INSERVICE TRAINING

Operating out of the Brevard CountySchool District, FDLRS/TECH is desig-nated as an Instructional TechnologyTraining Resource Center to assist theFDLRS centers in delivering technologyservices to all school districts in the state.Specifically, the Tech Center assists per-sonnel in acquiring and maintainingrequired skills and provides resources fcrtraining. The Center designs training pro-grams for teachers, administrators,parents, and other related personnel.

Since statewide training opportunitiesare limited, it is critical that training be ef-fective and delivered in a manner thatoptimizes available resources. The "train-ing the trainers" model best meets theneed for a statewide delivery system inFlorida. Instructional technology contactsin each of the FDLRS centers serve as theinitial core of trainers.

Elective use of technology in the curric-ulum requires the expertise of contentpersonnel as well as experience in usingthe technology. Engaging experiencedteachers as trainers of other teachers ex-pands both the resource and theknowledge base. In order to assist train-ers in delivering quality training todistricts, those providing "training for thetrainers" established criteria for statewidetraining. (See "TrainilAg Trainers" above.)

Training content and skills for teachersand other personnel at the district levelare grouped into eight broad categories:* Computer literacy for the special

education teacher.* Selecting software for the special

education student.* Integrating software into the special

education curriculum.* Computer awareness for the special

education parent.

Adaptive/assistive devices.Tools for the special educationteacher.

* Tools for the special educationstudent.

* Policies, issues, and trends.

In a concentrated FDRS network ef-fort, replicable workshops weredeveloped in each of these categories bytrainers who are experienced in meetingthe needs of exceptional students andwho know the technology. Workshops aredocumented in an easy-to-duplicate for-mat. All the required information isavailable or easily accessible. These mate-rials offer a viable alternative fordelivering effective training to individualschool districts.

The FDLRS system also developed amodule that introduces parents to the po-tential of technology in aiding theirchildren. Parent training is offeredthrough FDLRS associate centers and asan option at meetings and conferencesthat parents attend. Parents preview soft-ware at each FDLRS center and may copypublic domain software for use at home.

A Centralized SystemMissouri

With a large rural population, Missouriestablished a centralized, collaborativenetwork to provide technology training.The Missouri Technology Center for Spe-cial Education is funded through theDepartment of Elementary and SecondaryEducation, the Division of Special Educa-tion in cooperation with the University ofMissouri at Kansas City, School of Educa-tion. This center serves not only thestate's school districts, but also it's insti-tutions of higher education and stateschools.

The Missouri Technology Center offersseveral types of training activitieswhichare in-depth, hands-on experiencestoadministrators, teachers, and universityfaculty members:* Regional workshops are all-day

training experiences presentedthroughout the state. Although laborintensive, these workshops are worth

I S

STATE PERSPECTIVES ON INSERVICE TRAINING 13 w

Planning Workshops

We have developed several prepackaged workshops, from basic gen-eral awareness overview training to highly specific, hands-onstraining such as programming augmentative communication systems.We target at least six different sites in the state every academic year.

Each workshop is approximately one day in length. We have designeerather extensive workbooks to accompany the training, since we havefound that the participants can retain only so much information dur-ing information-packed workshops. Print materials are criticalbecause after the workshop is over, participants have them for refer-ence. They do not have to rely just on their notes or on what theyremember.

In the past, our training opportunities were free of charge. But Mis-souri faced a budgetary crisis two years ago, and we decided tocharge for our services. We kept fees nominal so many rural districtscould afford to send someone for training. For regional training wecharge $25 per participant for an all-day program. For district train-ing, we charge the district $75 for the whole day regardless of howmany participants attend. Our objective is not to make a profit, but tohave partial cost recovery. It is interesting to note, however, that par-ticipation has increased in the past two years. People seem to valuethose things they pay for.

Another change that has made our training more effective is to movethe sessions out of the schools. Schools are Just not an effective placeto train teachers. There are too many bells going off, teachel and stu-dents moving around, and other distractions. The teachers can'tconcentrate. We use the conference rooms of a hotel near the school.Our sessions run from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., with an hour for lunch.Teachers consider the lunch break a real benefit, because they're notused to that hour in their regular school day.

We bring all our own equipment to the hotel. It was a bigger night-mare trying to use equipment from the schoolstheir computersdidn't have enough memory, and printers wouldn't print. When weschedule for the year, we try to give ourselves at least a month be-tween regioral training sessions to allow for staff recovery frommoving everything-12 computers, extension cords, surge protectors,printers, and other equipment.

We allow only two to three participants per computer if we're doinghands-on training. We've gotten very fast at dismantling and reassem-bling. We know exactly how we want the room set up and the hotelshave always been extremely helpful.

Valita MarshallMissouri Technology Centerfor Special Education


e

Effective Training Procedures

The Missouri Technology Center has several suggestions to increase the suc-cess of training activities. They discovered that methodical planning andpreparation pay off with motivated participants who receive the informationand skills they need:

Begin each training session with an advanced organizer that includesa promise of the material that will be covered. Then fulfill the prom-ise. Supply bibliographic information for advanced learning shouldthe participants desire.At the beginning of a session, ask each member of the audience tothink of a particular student with whom to use the training informa-tion.Identify the needs of your audience. Then ask them what their level ofexperience or knowledge is related to the topic. Be aware that the au-dience does have knowledge and experience that can enhance yourpresentation, so encourage active participation.Address each question posed from the audience with respect. If youcannot answer a question, then follow up through additional corre-spondence.Create an environment in which participants can express themselvesand share personal experiences in a nonthreateningmanner.Share your failures as well as your successes.Limit the size of your audience whenever possible (25-35 is a goodsize for group participation).Know your topic inside and out. Then, should the need arise, you canmodify to meet the audience's needs.Invert the learning pyramidstart with a narrow focus, then add tothis to develop a broader application of the inf-mation provided.Arrive early for your presentation, and always be prepared for equip-ment failure. Bring backups whenever possible, and have analternative presentation plan should equipment fail. Audiences be-come restless if forced to wait while presenters "futz" with equipment.

Valita MarshallMissouri Technology Centerfor Special Education

the effort as they provide in-depthtraining to special educators, as wellas training materials for the district'scontinued use.At district inservice progyams, topicsare normally more specific to theneeds of a particular district.At statewide conferences, Center staffoffer direct training to a large numberof special educators; and theconference schedule includes both

exhibits ard demonstration ofdifferent !s of technologicaldevices.

Tne Missot fechnology Center haslearned from experience how to plan foreffective workshops. (See "Planning Work-shops" above, for a good look at theirplanning; also see "Effective Training Pro-cedures" above, for some specific traininghints.


Training and Change

Change is a process, not a single event. As such, it must be facilitatedby a multidimensional effort.As teachers move through the change process, they will go throughpredictable stages of adoption.Support must come from locally based resources, where they arereadily accessible to the educators using the technology.As an agency moves from simple awareness to,actual integration of anew technology or practice, ongoing support is vital.

Lucian Parshall, Special Education Services,Michigan Departinent of Education

A State PlanMichigan

Knowing that change is more successfulwhen those affected are involved in plan-ning, innovators in Michigan formed atask force that included key special educa-tion organizations, universities, vendors,and rehabilitation services. Representa-tives of these groups developed along-range technology plan for Michigan'sDepartment of Special Education. Theyidentified the steps needed to ensure fulluse of technology in special education,and using state discretionary and somePart D funds implemented the 5-yearplan.

Long-range goals encompassed fourareas: computer-aided instruction, com-puter-assisted management, adaptivedevices, and emerging technology. A list ofteacher and administrator competenciesalso evolved. The task force addressedeach goal in the plan through personnelpreparation; software development; mini-grants to purchase hardware and/oradaptive devices; and two statewide clear-inghouses: the LLRC and ACCESS.

Perhaps the most impressive result ofthis planning process was the functionthe task force performed after completingthe state plan. Having discovered com-mon interests and concerns relating to

technology in special education, the taskforce remained together. The members,who represented over 15 organizations,realized that they had a responsibility be-yclid the plan to promote a moresystematic use of technologies. The taskforce organized and developed a set of bylaws and, in 1985, formed, the Coalitionof Organizations in Michigan to Promotethe Use of Technology in Special Educa-tion (COMPUTE).

This coalition then continued to refinethe competencies included in the stateplan and developed several training mod-ules. One of these is an introductory,2-hour workshop. Other programs in-clude 5 comprehensive training moduleson general technological literacy, instruc-tional software, evaluation, adaptivedevices, and directed experience.

7ach module includes all elements nec-essary for effective training: an overview,prerequisite skills, competencies, trainingobjectives, learner outcomes, required ma-terials, teaching outline, handouts,transparencies, a self-evaluation form,study guides, resources, and an overallevaluation form. Modules initially werenot available for reneral disseminationwithout appropriate training. Later, COM-PUTE used a train-thetrainer approachfor both preservice and inservice partici-

2 1


e

pants. A total of 800 to 900 teachers aretrained each year using this approach (see"Training and Change," above).

COMPUTE also supports its member or-ganizations within the coalition throughsuch activities as computer laboratoriesat annual conferences, software demon-strations, equipment loans, and generalassistance in planning and conductingtraining workshops using the modules.

Strengthening Training Efforts:Empowerment of Teachers Oregon

Once a state has a plan for technologytraining, how do planners entice teachersand other school staff with limited fundsto attend training? How do they ensurelong range commitment? Two states, Ore-gon and Massachusetts, have similarsolutions.

Oregon's Technology Access Programconducts resource development and in-service training for teachers, therapists,administrators, and parents throughoutthe state. The program has three goals:

* Infuse technology into existingsystems.

* Develop technology competencies foreducators and parents.

* Provide resources and trainingmaterials for teachers.

Rather than using technology as a sepa-rate goal area, the program tries to infusetechnology use into areas such as transi-tion, supported education, low-incidencepopulations, or family support. These ef-

forts are focused at local, regional, andstate levels. Training goals are based onseveral premises; the most important isthat of empowering a targeted group ofeducators and parents. This means thatthese individuals must acquire the tools,knowledge, and resources to continuetheir efforts (see "Empowerment of Tech-nology Users," below).

By including technology into all stateplan goal areas, the access to various pop-ulations has increased. Coordinatingtraining activities with other state agen-cies such as the Vocational RehabilitationDivision is one successful way to sharelimited resources and personnel. Oregonfinds that collaboration has occurredmore frequently since they established aTechnology Center under the State TechGrant (P. L. 100-407) program. Although

Empowerment of Technology Users

Give technolngy users the tools for empowerment training, resources,time, support.Recognize that technology users are competent in many areas.

Remember that poor functioning in the use of technology is usually due tolack of information and resources.Acknowledge that if technology users are not doing a good job, it is notbecause they can't but because they need additional resources or support.

Expect that technology competencies can be acquired when needed.

Ensure that technology users play an active role in planning and acquiringthe competencies they need.

Gayl Bowser,Oregon Technology Access Program


still at the awareness level, the OregonTechnology Access Program works closAywith their state Crippled Children's Pro-grams, State Schools, DisabilitiesCommission, Early Intervention Program,and Developmental Disabilities Councilfor some training activities. Not only doesthis approach share resources, but also al-lows others to see the potential oftechnology and increases the likelihoodthat technology will be infused in theseprograms.

A regional train-the-trainer model isused to train teams, which may consist ofteachers, physical therapists, occupa-tional therapists, vision and hearingteachers, and speech/language patholo-gists. Regional teams are empowered withresources, such as short-term loan equip-ment for evaluation purposes, a lendinglibrary of commercial software, public do-main software, training kits of hardware(e.g., kits equipped with 10 of everythingadaptive firmware cards, echo speechsynthesizers, etc.) and training materials.This strategy develops a network of em-

A Follow-Up Strategy

The Oregon Technology Access Program offers several special summer insti-tutes that are highly effective. Last summer, a third-party evaluator found thatover 90% of the participants reported that the training resulted in significantchanges in their practice. Several strategies help make these institutes a suc-cess.

Before acceptance to the training, educators must obtain theirsupervisor's permission to attend.The supervisor must agree to allow time for the educator to imple-ment conte it learned during the institute and provide the necessarysupport to do so.Participants, trainers, and supervisors agree on a follow-up plan.

All participants attending a summer institute must complete a goal statementbefore they leave the training. The trainer reviews the plan with each partici-pant to ensure that it is a realistic goal. Participants may write goals thatinvolve working with a particular student, training someone else in theirbuilding, or contributing to their own growth and development.

Some will put more emphasis on one area than another, but they are ex-pected to write between two and five goals. They are asked to indicate theresources neededwhat's available as well as what they will need to acquire.Goals that involve purchasing additional equipment, are not accepted unlessthe district has already committed to the purchase, because equipment pur-chase is a problem in many school districts.

Completed plans arc sent to the supervisor who must approve the plan inwriting. There is a place where supervisors can change the plan if there issomething written that they feel cannot be implemented. The signed plan issent to the trainers by the end of September. During the school year, partici-pants are periodically contacted to check the progress of their plans.

Penny Reed, Oregon Technology Access Program,Oregon Department of Education

0 .3


Successfur Strategies to Strengthen TrainingEfforts

Though all our efforts were strictly low budget, several strategiesseemed to increase our success. Entrance into the special seminarswas a competitive process. To attend the seminar, teachers had tocomplete an application form and obtain their supervisors' support.There were a limited number of slots for training-20 in each region.

When the seminars were completed, teachers received a stipend of$250. This was basically to pay them for attending the sessions andfor writing an article and a lesson plan. Although this was not a largesum of money, it did provide recognition to the teachers for their ef-forts. Teachers and their schools received additional recognition whenthe articles were published in the newsletter. We had a subscription ofabout 2,000. I selected teacher's articles that were very practicalones that include what teachers could do in their classroom.

The newsletter articles proved to be effective public relations. Not onlydid the teachers feel good allot- zing published, but they receivedlocal recognition. We sent mult...1.; complimentary copies to the super-intendent, special education director, and other individuals for themto distribute, making them aware of the participating teachers' accom-plishments. The seminars opened the door to leadershipopportunities for these teachers farther down the line.

Joan ThormannLesley College, Mo.ssachusetts

powered trainers who can infuse technol-ogy from their particular discipline intotheir geographic location.

At the local level, the major goal of train-ing is to infuse technology into existingcurricula. Inservice training emphasizesapplication of technology and specificskill development. Competencies for thistraining are identified by local learnersand are developed speciflcally for thegroup receiving the inservice. The localgroup plans all insen :ce programs at thislevel. All materials and resources devel-oped focus on the use of technology as atool (see "A Follow-up Strategy," above).

Strengthening Training Efforts:IncentivesMassachusetts

Massachusetts focused its technologytraining into three areas: seminars on the

use of computers in special education, asummer institute that was a federallyfunded project, and a statewide newslet-ter. Although these projects no longerexist due to lack of funding, they werehighly successful.

The purpose of the regional seminarswas to increase the use of computers withstudents with disabilities. Trainers of-fered programs for both regular andspecial educators in each of Six regionalareas. Twenty experienced teachers at-tended each regional training program.Training was conducted every other weekfor a total of six sessions, 2 1/2 hourseach. When these teachers completed theprogram. a ripple effect was created. Par-ticipants were asked to disseminate andshare information with other people ir.their district or area. They did this by con-ducting at least one inservice program in

0STATE PERSPECTIVES ON INSERVICE TRAINING 19

their home district, developing lessonplans that were shared with the teachersin their region, and writing an article forthe state newsletter (see "Successful Strat-egies to Strengthen Training Efforts."above.)

The two-week summer institutes fol-lowed a similar format, except that 20experts and 20 novices were invited to at-tend. As with the seminar, participants

agreed to conauct an inservice workshopin their districts and write an article forthe state newsletter. The summer insti-tute was different in that some trainersoutside the state department were used.In addition, a close collegial atmospherewas fostered by the intensive residentialformat, and teachers learned a great dealfrom each other, as well as, faculty.

0 :---(.... t)


OCOLLABORAT!ON BYCONSORTIUM

Perhaps one of the most excitingdevelopments in technology training is themovement of state education agencies(SEAs) and institutions of highereducation (IHEs) toward collaborativetraining efforts. Both groups realize thevalue of working together for a smoothtransition of skills from one level to thenext. They also recognize the benefits ofsharing knowledge, expertise, andresources. Collaborative efforts inPennsylvania and Michigan highlight howthis can be done.

Pennsylvania Consortium

Pennsylvania has Just begun a consor-tium of SEA and IHE members, thougheducators from this state long ago recog-nized the need for collaborative efforts.Early collaborative attempts of the Penn-sylvania Assistive Device Center were metwith some interest, but there was no sus-tained commitment. In 1990, however,the Pennsylvania Assistive Device Center,Pennsylvania State University, and Tem-ple University established a formal,successful collaborative effort to addresstraining needs.

These three groups identified a numberof common problems and concerns: a pau-city of trained professionals in the areasof augmentative communication and assis-tive technology, a lack of appropriateinservice and preservice trainers, and anabsence of communication among groups.

There was little coordination between theSEA and IHEs in their effortu to addressthese problems.

A survey was mailed to all the universi-ties in Pennsylvania to determine the levelof interest in the area of assistive technol-ogy and the current status of efforts inthis area, including the instruction offeredand research and clinical services pro-vided. Results of the survey weredisseminated to the SEA and IHEs. Anaudio conference in October 1990 formal-ized the collaborative network,established goals, identified tasks androles, and established a communicationlink.

The consortium established four sub-committees to address research,competencies for professionals, curricu-him, and state reform. Additionalconference calls and in-person meetingswill continue to foster the consortium. Allgroups are excited at this new prospectand stress two key points: the involve-ment of key players with links to the SEAand the IHEs and the philosophical beliefthat two-way communication is beneficialto all. Long- range goals include an in-crease in the number of trainers andtrained professionals in the areas of aug-mentative communication and assistivetechnology, increased research efforts,state reform, and development of profes-sional competencies and relatedcurriculum. Additional information andsurvey results are available from the Penn-sylvania Assistive Device Center.

Michigan Consortium

The Special Education Services (SES)area within the Michigan Department ofEducation continually collaborates withits 13 universities and colleges that pro-vide preservke programs in specialeducation. This step was needed becausein 1987, the state revised its certificationrules to require university graduates todmonstrate competence in ale area ofadaptive devices. Furthermore, a state-

COLLABORATION BY CONSORTIUM 21

ment waz added to its rules addressingthe use of adaptive devices in the individu-alized education plan. Theserequirements underscored the need fortechnology training for both undergradu-ate and graduate students in specialeducation.

More recently, Michigan began develop-ing 12 guides that identify the outcomesthat students with disabilities should at-tain when they exit special education.Each guide is developed for a specific dis-ability group (visually impaired,emotionally disturbed, etc.) Although not

technology specific, the guides also con-tain information pertaining to the needand use of technology. A half-day work-shop was held with 13 state college anduniversity trainers to explain the outcomeguides. Many faculty members haveadopted the outcome guides as textbooks.The SES has found that by providing itsIHEs with prepared materials and assist-ing in training efforts, it encourageschange at the institutions and ultimatelyproduces more knowledgeable teachersfor the field.

27

22 COLLABORATION BY CONSORTIUM

PLANNING INDIVIDUALTRAINING EVENTS

Research is sparse in the area ofdesigning inservice training events thatare specific to computer education

(Moursund, 1989). No one yet pretends tohave discovered all the elements thatmake staff development programs com-pletely successful (Gall & Renchler ascited by Moursund). This section will dis-cuss those factors that seem to benecessary for conducting successful train-ing events.

Audience

The first step in the effective design oftraining is to define the audience and iden-tify its needs. Trainers should besensitive to what participants alreadyknow, as well as to their current concerns(Hall and Loucks, 1980).

Tips to Guide Training

FDLRSPFECH uses the following premises to guide training efforts and develop-ment:

Teachers generally prefer hands-on instruction; use it whenever possible.Use simulated experiences to help people understand the need for accessto technology.

When delivering training, maintain a balance between emphasizing the ef-fective use of older available technology as well as they newstate-of-the-art technology. This avoids frustration.Remain on the cutting edge so people know what to reach forthey needa vision.

Link technology not only to curriculum content, but to curriculum trends;for example, model the use of technology with a whole language ap-proach.Use the research results in developing training which will appeal to alltypes of learning styles and intelligences.

Take what you know from content research and use it to set up a modeltraining program.Make sure you are involved in other planning efforts (e.g., state, districtor local level); invite yourself; be brave.Go where the money is. Look at future state and local priorities. Focusyour efforts on those priorities.Educators learn best from other educators who have demonstrated suc-cess with the training content. Use peers to train whenever possible.Research shows that gains are made when you have a mover and shakerin every building. Train to that end.

Eileen Pracelc. FDLIRSITECH

PLANNING INDIVIDUAL TRAINING EVENTS 23

integrating Technological Competencies

Several questions need to be consideredwhen you try to fit competencies into exist-ing courses. Sometimes the answers areclear. For example, at Trenton State, thecourse on multiple disabilities is a second-

emester, junior-level course. Before wewere involved in technoloa, that coursealready covered augmentative communica-tion as a topieintroducing manualcomtnii ication boards, eye gaze tech-niques, and scanning devices, as well asissues tnat relate to how an augmentativesystem is chosen for a student. It was nat-ural to add computerized augmentativecommunication systems. The new technol-ogies are certainly more sophisticated andinvolved, but they still are augrnentativecommunication. It made sense to take thecompetencies related to technology in aug-mentative communication and insert theminto a course on multiple disabilities.

In the same course, another major topicwas adapting materials and environmentsso that students with multiple disabilitiescan participate in daily activities. It wasnot a big stretch to add adaptations thatare needed to provide access to comput-ers. These are two examples of wheretechnology competencies fit smoothly al-though it is difficult to flt all needed skillsinto just one course.

Another question is the sequence for intro-ducing the competencies. One of thestrange things you'll notice in our plan forinfusion (see `Trenton State Plan for Tech-nology Infusion", in the first section ofthis guide), is that the student's first intro-duction to computer-assisted instruction(CAI) is in a reading and language artscourse, because that is one of the first spe-cial education courses the students take.This infusion actually has worked outwell. We introduce drill-and-practice andgame software that relates to reading: andthe following semester we introduce other

subject-matter software. That, in a nut-shell, is how we infuse competencies intocore courses.

Amy DellTrenton State College

When asked how to integrate technologycompetencies into an undergraduatecourse, I invariably answer that it de-pends on the course and the particularinstructional objective. The goal of inte-grating technology into a course dependson using technology well, not to computer-ize the whole course. For example, if I'mteaching a behavior management course, Imay consider looking for software thatwill enable me to monitor students' aca-demic performance or enable students tomonitor their own performance, buildstudents' skills in conflict resolution, orengage student's in cooperative problemsolving. I select the most important objec-tives and look for appropriate software.

When it comes time to use th e. programwithin the course I could make it a classactivity (demonstrating the program orsimulating its use), make it available in acomputer lab for an out-of-class assign-ment, or have a group of students use itand report back to the rest of the class aspart of a special project. The choice oftechnology depends on the matchwhereit fits and how much time you can allow,based on how good the match is. The ulti-mate criterion of success is focused onwhether or not technology has enhancedteaching and learning.

al)

Dave Edyburn,Peabody College,

Vanderbilt University

24 PLANNING INDIVIDUAL TRAINING EVENTS

.

Because teachers play a critical role inthe use of technology, they should have anopportunity to identify their trainingneeds (Glenn & Carrier, 1987). By con-ducting a needs assessment, trainers caneasily determine the needs and levels ofexpertise of participants. This simple pro-cess provides teachers with the feeling ofownershipwhich Moursund (1989) de-fines as a deep interest and involvementwith a situation that often contributes todeep and lasting learning and intellectualgrowth. (See "Tips to Guide Training,"above.)

Topics, Goals, Competencies andObjectives

The next several steps in designingtraining sessions include identifying thetopics, goals, competencies, and objec-tives. Each step needs to be given carefulthought. Every session or course needs tohave a getieral topic and specific goals,competencies, and objectives. In addition,the long-range goals of the training institu-tion are of primary importance. Theyshape all training events. At the pre-service level, this is a crucial process. If

Structured Lab Time

In a graduate special educationprogram like ours, most stu-dents are professionals alreadyworking in schools. These stu-dents, unlike undergraduates,have a limited amount of time tospend on technological lab as-signments. I found that I have tobuild structured lab assignmentsinto my class time. In one case,I've turned a 3-hour course intoa 4-hour course. I schedule itfrom 4:30 to 8:30 p.m. so thatall students have time to partici-pate. Half of that course ishands-on technology trainii.g.You may need to make differentarrangements, but whatever youdo, structure the lab assign-ments.

Mike BehrrnannGeorge Mason University

tecluugy is to be infused into all specialeducation core courses, educators mustdevelop a systematic process to ensure

A Continuum of Training

I operate two state-funded technical assistance centers that reachabout 1,500 teachers a year in northern and northwestern Vir-ginia. About half the training is technology related. We've foundthat we need to provide a complete continuum of technical assis-tance trainingeverything from one-hour and full-dayworkshops to individual and small-group training sessions. Wehold most workshops and individual training sessions at the uni-versity site, but we also provide many small-group sessions, andindividual consultations in teachers' classrooms, as they workwith their kids.

We originally thought that we would teach some basic computerliteracy, and then we could move on to more advanced skills, butthat's not always possible. It's important to provide ongoing assis-tance.

Mike BehrmannGeorge Mason University

PLANNING INDIVIDUAL TRAINING EVENTS 2p

that all competencies are addressed. Aswe discussed previously, Trenton Statefirst listed all the core courses, then as-signed each course a topic and relatedcompetencies (see "Trenton State Plan forTechnology Infusion", in the first sectionof this guide, "Infusion into University-Based Training", see also "IntegratingTechnological Competencies," above).

Prerequisite Skills

Identifying the prerequisite skills for aparticular training session helps to deter-mine the order and sequence of trainingevents. For example, the prerequisiteskills for the workshop on DevelopingCustomized Scans with the Adaptive Firm-ware Card are (a) to know how to install,format, and use the Adaptive FirmwareCard and (b) to know how to use theEcho Speech Synthesizer. These skillsmust be taught to participants who do notdemonstrate competence before this ses-sion can be offered. The same process isused for college courses.

Length of Training

Learning how to use technology takestime, often more than a university or edu-cation agency has. As we have statedpreviously, successful technology trainingneeds to be more than a one-shot experi-

Color Coding for Ease of Use

The trick is to develop systemsthat make it easy for theteacher. For instance, we'vecolor coded the software. Stu-dents and teachers match theyellow dot from the software tothe yellow dot on the powerpad and to the yellow dot onthe computer that's set up forthe power pad. Developingtechniques that make lIfe eas-ier for teachers is reallyimportant.

Mike BehrmannGeorge Mason University

ence (Glenn & Carrier. 1987) (see "A Con-tinuum of Training," above).

Technology training should be an ongo-ing process that is addressed throughoutthe school year or semester. The length ofeach session also needs to be determined.Will it be 1 hour, 90 minutes, one after-noon, or all day? For sessions long x thanan hour, trainers should pay careful atten-tion to methodology.

Trainers should also consider how to fitin the time necessary for participants to

Multi-day, Follow-up Training

We promote multi-day training. In the past we've held a variety ofinservice workshops, from half-day to whole-day, including re-treats. We've found that our participants have the best successwhen we schedule multi-day t:aining with follow-up sessions orvisits by ADC staff to their classrooms: we go back in 6 weeks,then after 2 more months, and then after another 6 weeks. Wemeet with teachers continually, upgrading their skills, checkingwith them, and helping them out. That's how we're going to targetour training in the next year.

Colleen HaneyPennsylvania Assistive Device Center

3 i26 PLANNING INDIVIDUAL TRAINING EVENTS

Locating Resources

Don't worry about the "platform" or com-puters that you're using. Use what youhave access to. Use the platforms that pro-vide generic 4 pea of experiences with thetechnology. Technology is changing so fastthat even if you have access to the mostmodern, up-to-date computer, it's out ofdate next week. You need to teach peoplehow to integrate and use the technology,not how to use a specific piece of softwareor a specific type of computer.

Manufacturers often have developed vid-eos that they will lend. I've been creatingmy own library by collecting a number ofdifferent videotapes on assistive technol-ogy and other technology. ThePennsylvania Assistive Device Center has

also provided us with many trainingtapes.

Mike Behrmann, George MasonUniversity

When asked how to begin a programwith little or no equipment. I reply that webegan with one computer. One computerthese days is really not that expensive.Sometimes you can get anotherdepartment's castoff computer and startwith that. Later you can write for grantsto supply a few software programs or acouple of assistive devices. You just don'tget a $100.000 grant and order everythingall at once. It Just growsvery, veryslowly.

Amy Dell, Trenton State College

learn a skill (see "Structured Lab Time"above, and "Multi-day, Follow-up Train-ing", above).

Key Points and Activities

Outlining key points and activities putsthe content of the training session onpaper. It need not be a verbatim accountof what will be said, but merely an outlineof major points to jog the trainer's mem-ory. Identifying necessary materials and

equipment required for training is essen-tial. First, it helps to organize the trainingbefore the event. Second, it identifies thebasic equipment a trainer must have be-fore training can occur.

For example, if 10 multiswitch boxesare necessary and are unavailable, then ei-ther the training session must bemodified or postponed, or equipmentmust be purchased or borrowed. If train-ing is not conducted at the home site,

Low-budget Materials

Our goal is to acquire a complete collection of public domain software for the student withdisabilities and for the classroom teachers of students with disabilities. We want the teach-ers to come and have a hands-on training workshop in public domain software.Unfortunately, due to budget and time constraints, this is not always possible.

A practical alternative is an awareness slide show, which was funded by a grant of $1,000.This grant enabled us to create a professional slide show of relevant photographs. So ifteachers can't come to us, we go to them. We'd love to have a video show, but we make dowith slides. We also take some of the critical equipment for a hands-on demonstration.

Jennifer TaylorDelaware Learning Resource System

Or ) ( )I ) L..

PLANNING INDIVIDUAL TRAINING EVENTS 27

such a checklist ensures that you bring ev-erything or the people at the host sitehave acquired the necessary materialsand equipment.

Materials and Resources

Trainers at both preservice and in-service levels should take great care inthe design of handouts, transparencies,CAI programs, videotapes, andvideodiscs. Steps critical to the effectivedesign of these materials are discussed inthe companion document, Trainer'sResource Guide: Training Materials De-sign Guidelines. Above all, the finaldesign needs to be in a format that encour-ages use. Sometimes you need additionalstrategies (see "Color Coding for Ease of

Training the Adult Learner

Here are some important issues in teach-ing adult learners:

Adults learn by doing. Involvethemdemonstration alone is notenough. Add practice and guidedpractice, and provide many oppor-tunities.Probiems and examples must berealistic and relevant.Relate their learning strongly towhat they already know.Adults tend to prefer informallearning environments, which areless likely to produce tension andanxiety.Change the pace and instructionalmethods to keep the interest high.Unless absolutely necessary,avoid a grading system; usechecklists of criteria.The instructor should frame hisor her role as that of a facilitatorof learning.

Moursund (1989)Knowles (1978)

Use" above).

Many times the lack of equipment or re-sources inhibits the training plan.However, many vendors are willing tolend equipment at little or no cost (exceptfor mailing costs). Software vendors areoften generous at providing software on a30-day preview basis. But the lack of re-sources should not thwart your efforts.You have to start somewhere (see "Locat-ing Resources," above).

Although everyone wants equipmentand resources that are well designed, bud-gets often impose limitations. Solutions tothis dilemma are often surprisingly sim-ple (see "State Perspectives on InserviceTrainincr and "Low-Budget Materials."

Adult Learner Characteristics

When designing programs for adults atboth preservice and inservice levels, train-ers must pay attention to the particularlearning styles of adults. Moursund(1989) has consolidated Knowles (1978)work on guidelines for training adultlearners (see "Training the AdultLearner," above).

In addition to considering particulartraining needs of adult learners, trainersshould determine the skill levels of theparticipants. Not only have Glenn and Car-rier (1987) identified different content forthe novice and expert learner, but theyhave identified different teaching svate-gies for both, as follows:

* Strategies for the novice includehighly structured sessions with cyclesof preinstructional, instructional, andpostinstructional activities; anemphasis on teamwork, supervisedindividual exploration time; andfollow-up activities. (For othersuccessful instructional strategies,see Instruction for the Novice."below. Although preservice strategiesare discussed, they are appropriatefor any level of instruction.)

3 3


Instruction for the Novice

Our technology modules for undergradu-ate training have two majorcharacteristics. The first is that they mustinvolve practical. hands-on experiences.Depending on the topic, the hands-on ac-tivity might be an in-class workshop or anout-of-class assignment. Stuents mightwork in small groups or indivictually. Insome cases, they have access ta comput-ers in round-robin fashion. The guidingprinciple is that the hands-on experiencesmust engage and captivate the learners.Students are not allowed to hide behindpassive notetaking. Instead of just listen-ing to information about the differentadaptations that are available, studentsare actively involved.

A second characteristic of the modules isthat they must emphasize decision-mak-

ing activities. It's both easy and temptingto focus training on the razzle-dazzle ornew assistive devices, bu we need to en-sure that the end use of technology isnever lost. There must be a match be-tween what a person with disabilitiesneeds and what is available. Many assign.ments in our modules begin with thephrase, "Select a person." The studentthen progresses through a decision-mak-ing process, analyzing the needs of thisperson, what he or she needs to be taught.and which teaching methods materi-als should be used. The uccision to use aparticular mlniauthoring program or tocustomize a piece of software is part ofthe decision-making process.


Strategies for the expert include p :erteaching, practice in training otherteachers, projects that demonstratethe application of effective instructionprinciples, assigned readings in thearea of effective teacher behavioi,instructional design, computer-basedinstruction, and follow-up activities.

Size of Training Group

The size of the training group is crucialto the effectiveness of the training. Tradi-tional training usually involves largegroups; but, it is very difficult to provideinformal, "hands-on" experiences to alarge group. Training sessions should re-main as small as possible. Ideally, forexample, there should be no more thanthree participants per computer. Instruc-tors should try to limit the class size, usegrouping techniques, or require lab assign-ments with individualized instruction.

Moursund (1989) believes that the mosteffective inservice program is on a one-to-one basis, teacher to teacher. This couldbe easily accomplished by training acadre of technology experts, who thentrain more teachers, and so on. Unfcrtu-nately, he concludes, this situation doesnot exist in very many schools; and themore traditional, large-group inservice in-struction will likely continue for manyyears to come.

Trainer Qualifications

People who design training coursesoften do not give a second thought to whowill conduct the training. In many cases.there is no choice. However, research indi-cates that, whenever possible, the trainershould be a colleague (Glenn & Carrier,1987). Sometimes, however, a colleaguedoes not possess the necessary skills andcompetencies to conduct training. Severalalternatives are available, (see "FindingOutside Trainers," below). All trainers

PLANNING INDIVIDUAL :RAINING EVENTS 29

Finding Outside Trainers

When neither you nor your staff have theexpertise to provide training, considerusing outside presenters. We've been ableto extensively use several manufacturersto provide training on absistive technol-ogy. They conduct half-day or all-dayworkshrps. Although they focus on theirproducts, it's actually a much broader ap-plication. Vendo.-s talk about thephilosophy and e.he general approaches tousing technology. a's been a very goodtraining approach for both it service andr-eservice programs

Mi e Beh.rrnannGeorge Mason University

I don't usually have guest speakers in mycnurses, but for the techr agy modules, Ioften invite one. If you're .$..arting out oreven if you've been gains aw one, considerexperts in the state or locai Echool dis-tricts. I have found them tc. be extremelygenerous. They are excited when I calland ask them to speak. That's becausetheyre out there, pretty much alone.They're getting new teachers and new ther-apists who know nothing aboutte 21mology. They are Just so happy thatone of the colleges in the state is finallydoing something, that it is actually a plea-sure for them to come and speak.


trainers need to be competent at instruct-ing adults and in the area of technologycovered by the course or workshop.(Glenn & Carrier, 1987; Mistrett,Raimondi, & Barnett, 1990).

Perhaps one of the best resources forplanning training is Effective Inservice

for Integrating Computer-as-Tool intothe. rr!rriculum (Moursund, 1989). Thisbook provides comprehensive informa-tion for inservice trainers and is wellworth the investment. Another resource isPreparing for and Conducting Work-shops and Presentations (Reed, 1990).

References

Glenn, A. D., & Carrier, C. A. (1987). A re-view qj the status of technologytraining for teachers. Washington, DC:U.S. Office of Techn -logy Assessment.

Knowles, M. (1978). The adult learner: Aneglected species. Houston, TX: Gulf.

Nall, G. E., & Loucks, S. F. 1980). Pro-gram definition and adopti9n:Implications for inservice. Austin: Re-search and Development Center forTeacher Education, University ofTexas.

Mistrett, S. G., Raimorldi, S. L., & Bar-nett, M. P. (1990). Preschoolintegration through technology sys-terrs. Buffalo: United Cerebral PalsyAss)ciation of Western New York.

Mourstind, D. (1989). Effective inservicefor iitegrating computer-as-tool intothe curriculum. Eugene, OR: Interna-tioaal Society for Technology inEducation.

Reed, P. (1990). Preparing for andconducting workshops and presenta-tions. Eugene: Oregon TechnologyAccess Project, Department of Educa-tion: Division of Special Education.

3 5


OUTCOMES AND4110 COMPETENCIES

Most of the models described in theprevious sections identified competenciesfor their students and objectives for theirtraining model. The process for develop-ing competencies varies acrossinstitutions. Competencies .ire the knowl-edge, skills, and attitudes that peopleneed to perform their role (Blackhurst,1990). Training competencies may comefrom many sources, but are usually devel-opt to expand and define the goalstatements for training. Some institutionsuse formal research methoch to developrompetencies. Others use committees tobninstorm and develop competencies.This section discusses how some groupsdeveloped competencies and how theyuse them. We also give examples of vari-ous competencies.

Development of Competencies

The Universtly of Kentucky has perhapsthe most comprehensive set of competen-cies. Blackt.urst (1990) ideltified 87technology competencies for special edu-cation teachers. They are divided into 11broad categories (see Appendix for a com-plete list).* Acquin a body of knowledge about

the use of microcomputers andrelated technology.Evaluate software and other relatedmaterials.Deveiop a plan for technology use.

Use technology in assessment andplanning.Use technology to facilitateinstruction.Use technolog to compensate forstudents' learning barriers.Use microcomputer to generateteaching aids.Use the microcomputer as an aid topersonal productivity.Disseminate information aboutapplications of technology.

Assemble, operate, and maintain thecomponents of technology.Use microcomputer operating systemcommands.

Before planners in Kentucky developedthese competencies, they identified theroles and functions of program graduates.Roles included graduates who would be-come special education teachers,administrators, speech/language patholo-gists, occupational therapists, physicaltherapists, and technology specialists.

Competency validation is an evolution-ary process, which proceeds in fourphases: a task analysis phase; a social val-idation pinse, which includes solicitingexpert opinion, and documenting effectivepractices; a direct observation phase;and a learner-referenced evaluationnhase. Most efforts to validate competen-zies, including those at the University ofKentucky. have focused on phases 1 and2. Eflbrt: are being initiated to implementvalidaticn studies in phases 3 and 4.

The sate department of education inMichigan initiated a task force (latercalled COMPUTE) to identify and refinethe competencies needed by teachers grad-uating from institutes of nigher educationin their state. The competencies in theuse of technology were developed for spe-cial education administration,instructiorill staff, and ancillary servicesin five comprehensive areas:

OUTCOMES AND COMPETENCIES 31

General technology literacy.

Instructional software.

* Evaluation of hardware and software.

* Adaptive devices.Directed experience.

Each list of competencies is dividedinto three skill levels: awareness (knowl-edge), utilization (skill development), andproficiency (skill application) (see Appen-dix for complete listing).

The Northwest Council for Compu':erEducation (NCCE) and Oregon State Uni-versity also used a committee approach togenerate competencies. This coalitionfunded a project to cirvelop competenciesfor use as guidelines in reevaluating bothinservice and preservice teacher educa-tion programs (Niess, 1990). Twentyspecialists developed and evaluated com-petencies for nine categories of educators:

Elementary school teachers.Middle school teachers.

High school teachers.

Elementary school computerteachers.Middle school computer teachers.

High school computer teachers.District computer coordinator for theelementary level.

District/building computercoordinator for the middle schoollevel.

District/building computercoordinator for the high school level.

Competencies were edited, clarified,and refined using a modified Delphi proce-dure, a system that utilizes writtenresponses (Delbecq, Van de Ven, &Gustafson, 1973). This approach repli-cated a study conducted by the authors in1983. Changes in competencies from1983 to 1989 included the addition ofkeyboarding skills (the earlizr the better)and the removal of programming skills.

The most significant change was in theuse of verb phrases. Verb phraseschanged from "should have knowledge"(1983) to "should use" (1989). Niess(1990) concludes that no longer is simplyhaving knowledge acceptable; teachersmust use that knowledge in the class-room.

Uses of Competencies

Institutions and coalitions usually de-velop lists of competencies to use ascriteria to certify that the individv al hasmastered a particular skill. Performance-based measures are often used todetermine that criteria have been met. Inaddition, competencies can be used as aself-assessment instrument. Blackhurst(1990) developed a self-assessment instru-ment based on the University ofKentucky's competency list for teachersto evaluate their own knowledge andskills in technolog use (see Appendix fora copy of this form). For each of the P7competency statements, teachers areasked to circle the letter that correspondsto their interest in developing eitherknowledge or skills. It is a 5-point listranging from "not interested" to "havesome skill." This information can beused as a self-assessment for teachers, asan instrument for social validation, as away to monitor student performance, andas a needs assessment of teachers indesigning inservice training programs.

Mistrett, Raimondi, and Barnett (1990)have developed a 6-option self-evaluationform to measure technical skills. Thischecklist provides an overall picture ofparticipants' ability. A 6-point scale rang-ing from "unfamiliar" to skills at the"automatic" level is used. Participants canuse it as a pretest to evaluate their cur-rent level of skill rior to training, andthey can use it as a posttest or as an ongo-ing evaluation of their we)rk in their ownclassrooms and their growth as technol-ogy users.

3 7

32 OUTCOMES AND COMPETENCIES

COMPUTE (1989) has also developed aself-evaluation form for each of the sixmodules (see Appendix for an example ofa module evaluation form). For each com-petency, participants are to indicate on a4-point scale their relative familiarity withtechnology. Items rank from He.on't know"to "experienced with."

References

Blackhurst, A. E. (1990). Planning spe-cial education technology pre-serviceand in-service training, a presentationhandout. Lexington: University of Ken-tucky, Department of Special Education.

COMPUTE. (1989). Members packet.Way. De. MI: Coalition of Organizations inMichigan to Promote the Use of Technol-ogy in Special Education (COMPUTE).

Delbecq, A. L., Van de Ven, A. H. &Gustafson, D. H. (1973). Group Tech-niques for Program Planning: A guide tonominal group and delphi processes.Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresrnan & Com-pany.

Mistrett, S. G., Raimondi, S. L., & Bar-nett, M. P. (1990). Pres.hool integrationthrough technology systems. Buffalo:UCPA of Western New York.

National Council for Accreditation ofTeacher Education. (1986). NCATE ap-proved curriculum guidelines.Washington, DC: Author.

Niess, M. L. (1990, November). Prepar-ing computer using educators in a newdecade. The Computing Teacher. 10-15.

.16

OUTCOME: 1413 COMPETENCIES 33

e

e

s

Appendix

University of Kentucky Competencies 37

Example of University of Kentucky Self-Assessment Form 43

Michigan COMPUTE Competency 45

Example of Michigan COMPUTE Self-Evaluation Form 49

Trenton State College Competencies 51

' k 1

APPENDIX 35

TECHNOLOGY COMPETENCIES FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS

A. Edward BlackhurstDepartment of Special Education229 Taylor Education Building

University of KentuckyLexington, KY 40506-0001

(606) 257-4713

In order to use technology effectively in special education programs,teachers should be able to ...

Acquire a body of knowledge about the use of microcomputers and relatedtechnology in special education.

1. Explain historical developments and trends in the application ofmicrocomputers and related technology in special education.

2. Define terms and concepts related to technology applications in specialeducation.

3. Identify major issues associated with the use of technology in specialeducation.

4. Identify ways that microcomputers and related technology, such asinteractive video, robotics, and adaptive devices, can be incorporatedinto the special education curriculum to meet the instructional goalsand objectives of students.

5. Describe criteria for making decisions about the selection and purchaseof microcomputers and related technology.

6. Read, evaluate, and apply information about technology applications inspecial education that appear in the professional literature and trademagazines.

7. Describe findings of research on technology use in special education.

8. Participate in activities of professional organizations that focus uponapplications of technology in special education.

9. Maintain a professional development program to ensure the acquisitionof knowledge and skills about new developments in technology as theybecome available.

Evaluate microcomputer software and related materials for their potentialapplication in special education programs.

10. Identify the purpose of the instructional program, its objectives, andthe validity of its content.

APPENDIX 37

11. Determine the characteristics of learners for whom the program isappropriate.

12. Describe the format and ways information is presented to the learner.

13. Determine the extent of student control over the program.

14. Describe the commands required to use the materials, the academic andphysical demands placed on the student, and the speed and accuracy ofthe program.

15. Identify the type and frequency of feedback and reinforcement providedby the program.

16. Determine the extent of branching within the program.

17. Identify the options that exist to enable the teacher to modifyfeatures of the program.

18. Determine the adequacy of program documentation.

Develop a plan for technology use in a special education program.

19. Articulate goals and a philosophy for using technology in specialeducation.

20. Identify elements of the special education curriculum for whichtechnology applications are appropriate and ways they can be

implemented.

21. Determine the physical requirements for implementing various technologysystems in a special education classroom.

22. Ensure that special education students have equitable access totechnology in any plans that are developed.

23. Prepare guidelines and rules for technology use in the specialeducation classroom.

24. Identify resources available to support the use of technology inspecial education.

25. Develop a budget for technology applications in a special educationclassroom.

26. Identify funding sources for technology hardware, software, andaccessories.

27. Write proposals to obtain funds for technology hardware and software.

1 1

APPENDIX 38

Use teChnology in special education assessment and planning

28. Identify programs that can be used for assessing exceptional childrenand planning their educational programs.

29. Use microcomputers to administer tests to exceptional children.

30. Use software programs that can score and interpret the results ofstandardized tests.

31. Use microcomputers to generate assessment reports.

32. Use microcomputers to record observational data in special educationenvironments.

33. Use computer software programs to analyze, summarize, and reportstudent performance data to aid instructional decision making.

34. Use a microcomputer program to generate an Individualized EducationProgram (IEP).

35. Explain the pros and cons of computerized programs that generatb IEPs.

Use technology to facilitate instruction in special education prograns.

36. Use technology to support effective instructional practices.

37. Arrange the physical environment to facilitate the use of technology.

38. Teach special education students to operate equipment and runmicrocompt.:er software.

39. Teach students how to use microcomputers to increase their personalproductivity and independence.

40. Identify and use appropriate tutorial software programs.

41. Use drill and practice programs appropriately.

42. Incorporate simulation and problem solving programs into thecurriculum.

43. Use microcomputers to teach students written composition andcommunications skills.

44. Teach students to use microcomputers for telecommunications and toaccess electronic databases.

45. Use computers and related software for reinforcement.

46. Use peripheral devices, such as printers, hand controllers, modems, andgraphics tablets.

APPENDIX 39

47. Evaluate the effectiveness of technology applications in the specialeducation classroom.

48. Adhere to ethical standards when applying technology in specialeducation.

Use technology to compensate for learning barriers that are due tocommunication disorders, physical disabilities, or visual impairments.

49. Determine the adaptive switches, software, and related equipment neededfor students with communication disorders, physical disabilities, orvisual impairments.

50. Connect and use alternate keyboards, other adaptive input and outputdevices, and construct materials for their use.

51. Construct adaptive switches to control access to computers.

52. Use technology to enable students to control other devices to theirenvironment.

53. Use scanning devices and programs to facilitate single key and switchoperation of computers.

54. Use of speech synthesizer and the softwara that controls it.

55. Use electronic communication boards and augmentative communicationaids.

56. Use software and hardware that presents magnified text for partiallysighted students.

Dee the microcomputer to generate teadhing aids for the special educationclassroom.

57. Use software programs to produce signs, t-ansparency masters, and othervisual aids.

58. Use software programs to produce worksheets for student use.

59. Design databases that students can use to ire and retrieve

information.

60. Use instructional shell programs and authoring systems to developcomputer assisted instruction lessons.

61. Use test generation software programs to develop test banks and prepareexaminations.

62. Use instructional data graphing and analysis programs.

63. Use gradebook software programs to store and report student grades.

43APPENDIX 40

Use a microcomputer as an aid to personal productivity.

64. Use a word processor to prepare lesson plans, class notes,correspondence, and other written documentation.

65. Use software utility programs, such as mail merging programs andspelling checkers.

66. Use database programs to maintain student records and resource files.

67. Perform statistical analyses with microcomputer software.

68. Perform statistical analyses with microcomputer software.

69. Use telecommunication systems and electronic messages services (e.g.,SpecialNet).

70. Access information from electronic data bases to support professionalactivities (e.g., ERIC).

Disseminate information about applications of technology in specialeducation.

71. Maintain a resource file of information about technology in specialeducation.

72. Provide consultation and technical assistance to colleagues and tohandicapped individuals about the use of technology.

73. Serve as a resource to parents of exceptional children who havemicrocomputers and related equipment available for use at home.

74. Make presentations about technology use in special education to lay andprofessional groups.

75. Conduct in-service training on technology applications in specialeducation.

76. Prepare articles and reports about technology use in special education.

Assemble, operate, and maintain the components of technology systems inspecial education environment.

77. Connect audio and video equipment and input and output devises such asdisk drives, printers, monitors, speech synthesizers, graphics tablets,video systems, and modems.

78. Configure software to ensure that all of its features will workproperly with the equipment being used.

79. Explain operations that could cause hardware damage if not performed inan appropriate manner.

APPENDIX 41

80. State the environmental conditions under which various technologiesoperate most efficiently.

81. Demonstrate the proper care of microcomplter disks and describe theeffects that dust, magnetic fields, tempe:ature, liquids, and physicalabuse can have on them.

82. Use simple diagnostics to determine problems that may exist when apiece of equipment or a software program fail to operate properly.

83. Perform routine maintenance of a technology system.

Uae microcomputer operating system commands.

84. Initialize diskettes in preparation fcr using them to store informationfor various applications.

85. Make back-up copies of commercial software and copies of public domainsoftware using programs that will copy entire disks and programs thatwill copy one file at a time.

86. Use the operating system and utility software programs thataccompanying the computer being used.

87. Type and run computer programs that are printed in computer magazines.

4

APPENDIX 42

TECHNOLOGY COMPETENCIES FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION TEACHERS1

SELF-ASSESSMENT

A. Edward BlackhurstDepartment of Special Education229 Taylor Education Building

University of KentuckyLexington, KY 40506-0001

(606) 257-4713© 1990

DIRECTIONS: For each of the competency statemens, circle the letter that corresponds to your intcrest indeveloping either knowledge or skills Use the following key:

N = Not interested in developing knowledge or skills in this areaC = Already competent in this areaA = Limited knowledge in this trea; interested in developing an awarenessS = Have an awr need 1.) develop skills in this areaE = Have some s.aus: need to refine or expand them

NAME: DATE:

In order to use technology effectively in special education programs, teachers should be able to...

Acquire a body of knowledge about the use of microcomputers and related technology inspecial education.

1. Explain historical developments and trends in the application of microcomputersand related technology in special education. NC ASE

2. Define tcrms and concepts related to technology applications in special education. NC ASE3. Identify major issues associated with the use of technology in special education. NC ASE4. Identify ways that microcomputers and related technology, such as interactive video,

robotics, and adaptive devices,can be incorporated into the special educationcurriculum to meet the instructional goals and objectives of students.

5. Describe criteria for making decisions about the selection and purchase ofmicrocomputers and related technology.

6. Read, evaluate, and apply information about technology applications in specialeducation that appear in the professional literature and trade magazines.

7. Describe findings of research on technology use in special education.

8. Participate in activities of professional organizations that focus upon applicationsof technology in special education.

9. Maintain a professional development program to ensure the acquisition ofknowledge and skills about new developments in technology as theybecome available.

NCASE

NC ASE

NC ASENC ASE

NCASE

NCASE

'Permission is granted to duplicate this competency self-assessment for non-commercial use.

APPENDIX 4 ti 43

Special Edtmation InstructionalCompetencies in the Use of Technology

The following competencies are included in the Michigan Special Education Technology Plan. They have been usedas the basis for the development of the training modules developed by COMPUTE, and are referenced in each of themodules by number.

AWARENESS LEVEL (Awareness)

At this level information about technology is introduced. Individuals know little about technology, especially as aneducational tool, and may need to acquire a positive attitude about the use of technology in special education as wellas education in general. At this level the special educator will be able to:

1. Recognize the component parts, functions, and appropriate care of a microcomputer.

2. Use and Understand terms necessary to use microcomputers and technology effectively.

3. Recognize the need for preparing the handicapped to live and work in the information age, including the use oftechnology to compensate, remediate, communicate and control environments.

4. Recognize the need to integrate technology into the instructional curriculum for the handicapped.

5. Identify the general uses for technology in education to store and manipulate data with emphasis on the needs ofthe handicapped.

6. Identify the present uses for technology in the worldof work and for effective living for the handicapped.

7. Recognize the importance of being familiar with the documentation for hardware, software and adaptive devices.

8. Understand the importance of evaluating technology prior to purchase.

9. Develop an understanding of the input-output information processing model, including the impact that sensorydeficits have on the learner and how technology can be used to compensate for these deficits.

10. Understand the importance of planning and cost effectiveness in integrating technology into educationalsystems and into the curriculum.

11. Understand the use of telecommunications and networks.

KNOWLEDGE LEVEL (Knowledge)

The goal of this level is to provide a personal orientation to the special educator so that the professional canapproach the computer with relative comfort and have a broad understanding of its capacity. The special educatorwill have knowledge of:

12. The resources available for information about and assistance with the uses of technology with the handicapped.

13. Ways of integrating computers and other technology into the curriculum.

14. Implications that FERPA, copyright laws and licensing have on the implementation of applications within theschool setting.

APPENDIX 45

CAI Objectives Page 2

15. Appropriate uses of the following:

a. types of computer assisted instruction - CAIb. types of computer managed instruction - CMI (such as IEP and teacher management systemsc. applications software (such as word processing, spread sheet, data base management)d. emerging technologies (such as computer assisted videodisk instruction - CAVI)e. telecommunications and networksf. adaptive devicesg. shell programs adaptable to individualized content materialh. authoring systems

16. Use of technology as a tool for the following purposes:

a. To compensate incontrol of the environmentcommunicationmobility

b. To improve skills forlearningleisure time activitiesvocational activitiesbasic living skills

17. Components that comprise an appropriate evaluation of hardware, software and adaptive devices forinstructional uses.

18. Components that comprise an appropriate evaluation of software for:

a. instructional information (documentation, modification of content, etc.)b. educational adequacyc. technical adequacyd. compatibi- with hardware and adaptive devicese. appropriateness in meeting the needs of the handicapped.

19. Components that comprise an appropriate evaluation of adaptive devices.

20. Questions that need to be addressed prior to the purchase of adaptive devices taking into account thecharacteristics of the user and the device.

21. Characteristics of adaptive device categories, including.;

a. alternative switchesb. touch-sensitive input devicesc. speech and other non-touch inputd. speech outpute. modified displaysf. tactile outputg. special needs software

22. The need for developing a team approach and the resources available for information about and assistance withthe uses and evaluation of adaptive devices.

23. Organization and management of technology for effective educational use in the classroom and/or lab situation.

24. Resources available for information about and assistance with the uses of technology with the handicappedthrough user groups, and other human resources, banks, data bases, etc.

s

APPENDIX 46

a)

CAI Objectives Page 3

UTILIZATION LEVEL (Skill Development)

The goal of this level is to provide the skills needed by the special educator to implement computer applications formanagement and establish an understanding of computer's instructional value. The special educator will:

25. Communicate effectively with others using appropriate technological/computer terminology.

26. Identify and remedy common problems with hardware, software and adaptive devices.

27. Use hardware and appropriate software for basic computer operations, including "booting" a program,formatting a disk, backing up (copying) a disk and copying selected files to another disk.

28. Access and use software for

a. computer assisted instruction - CAI:1. drill & practice2. tutorial3. simulation4. problem solving5. utilities

b. shell programs adaptable to individualized content materialc. computer managed instruction - CMId. wad processing and data base managemente. telecommunications and networksf. adaptive devices

29. Write lesson plans which integrate technology into teaching specific skills to handicapped students.

30. Evaluate the appropriateness of hardware, software and adaptive devices for meeting the needs of handicappedlearners.

31. Evaluate software for instructional information, educational adequacy, technical adequacy and adaptive devices,etc.

32. Develop evaluation plans for hardware, software, adaptive devices, etc. that are applicable to specificpopulations and specific situations and/or educational systems.

33. Have a directed experience utilizing adaptive devices that compensate for specific student deficits.

APPENDIX 47

B -1

Self-Evaluation: Microcomputers in Special Education

For each of the items below, indicate your relative familiarity by placing a check mark ('1) in the appropriatecolumn.

Don't Brief Feel ExiriencedCOMPUTE Competency: Know Under-

standingComfor-table

With

1. Recognize the component parts, functions and appropriatehandling of a microcomputer.

2. Define terms necessary to use microcomputers effectively.

3. Recognize the need for preparing the handicapped to live andwork in the Information Age.

4. Describe different types of computer software.

5. Discuss issues such as integrating technology into thecurriculum, privacy, copyright and licensing.

6. Recognize the importance of being familiar with documentationfor hardware, software and adaptive devices.

7. Initialize and copy a diskette.

8. Know beginning strategies for troubleshooting.

9. Know resources for getting additional help with computers.

10. Know how microcomputers can best be used in special education.

Copyright 1987, COMPUTETechnology Literacy Module

APPENDIX5 o

49

Trenton State CollegeDepartment of Special Education

COMPETENCIES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

1.0 Make a computer ACCESSIBLE to individuals who have physical and/orsensory impairments.

1.1 Idettify simple assistive devices such as a keyguard andheadpointer.

1.2 Describe adaptive inputs, such as the Power Pad, Muppet Keys,Touch Window, Unicorn Expanded Keyboard, joystick and voice input;and adaptive outputs, such as a speech synthesizer, large fonts,and a braille printer, and explain who might benefit from theiruse.

1.3 Use simple adaptive inputs and outputs.

1.3.1 Use c Power Pad, Muppet Keys, Touch Window, UnicornBoard, or similar alternative input device.

1.3.2 Use an adaptive switch (with options from the AdaptiveFirmware Card) to write a short paragraph. (See 5.0below.)

1.3.3 Use a speech synthesizer.

1.3.4 Use a large print display.

1.4 Evaluate and use appropriate software for each of the adaptiveinputs and outputs (see 2.1 below).

1.5 Partinipate in a multidisciplinary evaluation of a person for theselection and placement of appropriate assistive devices, adaptiveinputs and/or outputs.

2.0 Use computer-assisted instruction (CAI) with handicapped individuals.

2.1 Evaluate and select appropriate software.

2.1.1 Determine the characteristics of learners for whom thesoftware is appropriate.

2.1.2 Identify the purpose of the software, its objectives,and validity of its content.

2.1.3 Describe the software format and the ways in whichinformation is presented to the learner.

2.1.4 Determine the extent of student control over the

APPENDIX 51

51

program.

2.1.5 Describe the computer-use commands. academic demands,and physical demands which the program places on thestudent.

2.1.6 Identify the type and frequency of feedback andreinforcement.

2.1.7 Determine the extent of branching within the program.

2.1.8 Identify options that enable the teacher to modifyfeatures of the program.

2.1.9 Identify options for record keeping.

2.1.10 Determine the adequacy of program documentation.

2.2 Use various types of CAI software

2.2.1 Use drill and practice programs

2.2.2 Use tutorial software.

2.2.3 Use simulation software.

2.2.4 Use problem-solving software.

2.3 Customize software.

2.3.1 Modify features of a CAI program for a particularstudent's needs.

2.3.2 Use a mini-authoring (shell) program to create a

customized program.

2.3.3 Create customized overlays for expanded keyboard.

2.4 Integrate CAI into the curriculum.

2.4.1 Match the content of selected software to the contentLnd process of the curriculum.

2.4.2 Determine student's existing computer skills.

2.4.3 Develop a plan for computer use by a particular student.

2.4.4 Utilize the record keeping features of selected CAIsoftware and base lesson plans on the information.

3.0 Use applications software appropriately with handicapped individuals.

3.1 Demonstrate the use of word-processing as a writing tool.

APPENDIX 52rc 9kJ 40

3.1.1 Select appropriate software program (see 2.1 above).

3.1.2 Identify requisite keyboarding (or adaptive input)skills.

3.1.3 Integrate the use of word-processing into subject areas.

3.2 Use word-processing, story-writing, and desk-top publishingprograms as aids in the teaching of writing and reading.

3.3 Integrate telecommunications activities into the curriculum.

3 3.1 Demonstrate an awareness of telecommunications networks.

3.3.2 Use a telecommunications network in the teaching ofwriting.

3.4 Integrate database and spreadsheet programs into the secondarycurriculum appropriately.

4.0 Enhance the COMMUNICATION ABILITIES of handicapped individuals whowould benefit from the use of electronic augmentative/alternativecommunication (AAC) systems.

4.1 Discuss the factors which must be considered when choosing an AACsystem for a handicapped individual, such as means of indication,vocabulary selection, symbol selection and placement, motordemands, cognitive demands, portability, speed, flexibility, cost,etc.

4.2 Describe how several AAC systems are used and the physical andmental demands each places on the user.

4.3 Demonstrate how to use a computer system as an alternativecommunication device.

4.3.1 Use an adaptive switch with an option on the AdaptiveFirmware Cazd.

4.3.2 Use the Power Pad, Muppet Keys, Unicorn Board, orsimilar device with appropriate communication program.

4.4 Carry on a simple conversation using a dedicated device such asthe Wolf, Alltalk, Lightalker, or similar device.

4.5 Collaborate with appropriate support staff in selecting anddesigning an AAC system for a handicapped individual.

APPENDIX 5 3 53

5.0 Use ADAPTIVE SWITCHES appropriately with handicapped individuals.

5.1 Demonstrate how to activate an adapted toy/device using a varietyof adaptive switches.

5.2 Describe the major uses of adaptive switches; providing access tocomputers, leisure activities, and mobility systems, asenvironmental controls, and being used for instructionalpurposes.

5.3 Describe the physical demands placed on the user by a variety ofadaptive switches, and discuss who would be likely to benefit fromthe use of each type.

5.4 Construct an adaptive switch for use by a handicapped person.

5.4.1 Carry out appropriate decision-making: Choose anappropriate switch for a particular person, decide whatit will be used for, and investigate placementpossibilities.

5.4.2 Perform the necessary electrical work.

5.4.3 Create an appropriate and sturdy housing for the switch.

5.4.4 Adapt a battery-powered toy/device using a batteryinterrupter or jack, and use with switch.

5.5 Make simple repairs to switches.

6.0 PLAN for the INTEGRATION OF COMPUTER USE by handicapped individuals ina special education setting.

6.1 Prepare a convincing statement to be presented to a buildingprincipal or school board on the potential benefits of computeruse by handicapped students.

6.1.1 Conduct a bibliographic search on CD-ROM.

6.1.2 Describe ways that microcomputers and related technologycan be incorporated into the special educationcurriculum to meet the instructional goal andobjectives of students.

6.1.3 Support your arguments with findings from the researchliterature on microcomputer use in special education.

6.1.4 Demonstrate awareness of legal and ethical issues (such1110as restrictions on copying software) and the need to

APPENDIX 54 54

provide equal access to technology to persons of allracial and ethnic groups, socioeconomic levels, gender,and handicapping conditions.

6.2 Identify resources which support the use of computers in the

classroom.

6.2.1 Demonstrate an awareness of technology resource centersin your state/area.

6.2.2 Demonstrate an awareness of national organizations suchas Closing the Cap, TAM/CEC, ISAAC, RESNA, and theSpecial Education Technology Center/CEC.

6.2.3 Identify software evaluation services, and use.

6.2.4 Identify relevant telecommunications networks such asS)ecialNET, Applelink, CompuServe, and the EducationalTechnology Network.

6.2.5 Identify possible funding sources.

6.2.6 Network with other technology users in the region(teachers, rehabilitation personnel, etc.).

6.3 Determine priorities for hardware and software acquisition.

6.4 Plan the classroom set-up: Computer work space, storage, student

scheduling.

6.5 Assemble and maintain the classroom's hardware and software.

6.6 Use basic computer commands for disk preparations.

6.6.1 Format disks for future use.

6.6.2 Make back-up copies of software programs.

6.7 Troubleshoot minor technical problems and/or be aware of available

resource people.

7.0 Use a computer to facilitate the completion of RELATEDRESPONSIBILITIES.

7.1 Use word-processing and selected utilities as aidsproductivity.

7.2 Use a telecommunications network to accessinformation on teaching handicapped individuals.

PROFESSIONAL

to personal

and/or share

7.3 Use a computer to produce teaching materials such as puzzles,overheads, and worksheets.

APPENDIX 55

7.4 Use a computer-assisted scoring program in assessment.

7.5 Participate in the development of an IEP through the use of anappropriate software package.

7.6 Use a data collection program to facilitate behavior management.

APPENDIXrz

56tl

g ill -

Trainer's Resource GuideTraining Materials Design Guidelines

Center forSpecialEducation

'Echnology

am A Project ofyr The Council for Exceptional Children

Funded byOffice of Special Education ProgramsU. S. Department of Education

5 7

Technology Training:A Thematic Focus of the Center

September 1991

Center for Special Education TechnologyThe Council for Exceptional Children

1920 Association DriveReston, VA 22091

703/620-3660

Center forSpecial Education

lbchnology

The information in this document is in the public domain. Readers are encouraged to copy and share it, butplease credit the Center for Special Education Technology.

This material was developed by the Center for Special Education Technology under Contract No.300-87-0115 with the OffIce of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. Thecontent, however, does not reflect the position or policy of OSEP/ED and no official endorsement ofthe material should be inferred.

Contents

Preface 1

The Design Process 3Viewpoint: Infusing Instructional Design Skills into Authoring Courses 7

by Gall Fitzgevald

Good Design for Print Materials 11Viewpoint: Successful Strategies for Desktop Publishing Workshops . 16

by Judith Sweeney

Good Design for Projected Media 19Viewpoint: Hooked on HyperCard 24

by Maly Anderson

Good Design for Video 27Viewpoint: Working with a Video Production Company 33

by Colleen Haney

Good Design for Computer instruction 35Viewpoint: Tips on Teaching Authoring 40

by Gall Fiugerald

Good Design for Videodisc Materials 45Viewpoint: Using Video interactively in Your Class 50

by Ted Hasselbring

Trainer-Recommended Software and Training Resources 53

o

ir

PREFACE

Technology training has been a theme forseveral information products andactivities of CEC's Center for SpecialEducation Techn( logy, a federally fundedinformation center.

This document, Trainer's ResourceGuide: Training Materials Design Guide-lines, and its companion guide, Trainer'sResource Guide: Program PlanningIdeas, were developed at the request oftrainers wishing to have references andmodels to aid their training efforts. Train-ing Materials Design Guidelines containsguidelines for preservice and inservicetrainers interested in designing their owntraining materials. It is not intended to beall encompassing; rather, it concentrateson the design of five types of training ma-terials and includes references for morecomplete discussions of each of these fivetypes. Each of the chapters has been de-signed as a stand alone piece to fit individ-ual trainer needs.

A unique feature of this guide is thepresence of 'Viewpoint" sections placed atthe end of each chapter. These viewpointsare based on informal conversations withexperienced trainers who offer their ad-vice, thoughts, ideas, and successes. Wehope that by sharing advice and lessonslearned by other trainers, the task of train-ing will be made easier for you.

We thank the trainers who contributedtheir ideas to this guide: Mary Anderson,Center for Special Education Technology;Gail Fitzgerald, West Virginia University;Colleen Haney, Pennsylvania Assistive De-vice Center; Ted Hasselbring, PeabodyCollege, Vanderbilt University; and JudithSweeney, University of Connecticut.

The Center would also like to thank thereview panel members, who gave valuablesuggestions throughout the developmentof both Trainer's Resource Guides: JoanBasile, Georgia Learning Resources Sys-tem; Michael Behrmann, George MasonUniversity; Janis Bing, Texas EducationService Center, Region 6; Kathy Hurley,IBM; Jeffrey Messerer, NortheasternIllinois University; Lewis Polsgrove, Indi-ana University; Barbara Reeves, Ohio Uni-versity; and Pamela Ross, INNOTEK.Additional reviews for this guide were pro-vided by Jerry Chaffin, University of Kan-sas, and Gail Fitzgerald, West VirginiaUniversity.

PREFACE 1

6 0

THE DESIGN PROCESS

This section gives you an overview ofhow to go about designing trainingmaterials.

Importance of Training Materials

Technology trainers use training materi-als to illustrate concepts, emphasizepoints, and clarify details. For example, apreservice trainer might use a videotapesegment to illustrate how a classroomteacher incorporates the computer in alesson on geography. Or an inservicetrainer might hand out a computerstartup sheet as a reference for the class-room teacher participants to use in theirown classes. Or a technolog trainermight use an interactive video simulationto clarify the assessment skills of his orher students when determining an appro-priate augmentative communication de-vice. Good training materials can helptrainers get instructional messages acrossto their students.

Tell me and I'll forget; show me and I'llremember: involve me and I'llunderstand.

Zen Proverb

Use Existing Materials

Trainers can either use existing materi-als or create their own. The decision to de-velop instructional materials is asignificant one because developing goodtraining materials, especially some of the

more sophisticated high-tech media,takes time.

Use the Directory of Technology Train-ing Materials, developed by the Centerfor Special Education Technology, to lo-cate appmpriate training materials.

Create New Materials

If you decide to create your own train-ing materials, it's a good idea to followguidelines that other developers have de-rived to ?roduce effective materials. Thisdocument provides basic guidelines andrefers you to other sources for more in-depth coverage (see the heading "ForMore Information" in each chapter).

Before rushing to write or produce aproduct, take time to think through theproject. Planning is the key to designingand producing good instructional materi-als. Begin with identifying what the pur-pose of the intended training material is,what the needs and existing skills of thelearner are, how the content will be pre-sented, and how the training material willbe used and evaluated.

Many instructional design models pro-vide frameworks for developing materials.They identify the important elements inplanning and producing the materials.The models also tend to be comprehen-sive: as you work through a model, youcomplete the various development tasksin an efficient order. Many activities buildon earlier tasks.

A well-known, formal instructional de-velopment model is offered by Dick andCarey (1990) (see "Dick/Carey SystemsApproach," below). It is an all-encompass-ing model designed for entire courses.Other models have been designed for spe-cific types of instructional materials, suchas Alessi and Trollip's (1985) model forcomputer assisted instruction (CAI) (see"Alessi and Trollip's 8-Step Model,"below). As a developer, you will probablywant to adapt an existing model to fit your

THE DESIGN PROCESS 3

6 1

Dick/Carey Systems Approach Instructional Design Model

1. Identify an instructional goal.2. Conduct an instructional analysis.3. Identify entry behaviors and characteristics.4. Write performance objectives.5. Develop criterion-referenced test items.6. Develop an instructional strategy.7. Develop and/or select instruction.8. Design and conduct the formative evaluation.9. Revise instruction.

10. Conduct summative evaluation.

Source: Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction (3rd ed.).Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.

needs (see Gail Fitzgerald's comments inInfusing Instructional Design Skills," atthe end of this chapter).

Development Steps

Generally, design models have four com-ponents:* Plan. Determine the material's

purpose and specific trainingobjective, consider the prerequisiteskills and needs of the adult learner,define the content and approach ofthe presentation, and select themedium.

* Draft-Write-Revise. Take theconstraints and factors identified inthe plan stage and create an excitingdraft of the material, sketch visuals,incorporating elements of effectiveinstruction, try out the material, andrearrange or revise the draft based onthe tryout.

* Produce. Render the artwork, formatand prepare printing masters, tapethe video, and program the computer.Often production is conducted in twophases: A small part of the materials(such as a section of a computer

lesson) is prepared and tried out; andthen, based on the results, the rest ofthe production is completed.

* Evaluate and Revise. Try out thefinal product on potential studentsand revise it as needed (see thesection "Testing and Revisin( later inthis chapter).

Selecting a Medium

One early step in most instructional de-velopment models is determining the ap-propriate medium, or format, of yourinstructional material, such as print,video, or projected media.* Educational objectives. Select a

format based on your educationalobjectives. Choose a medium thatbest supports your objective,according to the medium's inherentqualities. For example, if you wantto demonstrate how a child withdisabilities can interact withclassmates through an augmentativecommunication device, then youmight decide to use a videotape withexamples of classroom socializing-

4 ) 4., THE DESIGN PROCESS

9.

because videotape can capturemotion well.Practical considerations. Often, morepractical considerations mayinfluence your choice of format.These factors include affordability,ease of use and availability ofequipment, and reliability. As atechnolog trainer, be aware of anadditional biasthat of favoringhigh-tech solutions. More complextechnology does not necessarilyensure better instruction. Lower techformats may actually be moreappropriate. For example, tocommunicate key ideas, a simpleoverhead transparency may be moreavailable and reliable than a projectedcomputer screen.Cost effectiveness. If you teach acourse only once to a few people or ifthe content of the training will beoutdated quickly, you may not find itcost effective to develop elaboratehigh-tech materials for the training.

Testing end Revising

You will discover that designing instruc-tional materials is an iterative process

as you try the materials out, they will gothrough many draft and revision stages.

To increase the potential effectivenessof the instructional material, you mustbuild testing and revision into the pro-cess. Too often, when materials are devel-oped, the developers feel such relief whenthey are **finished" that they make no at-tempt to determine if the materials actu-ally work as planned.

Test the materials with colleagues andstudents and revise them based on feed-back throughout the development pro-cess. This feedback is often called alphatesting orformative evaluation. Forwidely used and disseminated materials,be sure to conduct more extensive fieldtesting (often called beta testing, orsummative evaluation).

Dissemination

Creating your own instructional materi-als allows you to present information tofit your particular class requirements andneeds of your students. Designing Just foryour class often simplifies production.Keep in mind, however, that the materialsyou create may be useful to other train-ers, so in your initial planning, you may

Alessi and Trollip's 8-Step Model for Developing Computer-BasedInstruction

1. Define your purpose.2. Collect resource materials.3. Generate ideas for the lesson.4. Organize your ideas for the lesson.5. Produce lesson displays on paper.6 Flowchart the lesson.7. Program the lesson.8. Evaluate the quality and effectiveness of the lesson.

Source: Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (1985). Computer-based instruction: Methodsand development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

THE DESIGN PROCESS63

5

want to consider the material's exportabil-ity. Increasingly important is the require-ments of federaaly funded grant recipientsto disseminate resulting materials to aswide an audience as possible.

Dissemination considerations influencedesign decisions. If you decide to dissemi-nate your materials to others, design forthe lowest common denominator of yourchosen hardware system. For example, ifyou are designing a CAI program on theMacintosh, use the Mac SE and its stan-dards, even though the larger screen ofthe Mac II is available.

If you disseminate your product, pro-vide ample documentation. Give sugges-tions for how to use the material.Describe where the materials flt into thecurriculum. Provide supplementary activi-ties and handouts.

For More Information

Alessi, S., & Trollip, S. (1991). Computer-based instruction: Methods anddevelopment (3rd Ed.). EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

An updated edition of the classic. This ref-erence describes a CAI design model stepby step with many examples for eachstep. Available from: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,P.O. Box 500, Englewood Cliffs, NJ07632; Tel: 201/592-2000.

Allred, K. F. & Locatis, C. (1988). Re-search, instructional design, and new

technology. Journal of InstructionalDevelopment 11(1), 2-5.

Describes three instructional designs in-volving new interactive medig: scenario-based, hypermedia, and parailel systemdesigns. Looks at research on each ofthese designs in terms of intrinsic motiva-tion, aptitude for learning, and learnercontrol of instruction.

Briggs, L. J. (Ed.). (1991 ). Instructionaldesign: Principles and applications(2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educa-tional Technology Publications.

Contains the basic theoretical and proce-dural design model. Aedresses needs as-sessment, goal analysis, and developmentof appropriate instructional and evalua-tion strategies. Includes how the designcan be modified or adapted for individualeducational institutions. Available from:Educational Technology Publications, 720Palisade Avenue, Englewood Cliffs, NJ07632; Tel: 201/871-4007.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1990). The system-atic design of instruction (3rd ed.).Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.

Describes a comprehensive design model.Discusses learning outcomes, learninganalysis, objectives, subordinate skills,and lesson strategies. Availablefrom:Scott, Foresman & Company, 1900 E.Lake Avenue, Glenview, IL 60025;Tel: 3121729-3000.

6 THE DESIGN PROCESS

A Viewpoint on

THE DESIGN PROCESS:

Infusing InstructionalDesign Skills intoAuthoring Courses

by Gail FitzgeraldWest Virginia University

I have been using the infusion approachto teach instructional design principlesas a part of computer applicatior scourses at West Virginia University. Thecourses include projects for students atseveral levels of technologicalcompetence and experience. At the firstlevel, students learn how to evaluatesoftware. In lab activities andassignments, students apply principles ofinstructional design to evaluate the majortypes of software programs:drill-and-practice, tutorial, simulation,problem solving, and student tools. At thesecond level, students use more technicalinformation in designing computer-basedlearning materials with mini-authoring,shell programs. After creating simplelessons, students critique their lessonsaccording to principles of effectiveinstructional design of CAI materials. Atthe third level, advanced studentsbecome involved in hypermedia or "openscreen" authoring. To create their CAImaterials from "scratch," they follow asystematic process approach based on aninstructional design and development(IDD) model.

At this third level, I use an overall in-structional design and development (IDD)model as a course organizer and take stu-dents step-by-step through the process.

The students in these sessions are typi-cally teachers who use CM materialsextensively in their classrooms; or theymay be graduate students who want tolearn more powerful authoring programs.Most have no formal training in instruc-tional design of computer-basedmaterials. They may have developed someknowledge through using software andhave an understanding of how softwaretypes differ and important features ofeach. Although they have some insight inthis area, they have not had formal in-struction. Therefore, when they beginauthoring, they basically operate on intu-ition. At this point, formalized instructionon CAI design gives them structure and in-formation.

There are many different IDD models inthe literature. For the novice designer,they all seem theoretical and esoteric. Itry to make tin. IDD model concrete andrealistic by providing examples ofteachers' work in authoring. The IDDmodel I use is a hybrid model that I hal eadapte.; from different sources. It in-cludes special features to make it fit theTutor-Tech authoring program used atthe master's level. The model is quite ge-neric; it can easily be adapted for similarhypermedia authoring programs:HyperStudio or HyperScreen for theApple II, HyperCard for the Macintosh,and Linkway for the IBM (see Figure I ).

I use this model in class to structuremy teaching, provide the course organiza-tion, and set requirements for projects.Steps 1 and 2 guide teachers through de-termining the need ;',r lessondevelopment and preplanning. The deci-sions made at the preplanning stage focuson the "what" of instructionthe need fordeveloping a CAI lesson, who the targetpopulation is, what the lesson goals are,what content to present, and how the con-tent will be organized, sequenced, anddivided into smaller parts. Also, at thispreplanning stage, I identify prerequisiteskills for the target learners and evalua-tion procedures for the materials.

THE DESIGN PROCESS 7

Figure 1Need

Lesson Design I-

Target PopulationGoalsOrganization of ContentPrerequisite SkillsOff-line InstructionEvaluation Plan

Flowchart or SchematicContentInteractivityResponse TypesBranchingScoring

Authoring

Select Authoring ProgramInstructional PagesRemedial PagesMotivational FeedbacicOn-line AssessmentOff-line Materials

Pilot TestirTh

Revision 1-

Validation

Courseware Authoring ProcessFitzgerald, 1991

Screen DesignText, Spelling, GrammarGraphics, Audio, VideoConsistency of FormatsExecutionStudent Observation

Revision

4M11116

Student AchievementMaintenanceGeneralization

Step 3 is the lesson design stage. Activi-ties at this stage guide students throughdefining the mechanics of the lesson; forexample, how the lesson will operate. Stu-dents organize the lesson content,flowchart its sequence, and plan instruc-tional interactions for the learner.Students plan type of responses, branch-ing, and recordkeepingand they mustcomplete all these instructional decisionsbefore they sit down at the computet andbegin to author the lesson.

I have found that when students skipsome of these planning and design stepsand just sit down and "wing it" as they go,they are in total chaos within a very shorttime. They get lost within the structure ofthe lesson because each screen they de-sign with multiple options leads tomultiple pages and they lose track ofwhere each page links. When they don'thave. a plan, they don't know where theyare or where to go. It's much more diffi-cult to unscramble a lesson to make it

8 t; 6 THE DESIGN PROCESS

work correctly after it's aaxed than it isto flowchart the lesson and create it fromup-front planning. I spend several ses-sions working on these pre-planning andflowcharting skills before the students doactual authoring.

Step 4, the authoring stage, involvesteaching the mechanics of the selected au-thoring system. With the Tutor-Techauthoring program, instruction focuseson how to create the various pages andhow to link them. Skills include editing.adding graphics, changing fonts, manag-ing lesson files, and setting uprecordkeeping. The Courseware Author-ing Process model (Fitzgerald, 1991)refers to the three basic page types cre-ated with Tutor-Tech: instructional pages,remedial pages, and motivational feed-back screens.

After the lessons are authored, we re-turn to Step 5 of the model to guide pilottesting, or formative evaluation, of the les-son. The basic task here is to determinewhether the lesson works as the studentintended it to work. This involves havingoutsiders run the lesson, check all links,evaluate screen design, and review consis-tency and accuracy. Within the class,other students serve as peer reviewers toexamine each other's lessons and give sug-gestions. Also, learners should beobserved using the lessons to check fordifficulties.

Step 6 leads the student througl. .dating the materials using a group of

"target" students to evaluate learner out-comes. Final revisions and packaging ofthe lessons are generally done after thegraduate course is finished.

As an extension of the CAI authoringcourses, I've started a user's group forteachers involved In authoring their ownCAI materials. This group provides a net-work for teachers to share their lessonsand a forum to review each other's materi-als. In my work in Iowa, the user's groupprimarily used a newsletter to link devel-opers together. In West Virginia, we arestarting a group made up of graduate stu-dents and teachers in th., ileld usingTutor-Tech. Within this forum, more ad-vanced information on CAI design will beprovided and multimedia applicationswill be showcased.

My basic recommendations for teachertrainers who incorporate instructional de-sign of CAI materials into courses are to:(a) select a planning model, (b) use thatmodel as the course organizer, and (c)lead students through the steps of thatprocess as they author and evaluate theirCAI materials. The instructor must modelthe steps of instructional design and devel-opment throughout the course andsequentially teach the component skills.Ongoing support will help teachers extend14tr authoring skills to more advancedApplications and to share teacher-createdmaterials with others.

THE DESIGN PROCESS9

f;7 tte

GOOD DESIGN FORPRINT MATERIALS

This section gives you some designsuggestions for developing print products.

Handouts and supplementary print ma-terials are mainstays for technolov train-ers. For example, trainers design softwarestartup cards as handy references forworkshop participants. Trainers writesupplemental readings to update textbookchapters. Print materials are easy to useand familiar to trainers and students.Well-designed handouts and supplemen-

tary print references catch the student'sattention and aid the learning process,making the training experience more suc-cessful (see example below).

The design of print products has re-ceived more attention over the past fewyears with the introduction of desktoppublishing. Trainers are not only writingbut also formatting and typesetting theirown high-quality products, using their of-fice computers.

Development Steps

Even though print products are so famil-iar, they should still be considered "train-ing materials" and be developedsystematically, following an instructionaldevelopment model.

Typical development might include thefollowing four steps:* Plan. Determine the purpose of the

document, analyze students' needs,and identify how best to conveyinformation.

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GOOD DESIGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS

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* Draft and Write. Write a draft of themanuscript, try out the draft with acolleague or potential trainee, andrevise and edit the document basedon the try-out information. Anyillustrations need to be sketched.

* Production. Lay out the page andprepare the document using desktoppublishing. Charts and graphs needto be rendered.

* Evaluate and Revise. Try out theformatted document and revise it asneeded.

Writing the Document

Content Jncluded in print materialsshould be based on an analysis of thelearning tasks and the needs of the stu-dent; that is, you should include only thefacts and examples that will help the stu-dent learn. Extraneous informationshould be put in appendixes or omittedentirely. Short reference lists can referlearners to more extensive, in-depth infor-mation.

Clear, concise writing increases textreadability and comprehension. Use theactive voice and active verbs when creat-ing sentences. Shorten sentences for eas-ier comprehension. Divide longparagraphs into shorter ones to improvereadability.

After the document is written, it nctto be edited and revised. Documentsshould follow an established style. "Style"used here refers to nongrammatical struc-ture elements, such as word capitaliza-tion and hyphenation, punctuation, andreference citation. The American Psycho-logical Association has a well regardedstyle manual used widely in education(and in this guide). The Chicago Manualof Style and the U. S. Government Print-ing Office Style Manual are also fre-quently used. Often an institution willcreate its own "house" style. Whateverstyle you choose, follow it consistentlythroughout the document.

Page Designs

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12 GOOD DEESGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS

It is also a good idea to allow a profes-sional editor to polish the text. Substan-tive editing deals with the clarity of theinformation as a whole, the tone of thedocument, and the organization of theparagraphs and sentences. Technical edit-ing concentrates on correct grammar andconsistent use of style elements. Oncechanges have been made, the revisedmanuscript needs to be proofread againstthe edited version to make sure changeswere made and no additional errors intro-duced.

Tables and Charts

Tables, bar charts, and line chartsbreak up the page, add visual interest,and increase comprehension. Print docu-ments can accommodate detailed tablesfor reference, because the page can bestudied at length, put down, and returnedto as necessary. Yet, charts and graphsmay be better to use than complex tablesbecause they can show relationships at aglance. Simplified tables may be betterthan complex tables to communicate theinformation. Before including a com-prehensive table of data in a document,determine what your purpose is for incor-porating the data and consider the designalternatives.

Production

You can produce print materials withcomputer word processing programs andthen format them either through the sameword processing program or anothermore graphics-oriented desktop publish-ing software. Word processing programsoffer several formatting options: largetype, bold letters, indents, and columns.Desktop publishing programs provideeven greater options: variety in fonts (typestyles), text and column manipulation ca-pabilities. and inseition of artwork.

Generally, good page layouts are sim-ple; material is presented so that the stu-dent can read it quickly and understand iteasily. Good page layout helps the eyemove across the printed page. The spac-ing of lines and paragraphs, and theamount of white space in margins and be-twee:i sections and headings ail play apart in defining and clarifying the struc-ture of the text (see "Page Designs," above,and "Headline and Text Type Styles,"below). Mere is a sense of balance andproportion between the text and other de-sign elements.

However, with the advent of desktoppublishing, some print products havebeen overloaded with "design" featuresand are tacky, hard-to-read publications.Restraint is needed; as is design assis-tance. Trainers can hire graphic artists to

Headline and Text Type Styles

Serifs are short lines or embellishmentsto a letter at the upper or lower ends ofthe letter. Serif type faces have theseextra lines, san serif types faces do not.

This is serif type.

This is san serif type.

San Serif Headline/Serif TextSan serif type is good for headlinesagainst serif type because it providescontrast to serif text copy. Serif text iseasy to read in large blocks of type be-cause the form of the letters aids intheir identification.

GOOD DESIGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS 13

Design Considerations

Follow these seven principles when designing your document.foportionThe size of each design element should be based on its importance.

2. DirectionThe design should guide the reader through the publication.3. ConsistencyUse an integral style throughout the document.4. ContrastProvide dynamic interest.5. Total PictureConsider the entire document as the design.6. RestraintSimplicity is vital to design.7. Attention to DetaiiProofreading and correcting spelling mistakes are important.

Source: Parker, R. C. (1990). Looking good in print (2nd ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: VentanaPress.

produce their publications. A more do-it-yourself approach involves consulting atext in desktop publishing design, such asthe ones by Parker (1988, 1989, 1990)and Stanley (1989) listed 'al "For More In-formation." (See "Design Considera-tions," above.)

It is important to proofread the format-ted document before it is printed. Manydesktop publishing programs do notallow you to use the spell checker oncethe document has been formatted, butsome programs (such as Aldus Pagema-ker 4.0) do feature a spell checker thatcan be used on the final formatted docu-ment.


Cole, M., & Odenwald, S. (1990). Desktoppresentations. New York: AMACOM,American Management Association.

Includes extensive information ondesktop publishing and design features.Compares various software programs,desktop printers. Available from:AMACOM, American Management Awocia-tion, 135 West 50th Street, New York, NY10020; Tel: 518/891-5510.

Felker, D. B., Pickering, F., Charrow, V.R., Holland, V. M., & Rcdish, J. C.(1981). Guidelines for document de-

signers. Washington, DC: American In-stitutes for Research.

A compilation of what is known about thetext of a document-based on research con-ducted to "make documents easier toread and understand." The authors de-scribe 25 principles, give examples, offercommon sense advice, and summarize re-search. Sections include principles for or-ganizing text, writing sentences, and usingtype and graphics. Includes a completebibliography.

Parker, R. C. (1988). Looking good inprint: A guide to basic design fordesktop publishing. Chapel NC:Ventana Press.

Describes the fundamentals of good de-sign and how they can be applied to a vari-ety of desktop publishing projects.Examples translate graphic abstracts tospecific page layouts. The author showshow minor adjustments can result inmajor improvements in appearance. Chap-ters are devoted to newsletters, charts,and graphs. Books and training materialsare only briefly mentioned. Available

from: Ventana Press, P.O. Box 2468,Chapel Hill, NC 27515; Tel: 919/942-0220.

Parker, R. C. (1989). The makeoverbook: 101 Design solutions for

14 GOOD DESIGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS

desktop publications. Chapel Hill, NC:Ventana Press, Inc.

This book offers 101 actual "before" and"after" examples of improved desktop pub-lishing design using basic techniques. Itshows how printed materials can be dra-matically improved, often with just a fewsimple revisions. Available from: VentanaPress, P.O. Box 2468, Chapel Hill, NC27515; Tel: 919/942-0220.

Stanley, M. L. G. ((1989). Exploringgraphic design: A short course indesktop publishing. Eugene, OR: Inter-national Society for Technology inEducation.

Offers an overview of essential princi-ples of design and how to apply them topractical problems. Describes how toplan and produce newsletters, manuals,

and books. Includes chapters on typogra-phy, type classification, and layout and de-sign principles. Availablefrom:International Society for Technology in Ed-ucation, University of Oregon, 1787 AgateStreet, Eugene, OR 97403; Tel: 503/346-4414 or 346-4429.

Stoughton, M. S. (1989). Substanceand style: Instruction & practice incopyediting. Alexandria, VA: Editorial Ex-perts, Inc.

An excellent guide to APA, GPO, andChicago editing stylesas well as Associ-ated Presswith examples and studyexercises. Available from: Editorial Ex-perts, Inc., 66 Canal Center Plaza,Alexandria, VA 22314; Tel: 703/683-0683.

GOOD DESIGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS 7 215

A Viewpoint on

PRINT MATERIALS:

Successful Strategies forDesktop PublishingWorkshops

by Judith SweeneyUniversity of Connecticut

We've been conducting workshops ondesktop publishing for about 6 years.Over the years the workshops haveevolvedteacher interest has changedand we've gotten more efficient. The fol-lowing are some strategies that work forus.

Desktop Publishing as a Professional Tool

Previously, we taught Publish It andNews Room to teachers so they could usethose programs to help their studentspublish their work. However for the past3 years we've concentrated on teachingPagemaker as a professional tool forteachers. We've found that teachers wantto use desktop publishing to make theirown jobs easier when they develop hand-outs, manuals, and training materials.They are still interested in using desktoppublishing with students for poetry booksand flyers but that is not their main To _us.Teachers really want to use it for them-selvesto become better teachers.

Pagemaker has several attractive fea-tures. You can use a scanner and bring aphotograph into the document very easily.Pagemaker lets you crop and size thephotos for publication. We do color sepa-rations for our brochures with it.Pagemaker is as fancy as we want to get,and yet as simple as needed for a teacher

who only wants to make a "Fire DrillStay in Line" sign for her class. Pagema-ker gives you a lot of room to grow.

Hands-on Essentials

With desktop publishing, you can't justlecturethere must be hands-on experi-ence. I've found that a ratio of 1 personwho knows desktop publishing to every 5people makes the class move along at avery good pace. The knowledgeable per-son can be a participant. For instance, atthe last ConnSENSE conference work-shop, among the 17 people we had 2instructors and 3 participants knowledge-able in desktop publishing. That workedout fairly well. The best class I ever con-ducted had just three peoplethat wasideal in my mind. Every person shouldhave his or her own computer. If you putthree people on a computer, you will al-ways have one person hanging back andnever touching the keys. People don't re-ally learn unless they do it themselves.

Some people come to our workshopwith out basic computer skills. These peo-ple need to be brought up to speed on thecomputer, quickly, so they can catch upwith the class. I'm not sure how we aregoing to solve this problem.

A desktop publishing workshop needsto be scheduled for more than 3-4 hours,preferably over 2 days to allow people tohave time for everything to sink in.

Public Domain Starter Disk

Each person in our training sessiongets a disk full of text files, paragraphs,and stories. The disk also hag public do-main graphics and everything else thatmight be needed to lay on a page. It's allon one disk. The workshop participantsdon't waste time typing or looking for pic-tures. When the workshop is over, theparticipants can take their disks homeand use the material for their own publica-tions because everything is in the publicdomain.

167:3 GOOD DESIGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS

The disks also contain templates thatwe have created. There's a template formaking overhead transparencies, busi-ness cards, and flash cards. Written onthe templates are notes for that particulartool, so the user doesn't have to go backto the workshop notes to know how touse the template. For example, on theoverhead transparency template, we use adotted line to indicate the usable space onthe transparency and add notes for use atthe top of the frame, such as: "Always putyour information inside the box because itwon't show on the overhead projector. Besure you get the right kind of traaspar-ency film, otherwise it will go throughyour laser printer and come out black."

Pertinent Handouts

We try to limit the material we provideto workshop participants. We give outonly one handout that's not more than 10pages. It includes information that di-rectly relates to our training sessions.The pages include a series of key screenpictures that illustrate exactly what we doin class. We use arrows to focus attentionand give brief explanations of the proce-dure. We've had people call back and askfor duplicates of the handout; it seems tobe valuable. It provides a simplified step-by-step explanation of the differentoperations. The workshop participantshave alr eady gone through the procedureonce in class, the handout helps thempractice it by themselves.

Basic Page Design

We teach basic page design. For in-stance, we talk about fontshow tochoose them and what they mean psycho-logically. We also teach the participantsabout designing for different audiences.We discuss white space and how not to beafraid of using it. Teachers want to fill upevery square inch of paper, so our work-shop stresses where white space can beadded. The very first assignment includesan activity where they have to add whitespace.

A few simple rules are discussed inclass. Basically we tell the class what de-signs are found today in manypublications. For example:

1. Use san serif type for headlines, seriftype for text.

2. Use an odd number of columns.3. Make horizontal lines twice as thick

as vertical lines.

4. Use twice as much white space abovea new heading, as below the headingand before the text.

These are very simple rules, formulasreally, but they help the particip,mtsavoid pitfalls when they are '!rst layingout a page.

We use overhead transparencies toshow pages of recent publications andthen talk about their design. This presen-tation is done early in the workshop toget the participants thinking about designelements. We ask them if the exampleshows good design and if it follows therules presented in class. If it doesn't, weask them what they would do differently.That seems to work well. We know peopleare becoming aware of page design whenthey come in the next day with TIME mag-azine and say, "Oh, look at this. Theyused three colunms."

Pagemaker Layers

Pagernaker allows you to layer" ele-ments to create a design. This is oftenconfusing to the novice. In Pagemaker,for example, you can place a black box onthe bottom layer and then add a secondlayer of a white box the same size and offto the center so that it looks like ashadow. Inside the box you can put a cir-cle, as the third layer, and inside thecircle you can put words as the fourthlayer. The problem is that sometimes thenovice wants to get to the bottom layerbut doesn't know how. If you click on thatarea, there's so much stuff on top of itcovering the bottom layer, you can't get

GOOD DESIGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS

7 417

back to that layer. That is the reason nov-ices sometimes lose their text on thescreen. It is really just behind a layer.

To illustrate this concept to workshopparticipants, I use transparencies. I drawa black box, lay a white box on top ofthat, and build the layers as you would onthe screen. That illustration helps them tounderstand. Once they can picture the lay-

ers in their mind, we can move on to thecommands that allow them to go throughthe layers one by one.

These are some of the strategies thatwork for us in our workshops. Currently,we plan to introduce Pagemaker to high-school students in Hartford, so we mayhave additional insights in a year or two.

18 GOOD DESIGN FOR PRINT MATERIALS

70

GOOD DESIGN FORfb PROvECTED MEDIA

This section will help you developeffective overhead transparencies, slides,and computer presentation displays.

Good technology trainers plan most oftheir class sessions for student hands-onactivities. Some content, however, de-mands a lecture" format. Trainers oftenillustrate their presentations with keyword outlines, charts, and graphs pro-jected onto a large screen for the entireclass to see. Overhead transparencies andslides remain popular media for projec-

tion; but many trainers are now designingvisuals on the computer and projectingthese frames onto the large screen.

Because projected media are so simpleto use and produce, trainers often forgetthe design constraints for this mediumand simply copy a visual designed for adifferent medium (see '`From Print to Pro-jection," below). Inappropriate visualsand poorly designed visuals can detractfrom a presentation.

I couldn't see any of the transparenciesthe speaker showedthe print was sosmall. This speaker insulted hisaudience. And you call him an expert?

Evaluation comment from symposiumparticipant

Development Steps

When designing projected media, youshould follow these four steps:* Plan. Decide the purpose of the

presentation, analyze the nature ofthe audience and their information

From Print to Projection

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Read manual

Know vocabulary

Gather informationHave reasonable expecunonsMake backups

Stay Calm

The text on the left was designed for the printed page. The text on the right was de-signed few projection. Projected images need to be simpler, less complex visuals thanthose used in print materials.

GOOD DESIGN FOR PROJECTED MEDIA

7 619

Design Tips for Projected Media

Use only key words and phrases.Limit text to 6-7 words per line, 6-7 lines per slide.

Use capitals and lower case letters, instead of all capitals.Use lettering readable at 10 feet (type size no smaller than 18 point).

Use charts and graphs whenever appropriate.

Source: 3M. (n.d.). 3M transparency preparation guidelines. St. Paul, MN: 3M.

needs, and determine what topics willbe covered.Draft-Write-Sketch. Draft lecturenotes and sketch visuals.Produce Visuals. Render theartwork, take the photographs, and,as needed, program the computer.Evaluate and Revise. Try out thepresentation with its illustrativevisuals and revise both, based ontryout feedback.

Presentation Planning

As you outline the content of the presen-tation, prepare thumbnail sketches andpossibly even storyboard visuals. Plan thevisuals at the same time as the oral pre-sentation to make sure they are an inte-gral part of your presentation. Don't gooverboard on visuals, however; projectedvisuals are not meant to carry the contentof the entire lesson. They are used to high-light important points and clarify orillustrate concepts.

Visuals can be text (word) frames,charts, graphs, diagrams, illustrations,and photographs.

Text Frames

All too often trainers produce visualsfrom printed copy. This is a major erroras the visual is difficult to read and pro-jects poorly. Projected visuals need to be

bolder and simpler than visuals forprinted materials. Simplicity is importantfor text frames; keep text to a minimum.Use keywords, not entire sentences, toemphasize and organize main points ofthe presentation. Legibility is also import-ant. Remember: Printed text needs to belarge enough to be seen from a distance.(See "Design Tips for Projected Media,"above, for several rules of thumb for limit-ing the amount of text on a visual to en-hance readability.) Try out every visualbefore your presentation. Project it andthen sit where your audience will sit tosee if the text is legible.

Charts and Graphs

Charts and graphs illustrate what thetrainer is saying. A table of numberstakes time to interpret. A pie chart andbar chart that contains the same numericinformation is much easier to understandat a glance. When designing charts andgraphs, remember that lines shoukl beheavier and thicker than those used forprinted materials. The number of ele-ments in a chart needs to be limited, forexample, only 6 slices for a pie chart, amaximum of 12 bars for a bar graph (see"Simplify Tables," below).

Color

Color often adds clarity but it is best togo easy on this element. Learn which col-ors work together best and which colors

20 77 GOOD DESIGN FOR PROJECTED MEDIA

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The information in the printed table on the left is converted to a graph for a projectedvisual at right.

to avoid (see "Rules for Using Color," and"Color Schemes," below). Color coding, toidentify hierarchies and emphasis, needsto be used consistently throughout thepresentation. For example, use yellow tohighlight, blue to indicate second items inpriority. However, include some other ele-ment (bolding, different size type) besidescolor coding to aid color-blind viewers.

Consistent Style

Good presentations have visuals thatmaintain graphic consistency, rather thanmix several art styles. An advantage ofslides and overhead transparencies isthat they can be designed for one presen-tation, rmvranged, and used anothertime. Be careful when recycling visualsfor a new presentation, however, to makesure the art styles and type fonts of thevarious frames are compatible.

One final note on reusing visuals:Slides, overhead transparencies, andvideo visuals are all slightly different-sized rectangles. Slides have a 2:3 aspectratio (height to width); video, a 3:4 ratio,and transparencies, a 4:5 ratio (although

they can be a vertical 5:4 ratio, as well).If you intend to use a visual in more thanone medium, design for the primary me-dium and add a margin (called a "bleed")around the visual to accommodate forcropping in the other formats. Also, eachmedium varies in its capacity to record de-tail; print medium accommodates themost detail, then slides, overhead trans-parencies, and finally video. It is a goodidea to design for the least precise me-dium you will encounter (video) and thenreuse the design in the more precisemedia with no problem.

Slides

Slides provide high-definition, colorfulvisuals. Slide photos, shot on location,add realism not available through graphicdesign. For example, photos can simulatea field trip to a classroom or at least showwhat a device looks like and how it isused.

You can design slide art on the com-puter using a word processing, desktoppublishing, or graphics program. Thechart or graphic is stored on disk and

GOOD DESIGN FOR PROJECTED MEDIA 78 21

sent to a computer slide service to be con-verted into a 35-mm slide.

Electronic Presentations

You can use the computer to plan andpresent a lecture. Electronic pi esentationsoftware allows you to

Plan the lecture and write your speechCreate lecture notesPrepare handoutsDesign and produce visuals to project(charts and graphs)Project visuals during the presentation

Effective computer presentation visualsshould follow the same guidelines as

other projected media (e.g., limit the num-ber of lines and words per frame, be cau-tious of color). But you can acid somespecial effects to the computer graphics.For example, you can add computersound. And you can cue visuals so thatwhen you go from one visual to the nextyou can use special types of transitionsdissolves, wipes, venetian blinds, and soforth (see Mary Anderson's Viewpoint,"Hooked on HyperCard", below).

Computer images are projected by link-ing the computer to an overhead projectorvia a liquid ctystal display (LCD) projec-tion device. The LCD panel is placed rig:aton top of the overhead projector. Cur-rently. LCD projection panels are mono-chromatic or have limited color display.

Rules for Using ColorUse bright or warm colors insmall areas with large cool areasas background. Warm colors arered, orange, yellow. Cool colorsare violet, blue, green.For text frames, you can useeither light text on a darkbackground or dark text on alight background. Both providegood contrast.Blue and black are the bestbackground colors for textframes. Other good backgroundsare gray, brown, green, purple.White and yellow are the best textcolors with dark backgrounds.Don't use red and green togetherfor emphasis because viewerswith red/green color blindnesscannot distinguish these colors.

Color Scheme RulesMonochromatic schemes use onecolor with tones varying in hue andsaturation (e.g., blue, dark blue,light blue).Analogous schemes are 2 to 4colors adjacent to each other onthe color wheel (e.g., red, redviolet, violet, blue violet). If 2colors are used, use both with fullintensity. If 4 colors are used, useonly 2 at full intensity, keep theother 2 at different values.Complementary schemes areopposite colors on the color wheel(e.g., orange and blue). Make 1 thedominant color, accent with thesecond culor in smaller places.Triadic schemes use three colorsequidistance on the color wheel(e.g., red-blue-yellow). You canuse all 3 at full intensity, but it'sbetter to use 1 at full intensity andthe others lighter and darker.

Source: Cole, M., & Odenwald, S. (1990). Desktop publishing. New York: AMACOM,American Management Association.

22 GOOD DESIGN FOR PROJECTED MEDIA

However, there are a few, more expensivevideo projection systems that give youwide color ranges. Another option for pro-jecting a computer screen would be toconnect the computer to a large TV moni-tor.

For More Information:

Cole, M., & Odenwald, S. (1990). Desktoppresentations. New York: AMACOM,American Management Association.

Provides a brief overview of desktop pre-sentation capabilities, then illustrateshow various software and hardware canhelp you develop materials. Presentsguidelines for overheads and electronicslide shows; includes a discussion of theuse of color in preFentations. Available

from: AMACOM, American ManagementAssociation, 135 West 50th Street, NewYork, NY 10020; Tel. 5 18:891-5510.

Kemp, J. E., & Smellie. -J. C. (1989).Plar..ting, protiucing, and using in-structional media (6th ed.). NewYork: Harper & Row.

Updated classic on how to produce in-structional media of all types (sound orprint, motion or still pictures). Provides a"nuts-and-bolts" approach to production,heavily illustrated. This new edition givesgreater emphasis to learning theories, in-teractive media design research, and mi-crocomputer equipment and programs.Procedures for preparing graphics, mak-ing overhead transparencies, and desktoppublishing receive detailed treatment and

videodisc production. Available from:ASTD, 1630 Duke Street, Box 1443, Alex-andria, VA 22313; Tel: 7031683-8129.

Mezey, P. (1988). Multi-image designand production. London: Focal Press.

Provides information on creating 1-, 2-,and 3-projector productions. Leads youthrough the entire production processfrom planning and preparing scripts, visu-als, and soundtracks. Available from:ICIA, 3150 Spring Street, Fairfax, VA22031-2399; Tel: 703/273-7200.

Rabb, M. (Ed.). (1990). The prentationdesign book Projecting a good imagewith your desktop computer. ChapelHill, NC: Ventana Press.

Helps users of desktop presentation tech-nology produce professional-looking andpersuasive slides, overheads, graphs,handouts, screen shows, and other pre-sentation media. Individual chapter ontext frames, graphs, and color provides ex-amples of good design. Available from:Ventana Press, P.O. Box 2468, ChapelHill, NC 27515, Tel: 919/942-0220.

Simpson, R. S. (1987). Effective audio vi-suals: A user's handbook. London:Focal Press.

Different types of presentations from tra-ditional flipcharts to the latest interactiveand computer-aided technology. Avail-able from: Focal Press, 80 Montvale Ave-nue, Stoneham, MA 02180; Tel:617/438-8464.

GOOD DESIGN FOR PROJECTED MEDIA 23

A Viewpoint on

PROJECTED MEDIA:

Hooked on HyperCard

By Mary AndersonCenter for Special EducationTechnology

You might get hooked on HyperCard as Idid, by creating a stack of text frames touse as ove,teads for my presentations.After mastering text frames, I went on toembellish my presentations withgraphics, audio, and video, but I'm gettingahead of my story.

Getting StartedI learned how to use HyperCard by fol-

lowing George Beekman's (1990) book,HyperCard in a Hurry. I also observedother peoples' stacks and adapted theirideas.

HyperCard runs on the Macintosh com-puter. It's a kind of software "erector set"for building applications. HyperCard is atool that allows me as a trainer to designscreens with large, dark letters that canbe projected onto a wall screen with anLCD projection device. As I design an indi-vidual text frame, I experiment withdifferent text fonts as well as with featuressuch as bold, underlining, and italics, be-fore deciding which is the mostappropriate for my message.

I can present information in a linearfashion just as I do with overhead trans-parencies. But I can also includeinformation in a nonlinear fashion. Infor-mation on one frame is linked to otherframes. You just click the mouse on acurser-sensitive area (called a "button") tobring up examples and information on re-

lated topics instantly. This nonlinear fash-ion of presenting information ischaracteristic of HyperCard.

Adding Art, Sound, and VideoDrawings, clip art, scanned-in photo-

graphs, and animation can be added totext frames. I like to add a drawing oneach screen because these effects give asense of movement from one screen of in-formation to another.

I have frequently added sound to mypresentations through the Mac Recorder,a tape recorder for the computer. I simplyrecord my voice, music, or other sound ef-fects onto any of the cards in mypresentation stack. Macintalk, a publicdomain software, is another add-on thatgives you synthesized speech. WithMacintalk, when the user types a word ora sentence, he or she hears it spoken.

Video can be incorporated by using adriver such as Lecture Mate to displayphotographs or motion video on an adja-cent screen. For $1,100 a video digitizingcard can be installed inside the Macintoshthat enables the video to bt viewed on thesame computer screen as the rest of yourinformation. With the LCD it can all be en-larged and viewed by a large audience.Adding CD-ROM extends the resources ofHyperCard programs even more.

Model Effective UseAs a trainer, you owe it to your stu-

dents to model good technology use. Byusing HyperCard and your imagina-tionyou not only convey informatior toyour audience but you demonstrate an ef-fective use of technology.

Sources:

Beekman, George. (1990). HyperCard ina hurry. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub-lishing Company, 10 Davis Drive,Belmont, CA 94002; Tel: 415/595-2352.

LectureMate. Charity Ware, LearningTechnology Center, Peabody College,Vanderbilt University, Box 328, PCVU,

Si24 GOOD DESIGN FOR PROJECTED MEDIA

Nashville, TN 37203; Tel: 615/322-. 8186.

Mac Recorder. Farallon Computing 2150Kittredge Street, Berkeley, CA 94704;Tel: 415/849-2331.

Macintalk. Public domain software UK

Disk #2491. Available through Ken-tucky Special Education TechnologyTraining Center, c/o Margeret Shuping,

is

o

Department of Special Education, 229Taylor Education Building, Universityof Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0001; Tel: 606/257-4713.

245W Video Digitizing Card. RasterOps, 2500 Walsh Avenue, Santa Clara.CA 95051; Tel: 408/562-4200.

S 2

GOOD DESIGN FOR PROJECTED MEDIA25

GOOD DESIGN FORVIDEO

This section gives you some sugestionson how to write and produce videotapes.

Video materials can assist you inillustrating a lecture or highlighting infor-mation. For example, a video segment canshow how an environmental control unitis used by a student. It can also bring tolife a case study, for example, following astudent from assessment for an assistivedevice to eventual classroom use of the de-vice.

With camcorders readily available andthe emergence of desktop video editingthrough the computer, you now have theoption of producing your own videos.Video production usually takes tworoutes: the local, camcorder productionand the full-blown, professional studioproduction. However, before embarkingon a production, consider the final audi-ence. Will the video be used only for yourown classes or distributed throughout thedistrict, state, or nation? If you do plan awider distribution, go for a more commer-cial produeon, as home-generated videosdon't copy well. They produce poorer cop-ies than the original.

Developmental Steps

Good video design begins with followinga comprehensive planning and productionprocess:* Plan. Determine the purpose of the

video, analyze the audience, identify

general content, and draft atreatment.Write.Draft-Revise. Write the script,storyboard key scenes, and reviewand revise the script.

* Produce. Set up locations for theshoot, tape both on location and inthe studto, and edit and assemble themaster tape.

* Evaluate and Revise. fry out thevideo on potential student audiencesand re-edit and re-shoot, bkIsed onthe audience feedback.

Planning

Planning is critical to ensure that thevideo produced will satisfy your trainingneeds and those of your students (see"Video Development Steps," below). Timespent in the early stages of planning andpreproduction activities may even cut pro-duction time because the tine you spenddefining what the video will include andorganizmg the shooting can lead to amore efficient production.

One planning tool is the treatment. Tho:treatment is a three- to four-paragraphnarrative that briefly summai izes hovv thestory will be told. It includes the visdaliza-tion of the opening scene, a general de-scription of the narrative flow, andhiplights of key visuals. Several differenttreatments may be developed from thesame content outline, each telling the"story" from a different point of view (see"Generic Story Formats," below). Fromall of these treatmait ideas, one is cho-sen.

A treatment is a good communicationtool because it crystallizes the story lineand is shorter and easier to read than thefinal script. At this stage, you can easilychange the concepts, visuals, and tone ofthe program. Changes made later duringproduction are more costly.

(./

GOOD DESIGN FOR VIDEO 27

Video Development Steps

Plan1. Determine purpose and objectives

of video.2. Analyze audience needs and

existing knowledge.3. Research locations and visuals.4. Write content outline.5. Write video treatment.

Write and Revise6. Write the script.7. Storyboard key sequences.8. Review script.9. Revise script.

Produce

Preproduction10. Determine shooting schedule.11. Hire actors/narrators as needed.12. Hire production crew and arrange

production equipment.Production13. Tape segments-location and studio.14. Produce graphics, titles and tape

these segments.

Postpridduction15. Assemble video segments and edit.16. Record voice over narration, music

and other audio.

Evaluate and Revise17. Try out video.18. Re-shoot/ re-edit segments as

needed.

Scripting

Good scripts include enticing openingsthat capture the attention of the audience,creat'vc story lines, exciting visuals, andnarration written conversationally for the

ear. Writing can be contracted outbut ofall the production steps, script develop-ment is the step in which your input as atrainer is crucial. The script should be fin-ished before any production is begun.Also, any script approvals snould be ob-tained before production.

While the script is still in draft form,many writers often prepare a storyboard,which illustrates key scenes, transitions,and major graphics. A storyboard is agood vehicle for communicating what thefinished video wfil look like. It can alsoclarify any graphics that will be includedin the program.

Production

Production is the actual shooting of thevideo. Before you shoot any scenes, how-ever, you must gather props, select loca-tions, and recruit actors. You then needto develop a shooting schedule. If you willbe documenting action in a classroom,build in extra production time andbackup sites. Students and teachers maynot provide the action you want on thefirst try. Organize all shots involving chil-dren to be done in the morning when theyare at their best, even though that meansthat some shots will be out of sequence.

All people recognizable on the tapemust sign photogaphic release forms al-lowing their image to be shown. For anydramatic action, use professional actors.Audiences are accustomed to highly pol-ished commercial productions by profes-sionals. A?wthing less will affect thequality of tile final product.

Trainers find that by using today's high-quality home camcorder equipment. theycan produce video programs that mimicprofessional videotapes. Do-it-yourselfproductions are excellent for capturingspontaneous classroom activity that canbe used later to illustrate a concept.

However, even though videotaping andediting equipment expand what you can

S 4

28 GOOD DESIGN FOP VIDEO

Generic Story Formats

Some standard video formats include the Mlowing:* Talking headon screen person talking (e.g.. the university president).

Talking head with propson screen person demonstrating action (e.g., JuliaChild's cooking program).Visuals and voicemixture of visuals such as stock footage, historical photos,animation and voice over (off screen) narration.

* Interviewshalf-scripted conversations with on screen (or off screen) person.* Dramatizationstory with emphasis on human interaction.* Mixture of these formatsusually video uses more than one format.

Source: Van Nostran, W. (1983). The nonbroadcast television writer's handbook.White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry Public.Ations.

create on your own, you must still payparticular attention to basic productiondetails: sound, lighting, and camera move-ment during the actual taping. No amountof special effects can compensate for apoorly lit scene, shaky camera move-ments, or inaudible sound (see "CameraGuidelines," below.

Graphics

Video graphics follow design rules con-strained by the TV screen. Graphics needto be bold, simplified, and centered in themiddle of the framethat is, the "TV safe"areato prevent image dropoff at thecurved edges of the screen (see "TVGraphic Guidelines," below). Still ohotosor slides are low-cost alternatives for TVvisuals. You need to be careful, however,when using slides as TV -Isuals, becausethey have a different aspect ratio. Somecropping of the slide picture will occur.

Audio

Narrators, both on screen and voiceover, should be professionals. Voice over(off screen) narration is a skill not all ac-tors (and certainly not most nonactors)possess. The scripted words need to bespoken in time to fit the action and be ap-

propriate to the action. A studio will usu-ally help you. select one of several narra-tors who regularly work with the studio.

In addition, music and sound effectsadd character and polish to a production.If you are working with a sound studio, itwill usually have a library of low-costmusic segments that can he inserted fortransition between scenes. If you are mix-ing your own audio track and use copy-righted music, you need to requestpermission to use the music.

Special Effects

During postproduction activities, thetape segments are assembled to form thefinished program. You can incorporatemany special effects into the video as theaction moves from one scene to another.These effects include wipes, flips, andtumbles. If you are editing the tape your-self, there are several desktop video sys-tems available to give you these specialeffects and lettering for titles.

Professional Productions

If you contract with a production group,you will probably work with a director orproducer/director. This person will t.° re-


Camera Guidelines

Basic Camera ShotsLong Shot (LSI - a general view of the setting.Medium Shot (MS) - a closer view of the subject.Closeup (CU) - a concentrated view of the subject, or part of the subject.

Extreme Closeup (ECU) - an even closer concentration or the subject.

Tips on shot seqmnce:A standard sequence is LS-MS-CU.After several close ups, use an MS or LS to reestablish the subject to the viewer.

Change the angle of the camera after a series of LS-MS-CU sequences to providevariety.Use a variety of shots.Shoot scenes slightly longer than actually needed, to aid editing.

Basic Camera MovementsTilt - moving the camera up or down verdcally.Pan - moving the camera across from tstne side to the other side.Zoom - moving the lens from a long shot I closeup or vice versa.

For any of these movements:

Use a tripod for a smoother movement.Start or stop a moving shot with the camera held still for a few seconds.With a moving shot, have the camera lead" the subject.Rehearse motion shots first before tap,.,5.

Source: Kemp, J. E. (1968). Planning and producing audiovisual materials (2nd ed.).San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company.

sponsible for all the technical details toensure that the program is completedwith a reasonable level of technical qual-ity. The trainer is considered the subjectmatter expert responsible for content deci-sions and the ultimate quality of the con-tent. This requires a sharp eye duringshooting and later in review of rough-cutversions of the tape. Aesthetic decisions,after initial agreement on visual treat-ment, should generally be left to the pro-duction group. (See Colleen Haney'sreflections in "Working with a Video Pro-duction Comny," at the end of this chap-ter.;

For More Ifformation

Blank, B., & Garcia, M. R. (1986). Profes-sional video graphic design: The artana tec::n.ology. White Plains, NY:

Knowledge Industry Publications.

Features numerous c.mmples of graphics.Focus is commercial news, but does pro-vide both artistic and technical guidelinesfor any video graphics. Includes informa-tiin on computer-generated graphics.Available from: Knowledge Industry Publi-cations, Inc., 701 Westchester Avenue,White Plains, NY 10604; Tel: 800/248-5474.

30 GOOD DESIGIJ FOR VIDEO

Brown, M. (1991). Desktop video produc-tion. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TabBooks.

Addresses how to combine video technol-ogy with the personal computer. Includesanimation, presentation graphics, andtraining videos. Summarizes hardwareand software possibilities, edit control-lers, and video digitizers. Available from.Tab Books, Blue Ridge Summit, PA17294-0850; Tel: 800/822-8138.

Compesi, R. J., & Sherriffs, R. E. (1985).Small format television production.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

This basic TV production reference, witha do-it-yourself twist, concentrates onfield production with portable cameras.Describes how to add visuals with onecamera and contains information aboutlighting, time codes, sound, and shot com-position. Gives hints for shooting cut-aways, material for transition, and editingfor continuity. Available from: Allyn and

Bacon, Inc., 7 Wells Avenue, Newton, MA02159; Tel: 617/964- 5530.

DeLuca, S. M. (1990). Instructionalvideo. London: Focal Prftss.

Handy guide to the design, development,and production of video for teaching.Guides the reader through selecting atopic, scripting, casting, developing a sto-ryboard, and setting up studio or locationshooting. Includes examples of produc-tion logs, storyboards, scripts, and sched-ules. Available from: Focal Press, 80Montvale Avenue, Stoneham, MA 02180;Tel: 617/438-8464.

Millerson, G. (1987). Video productionhandbook. London: Focal Press.

Explains the entire procese of lw.-costvideo making. Demonstrates Ole versatil-ity, techniques, applications, and aesthet-ics of the video format through cleardiagrams and releviwt examples. Coversboth studio and location operations. Avail-ablefrom: International Communications

TV Graphic Guidelines

When designing visuals for video, use these guidelines:Use hold simple gaphicscoarser than forslides.Avoid fine, intricate gaphic detail.Use lines thick enough to be at least 2 pixelswide.Use san serif type faces; use large, generous

TV Safe Areaspacing.Avoid red, magma, and pure white.Allow for a 10% safe margin around theentire outside edge of the vistrtl to allow forthe curving of the picture.Keep visuals on screen long enough to be read.Limit lists of text to 4 to 5 lines, containing no more than 3 to 5 words each.

Sources: Rabb. M. V. (Ed.). (1990). The presentation book, Chapel Hill, NC: VentanaPress. Kemp, J. E. (1968). Planning and producing audiovisual materials (2nded.). San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company.

S 7


Industry Association, 3150 Spring Street,Fairfax, VA 22031-2399; Tel: 703/273-7200.

Van Nostran, W. (1989). Thescriptwriter's handbook: New tech-niques for media writers. WhitePlains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publica-tions.

Covers all phases of video writing. Givesdetails on how to analyze the audienceand research tkle story. The author dis-cusses what the trratment should includeand gives man ? examples of how to visual-ize the prog-ma. Available from. Knowl-edge Industry Publications, Inc., 701

32

Westchester Avenue, White Plains, NY1080 ; Tel: 800/248-5474

Wells, M. (1990). Desktop video. WhitePlains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publica-tions.

This practical guMe shows you how touse the new techliology and software todo tasks that would previously have beendone manually or with more expensiveequipment. Defines terms, includes hJwto purchase systems, and describes inter-facing desktop video. Available from:Knowledge Industry Publications, Inc.,701 Westchester Avenue, White Plains,NY 10604; Tel: 800/248-5474.

alSEIMIM!GOOD DESIGN FOR VIDEO

A Viewpoint on

VIDEO:

Working with a VideoProduction Company

by Colleen HaneyPennsylvania Assistive Device Center

We contract with a production companyfor our videotaping and editing. For thepast 6 years, we have worked with asmall Pittsburgh companyPittsburghTelevideo. Bemuse of the relationshipthat we have developed over the years, theowner and camera man know what we arelooking for. They know how to work withthe students and how to tar the assistivedevices. They can anticipate which anglesmight work best.

Initial Planning

Before contacting Pittsburgh Televideo,the staff and I start with a brainstormingsession to determine the important issuesof the topic; clarify the concept, goals,and purpose of the tape; determine whothe target audience will be; what the mes-sage is; and set a focus of the tape. Atthis time, we also attempt to determinethe best length of time of the tape to suitthe audience.

During this initial meeting, we begin tooutline the segments of the tape. For ex-ample, there may be four segments: theopening that focuses on heighteningawareness, the introduction that sets thestage, the main part that provides an in-depth treatment of the subject, andfinally, a wrap up and review of the im-portant thoughts or items.

We know what we want to highlight dur-ing the taping, based on the detailedoutline. But we are not strict about pre-paring a storyboard and full script beforetaping because we also rely to a certain ex-tent ,an what happens spontneouslywhen we go out in the field.

That's why working with PittsburghTelevideo is a plus because the camera-man already knows in general how wewant to approach the project. I sit downwith him and discuss the kinds ofshots/video we want. During this time weusually discuss the technical aspects,such as what is technically possiblewhat can be done, what can't be done,which camera angles are needed, etc. Weresolve these production and technical is .sues and problems early in the planningstage.

Arrangement for the On-Site

We book Pittsburgh Televideo for theamount of time we expect the shoot totake. I also make arrangements with theschools, students, and clinicians who willbe on camera and get their signed permis-sion slips before the actual shooting.

The Day of the Shoot

We sit down briefly with everyone, intro-duce the production crew, and explainwhat the goals of the taping are and whatwe are attempting to tape. In some in-stances, we don't tell people exactly whatwe are hoping to tape because we don'twant to lose the spontaneity.

We work with just one camera becauseit is cheaper than having two or three,and we try to be as unobtrusive as possi-ble when we go on location. We don't wantto barge into classrooms and overwhelmthe students with extra equipment. So wejust take a few lights and one camera. Asa result of using just one camera, we gothrough a situation once and then get ad-ditional shots for edits later. For example,if we're taping an interaction strategy inthe classroom, we usually tape the situa-


tion and then go back to get closeups anddifferent camera angles for edits.

As the taping proceeds. I'm responsiblefor keeping irack of what video we get andwhat shots or footage nevi to be addedfor edits. The cameraman is a big help be-cause he often suggests different cameraangles and movements. He is also sensi-tive and understands how we want thestudents portrayed. He knows we want tosee the kids at their best. He's very con-scious of whether their hair is neat, theirclothing smoothedincluding the stu-dents who may be drooling or awkwardlyseated in their wheelchairs due to severephysical disabilities.

Postproduction Editing

The production company sends us theraw footage with time codes. We gothrough the entire set of tapes and log allof the video and audio so that we have awritten description of all the video seg-ments (see Figure 2 below).

We study the log and decide how closelyit fits with what we had originallyplanned. Then we start writing the narra-tion or script. At this time we select theactual video or audio sections from our

time coded log and layout the entire tapeon paper.

When the script is ready. I personallygo back and work with the videocompany's editor and lay the footagedown. The editor helps pace the program.For example, as an outside observer, hemay see a segment such as the demonstra-tion of adjusting a head piece for a lightpointer and say, "That's really nice, butit's too long for the audience to look atthis one shot. Why don't you break it upwith some edits, show some closeups,show the child again, or go back to theadult?"

The production company also providesa narrator and adds titles and other graph-ics with a character generator. Addinggraphics is where we really rely on the ex-pertise of the production company. I takesome working drafts of what I want, suchas a sketch of a chart. Then the video edi-tor "fine tunes" the visualscuts words,adds color, makes it more visually appeal-ing. The editor will suggest differentvisual effects to fit the program topic andthe capabilities of his equipmentaddingcolor, enlarging print, twirling images.These touches add a professional look tothe show.

Figure 2

34

21' 40 24

24.10 06

lithnooro sign in ire:, withbuilding in backgromsd (couldbe a still shot as well)

Jenny and peer in dorm room -nght profile of Jenny

Video only - Jenny .nd peertallong

25.02 01

28:38.25 Close up of computer monitorwith Jenny's work

28 50.18 Begin pan from computertronttor to tull of Jennyand peer

29.28.19 Close up of dynce overJenny s nght shoulder

29:43.10

32:12:17 aose up of wireless datatransmutes

32:27.21 setting up wireless systunwith computer

Peer tallong 'Vie have to stopB S tag ata,ut" what AM wc doing

Jenny responds you willhave to help me get the quo,es

Jenny speaks about the note-card she needs

Excerpts from a Video Log

GOOD DESIGN FOR VIDEO

GOOD DESIGN FOR0 COMPUTERINSTRUCTION

This section gives you some designsuggestions for developing computerinstruction materials.

Trainer-created computer programshave many uses. For example, you may de-sign simple tutorials to guide resourceroom tezThers through a newly createdsoftware program for an individualized ed-ucational program. Or you may design asimulation to enhance the decision-mak-ing skills of team members who are work-ing on assistive technology assessment.

In the past, trainers would not considerdesigning computer instruction becausethe process was too time consuming. Noweasy-to-use "authoring" programs are onthe market that make creating your ownlesson a reasonable task.

Even though authoring programs &Ayetime, production of computer-assisted in-struction (CAI) programs still requires asubstantial time commitment from thetrainer.

This section discusses using the com-puter to bring instruction directly to thestudenton a one-to-one basis. Designingprojected materials and using the com-puter to help trainers present visuals dur-ing a lecture is discussed in the section,"Good Design for Projected Media."

91

Development Steps

In developing Ci I, consider the follow-ing four steps:* Plan. Determine the lesson purpose,

identify student prerequisite skills,delineate steps of the task to belearned, generate ideas, and organizethe lesson.

* Write and Draft. Flowchart thelesson, write the individual screens,sketch visuals, try out parts of thelesson, and revise as needed.

* Produce. Program the lesson,produce screen visuals.

* Evaluate and Revise. Try out theentire lesson and revise as needed.

One popular model is Alessi andTrollip's 10-step production process (see"Alessi and Trollip's Revised and Ex-panded Model" below).

Effective Instruction

Computer instruction materials domore than just supplement your lecturethey are self-contained and they take onsome of your instructional tasks. Thus,when you design these materials, youshould incorporate effective teaching ele-ments:* Attention to prerequisite skills.

* Modeling.

* Guided practice.* Independent practice.

Though these elements have been foundto be effective for instruction of children,they apply to adult instruction as well.

Screen Design

Screen design is based on the capacityof the computer to process and display in-formation. The screen is usually dividedinto functional areas for text presenta-tion and student response and feedbackareas that remain consistent throughoutthe program. Symbols are designed for

GOOD DESIGN FOR COMPUTEP INSTRUCTION 35

Alessi and Trollip's Revisedand Expanded Model for

Developing Computer-BasedInstructive Materials

Preparation1. Determine needs and goals.2. Collect resources.3. Learn the content.4. Generate ideas.

Design5. Design instniction:

a. Elimination of ideas.b. Task and content analysis.c. Preliminary lesson description.d. Evaluation and revision of the

design.

Flowcharting6. Flowchart the lesson.

Storyboard7. Storyboard displays on paper.

a. Write and revise primary text.b. Write and revise secondary text.c. Produce storyboards.d. Check the fit of overlaying

displays.e. Draw and revise graphic displays

and plan other output.f. Check graphics and simul-

taneous text for fit.g. Review the flowcharts and

storyboards.

Programming and Support Materials8. Program the lesson.9. Produce supporting materials.

Evaluation10. Evaluate and revise.

Source: Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R.(1991). Computer-based instruc-tion: Methods and development.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

their easy interpretation and consistentuse throughout the lesson (Heines, 1984)(see *Screen Design Fundamentals", and"Rules of Thumb," below).

Flowcharting and Storyboarding

Flowcharting is an important step indesigning a CAI lesson. It helps the de-signer track the sequence of screens,branches, and responses. It acts as a com-munication tool for reviewers and helpsdocument the lesson design to aid revi-sion (see Gail Fitzgerald's "Tips on Teach-ing Authoring" at the end of this chapter).

Storyboarding

Storyboarding is often done simulta-neously with flowcharting. The two tasksfeed off each other. During this step, yousketch the pictures of the frames andwrite the text. This includes writing thequestions, feedback, and prompts. Com-pleted storyboards provide an excellentway for colleagues and potential studentsto review the program.

Authoring

After you have written the lesson, youhave two options: (a) turning the lessonover to a programmer to write code or (b)programming the lesson yourself througaan authoring tool.

Today, many authoring software pro-grams provide prompts to assist you gen-erate programs without having to actuallywrite computer code. HyperCard soft-ware tools are authoring systems. Theseand other icon-based authoring systemsare usually the easiest to use. They havepull-down merit's that guide you throughthe process of writing. Language-based au-thoring systems are harder to master, butsome trainers find these programs moreprecise and easier to use to create theirparticular CAI lessons. Some authoringsystems offer a combination of both icon-and language-based programming so you

36 GOOD DESIGN FOR COMPUTER INSTRUCTION

can switch between the two features asneeded.

Evaluation

You need to plan evaluation activitiesthroughout the lesson development, notjust after you've completed the program.Trainers are often too close to the subjectto see weaknesses of the instruction.What is obvious to you is not always obvi-ous to the student.

Evaluation can occur in several places:Evaluation activities can begin withcollegial review of the initial lessonplan. This is after the idea generationstage. when the scope and treatmentof the lesson has been decided, butbefore any of the lesson has beenwritten.If the lesson has elements that areexperimental, prepare a small portionof the lesson, program that part, andtry it out on potential students. Thepoint of this is to find flaws and fixthem early. Revisions andmodifications are easier to makebefore you write the entire lesson.Tryouts of the lesson while it is beingdeveloped are often called "formativeevaluation," or alpha testing.

a After you complete the lesson, yourcolleagues and some students shouldreview it. Attend to all comments. Ifthe program will be distributedwidely, a more extensive field-testingphase is needed. Evaluation of acompleted lesson is called"summative evaluation," or betatesting.


Alessi, S., & Trollip, S (1991). Computer-based instruction: Methods anddevelopment (2nd ed.). EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Provides step by step instruction on howto design a lesson. Discusses flowchart-ing, programming, lesson evaluation, andrevision. Contains much practical adviceand many examples. Available frorn. Pren-tice-Hall, Inc., P.O. Box 500, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ 07632; Tel: 201/592-2000.

Davis, K., & Budoff, M. (1987). Using au-thoring in education. Cambridge, MA:Brookline Books.

Concentrates on authoring. Chapters areincluded on how to introduce teachers toauthoring. Includes sample workshopagendas for training on authoring. In-cludes an extensive listing of authoringsoftware and authoring languages. Uses

Screen Design Fundamentals

Organize the screen into five functional areas and use them consistently throughoutthe program. This aids clarity and provides continuity to program. The functional areasare the following:

Orientation information. Similar to header on printed page. Information is there ifthe student wants it, but it doesn't interfere with overall presentation.Directions. Tells the student what is expected.Responses. Allows space for student to answer.Error messages. Small space, messages are short and to the point.Student options. Gives students other options, such as help, or exit.

Source: Heines, J. M. (1984). Screen design strategies for computer-assisted instruc-tion. Bedford, MA: Digital Press.

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GOOD DESIGN FOR COMPUTER INSTRUCTION 37

Rules of Thumb for Screen Design

SymbolsUse symbols to convey distinct meaning.

Use symbols that are easy to remember.Use symbols that closely match is being conveyed.

Use symbols consistently.Use unambiguous symbolsnot used in context of subject.Test symbols for clarity.Don't use *cute" imagesthey bore.

Text Display:Use lower case letters, not all upper case.Use type styles with descenders (the g, j, p, q, and y go below the line).

Use bold, simple type style.Maximum 8 to 10 words per line for adult learners.Make lines ragged riga, break at natural phrasing points.

Source: Heines, J. M. (1984). Screen design strategies for computer-assisted instruc-tion. Bedford, MA: Digital Press.

examples from special education. Avail-able from: Brookline Books, P.O. Box1046, 29 Ware Street, Boston, MA 02130;Tel: 617/868-0360.

Fitzgerald, G., Baudes, D., & Werner, J.(in press). Authoring CAI lessons:Teachers as developers. Teaching Ex-ceptional Children.

Discusses stages followed in creating CAImaterials using a systematic instructionaldesign and development process model.Includes examples of design approachesused by special education curriculum de-velopers.

Heines, J. M. (1984). Screen designstrategies for computer-assisted in-struction. Bedford, MA: Digital Press.

Discusses technical aspects of screen de-sign. Chapters are included on functionalareas, visual symbols, menus, and textdisplay. Also includes lesson logic and dis-play logic, text editors, and graphics edi-

tors. Available from: Digital Press, DigitalEquipment Corporation, 30 North Ave-nue, Burlington, MA 01803; Tel: 6171273-6287.

Kearsley, G. (1986). Authoring: A guideto the design of instructional soft-ware. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

A practical guide to design. Describes theessentials of good screen design, user con-trol, and response analysis. Includeschapters on how to promote interactivitytesting and evaluating the lesson, estimat-ing development costs, and timing anddocumenting. Available from: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., OneJacob Way, Reading, MA 01867; Tel:617/944-377f..

Steinberg, E. (1984). Teaching comput-ers to teach. Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum.

Good analysis of how to plan the lesson.Includes many questions to structure

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trainer's planning. Practical, realistic,many examples. Available from: Law-rence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 365Broadway, Hillsdale, NJ 07642; Tel:201/666-4110.

Wager, W.. & Wager, S. (1985). Presentingquestions, processing responses, andproviding feedback in CM. Journal ofInstructional Development, 8(4), 2-8.

Summarizes content presentation guide-lines as they relate to the information pro-cessing model.

9 5


A Viewpoint on

COMPUTERINSTRUCTION:

Tips on TeachingAuthoring

by Gail FitzgeraldWest Virginia University

I've taught authoring of software to e,,anyspecial education teachers in univereltycourses and in inservice workshops.From these experiences., I can share a fewpointers on teaching authoring.

Teach flowcharting early in the course.

If you are using the mini-authoring shellprograms in which most of the lessonstructure is provided, there may not be aneed to teach flowcharting. But if you areteaching the newer hypermedia authoringprograms that have "open screens" andno inherent structure, flowcharting is anecessary skill. When using hypermediaauthoring programs, the teacher sitsdown in front of a blank screen; there'sno structure provided until the designercreates some pages and provides link-ages.

So I teach flowcharting. The flowchart-ing symbuls I use are adapted from thestandard flowchart symbols found in text-books. I use only those that are critical todesigning with the level of authoring pro-gram that I am teaching. It is lessimportant that the symbols are the stan-dardized versions: I am more concernedthat the symbols are meaningful in the de-sign setting and that they are usedconsistently (see Figure 3 below).

A flowchart is the map of the lesson. Itneeds to show exactly where each page isconnected and how the si.udentes re-sponses will move him or her through theprogram. Thus, the flowchart not onlysets tip the main trunk of the lesson, butalso displays all branches that the teacherwants to create for providing choices andmanaging student errors.

The first time I taught authoring was ina 12-day summer course of 3 weeks' dura-tion. In the first week we focused on mini-authoring, shell progcams, established theneed for CAI lesson development, andstarted to preplan the hypermedia les-sons. I introduced flowcharting on Day 3,sent the participants home the first week-end to design their lesson on paper, andmake at least an initial flowchart. Thenext Monday they came back full of com-plaintsthey were confused, theycouldn't get their ideas into the flowchartstructure, they didn't like flowcharting.Over the next 2 weeks they continued torefine their lesson structure ideas, makeflowcharts, share flowcharts with eachother, and create their lessons with Tutor-Tech. The end-of-course feedback Ireceived was that we should have startedflowcharting earlier. They recoglized it asa necessary, though time-consuming,skill, and said they were lost withouttheir design schemas.

When teaching flowcharting, providemodels with interactive lessons and ac-companying flowcharts. Get the class toactually follow flowcharts, work throughlessons, and discover different types cflesson structures. I believe that thishands-on experience is necessary for pro-viding the feel of flowcharting. In theprocess of using fiuwchart models, youcan teach different ways to design CAI les-sons. In a very practical way, you areshowing participants the differences be-tween tutorials and simulations,drill-and-practice routines, and varietiesof branching options. Indirectly, you areteaching some of the instructional designskills teachers will need for authoringtheir own materials.

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Flowchart Symbols(adapted for use withTutor-Tech lessons)

beginning of p:ogramend of programconnection or knkagesub-routine

- iniormation screenprocess step in regular program

decision or choice made by studentquestion with multiple answers

- direction of lesson flow

- information screen in remedial loop branchprocess step in remedial loop or branch

file of randomized motivation screens

- video motion

- simultanious audio representedby a bar on any symbol

Use structured labs and simulations toteach authoring mechanics.

When you teach at nechanics of usingan authoring progra, do it in a con-trolled way so you can keep your grk,together. This is the only way to cover thecontent systematically. I learned this ap-proach the hard way. When students go attheir own speed, the class soon becomesone-to-one tutoring at 12-15 different lev-els simultaneously, depending on thenumber of students in the class. It's frus-

trating for the teacher, and instruction be-comes very fragmented.

An effective way to do this is to teachthrough structured lab activities. I pre-pare lab guides with detailed, step-by-stepprocedures of what to do. I control whatthe group as a whole is doing, yet allowhands-on, individual work on computers.In this way, problem solving stays focusedon the same instructional skill, and stu-

dents can help each other. I have createdsix labs that completely teach the mechan-

!J


ics of authoring with Tutor-Tech. Foreach lab, we do structured design simula.tions. For example in Lab 2, I say to theteachers: "I want you to design somethingvery simnle that's going to fit this flow-chart. This is the lesson logic that we'regoing to work on together. Everyone'spage types and button destinations mustfit this flowchart." After I give them a step-by-step demonstration, they go to the

computer stations and create their owncontent to lit the lab flowchart (see Figure4 below).

Another way I use structure is to makesimulation activities using the authoringskill being taught. One effective activity isto teach linking pages through a simula-tion called "Scramble." I give the class aflowchart of a very simple lesson and thecomputer screens for that lesson. How-

Figure 4

Lab activity Flowchart


e

I

ever, all the buttons placed on the screensare set incorrectly. They have to changeall of the buttons to get the lesson to workcorrectly as depicted on the lesson flow-chart. With this kind of simulationactivity, they can focus on the mechanicsof the skill being taught without needingto struggle with their own content.

Teach screen design through interactiveediting.

Many principles of screen design areused in evaluating computer-based materi-als. One way to teach these principles isto use a critique sheet and examine les-son screens as a group. If the instructoruses the authoring version of the pro-

grain, teacher-created lessons can beloaded and viewed, with pages rearranged,deleted, or changed. Actually, I have as-sembled a collection of pages fromteacher lessons that represent examplesof effective and ineffective screen design.As suggestions for imp. Jvement are madeby group members, the changes can betried out. No other medium offers this ca-pability for live, interactive editing. Notonly does this approach teach throughdemonstration, but it also provides actualpractice in peer review of authoring les-sonsthe pilot testing and revision stagein instructional design and development.


GOOD DESIGN FORVIDEODISC MATERIALS

This section will give you somesuggestions for creating videodisc trainingmaterials.

Trainer-made videodisc materials canbe used to supplement lectures with visu-als and audio. For example, when trainingresource room teachers, you might use avideodisc showing classroom segments ofspecial education students using technol-ogy to illustrate applications of technol-ogy. Videodiscs can also be used topresent interactive lessons. For example,

you might use a videodisc lesson on fun-damentals of the computer with pre-service undergraduates to increase theirknowledge of how computers work.

You can create training materials byusing parts of existing videodiscs to suityour own purpose (called reptsrposing avideodisc). With new authoring tools, youcan repurpose videodisc training materi-als relatively easily. Or, you can create ma-terials by developing a new videodisc.Because creating a new videodisc is sucha complex task for a novice, however,trainers usually try repurposing a fewvideodiscs before they go on to create anentirely new one.

Repurposing for Presentations

You can use existing discs as sources ofvisuals te supplement a lecture presenta-tion. Videodisc databases, such as ency-clopedias and visual almanacs can beused in this way (see "Sources ofVideodiscs"). You determine which videosegments will enrich the presentation.

Sources of VideodiscsLaser Videodisc Catalog

Describes more than 100 Level 1 CAV format videodiscs in the language arts, history,physical sciences, and life sciences. Catalog free from: AIMS Media, 6901 Woodley Ave-nue, Van Nuys, CA 91406-4878; Tel: 800/367-2467 or 818/785-4111.

MECC CatalogDescribes current language arts, history, science, and National Geographic videodiscs,

as well as videodisc players am 1 utilities. Catalog free from: MECC Etc., 3490 LexingtonAvenue North, St. Paul, MN 35126; Tel: 800/228-3504 or 612/481-3500, ext. 527.

The Videodisc CompendiumPublished annually, contains more than 11,000 titles of videodiscs by 150 producers

on 22 different subjects. For each title, includes description of contents, CNV/CLV, levelof play, bar code access, price, appropriate gade level, hardware capability, and distribu-tor name and telephone.

Readers can also receive 3 issues of UPdate which lists new titles to supplement theCompendium. Price for Compendium only, $20; for a year subscription to UPdate only$20; for both Compendium and a year subscription to UPdate, $30. Available from:Emerging Technology Consultants, P.O. Box 12444, St. Paul, MN 56112; Tel: 612/639-3973.

GOOD DESIGN FOR VIDEODISC MATERIALS I ( 45

LectureMate HyperCard

Lecture Mate is a Macintosh HyperCard program that makes it easy to create presenta-tions. It links audio, still pictures, or motion video from a laserdisc to the informationyou present on the computer screen. It uses Macintosh editing features, searches forvideo segments by frame number, and makes buttons to play selected video. As ideas andfacts are displayed on the computer screen, a mouse click instantaneously providesillustrative examples or background information from the laserdisc onto another screen.Lecture Mate is particularly good for integrating images from Level 1 videodiscs into yourpresentations. Class Mate is an upgraded version of this program to be used withHyperCard 2.0. Available from: Charity Ware, Learning Technolog Center, Peabody Col-lege, Vanderbilt University, Box 328 PCVU, Nashville, TN 37203; Tel: 615/322- 8186.

then during class, merely bring up the vi-suals using the computer keyboard.

Authoring software makes the trainer'sjob easier. The software program allowsyou to quickly access and display thevideo. You can use any authoring tool soft-ware, as long as it has the ability to con-trol the external videodisc player. Many ofthe HyperCard tools have this ability (see"LectureMate HyperCard," above). Sales(1989) describes other software presenta-tion tools. If you use videodisc visuals toaccompany a presentation, remember thegraphic design principles for projectedmediaclarity, organization, and legibil-ity. Design still needs to reflect the basicdevelopment steps of planning, writingand revising, producing, and evaluatingmaterials.

Repurposing to Create Lessons

Existing videodiscs can be customizedto create an entirely new lesson. Whenyou repurpose a disc, keep in mind thatdesign is somewhat constrained becausethe video images are limited to what is onthe disc. However, this is usually not agreat barrier, because computer graphicscan be used to supplement (see "Guide-lines for Visuals," below).

When designing interactive video (IVD)lessons, use the same develorment stepsas those for computer instrmtion:

Plan. Dane the lesson and itscontent; determine what the flow ofthe lesson will be, its interactionpoints and screen design, and howthe video will be incorporated.Write and Revise. Sequence existingvideo frames and develope newcomputer frames.Produce. Link the frames.Evaluation. Try out the lesson andrevise as necessary.

Creating a New Disc

Basic principles for video productionapply for videodisc production (see "Inter-active Video Design Model," below). How-ever, you should pay more attention tothose parts that deal with the interactivenature of the material. For example, whencasting actors, choose people who can beversatile in creating the several differentconclusions of a dramatic situation thatresults from branching.

In postproduction editing, be careful toavoid jump cuts from one frame to thenext. This is particularly taxing since thestudent, not the editor, controls the se-quence in which the visuals will be seen.Also, during freeze frames, when the stu-dent is asked a question, the video feed-back should repeat the scene that led tothe freeze frame, as well as the answer.

46 GOOD DESIGN FOR VIDEODISC MATERIALS

e

Guidelines for Visuals

Here are some guidelines for videodisc visuals.Whenever possible, show things rather than use text displays.Show only one concept or idea per display.Restrict lists to 7 items or fewer per display.Use no more than 25 characters of text per line (for large screen-group images).Use no more than 40-45 characters per line (for individual use).Use combination of upper and lower case letters.Be consistent in the location of program control information (e.g., help comment,directions at top, advance/review, escape codes at bottom).Evaluate each screen display for legibility.Avoid crowded screens.Keep diagrams and drawings simple; don't include too much detail.

Source: Braden, R. A. (1986, May). Visuals for interactive video: Images for a new tech-nology (with some guidelines). Educational Technology, 21-22.

This does create redundancy, but clarityand continuity are not lost.

Because discs are costly to press andcannotte r wised, it is good design prac-tice to put information that will change onthe computer screen and save videodiscsfor more basic, timeless information.

With so many production elements tokeep track of, you need a versatile author-ing tool to aid in creating your IVD pro-gram. Good authoring systems allow youto flowchart and peg individual screens topoints on the chart. These systems alsoallow you to link the flowchart to yourvideo storyboard and script. Storyboardsand scripts can then be printed out asstand alone shot sheets and productionscripts.

You should conduct pilot testing and re-vising on segments of the lesson at eachstep of the design. If some of the videocan be tested before production by usingstoryboards and scripts, changes can bemade before expensive production hasbegun. Comprehensive testing and revi-sion is conducted on the finished prod-uct.


Crowell, P. (1988). Authoring systems.Westport, CT: Meckler.

Compares dozens of computer packagesfor designing interactive videodisc pro-gramming. Explains different types of au-thoring and includes feature-by-featurecomparisons of commercially available au-thoring systems. Available from: FutureSystems, Inc., P. 0. Box 265, FallsChurch, VA 22040; Tel: 800/323-DISC.

Perlmutter, M. (1991). Producer's guideto interactive videodiscs. White Plains,NY: Knowledge Industry Publications.

A helpful and complete handbook fortrainers. Contains a soup-to-nuts descrip-tion of the development and productionprocesses. This book walks the readerthrough the seven phases of videodisc pro-ductionproject development, design,preproduction, production, postproduc-tion, programming and validationprovid-ing a complete sequence of steps, timerequirements, necessary documentation,staffing needs, and budget parameters.Availablefrom: Knowledge Industry Publi-cations, Inc., 701 Westchester Avenue,White Plains, NY 10604; Tel: 800/248-5474.

1 "2

GOOD DESIGN FOR VIDEODISC MATERIALS 47

Interactive Video Design Model

The interactive video development process used at the University of Tennessee-Mem-phis is a modified instructional systems design model. The steps in this process a e asfollows:

1. Topic selectionDoes the subject matter lend itself to interactive video instruction?

* Is there a need for a Id...leo on this topiaWhat is the potential for its integration in the curriculum?What is its potential for national distribution?

2. Content identification and analysis defining the problemDefining the goals of the interactive video instruction.Defining the problems that the student is to solve.Identifying the specific content for the production.Identifying relationships (to the smallest detail) between the different pieces of thecontent.

3. Product design making the blueprintInteraction points.Feedbackimmediate and summative.Screen design.Computer software system design.Video design.

4. Product developmentwriting the content components* Computer programming.

Videostoryboarding and scripting.

5. Productionmaking it and putting it together* Video.

Computer.Merging.

6. Alpha testing

7. Modification and debugging

8. Beta testing

9. Distributionincluding marketiag

10. Upgrading--future changes to program/content

Source: Singarella, T., & Ramagli. (1987, February). Instructional uses of interactivevideodisc in health sciences. Memphis, TN: Interactive Video Project Team, University ofTennessee.

1 (1 3


Sales, G. C. (1989, June). Repurposing:Authoring tools for videodiscs. TheComputing Teacher, 16(9), 12-14.

Describes how repurposing can be usedby trainers; includes uses for presenta-tions, testing, and lessons. Lists severalauthuring tools.

Schwier, R. (1988). Interactive video. En-glewood Cliffs, NJ: EducationalTechnology Publications.

A primer on interactive videodisccourseware design. &describes design, pro-duction, and premastering actvitiesthrough final review and approval of thefinished program. Includes a glossary, anextensive reference section on publica-tions, a directory of manufacturers, and asample interactive video program. Avail-ablefrom: Educational Technolog, Publi-cations, Inc., 720 Palisade Avenue,Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632; Tel:201/871-4007.


A Viewpoint on

VIDEODISCS:

Using Video interactivelyin Your Class

by Ted HasselbringPeabody College, VanderbiltUniversity

At Vanderbilt, we use video technologto anchor knowledge. That is, when wetalk about a concept with undergraduatesand graduate students we anchor the con-cept by linking it to examples thestudents might see in a special educationclassroom. We do this through contextual-ized multimedia environments. With acontextualized learning environment, theinstructor provides the example or thecontext and says, "Now, here's what I'mtalking about" so that you have a sharedcontext. The reason we do this is that agroup of 40 undergraduates all have differ-ent experiences, and it is hard to talkabout a concept and link it to all 40 expe-riences.

Ideally, we'd like to be present when rdlof our students are working with kids inthe classroom, but that is not possible.The videodisc allows us to quickly intro-duce video examples as a context toanchor this knowledge.

For example, we might be explaining aconcept in subtraction. It is not alwayseasy to explain how elementary studentsdevelop conceptions and misconceptionsabout subtraction. We have pulled to-gether a collection of video teachingsegments to create videodiscs. In the case

. of the subtraction lesson, we have createda videodisc that is filled with good exam-

ples about how concepts and misconcep-tions are developed in mathematics. Weuse this videodisc in our lectures to pro-vide contextualized environments. Weshow undergraduates how these miscon-ceptions can occur and what they can doin order to remediate these problems. It'sa valuable tool because through thesevideo clips we have a shared experience,and it makes my teaching much easierthan when I'm guessing about their experi-ences. The beauty of the videodisc is thatI can get to individual clips very quickly.

We use a Macintosh SE and a Pioneer4200 disc player. We use an LCD projec-tion panel on an overhead to project theMac screen. In my classroom last year,there were two 25-inch color monitorsmounted. I simply plugged the videodiscdirectly into the jack in the wall, and Iwas ready to project the video. It took mejust a few minutes to set up befo. e classbecause I kept the videodisc player andthe computer in a closet in the room. Ijust wheeled it out, plugged in the equip-ment, and it was ready to go.

We use LectureMate, a software pro-gram created at Vanderbilt, to cue thevideodisc. LectureMate is simply ahypercard shell that allows you to createelecironic overheads and control thevideodisc.

When we make these vicie,t !-3,:q. weproduce what we call scritch ,.A.s orglass discs. You only get one copy.They're relatively inexpens t to produce.For our lecturing, having ovik w one copy isnot a problem. We sort through the video-tape that we want, put it onto a 3/4-inchtape for our master, and send that off toCrawibrd Communications in Atlanta.There are a number of sites around thecountry; however, we use Crawford be-cause they're so close, and we getturnaround in about 24 hours. We pay ap-proximately $300 for our scratch disc,but we do a lot of preparation in our ownlabwe put down the time code, do thecolor balancing, and a lot of other thingsthat a lab would charge for.

1 t)


Class ManagementI also used hypermedia last year in my

class for some class management details.Because I had 40 students in one class. Iknew it would take me an entire semesterto learn their names if I didn't do some-thing about it. So I decided to use a videocamera. At the end of the first class, I setup the video camera in front of the classand said, °Before you leave today I wantyou to walk by, stand La front of the videocamera, state your name, address, phonenumber, major, etc." So they did.

I took those video images and playedthem through a digitizing system and digi-tized each of their pictures and createdmy own class roster. When I clicked on astudent's name, the student's picture ap-peared, so I was able to start connecting

their names with their pictures. I hookedtheir phone numbers up with a dialingbutton. If I want to call them and say."Hey, why aren't you coming to class?" Ijust click on that button and it goesthrough my modem. It calls them up and Ican say, "Hey, start coming to class."

I also hooked the video to a grade book.I already had a hypercard grade book soit was easy to jump into the grade bookand keep track of their grades, with thatextra cue of the video image. I used thissystem, and it was great. Within a wee: Ilaiew everyone's name and face. Duringthe second class, I started to call on stu-dents by name. It shocked them, and theyknew they had to pay atention. It workedout quite well.

1 t;


TRAINER-RECOMMENDED SOFTWARE PRODUCTSAND TRAINING RESOURCES

Software ProductsThe following software materials were

recommended by the experienced trainerswho attended the National Forum forTechnologr Trainers in JuLe 1990, ameeting sponsored by ,he Center for Spe-cial Educaton Technnlogy.

Word Processing

AppieworksClaris CorporationBox 526Santa Clara, CA 95052408/727-8227; 800/628-2100

Microsoft WordMicrosoft CorporationP.O. Box 97017Redmond, WA 98073-9717800/426-9400, 206/828-8080

QWERTY Wcrd ProcessorHTK Software68 Wells RoadLincoln, MA 01773617/259-0059

Word PerfectWord Perfect Corpontion1555 North Technologi WayOrem, UT 84057801/225-5000

Desk:op Publishing

Aldus PagemakerAldus Corporation411 First Avenue SouthSeattle, WA 98104206/622-5500

Xerox Ventura PublisherVentura Software, Inc.15175 Innovation DriveSan Diego, CA 92128800/822-8221

1 0 7

Authoring Software

Au!hormare ProfessionalAuthorware8500 Normandale Lake RoadSuite 1050Bbomington, MN 5937612/921-8555

HyperCardClaris CorporationBox 526Santa Clara, CA 95052408/727-8227; 800/628-2100

HyperscreenScnolastic, Inc.2931 Fast McCarty StreetP.O. Box 7502Jefferson City, MO 65102800/541 -5513

HyperStudloRoger WIsgner Publishing Inc1050 Pioneer Way, Suite PEl Cajon, CA 92020619/442-0524

Interaeve Video Design Teo! KitElectronic Vision, Inc,28 Station StreetAthens, OH 45701614/592-2433

Tutor-TechTechware, Inc.P.O. Box 151085Altamonte Springs, FL 32715-1085407/695-9000

Software Products

Presentation Software

Aldus PersuasionAldus Corporat/on411 First Avenue SouthSeattle, WA 98104206/622-5500

Cs sticet PresentsCricket Software40 Valley Stream HighwayMalvern, PA 1935521E/251-9890800/53 i -5236

Draw ApplauseAshton-Tate Corporation20101 Hamilton Avenuerorrence, CA 90502-1319213/326-8000

GrandviewSymantec Corporation10201 Torre AvenueCupertino, CA 95014408/253-9600, 800/441-7234

LectureMateCharity WareLearning Tcchnology CenterPeabody CollegeVanderbilt UniversityBox 328 PCVUNashville, TN 37203615/322-818(3

MORESymantec Corporation10201 Torre AvenueCupertino, CA 95014408/253-9600, 800/441-7234

PowerpointMicrosoft CorporationP.O. Box 97017Redmond, WA 98073-9717206/828-80R0, 800/426-9400

Graphics

CanvasDeneba Software7855 NW 12th StreetSuite 202Miami, FL 33126800/6CANVAS

Harvard GraphicsSoftware Publishing CorporationP.O. Box 72101901 Landings DriveMountain View, CA 94039-7210415/962-8910

MacDrawChris CorporationBox 526Santa Clara, CA 95052800/628 .2100

MacPaintClaris Cov r:orationBox 52CSanta Clara, CA 95052800/628-2100

54 Software Products

Deslgn ResourcesThe following periodicals and profes-

sional associations focus on trainingmaterials, design issues, and topics.

Periodicals

The Computing TeacherInternational Society for Technology inEducationUniversity of Oregon1787 Agate StreetEugene, OR 97403-9905503/346-4414

Instructional Delivery SystemsInteractive Instruction Development50 Culpepper StreetWarrenton, VA 22186703/347-0055

Journal of Computer-Based InstructionADCIS220 Ramseyer Hall

411029 West Woodruff AvenueColumbus, OH 43210-1177614/292-4324

.

Publish! The How-To MagazineP. C. W. Communications501 Second StreetSan Francisco, CA 94107415/546-7722; 800/222-2990

TRAININGLakewood Publications50 South Ninth StreetMinneapolis, MN 55402612/333-0471

The Wdeodisc Compendium for Educationand Training/UPdateEmerging Technology ConsultantsP.O. Box 12444St. Paul, MN 55112612/639-3973

The Videodisc MnitorP.O. Box 26Falls Church, VA 22046-9990703/241-1799

1 "9

Professional Associations

Association for the Development of Com-puter-Based Instructional Systems (ADCIS)229 Ramseyer Hall29 West Woodruff AvenueColumbus, OH 43210-1177614/292-4324

Association for Educational Communica-tions & Technology (AECT)1025 Vermont Street, N.W., Suite 820Washington. DC 20005202/347-7834

International Communications Industry As-sociation (ICIA)3150 Spring StreetFairfax, VA 22031703/273-7200

International Society for Technology in Ed-ucation (ISTE)University of Oregon1787 Agate StreetEugene. OR 94703-9905503/346-4414

Interactive Video Industry Association(P/IA)800 K Street, N.W.Washington, DC 20036202/408-1000

Society for Applied Learning Technology(SALT)50 Culpepper StreetWarrenton, VA 22186703/347-0055

Technology and Media Division (TAM-CEC)The Council for Exceptional Children1920 Association DriveReston, VA 22091703/620-3660

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