ED 2128 '066 J. 82 · PDF fileThis document is the Reagan Administration's.first ... ogy, a new bioregulator was devel-oped to increase the cold tolerance of plant seedlings and thus

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J.Annual Science and-Technology Report to the Congress:1981.Office of Science and Technology, Washington, D.C.82173p. 't

SUPerintendent of Documents, U.S. Government PrintingOffipe, Washington, DC 20492 Cstock No.,038-000-0504-9, $6.50)..Reports - DescriptivA (141)

MF01/PC07,Plus Postage.Annual Reports; *Budgets; Development; EngineeringEducation; Expenditures; *Federal Aid; *Federal.Programs; Financial Support; Government Role;Industry; *Policy; Program Descriptions; Research;

' 'Science Education; *Sciences; Scientific Enterprise;*Technology '

IDENTIFIERS *Research and Development

Si 041 263

ABSTRACTThis document is the Reagan Administration's.first

"Annual Science and Technology Report." Chapter 1 presents overallguidelines of the Administration's national science and technology(S/T) policy. Major decisions and actions taken within thoseguidelines are described and highlights of the research anddevelopment (R&D) components of the President's fiscal year 1983budget are,noted. Chapter 2 discusses nine issues of particularinterest to the Adthinistration. The discUssions illustrate *ome ofthe ways in which the Administration's new national science and,techno1o4y pdlicy guidelines (highlighted in chapter 1) are being-brought to bear on a wide range of national problems. Issue's include:science/engineering education; scientific instrumentationobsolescence; role of Yederal laboratories; stimulating industrial'

' R&D and innovation; military R&D; space science/technology; nuclearengineering; genetic engiteering;-and,international ,cooperation in

S/T. Federal R&D programs.are discussed in chapter 3, focusing on

major program thrusts/accomplishments. Programs include nationalsecurity; space; health; energy; general science/technOlogy; naturalresources; environment; transportation; agriculture; education; andinternational affgirs. An analysis summarizing R&D funding across alldepartments and agencies is provided in the appendix, highlightingR&D policies/trends in the 1983 budget anddescribing R&D programs ofthe 13 agencihs whose,1983 obligations.account for over 99 percent oftotal Federal funding for R&D. (JN)

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Annual Science and.TechnblogyReport tO the Congress: 1981:

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONN TIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

ED CATiONAL RESOURCES iNFORMAT1ONCENTER 4ERIC)

Thii document has' been reproduced asrecened hom the perSon o otgandattonOf WI? g

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

Office # Science and Technology Policyin cooperation witli the National Science Foundation

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Nisi 8.21

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,TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES:

I am pleased to submit to the'Congre'ss the fourth Annual

Science and Technology Report as required under the NatiOnal

Science and Technology Policy, Organization, and Priorities, Act

of 1976. This is the first subh report of my Administration.u.

Science and technology, are essential to the accomplishment of

the goals of this Adminisration and the needs of the American

people for jobs, enhanced national security, increased

international competitiveness, and bettet health and quality of

life. The continued advancement of both theoretical and applied

scientific knowledge is of vital importance to continued human

progress and the resolution of the complex problems facing the

world in the years ahead.

This Report emphadizes the impor'tant role of the Federal

government in supporting4our scientific enterprise. But it iilso

emphasizes that some things can best be done by the.private

sector. I believe that tdgether we will be able to harness

science and technology to meet the needs and aspirations of all

our people.

A

THE WHITE HOUSE',

April 21, 1982

RONALD REAGAN"

kf

EXECUTIVEOFFICEOFTHEPRESIDENTOFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY

WASHINGTON', D.C. 20600

'The PresidentThe White House.Washington D.C.

A /

Dear M. President:

4/

1

April 12, 1982

I am gleased to transmit to you, and throughyou to the Congress,.your Administrations firstAnnual Science and Technblogy Report, as required

Organization, and Priorities Act o .4976.by the,National Science and Policy(

Thp Report provides a comprehensive statement ,

of our scienceand technology policy and priorities.As such iE will serve as the basis foe action inbotb the.Exeoutive Brandh and the Congress.

Respectfully,

>40G. A. K yworth,.II

Director

, :

Contentst

Letter of Transmittal from the President toCongress iii

Letter of Tffinsmittal tot h e President t v,,Chapter I: Decisions and Actions in Science

andTechnology ' 1

k Overvie . 3. Conte2t for New Science and Technology Policy 3

Criteria for Federal Support of Research . 4.-

Industrial Research, Development and Innovation 6Summary of Current National R&D Expenditures 7

4 *

t.

.,

I.. Chapter II: Emerging Policy Issuesin Science 0

andTechnology 13

Science and Engineering Education . ... 15Scientific Instrumentation Obsolescence \=---20The Role of Federal Laboratories ,

,,. 24

. Stimulating Industrial Research, Development, and Innovation , 26Military Re:search and Development .... 4 31Space Science and Technology 35

,

Nuclear Energy ,' 38 )

Genetic Engineering v 43International Cooperation in Science and Technology 52

Chapter- III: Federal Research andDeyelopment Progranui . . 59.

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. NationalSecurity7

...

Space o..___.,-Health -,

EnetgyGeneral Saence and TechnologyNatural ResourcestnvironmentTransportationAgric Aare , ..EducatpnInternationalAffairs \ i, , ,-- -,

Il, Appendbc Special Analysis K: Research and leVelopment(Budget of the LInited States Government, 1983) . .

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107112118 '.126132137

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Chapter I

Decisions and ActiOns in*Science and -Technolo

s,

4.-f -U

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

*

This chapter presents the oveiall guidelines of the Administration's national scienceand technology policy. Major decisions and actions taken within those guidelinesare described, and highlights of tbe research and development components of the .

Presidents fiscalYear 1983 buckjet.aresnoted The chapier is divided into fivepafts:Overview;gontext for a New Science and Technology rblicy;Criteria for,Rderal Siipport ofResearch;Industrial Research, DevelOpment, and Innovation; andSummary of Current National R&D Expenditures.

The Shuttle, Colu mbia. rs launched on its s'econd space journey. real:zing the first reuse of a manned spaCecraft

.41

.

Overview

Progress' science ,and technology hasbecome an imperative for all modem in-dustnal societies, and there are numerousindications that the United States contin-ues both to strengthen its broad scientificand technological capabilities and to applythose capabilities to help define, illuminate,and resolve a wide range .of issues thatconcern the 'Nation. In 1981, notable ac-complishments in science and 'technologyincluded:

American citizens' were awarded NobelPnzes in ihemistry, physics, physiologyand medicine, and conomics.Voyager 2's close encounter withSaturn in August provided a wealth ofnew scientific data, while successful

test flights of the Space Shuttle 'inApril and November ushered in a newera in commercial and military space

applications.Pioneering developients in advancedmaterials Kience promised vastly moredurable and efficient military and civil-ian airaaft and space&aft.Clinical trials demonstrated the safetyand efficacy of a new hepatitis vaccinedeveloped by exploiting revolutionarcell fusion , and recombinant DNAtechniques.In another application of biotechnol-ogy, a new bioregulator was devel-

oped to increase the cold tolerance ofplant seedlings and thus allow themto be planted farther north than thetraditional zone.

As in previous years, the United Statesspent more money on iesearch and devel-opment (R&D) during 1981 anShad morescientists and engineers engaged in R&Dactivities than any other industrialized de-mocracy. Total national expenditures forresearch and development during the yearwere estimated to be $70 billion, an all-time high in both current and constantaollars, with private industry's share of thetotal exceeding that of the Federal Gov-ernment, ai,it -has since 1980. Total Fedieral support for basic reSearch in fiscalyear 1983 will be $5.8, billion, also anall-time high. Industry moved rapidly dur-

ing the year to, build on the results Offederally funded fundamental researefi inscience and engjneering by developingnew technologiesin biotechnology andmicroelectronics, for example-7that Pro-vide the basis for entirely new industrieswith enormous promise for enhanced so-cial and economic well-being, and theAdministration took steps to accelerate thattrend. An Executive Order of the Ptesi-dent, issued 'on February 17, 1981, wasaimed at clarifying the regulatory environ-ment, and the subsequent establishmentof a Presidential Task Force on RegulatoryRelief provided further evidence of thePresident's intention to remove a signifi-cant set of barriers to private sector in-vestment in research, development, andinnovation. The Economic Recovery TaxAct, enacted in August, included specificincentives to stimulate additional privatesector investments. Those actions, togeth-er with decisions on Federal research arydevelopment investments incorporatedinto the President's 'fiscal year 1983 bud-get, are consisteriL with a new, emergingnational science and technology policy thatwill provide guidelines for priority-settingand clecisionmaking that reflect the reali-ties of the 1980s.

Context for a New Scienceand Technology Policy

An effective science and technology policymust provide a consistent set of guidelinesfor addressing such questio.ns as: What arethe most effective investments that theFederal Government din make 'in scienceand technology? 'What are4the respectiveroles and responsibilities of the FederalGoveinment, State and local governments,and the private sector in those investments?

The Administration has recognizN fromthe outset that maintaining and increasingthe strength of the Nation's scientific andtechnological capabilities are critical to therealization of two of its cardinal goals: arevitalized domestic ecalomy and a re-sto?ed defense capability. -Those gOals de-fine the primary context for a new nationalscience and technology Ahoy, a policy

1

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that also must be related more intimatelythan in the past to policies concerningsuch matters as international relations, energy. and social services. Above all, thenew national science and technology policymust be consistent with the economic real-ities of the 1980s.

An unacceptable level of inflation, highinterest rates, and a runaway Federal budget have plagued the United. Stat8 foryears, and those conditions limit the effec-tive conduct of all.activities, including sci-ence and technology Complex and oftenunnecessary regulations, as well as inade-quate incentives to encourage investmentand growth in the private sector, havereduced U S. productivity and competitiveposition in international markets. Theseproblems are interrelated and can beovercome only by a coordinated effort.Clearly, there exists an urgent need todevelop a better partnership between thepublic and the private sectors aimed atmaking the most effective use of all avail-able US. scientific and technological re-sourcesa partnership in which Govern-ment, universities:4nd industry cany outtheir appropriate, separate roles, while alsofocusing on overall national goals.

The Administration plans to bring thefo4is of the Nation's economy back to anemphasis_ on fiscal_ responsibility in the pub-lic sectorgand increased productivity in theprivate sector. Given this approach, theimperative to establish priorities and rec-ognize limits on all components of theFederal budget, including research and de-velopment, becomes obvious. In particular,it is clear that autOmatic increases in Fed-eral spending for these activities in thepresent period of fiscal austerity is not agoal to which a viable science and tech-nology policy can aspire. Support ,for scrence and technologyespecially basicresearchis a long-terni investment that isan essential element in the foundation of ahealthy economy. But, to finance invest-ments in science, both taxpayers and cor-porate executives must feel sufficiently se-cure economically to invest in the future.

A central goal (of the Administration'sscience and technology policy is to makeclearer distinctions than were made in the

4 II

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past between public and private sectorroles and responsibilities for the supportand conduct of research and development,while seeking to broaden the base of sup-port for those activities. The Administra-tion regards fundamental research in .sci-ence and engineering as a vital investmentlikely to yield good returns fOr U.S. society.It believes that the primary responsibility ofthe Federal Government with respect toscience and kchnology is to support long-term researa. Since such research gener-ally yields widely available information andknowledge, rather than specific productsor processes, the incentives for strong sup-port by private industry are lacking.

With respect to moit technological devel-opment and demonstration projects, theAdministration is committed to the viewthat the collective judgment of innovators,entrepreneurs, and consumers, made in afree market environment, is generally su-perior to any form of centralized pro-gramming. Federal investments in techno-logical development and demonstrationprojects will, therefore, be restricted fothose few areas where the Federal Gov-ernment itself is the principal consumerand to a few potentially high-payoff ,areasin which the private sector is unable toinvest because of the heavily regulatednature of the technology or because pri-vate fitms cannot capture sufficient bene-.fits from such investinents.

The savings achieved by returning theresponsibilities for many development anddemonstration projects to the private sec-tor will allow the Federal Government tofocus more clearly on its primary resPonsi-bility to support long-term research. Bycontributing to overall reductions in theFederal budget, the saving achieved willalso help to stimulate the economy andthus improve the overall climate in whichall national activities, including scientificand technological activiti8, are conducted.

J .

Criteria for FederalSupport of Research

The Administrafion's budgets propose tomaintain levels of support for fundamental

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research that are adequate,to provide theknowledge, tasks, and skills on' which theNation's ability to meet unforeseeable fu-ture problems will depend. However, theAdministration is also committed to enSur-ing that the value of the benefits to bedenved from public investments in thatresearch justify the cost to the Federaltaxpayers

Past policies of Federal support for basicresearch have attempted to ensure someoverall annual growth rate, and there tiavebeen senous proposAls to tie basic researchsupport to such external factors as GrossNational Product (GNP). The Administra-tion rejects such rigid approaches to re-source allocations on the groundS thatthey have nothing to do with the quality ofthe research itself. Rather, it has adopted aset of general guidelines for making judg-ments about basic d'eprch support:

First. because of the nature of basicresearch and the inherent uncertaintyof its ultimate application, Wide-rangingsupport across fields and subfields ofscience should be maintained, thusproviding the cOuntry with a capabilityto take advantage of important scien-tific and technological breakthroughsquickly and to respond to unanticipatedneeds.Second, re,search supported by Fed-eral mission agencies should includebasic and applied research appropri-ate to the execution of the respectiveagency mission.Third, since 6overnment support ofresearch in universities influences theNation's ability to meet its future sci-entific and technological personnelrequirements, those requirements andresearch support policy are interde-pendent and should be coordinated. 4.Finally, there is less justification for adominant Federal Government rote innear-term applied research and, espe-cially,. development, except in suchareas of primary Federal responsibilityas defense, space, and environmentalregulation, and in heavily regulatedtechnologies. Other areas in which theGovernment has a more limited roleto play include those of shared responsi-

;

bilityfor instance, health and agricul-turewhere the broad societal bene-fits justify Federal involvement andthose areas of development where theGovernment is the sole or cloininantbuyer.

Within these general guidelines, the Ad-ministration has adopted stringent criteriato discriminat2 between the scieqtific areasthat are most promising and those that areless so. In addition, the Administration in-tends to work closely with the scientificand engineering communities to translatethose criteria into levels of Federal budgetsupport. The 'key criteria used to deter-mine the degree to which a scientific disci-

pline or a project within a discipline quali-fies for Federal research support areexcellence in the investigators, excellencein the subject matter, and excellency in theexpected results. These decisions should ,be determined by the scientific and engi-neering communities themselves, workingin cooperation with responsible Federalofficials. An additional, important criterionfor the public support of applied researchaimed at providing the foundation for fu-ture technological advance must be perti-nencepertinence to the- Nation's eco-nomic and social goals and needs.

These criteriaexcellence and perti-nenceare being applied both to projectscarried out primarily by American scientistsin American laboratories and to projectsthat involve substantial collaboration withforeign scientists or-are Carried out in nem-U.S. facilities. Application of the pertinenceCriterion leads to a recognition that someareas of science and particularly of tech-nology are more pertinent to the needs ofother countries tIlan to this country. U.S.science and tec&ology is regarded asequal to or more advanced than -any inthe world in a wide range of fields, includ-ing high-energy physics, agriculture, as-tronomy, geophysics, laser chemistry, bio-technology, and microelectronics. TheAdministrationyegards the maintenance ofAmerican preeminence in selected fieldsas an essential national goal. However, animportant reality of the 1980s is that manyof the countries, the Western Europeannations and Japan in particular, have, with

5

our help, reestablished the intellectitai andproductive capadties they lost duringWorld War II. For that reason, undispkitedworld dominance in all fields of scienceand technology is not a goal to which U.S.national science and technologypolicy canaspire. American science,can benefit fromhealthy competition among,scientists of allnations as long as an appropriate level ofinternational icooperation is also main-tained as a means for expanding the scopeof the U.S. research effort. With con-strained research and developmenik bud-gets facing all nations, collaborativeects in such areas of common interest aseriergy, space, and transportation will sure-ly become more attractive. k

While the Administration is`committedto returning the responsibility for mostdevelopment projects to the private sector,there are a few selected areas in whichFederal support must necessarily continuethroughout the, research, development,demonstration, and implementation stag.es. The most essential of those areas areones for which the Federal Government is,itself the principal consumer of the resultsof research and development, or whereR&D activities support essential Federaloperating responsibilities. Included are na-ional defense. some components of the.civil space program, and some aspectsassociated with civil transportation. Addi-tionally. Federal involvement beyond theresearch stage is appropriate in a fewareasfor instance, in the nuclear industrywhere the potential payoffs to lhe Nationare very large and regulation is so exten-sive that effective private sector investmentis difficult.

environment, have a.cted as barriers inhibit-ing more adequate industrial investmentsin long.-term R&D: The Federal Govern.'ment, by subsidizing certain developmentprojects, has distorted the market and dis-

, couraged industrial investments. Termina-tion of such economic subsidy p&gramswill remove an important barrier to cOrpo-rate investments in science and technology.

More specifically, the Economic RecOv-ery Tax Act, signed by the President inAugust, includes R&D tax credits, acceler-ated depreciation schedules. and other in-centives that, it is estimated, will imulatean additional $3 billion in corpora R&Dinvestments oyer the next 5 years. In addi-tion, the Adminisiltation supports pendingpatent reform legislation that would ex-tend to th6 entire private sector the rightto retain patents developed under FederalR&D funding.iThat legislation woUld re-move a mai& disincentive to industryparticipatton in important national R&Defforts. :

The Administration has also foc edsharply on regillatory reform a hascalled for greatei precision in ssessingboth thE tided for and the pot tial im-pacts of a` broad class of Federal egula-tions as a means for encouraging greaterindustrial productivity. This reflects a wide-spread consensus that the Governmentoverreacted during the 1970sor reactedwith inadequate inforrrationin framingregulations designed to eliminate or mini- .

mize risks to health, safety, and the envi-_ronment. The President's Task Force onRegulatory Relief, chaired by the Vice Pres-ident, has initiated a comprehensive studyof the entire set of regulatory laws .andadministrative.procedures. One early resultof the task force's 4rk has been a 30percent reduction ii the number of pagesof regulations published in the FederalRegister. An important step in improvingFederal regulations will be to increase thereliability of the Scientific and technicalinformation and the analytical methods onwhich estimates of environmental, health,and safety risks are based. Regulatory re-form will reduce the overall burden toindustry of compliance with unnecessaryand often uncertain regulations. Equally

Industrial Research,Development, and Innovation

The Administration is taking steps to stim-ul te greater industrial support for re-searCIT development, and innovation. Inthe past, however, uncertainties about fu-ture Federal poliaes with regard to taxes,patents, antitrust interpretations, and regu-latory requirements, as well as the highcost of capital and the prevailing economic

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important, it will reduce the amount oidefensive R&D that has been required bythe past regulatory environment and thushas been diverted from more productiveinnovations.

There is increasing evidente that privateindustry now perceives R&D investmentsas economicaHy ddvantageous and that itwill increase its investments as a result ofthe new incentives Industria1R&D spend-iug has exceeded Federal spending duringeach year since '1980. Additionally:since1975. the average annual rate of increasejn industnal R&D investments, measuredin constant_ dollars, has been almost cloul,ble the annual increase in the Federalinvestment rate-5.7 percent versus 2.3percent. The ratio of company-fundedR&D to sales has remained relatively con-stant at 2 percent, suggesting that im-provements in the economic climate willstimulate increased investments.

The long.term innovative capacity of theindustrial sector Ms:7, depends on the con-tinued availability of new scientific conceptsand data and on the adequacy, in bothquantity and ,quality, of scientific and tech-nicakpersonnel. Hence, the Administration

, concerned with two related ,problemsfaced by the Nation's universitiesinstru-mentation obsolescence arid faculty short-ages in enginvring and computer sciencedepartments. Those problems could havesenous adverse consequences for thestrength of the entire U.S. science andtechnology enterprise. The' AdMinistrationis also concerned about the long-terin ef-fects of the decreasing emphasis on sci-.ence and mathematics in the Nation's pub-,lic schpols, a trend that is in sharp contrastwith the situation in most other industrial-ized countries. These and several otherscience and technology policy issues thatthe Administration is currently addressing,including national defense, space, and nu-clear energy, are discussed in detail inchapter II.

Summary of Current NationalR&D Expenditures

During 1981, total national expendituresfor all research and development activities

were estimated to be about $70 billiesteAsin previous years, private industry's shareof the total, estimated at 49 percentainotonly exceeded The Federal share, estimated at 47 percent, but also increased at amore rapid rate. The remaining 4 percentwas accouhted for bY private fouridations,univei-sities, and other nonprofit institutions.

In 1982, the Nation is expected to invest$77 billion in research and development,11 percent more than in 1981 and morethan double the amount spent in 1975.National R&D expenditures have increasedin real terms each year since 1975; theincreases have averaged 4 percent annual-ly through 1982. Those increases resultlargely from greater expenditures for ener-*gy, space, and defense programs as well asfrom general industrial growth. The in-crease in national R&D investments hg-tWeen 1981 and 1982 in constant dollarsis estimated at 2 percent. The Federalshare of those expenditures is expected toremain at slightly less than one-half pf thenational R&D effort during 1982. Figure 1details national R&D expenditures from1963 through 1982. More detailed infor-mation on trends in national research anddevelopment, and expenditures for R&Dactivities, can bg found at the end of thischapter.

Rationale for Administration BudgetDecisions for Fiscal Year 1983

The President's proposed fiscal year 1983budget, transmitted to CongresS on Feb-ruary 8, 1982, provides a detailed state-ment ipf the Administration's national sci-ence and technology policy guidelines. InparticUlar, it elaborates a' Federal role inR&13 that is consonant with Administra-tion actions in tax, regulatory, and fiscalpolicies and calls for the return of respon-s'ibility to individuals and organiiations inthe private sector and, cOncomitantly, alessening involvement by the Federal Gov-ernment in broad areas.

Highlights and Trends in the.Fiscal Year 1983 Budget forScience and TechnologyFederal obligations for the conduct of allR&D, including basic xesearch but not the

7

Billions of dollars

70

so

50

ao

20

01963 '65 '67 . '69

Figure Ortional R&I:Lexpenditures

'71 '73 '75Fiscal year

SOURCE; WitIonal Science FoundsUon; Science Resources Studies'Based on GNP Implicit price deflator.

3

.funding for R&D facilities, are estimated tototal .$43 bilhon in 1983, an increase of$4.2 billion over 1982. Obligations forR&D facilities are estimated to be $1.3bilhoh in 1983. a decrease of $265 millionfrom 1982 levels. The Office of Manage-ment and Budget's Special Analysis K,which summarizes the Federal funding ofresearch and development across all de-partments and agencies. is reproduced inits entirety in the appendix.

The 1983 budget reaffirms the Adminis-tration's commitment, within current figcalrealities, to provide for the su-pport of basicresearch as an investment in the Nation'slong term economic groWth ,and nationalsecurity Obligations for the conduct ofbasic research are estimated to increase in1983 by $0.5 billion to $5.8 billion, or 9percent over 1982. Figure 2 compares

8

,77 '79 '81 '82 .(est.)

.

basic research, applied_ research, and de-velopment support with total Federal R&Dsupport from 1970 through 1983.

The allocation of $5.8 billion in the 1983budget for basic research recognizes theneed not only to maintain a vigoroun-a-tional research effort in all essential areasof scientifiá inquiry btit also to strengthenbasic research in specific areas of nationalconcern and coxernment responSibilityfor

,example, national _security. Basic researchin such fields as cliemistry, physics, biolo-gy, astronomy, and materials provides theunderpinning for new inventions, advanc-

- es in health care, improved nutrition andagricultural production,,and new technol-ogies for defense, space, energy, and envi-ronmental protection. Special emphasis isbeing given to strengthening basic researchin the physical sciences and engineering

4.

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,Figura 2. Fe Oral R&D/obligations by character of WO*: FY 1971:P83,

Billions of dollars50

'72 '73 '74 , :75 '76 irr '78 ''79 '80

Fiscalyaar

SOURCES: National Science. Foundation and the Office of MabageMemt and Budget.

because of the importance of those areasto industrial productivity and economic re-vitalization.

The increase in funding for the conductof R&D in the 1983 budget is reflectedlargely in the R&D programs of the De-partment of Defense. Significant increasesare also proposed for the R&D programsof National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration and the National SdenceFoundation.

Figure 3 summarizes fiscal year 1983Federal expenditures for the conduct ofresearch and development by the five

major support agencies. Figure 4 showstrends in defense and other Federal R&bsupport from 1963 through 1983. High-lights of the programs of the major R&Dagencies, which account for over 90 per-cent of the proposed 1983 R&D activities,are presented below. An overview of Fed-eral funding pf R&D facilities concludesthe section.

4

Figur. 3. Federal R&Dobligationoby major support s,

agency: FY 1983

NSF 2.4'4

NASA151%

Other'6.3%

Commerce'9.7%

NHS9.6% ,

56.9%

Includettae Departments of Agriduiture,Traineports!Mon, the totem', Edudation, Housing. and, UrbanDevelopment, Justice, tabor, Treasury, and IStattiithi'NOCtiar-Regulatory Oommission, the Environmental,Protection agency, the Agency lig' InternitioPalDovetopminte the Vetrans Adminiattetio0he Ten.nesse' Valley Authority", Ihe Smithsonlin Institution,the Corps of ,Egigineers, the Federal EmetgencyManagement Agency, the IAA, Otlics.öf PersonnelManagement, Pie Meaty èf Congtth, thf Art*. Cat'trorind Disarmement Agency, the Federal Cornmunl.cetions' .Commission, th Advisory. ComMittes onintergovernmental, Relations, anktha Federal TradeCommIssiom , -

'include's prograrim of the Department at 'Energy,SOURCE: Officio! Menagement and Budget

9

*ee.

_ Figure 4. Federal-R&D obligations for defense and 'civilian programs

Billions of dollars50

R&D total

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1963 '67 69 :71 '73 , '75

, Fiscal year.

79 '81 '82 '83" (est.)

'Includes mIlitaryrelated prograrns of the Departments of Defense and Commerce (DOE weapons programs).SOURCES: National ScleAce FoundatIon.andOffIce of Minagergent andEtudget

Fiscal Year 1983 Budgets' forMajor R&D Agencies

Department of Defense. Obligations forthe conduct of R&D by the Department ofDefense (DOD) will rise to $24.5 billion, anincrease of $3.9 billion over 1982 and 57percent of the total Federal funding forR&D. In 1983, the Department will pro-vide increased support for basic researchahd for R&D related to such advanced,strategic systems,as bombers; ballistic mis-siles, and ballistic missile defense.;

National Aeronautics and Space Ad-ministration. Obligations for the conductof R&D by the National Aerrautics and

Space Administration (NASA) are estimat-ed at $6.5 billion for 1983, $0.7 billionover 1982. Increased funding for 1983 isproposed to ensure.timely transition of theSpace Shuttle into an operational systemand to dontinue the highest priority rs-search and space exploration projects, in7

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cluding the further development of theSpace Telesc4Q, the Gamma-Ray Obser-vatory, and the Galileo Mission to Jupiter.

Department of Commerce. Obligationsby the Department of Commerce (1:50C)for the conduct of R&D would be t-S4.2billion in 1983, including $3.9 billion forprograms transferred through the pro-posed dismantlement of the Departmentof Energy. The 1983 figure indicates a netdecrease of $605 million for those pro-grams, but includes increases for .nucl,arweapons R&D and for long-term resq6rchin energy sciences and fundamental phy-sics. The increases are more than offset byeliminating subsidies to industry for near-term energy research and technology de-velopment. The other R&D programs ofthe Department of Commerce, namelymeasurement-related and oceanic,.marine,and atmOspheric research, would be re-duced by $31 million below 1982 to alevel of $240 million in 1983.

4

Department of Health and HumanServices. Obligations for the conduct of

111..NR&D in the Department of Health andHuman 'Services (HHS) are estimated to

, total $4.1., billion in 1983, $150 millionabove 1982, of which the National Insti-tutes of Health (NIH) a/counts for about ($3.5 billion, $106 million above 1982. The,1983 budget for NIH continues to supporta strong national effort in biomedical re-

.. search. including research related tc poten-tially hazardous occupational and envi-ronmental exposures.

National Science Foundation. Obligations for the conduct of .R&D by the Na-tional Science Foundation (NSF) are esti-mated to total $1,033 million in 1983, anincrege of $72 million over 1982. Includ-ed in the total is $984 .million for thesupport of basic research, an. increase af$72 million over 1982. The 1983 budgetfor NSF proposes increased support ofresearch in the natural sciences and'engi-neenng and selected retrenchment of rela-tively lower priority programs.

9

4

Funding of R&D Facilities

Obligations for R&D facilities in 1983,including the construction or renovati9n offacilities and plants and the acquisition ofmajor equipment will total $1.3 billion, adecrease of $265 million below 1982.

Significant changes in facilities supportare being proposed in 1983, primarily forfrrograms being transferred to the Depart-ment of Commerce as part of the pro-pcised dismantlement of.the Departmentof Energy. In those programs, support willbe maintained generally for such basic re-SearEh facilities as those for high-eneRgyphysTcs. However, signifnt reductions areproposed for facilities used for demonstra-tion of energy technofogies. Those reduc-tions are largely in keeping with the policyof relying more on industnnnvestthent.The 1982 budget includes ftinds to bringmany energy demohstrations to an orderlydose or to', help industry take over thesupport of the facilities used for suchdemonstrations.

11

z

Chapter II

Emerging Policy Issues inScience and Technolo

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-National BUreaU of Standards

.

fThis chapter discusses nine issues of partkular interest to the Administration, selectedbecause they are both timely and important, and becai* the Federal Government

.." shares a legitimate and significant role in current and future policymaking on theissues. Taken as a whole, the discussions illustrate smile of the ways in which theAdministration's new national science and technology policy guidelines, highlighted 4.in chapter I, are being brought to bear on a wide range ofiptional problems. \

Issues to be addressed are: *Scienatand Engineering Education;Scientific' Instrumentation Obsolescence;

.,

,

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' The Role of Federal Laboratories; ,....

Stimulating Industrial Research, Development. and Innovation:Military Research and Development;

' Space Science and Technology;4p, Nuclear Energy, .

Genetic, Engineering; andInternational Cooperation in Science and Technology.

The issues are important in themselves-qnd also fall into three overlapping cate-gories, each of which reflects a principal tfteme of the Administration. The threecategories are. strengthening nati6nal capabilities in science and technology; clari-

fying public and private sector roles, and responsibibes for science and technology;and considering international implications of the new science and technology policy.

guidelines.l

1

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4,

I

The National Bureau of Standards' 130 MeV Electron Linear Accelerator (L1NAC) is operated as a user's facility for

fundamental nuclear studies, activation analysis, radiation dosimetry. and neutron measurements and standaids

actwities.

.1 --A.

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Science ind Engineering Education

Introduction

TAe diverse, decentralized set of institu-tions that constitutes the U.S. national sys-tern for educating scientists and engineershas many fundamental, ar4 enduringstrengths. It is characterizekby a remark-able degree of 'adaptability as compared

e with similar institutions in most other coun-'tnes, and it has provided an indisp-ensablebasis for the superlative achievements ofU S. science and technology during thepast 40 years. At present-670,000 full-time equivalekt scientists and engineerare employed in this country, and thnurnber is projected to grow by at least40,000 in the next decade. Given the in-creasing technological cplexity of oursociety, Many occupations and professionsin addition 'to, science and engineering re-

sorne reasonable level of sophistica-tion in science and mathematics. Clearly,tfie adequacy of the Nation's institutionsfor science and eNineering education mistbe assessed in terms of their/capacity tocarry out the tasks implied by these needs,and thus continue to contribute to presentand future national goals. Unfortunately,those institutions face critical problems that.could limit their ability to carry out theirdiverse educational tasks.

Perhaps -the most serious, long-term ed-ucational problem is the declining empha-sis on science and mathematics at theprecollege level, a trend in sharp contrastwith other countries. There are also signifi-cant proble,ms associated with the numbers.Of professional scientists and engineersgraduating in certain key, expanding high-technology fields, particularly electronicsand energy systems. Problems associatedwith engineering education are immediateand acute. They result from several fac-tors, among the most serious being engi-neering faculty shortages and the ob-solescence of instruments needed for in-struction and research.

The principal initiatives for remedyingthe problems of science and engineeringeducation at all levels rnust originate fromthe institutbns themselves, frorn privateindustry, and from State and local gov-

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emments. Any Federal financial supportrnust be carefully planned to provideEzax-irnum leverage where the national need isrnost significant.

Engineering Education

The recent increased demand for engi-neers, particularly in the electronics andenergy industries, has raised entry levelsalaries and also boosted coOge enroll-ments in engineering. Engineering collegescannot indefinitely increase their numbersof undergraduates within the constraints ofexisting facilities, and faculty leve)s, Manyhave already limited their enrollments tomaintain an acceptable quality of educa-tion.

The increase in industrial dLand forengineering graduates with bachelor's andmaster's degrees -has reduced the numberof students continuing, to the doctoratelevel. Many of tht vabncies for doctoralcandidates .have been filled by foreign stu-dents, who are receiving about 50 percentof the engineging dodoral ddgrees awardedin this country. Increasirig numbers ofthose foreign sthdents are returning hornefor a variety of reasons and are not beingemployed in the United States.

The lure of industry for the decreasingnumbers of U.S. students who do receivedoctorates in engineering has resulted in adocurnented and significant shortage ofengineering faculty, particularly junior fac-ulty. Acadernic salaries being offered tofaculty at the entry level are usually belowindustrial starting salaries 'for holders ofbachelor's degrees. As a result, there were,at the start of the 1980-1981 academicyear, approximately 1,600 unfilled full-timeengineering fadulty positions, or about 10percent of the total, in U.S. colleges.Overall shortages would .be far greaterwere it not for the availability of foreignengi eers: among junior engineering facul-ty, alm one-quarter received their bach-elor's degrees outside the United States.

Rising undergraduate engineering en-rollments and static br contracting numbersof facudy are resulting in heavier teachingloads, increased student-teachet ratios,

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1,..

and, in many cases, the cancellation ofcourses formerly offered in engineeringschools: These pressures are occurring at-a time when leaders in U.S. industry arestressing the need for new types of curricu-la to provide better preparation in manu-facturing and process design, particularlyin electrical, chemical, and mechanical en-gineering, and computer science, to sup-port productivity growth in the commergialsector.

The effects of faculty shortages on un-dergraduafe teaching are being exacerbat-ed by the obsolescence and deteriorationof equipment for teaching and research inmany institutions (This problem is dis-

, cussed in more detail later in this chapter.)Thus. industry has had to assume increas-ing responsibility for training new engineersto use the state-of-the-art apparatus that, afew months ago, those engineers wouldhave encountered in the normal course oftheir undergraduate careers.

These trends, if uncorrected, could haveseveral negative consequences'.,FirSt, theycould degrade' the quality of engineeringeducation in' the United States. Indeed,increasing numbers of engineering schoolspre already losing accreditation for thesereasons. Second, a further decline in theattractiveness of college teaching careerscould lead still larger numbers of prospec-tive American Ph.D. candidates to decideagainst advanced study in engineering. Fi-nally, declining Ph.D. enrollments, increas-ing faculty vacancies, and obsolete re-search instruments are obvious barriers toacademic research, with the resulf thatuniversities are losing their capacity to con-duct such research in important frontierareas. Private industry has thus faf beenable to conduct much of the engineeringresearch required for its.own 'needs. How-ever, a good deal of, industrial research isfocused on relativgy short-term problemsand is cpncentrated where industry per-

iceives a specific need. Thus, it seems un-likely thatiull responsibility for conductingthe bully Of the long-term engineering re-search ndedjo undergird future tech-nologies willte- assumed by industry. Ulti-mately, the shortage of doctoral-levelengineers could also limit the abilN of

1-6

industry to carry out its ownyesearch and .

development programs.The current high demand for new engi-

neers (and for.new Ph.D. scientists in cer-tain critical subspecialties) could also haveparticularly serious consequences for thequality of the Nation's defense capabilities.Because of the lu&rative industrial job mar-ket, the armed serviceswhich canno)offer competitive s4aLiescontinte to ex-perience difficulties both in recruiting en-gineers and scientists into military serviceand in hiring civilians for in-house defenselaboratories. The growing shortage of en-gineers and scientists in fields critical todefense also affects essential defense con-tractor programs. Retenfion of engineersand some scientists is also a problem. Forexample, loss rates for military en,gineersincreased by 20 percent during 1979alone:

Precollege Science andMathematics Education

9

Only about one-sixth of U.5. high schoolstudents currehtly take both science andmathematics courses, during their juniorand senior years, and most who do areintent upon careers in science and engi-neering or in such closely related fields ashealth care. Thus, by default, a large frac-tion of U.S. students cut themselves off, atage 16, from careers in the rapidly grow-ing fields of science and engineering. Thedropout rate at the 10th grade level isparticularly severe for girls and for stu-dents from a-lost minority groups.

Thus, most students'who do not choosescience-rebted careers are also being de-nied the opportunity for any genuine un-deistan4ng of science, mathematics,.andtechrefOgy, The relatively few studentswho have a strong interest in such careersare studyingand reaming as much scienceand mathematics as they ever did. How-ever, the much larger group who end theirformal study of those subjects early in highschool ,are perkorming considerably lesswell than. a clec4e ago on achievement-measures covering even the low-level sub-jects they have studied. As the pace ofsdentific and technical chrge in this Coun-

4

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3 2 1 Contact'

Research is conducted for 3 2 1 Contact!, a scince series for children produced by the Children's TelevisionWorkshop

try and throughout the worrd continues, adeeper, understanding of science and tech-

( nology will become increasingly importantin a wide range of, occupational and pro-fessional pursui s that formerly had little orno scientific or t chnical content. Thus, thegrowing scienti_ .and technical illiteracyamong the U.S. populatiOrk could hdvesevere .negative consequences for ourju-ture national productivity.

The growing 'weakness of precollege sci-ence and mathematics education 4ri the

- United States is the result of several fac-tors. Realistic information on which stu-dents, teaGhers, parents, and guidancepersonnel can,base judgments about thescience and mathematics prerequisites forvarious types of careers is generally lack-ing. There is a mismatch between the con-tent of the science and mathematics cur-.

ricula -used in .most high schools and theneeds and interests of the large number ofstudentsowho do not plan to become sci-entists and engineers. Surprisingly little useis beingmade of the potential of the mod-ern electronics capabilities for educationscience and mathematics. There are se-vere shortages of trained mathematics andphysical science teachers throughout thecountry. Surveys conducted in 1981 re-vealed that 22 percent of high schoolteaching posts in mathematics were vacantand, that 26 percent of the occupied postswere filled by teachers who were uncerti .fied or only temporarily certified to teachmathematics. Finally, theie has been asteady erosion Of the stipport systems thatformerly provided a measure of qualitycontrol and assistance to teachers withpedagogical problems.

17

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4.

The decreasing emphasis on scienceand mathematics in. the U.S. public school

Aystem contrasts sharply with the situationin other industrialized countries where de-liberate attempts are being ,made to attaina high level of technical competencyamong tbe general population. In Japan,about 25 percent of classroom time ingrades 7 through 9 is devoted to scienceand mathematics: and nearly all college-bound students take three natural sciencecourses and four mathematics courses dur-ing their :_23 year high school career. Thegenerarpreparation is similar in WestGermany In the soviet Union, there arenational elementary and secondary curric-

. ula in science and mathematifs that, incontent and scope, surpass those of anyother country. Algebra and geometry aretaught in the 6th anc-rwth grades, andadvanced algebra and trigonometry ingrades 8 to 10. Calculus is part of the highschool curriculum for over 5 milljon Sovietstudents. In addition, all secondarY schoolstudents are required to complete courses.tin physics, chemistry, and biology.

Options for Federal Action

the problems associated with college anduniversity science and engineering educa-tion and with precollege science andmathematics education have been devel-oping for a decade or morejhey are thusunlikely to be solved either quickly or easi-ly or by means of stopgap measures. Also,the long leadtirnes characteristic of theeducational process preclude instant resultsfrom remedial action.

High rates of inflation and demographictrends underlie problems at all levels ofeducation. For colleges and universities,optrating costs have continued to mountwhile undergraduate enrollmentsand,therefore, tuition incomehave leVeled offor, in some cases, declined: Likewise, few,public schools have the financial resourcesto develop and implement new cuniculain science or mathematics, to' equip schoollaboratories adequately, or to provide othertypes of support for science and mathe-matics teachers. Given the range of attrac-

18

tive career options open to college gradu-ates with degrees in mathematics or physi-cal science, very few sect to become highschool teachers.

Both producers and users.of scienceand engineering personnelschools, col-leges, universities, the Federal Govern-ment, State and local governments,, andprivate industry ,must play an active rolein solving the problems of science, math-ematics, and engineering educatioh. In th'elong run, many of those problemspartic-ularly at the professional levelshouldsolve themselves. Indeed, to a large extent,the market for science and enginegringpersonnel is acting as it lould. Under-graduate engireering enrollments contin-ue to increaSe as qualified secondaryschool students respond to their percep-tions of attfactive career opportunities, withthe result that increasing numbers of thenew engineers required by industry aregraduated each year. However, Federalaction may be necessary as a catalystwhere market responses are slow or wherethe problems are particularly difficult forthe private sector to solve.

A good deal of Federal support for theeducation of science and lengineering per-sonnel will derive from grant and contract,support fOr research to universities. In ad-dition, 'the Government is providing limit-ed, targeted support to help solve theengineering graduate student and facultyproblems. For example, the National Sci-ence Foundation has initiated a specialnew engineering faculty research incentiveprogram designed to attract new, high-quality Ph.D. engineers into academic ca-reers. Also, the Department of Defensehas increased both the number of 4radu-ate fellowships offered in engineering andscience and the amount of each stipend inorder to make full-time graduate study amore-attractive option.

Other Federal actions to address boththe national education situation and, inparticul9r, science, mathematics, and en-gineeririg education are under way. TheSecretary 'of Education established, in Au-gust 1981, a National Commission on Ex-cellence in Education composed of schOol,college, and university educators, State and

4

BowtingGreenUniversity

High school students-working with macrophotographyin a university laboratory

local officials. and leaders in a range of.professions. That Commission, which in:cludes a panel on science and mathemat-

v ics, is conducting an 18-month study andwill make recommendations for action atall levels of government aged at restoringexcellence throughout the U.S. education-al system. In addition, the National Sci-ence Board is establishing a Commissionon Precollege Eckicahon in Mathematics,Science, and Technology. Its first task will

be to help develop criteria for educatisn inthose areas.

Diversity and adaptability tAll'khangingcircumstances have been hallmarks of theU.S. educational system. Local communi-ties, in concert with industry and profes-sional groups, will have to gecide how bestto allocate scarce 'resources in order toemphasize excellence in educationalendeavors, including instruction in scienceand mathematics, to assure the future vigorof their own regions and the Nation as a

.whole. Universities must deade whethertheir goal will be to protect excellence by amore selective distribution of scarce re-sources or to spread those resources everwider and thinner. In the case of publiclysupported universities, State governmentswill have to decide whether resources willcontinue to be allocated on a student cred-it hour basis, which means they are drivensolely by undergradbate enrollments, oron the basis of a long-range review'of eachuniversity's role in the State and Nation.

Much of What should be done has al-ready been started. Whether still more at-tention and resources will be devoted- tosustaining the quality of U.S. science andengineering education depends in largemeasure on public perceptions of the im-portance. to the Nation, of maintainingscientific and technological leadership in-ternationally, and on a better understand-ing of the central importande of scientificand technological activitiesand scienceand technology literacyto our nationalneeds and goals.

19

Scientific Instrumentation Obsolescence,.

IntroductionInstrumentation is at the heart of experi-mental research. Moderdinstruments withqualfiatively superior capacities for analysisand measurement can open up Ade newfields of scientific inquiry arid can greatlyreduce the time necessary to carry outresearch projects. In some scientjfic areas,access to the most advanced scientific in-strumentation determines in large measurewhether scientists can work at the leadingedge of the field. Furthermore, the abilityto engage in-frontier research in some ofthose areas often requires not just indMd-ual instrunvts, but clusters of expensiveinstruments

There is currently concern within theAdministration and among leaders of thescientific community that many of the in--struments costing $100,000 to $1 millionat U S research universities are rapidlybecoming obsolete. As a result of increas-ing costs (due mainly to inflation), increas-ing sophistication of instruments requiredto do frontier, resgarch, and decreasingsources of funds, those instruments will bedifficult to.replace with the state-of-the-artequipment necessary to ensure the prog-ress of scientific research required to fulfillnational needs.

The growmg obsolekence of researchinstrumentation in U.S universities is aproblem not just for the universities, butfor the Nation aS a whole. To the extentthat such obsolescence impedes the prog-ress of fundamental research, its effectswill be felt by the Nation in such criticalareas of application aS agriculture, medi-cine, biotechnology, engineering, energy,and national defense. Since over half thebasic research performed in the UnitedStates is carried out at universities, a d'e-cline in the research potential of the uni-versifies tould result in a significant declinein the d'eneral rate of the Nation's scientificadvancement and ultimately its technolog-ical innovativeness.

Trends and Developments

Although it is difficult to derive,quantitativemeasures for assessing the severity of the

20

-OM.- .,

direct and indirect effects on training andindustrial innovation of the obsolescenceproblem, a number of recent studies sug-gest that its magnitude is substantial.

Costs of InstrumOntation

The difficulties faced by research universi-ties in acquiring and maintaining adequateresearch instrumentation are compoundedby the increases in cogls brought about byinflation and are in a very real sense tiedto the health of the Nation's economy.Recent studies have addressed the increas-ing costs of scientific instrumentation inthe universities.

( 1 ) A 1979 Department of Health, Ed-ucation, and Welfare survey of nine universi-ties concluded that there Was an unmetdeficit of instrument needs arid facilities of.$225 million and indicated that similarunmet needs would persist over the next 3to 5 years.

(2) A National Science Foundation studyprojected a catchup need of about $420million'for the next 5 years in the physicalsciences alone. .

(3) A 1979 article in Science showedthat instrument costs have increased four-fold since 1970, excluding the develop-menf of new technologies that have comeinto general use since 1970.

(4) A study matching university researchlaboratories in a number of disciplines withnonuniversity laboratories foun8 that amongthe sample institutions selected, the medi-an age of university instrumentation wastwice that of instrumentation at compara-ble industrial laboratories. The same studycited evidence that American universities,are now becoming less well equipped thanthose in other countries, particularly Japanand Western Europe.

The costs of providing up-to-date re-,search instruments go far beyond the priceof a particular piece of equipment. Severalother factors are involved. First, once aninstrument is purchased, additional fundsare needed for its operation and mainte-nance. It has been estimated that the addi-tional cost of equipment ownership, in-cluding maintenance, replacement parts,

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staff salaries, and equipment operation ex-penses, runs about 7 to 8 percent of theoriginal cost per year. However, studieshave pointed out that maintenance fund-ing in universities .has become scarce, thatshops for in house maintenance are dete-riorating, and'that the costs of service con-tracts are increasing above the rate ofinflation.

Second, as equipment becomes morecomplex and computerized, operation,'maintenance, and repairs may be beyondthe abilities of researchers and students.When repairs cannot be made quickly be-cause of a latk Of available funds, essentialequipment,may,be unavailable for use forsubstantial periods, and thus valuable re-'`search time may be lost.

Third, Federal grants rarely provide forsuch support equipment as oscilloscopesand vacuum leak detectors, equipment notnecessarily involved directly in the researchitself, but necessary to test, calibrate,orprovide an appropriate environment forthe core research instruments. Without up-to-date support equipment, research in-strumentation can be far less useful.

Finally, research universities must findfunds to provide adequate facilities for thehousing and support of instrumentation.Instrument housing costs include the con-struction of buildings or new wings, con-struction of animal facilities, renovation ofplumbing and electrical systems, and in-stallagon of air.cooling units for sensitivecomputers. Some costs arise from theneed to renovate existing facilities to ac-commodate more sophisticated instrumen-tation, others become. necessary becauseof changes in the legal or regulatory re-quirernents for research housing. Since the1960s, Federal resources for the construc-tion of Tacilities have been declining,placing an ever-increasing strain on institu-tional funds. The universities themselvesthus far have not filled the gap, despite theneed to renovate and create new facilities.

Effects on Training

In addition to the problems in state-of-the-art instrumentation for research and doctoral-

level training, the quality of instrumenta-tion for training engineers and lechnolo-gists is also deteriorating. This is especiallyso- for students who will eventually be em-ployed by indusniy. If students are notconversant with up-to-date equipment, re-training may be necessary. Thus, the in-creasing sophistication and cost of instru-mentation has placed our Nation's univer-sities in a oritical position both in teachingand in conducting res rch.

Poll y Options

The scientific instrumentation obsolescenceproblem and the potentially negative im-pacts it can have on such national objectivesas economic revitalization'and productivitymake it an area of special national con-cern. The universities themselves and thecorporate sector, with some limited assis-tance from the Federal Government, willhave to take the initiative to alleviate theproblem.

The University Role

University efforts to find solutions to theation probirrtaug centered on

proved management and the potentialistribution of available ,resources. The

Administration believes that the scientificqommunity, working with supporting agen-cies, must decide which of its needs aremost important and how those needs canbe met best. To ensure the proper capital-ization of all research activities, includingthe financing of equipment and facilities, auniversity may be forced, to decide wheth-er its equipment needs are iMportantenough to justify an offsetting reduction insome other category of support or, possibly,in the total number of projects supported.While such decisions are surely nót easy, amore sustainable ratio of capital to opera-ting funds for research support must beachieved. Recently, two new methods ofinnovative financing have been tried aspartial solutions to the problems of fund,ing university research instrumentation.The new methodsdebt financing withuser charges, and limited partnerships-

21

have tiad some-success, but their ultimateeffectiveness in reducing the magnitude ofthe problems has not -as yet been assessed.However, they should be viewed as partsof a more complex University effort tosolve the instrumentation problem. In ad-.

dition. cooperation within and among uni-versities can also improve the availability ofinstruments to researchers. Similarly, uni-versities will need ro develop rhore effec-tive means of local and regional cooiKra-tion, including sharing of expensive equip-ment and facilities. A related mechanism isthe development of brokerage systemsthrough which equipment can be transferred

readily from one university to another.

The Industry Role

Corporations and research universities findthemselves beneficially interrelated in many-ways. Corporations need the trained engi-tleers---a-rid,6dentists that universities pro-

duce, and they use the advanced tech-niques that university researchers develop.

--' Universities need the financial support andinput of corporations in pursuing their re-search and training functions. Universityand industri cooperative arrangementsenable scientists to work together on pro:jeCts of joint interest and to learn ea.chother's techniques while sharing sophisti-cated equipment.

Since research relationships betweenuniversities and industrial firms are ofobvious beiefit to both parties, they oftenresult in an increase in direct financialsupport for university research, which canbe used to purchase advanced equipment.Corporations ,,neray also assist universitiesthrough the donation or sharing of equip-ment and through financial assistance tospecial funds set up for the purchase 'ofadvanced equipment. However, researchfunding, including support for instrumen-tation, available from industry win, ofcourse, be skewed toward engineering

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N

CenterforUniverstvo(Massachusetts lndustryResearchon Polymers

i Two screntisti work with the Fourier Transform Infrared Analyzer. This apparatus was cooperatij4 funded by

government, university, and industry sources and is being used in the research programof the Center forUnloersity

of Massachusetts-Industry Research on Polymers:

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schools and those scientific subdisciplineslikely to have the most immediate impacton product development for the corpora-tions involved, leaving large segments ofthe university research enterprise relativelyunaided by industry.

The Federal Role

The Administration recognizes that someof the key equipment and instrumentationavailable in the universities for both re;search and instruction is outdated and oftenobsolete. Although no new Federal initia-tives are appropriate, a special InteragencyWorking Group on University Research In-strumentation, managed by the NationalScience Foundation, has been establishedto assess the status of research instrumen-tation and facilities at universities and todesign means fAr encouraging private andpublic sector support for their moderniza-tion. In addition. less direct actions havebeen taken by the Pederal Government toameliorate the instrumentation problem.For example, the Economic Recovery TaxAct of 1981 contains tax incentives forcontributions of industrial equipment toyeSdemic institutions. While the relation-

4

ships between universities and corporationsare voluntary in natuth. the Federal Govern-ment can play an indirect role in influencingthe conditions under which such linkagesdevelop. Federal policies to increase, theachiantages, to corporatiOris of providingassistance to, research universities is cog-sistent with the Administration's objectivesregarding the revitalization of industr9 andenhancement of the potential for stien-tific reSearch to stimulate industrial prog-resi through innOvation and discovery.Among the options that could have a potential impact on the situatiorr are taxincentives and increased flexibiljty in Fed-eral-funding mechanisms.

In the final analysis. universities mustassume the major share of responsibilityfor dealing with .instrumentation obsoles-cence. They need to take the initiative inseeking cooperation from industry and topropose more flexible Federal fundingmeehanisms. Most importantly, they needto optimize their internal allocation Of re-sources to achieve the appropriate balancebetween operating funds and equipment.Proposed Federal funding''for universityresearch is increasing in real terrns, andinstrumentation must be considered withinthat funding context, not in addition to it.

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The Role of Federal Laboratories

Introduction

The Federal Government owns more than700 laboratones of various sizes engagedin what can, be generally described as re-search, development, testing, and evalua-tion. Most are operated by Federal em-ployees, but some of the largest facilitiesare operated by contractors. More than 70

percent of the.laboratorieshave fewer than50 professional staff members, and fewerthan 20 percent have more than 100 pro-fessionals Slightly more than one-third ofthe annual Federal R&D budget is allocat-ed for the laboratories, a portion of thosefunds ends up in universities and industryfor activities that support the laboratones',missions.

All the laboratories were originally estab-alished to meet specific needs related to themissions of their parent agencies. Theiractivities include agricultural research, con-sumer product testing, weapons develop-

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ment, energi research, biomedical research,and development of standard weights and'measures, to mention only a few. Some,most notably those concerned with agricul-ture, were established in the 19th century,while others, particularly those involved inspace technology, are of recent origin.Their accomplishments have been imiires-sive, and they imploy a significant fraction,of the Nation's best trained and mosrqual-ified scientific and technical personnel. Asa group they form a national resource ofwhich the -United tates can be justlyproud:


Over the past 10 years there has been an.upward trend (in constant dollars) in Fed-eral funding for R&D in the three majorperforming sectors: industry, Federal labo-ratories, and universities. The fraction

-EnergysavermagnetsattheFermiNaiionalAcceieratorLabomtomBatavia,Illinois.

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Fernillab Photograph

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going to Federal laboratories has beenrelatively constant over that period. In gen-eral it may be said that industry is princi-pally involved in development, the Federallaboratories in applied research, and uni-versities in basic research. There are, how-ever, many exceptions. The overlappingcapabilities among the three performingsectors in many areas of endeavor make itincreasingly difficult to identify capabilitiestruly unique to any one sector. In addition,all sectors need to maintain some level ofactivity in basic science and-engineering tosupport the more applied aspects of theirwork.

Policy Issues

Although having overlapping capabilities isevidence of our national strength in sci-ence and technology, this overlap createsproblems of choice in allocating Federalresources. The Federal laboratories wereestablished originally to do work that couldnot be performed by, or was inappropriatefor, the private sector. With the passage oftime, however, many of the original objec-.tives have been met, some of the missionsare no longer relevant, and industry andthe, universities now have significantlygreater research sapabilities. The Federallaboratories. have responded to changingenvironments in different ways, as haveindustry and the universities. Some labora-

,tories -have remained static, while othershave ventured far afield from their originalassignments. In, such a dynamic situation,the Federal Government must strive toensure that its resources are being allocat-

4 )

ed tia the most4relevant activities and to

the jmost appropriate performing sectors.Along with the challenge of effective

allocation of Federal R&D funds, therealso exists the challenge of 'improvingcooperation among the performing sectors.The total national capability in science andtechnology must be harnessed efficiently ifthe United States is to continue its scientif-ic And technological leadership. That meanscreating a synergistic relationship amongindustry, Federal laboratories, and univer-sities, capitalizing on the strengths of each.Ii involves rethinking the traditional inter-actions and overcoming a number of insti-tutional barriers.

Another issue pertaining to Federal lab-oratories is the vitality of the laboratoriesand their ability to do high-quality work,both now and in the future. Although thelaboratories operate in different environ-ments, each agency should be alile tomeasure the productivity of its laboratoriesagainst an accepted set of criteria. A realis-tic assessment of the laboratoriesris neces-sary in determining the extent of theircurrent and expected contribution to theNation's science and technology endeav-ors. The Nation needs. to be assured thatfunds allocated to Federal laboratories areindeed yielding a significant return.

These and similar issues have not beengenerally addressed for at least 20 years,and now is an appropriate tim. e to exploretherm .Finding ways to make our R&Dinstitutions more productive and betterable to work together in maintaining U.S.scientific and technological leadership is anational challenge.

25

"11

Stimulating Industrial Research, Development, and Innovation

Introduction

The prosperity and security, as well as theinternational stature and competitivenessof the Natiqp, depend" upon the steadygrowth of industrial productivity. Thatgrowth requires the continuous introduc-tion of advanced concepts, processes, andtechnologies leading to new produas, newprocesses, and whole new industries. Un-fortunately, while innovations in some in-dustrial sectors remain impressive, theoverall rate of growth in industrial produc-tivity in the United States is low, both froma historical perspective and relative to theNation's chief industrialized competitors.One significant reason for the lag in inno-vation and productivity in some sectors ofU.S. industry appears to be a rate ofTnvestment by industry in long-term scientificresearch that is less than adequate,to keepup with developments overseas.

While there is no doubt that technologi-cal innovation must build upon the resultsof scientific research, we still lack theknowledge that would allow us to trace,with certainty, all the relationships in thecomplex process leading from fundamen-tal research, through technological devel-opment. to the production of commercial-ly viable products. What is certain, howevet,is that industry, and not Government, hasthe necessary experience and incentive torelate research and development programsto marketing strategies. Moreover, the ac-tMties that constitute industrial R&D andindustrial innovation are highly diverse anddisaggregated. For these reasons, the mosteffective Federal actions to stimulate Teat-er long-term industrial investments in R&Dare those that remove, where posSible, thebaniers to such investment, through boththe provision of incentives and the elimi-nation of disincentives, rather than thosethat would intervene directly in the market.

The Administration is committed to re-storing the health and vitality of the U.S.economy. Its approach is supPorted by theconsensus of the research literature on theindustrial investment process, which citesoverall level Of sales as the single most -important determinant of investment activ-ity. Not only does this determinant provide

26'

a high demand for innovative products,but the rate of investment affects the de-mand for new equipment, which in turncan induce innovative activity in the capitalgoods settor of the economy.

In addition to support of sound fiscaland monetary policies that will reducebusiness uncertainties about long-termR&D investments, the Administration hassupported tax incentives and is working onregulatory relief. All of these measures aredesigned to stimulate the risk-taking andinnovativeness of the private sector and toincrease industrial productivity.

The Failure of GovernmentSupport for Commercial R&D

The role 1of the Federal Government insupporting R&D has sometimes been ex-panded to include support of general eco-nomic and social needs. An example isdirect Federal spending to stimulate indus-trial innovation per se for the sake of theNation's economic and technological healtti.The model for such a role &tension hasbeen the number of new technologicalproducts and processes with importantcommercial applications ng them, jetengines and numerically controlled ma-chine toolsthat have en generated byR&D funded by the Government, primari-ly for its own purposes. However, historycontinually points to failures of govern-ments, both here and abroad, to improveupon the performance of the market whenthey have chosen specific technologies todevelop for the primary use of the privatesector. Attempts to correct perceived mar-ket failures through direct Government in-tervention have, in an unfortunately largenumber of cases, been unsuccessful andhave, in some cases, even led to newmarket distortions.

There are two broad classes of actionsthat the Federal Government can use in

'support of innovation: technology pushactions, where the government .directlysupports the development of new tech-nology or the modification of existing tech-nology; and demand pull actions, where

,

3.:;

the Government provides an appropriateenvironment for increased Private sectorinvestment and economic growth. Dedi-cated Federal programs of support ofmajor new commercial technologies (tech-nology push efforts)the nuclear ship"Savannah", the personal rapid transit sys-tem in Morgantoivn, West Virginia, and:Dial-a-Ride" in Haddonfield, New Jersey,for examplehave dismal commercialtrack records. Demand pull, however, cov-ers a variety of opportunities for Federalaction, including regulatory prbcess 4rmand tax incentives, that leave the ultimateR&D and decisions about new products tothe private sector.

Tax Incentives

Changes in both corporate and individualincome tax policy relate to two aspects ofthe innovation process:

incentives for investment in R&D; forexample, immediate expensing ofR&D plant and equipment, provisionof tax credits for R&D, and applica-tion of the investment tax credit to allR&D expenditures; andincentives for investment in new plantand equipment; for example, increas-es in accelerated depredation allow-ances, increases in the investment taxcredit, or liberalized tax treatment ofbusiness losses.

Section 174 of the Internal Revenue Codepermits business taxpayers to deduct "Re-search and Experimental" costs as theyare incurred. Alternatively, a firm with littleor no current income may choose to am-ortize R&D expenses over a period of 5 ormore years. Since expenditures for R&Drepresent an investment in knowledge thatcan be expected to yield a streampf futurebenefits, the option to treat them asoperating costs, rather than investmentcosts, is considered to be a special taxincentive and to encourage R&D activity.The option to expense immediately doesnot apply, however, to purchases of equip-ment for R&D or to purchases of patentsor processes. Those expenses can be am-ortized for tax purposes in the same way

as other depreciable assets purchased bythe firm. Purchases of new plant andequipment needed to initiate a new pro-duction process or produce a new,productare eligible for the same tax treatment asother investments in physical capital. Thebenefits conferred by the investrirent taxcredit and accelerated depreciation aretherefore favorable to investment in indus-trial innovation.

The Econotnic Recovery Tax Act, signedby the .President on.. August 13, 1981,contained R&D tax credits, further accel-erated depreciation schedules, and- otherincentives designed to stimulate increasedcorporate investment in research, devel-opment, and innovation. Among thoseother incentives is one that allows thelosses of R&D-intensive firms that cannotbe used for tax credits to be transferred toprofitable firms, thus increasing capitalAvailability. It has been estimated that in-centives under the Economic Recovery TaxAct, plus "other Administration actions, willstimulate an additional $3 billion in corpo-rate R&D spending over,the ri.9415 years.Additionally, the Administration supportspending patent reform legislation that as-signs to private sector organizations therights to,patents developed under FederalR&D funding. It is thought that the legisla-tion will remove a major disincentive tothe participation in important nationalR&D efforts by a broad array of highlyskilled industrial scientists and engineers.

Regulatory Processes

Concern has arisen in, recent years 'overthe inhibitory impact of regulations (pri-marily environmental, health, and safetyregulations), and the uncertainties inher-ent in the enactment and modification ofregulations, on the rate, direction, andcomposition of technological innovation inindustry. Not only are the laws themselvesnumerous (23 major Federal environmen-tal , regulatory statutes were enacted be-tween 1968 and 1977), but there are manyenforcement agencies, including the Envi-ronmental Protection Agency (EPA), theDepartment of Transportation (DOT), the

27

Department of Commerce (DOC), the be-partment of Energy (DOE). the Depart-ment of Agriculture (USDA), and the ArmyCorps of Engineers. The doncern is tlot somuch the ovtraH necessity for regulationas its unpredictability and the fact that theregulatory process is frequently so cum-bersome as to add unnecessarily to thetime and cosf required,to introduce a newproduct.

The Administration's overall approach isto allow the marketplace to make econorn:ic decisions wherever fgasible and, where// necessary, to strengthen the scientific basisfor regulatory decisionmaking. Regulatoryapproaches that embrace market incen-tives and disincentives for compliance withenvironmental, health, and safety., (EHS)standards have a number of advantagesover direct regulatory approaches that im-pose legally enforceable absolute standardsof performance. The advantages includethe improvement of economic efficiency in .the use and depletion of societal resour-ces, the allocation of the costs of mitigatingsocietal hazards to those responsible fortheir generation, the stimulus to industrialinnovation that may result from possiblecost s gs or process or product im-prov en unrelated to attainment ofregulatory standards, and greater adminis-trative fl6tibility and possible lower cost. Incertain situations, some degree of directregUlation may be unavoidable, sinceparticular EHS risks may be socially unac-ceptable even if compensated for by indus-try, or some hazards may be-too great toentrust to the forces of the market. Toooften, however,' a direct regulatory ap-proach fails to take sufficiently into ac-count the societal costs of meeting unreal-istic standards, and an economic incen-tives approach encourages more explicitvaluations of EHS costs and benefits.

The traditional approach to regulationadds a further dimension of risk and un-certainty to that already facing industry inits decisionmaking on R&D investmentsanct technology innovation. Under the im-petus .of legislative directive, EHS regula- .tions are set and implemented, then chal-lenged administratively and in litigation,often with 'fittle or no reliable scientific

28

basis relating the regulatory action to itsintended beneficial effect. The dncertaintyof industry in shooting at a constantly

.moving target serves as a strong inhibitionagainst investing in technological innova-tions to meet standards because the stan-dards may well have changed before theinnovation can be fully incorporated. Theknowledge base regarding both ihe tech-nological feasibility and the cost of meet-ing ,standards that are legaHy enforceableis also limited. Federal or federally spon-sored R&D is needed to obtain betterinformation on which to base regulatorystandards and to accelerate the acquisitionof information that may indicate the needfor modification of existing standards. Fi-nally, R&D on the efficacy and safety ofhigh-technology products dird processeSmay be prohibitively expensive and unre-warding for industry to mount, suggestingthe need for a direct Federal R&D rolehere, too.

The Administration has sharply focusedon regulatory reform as a means for en-couraging greater industrial productivity.On February 17, 1981, the President is-sued an Executive Order calling for greaterprecision in assessing both the need for,and the potential impacts of, a wide rangeof Federal regulations. Subsequently, abroad-gauged study Onder the auspices ofthe President's Task Force on RegulatoryRelief, 'chaired by the Vice President, wasinitiated. The Science Adviser is chairing a.Task Force work group on science andtechnology, which includes the heads of allfive major 'environmental, health, and safe-ty regulatory agencies. The objective ofregulatory reform is to reduce the overallburden on industry of compliance withunnecessary and often uncertain regula-tions by, strengthening the scientific basisfor regulatory decisionmaking. Equally im-portant. it is hoped that reforms will re-duce the amount of R&D aimed at com-pliance purposes and diverted from moreproductive efforts.

Other Factors

In addition to providing tax incentives andremoving regulatory disincentives to inno-

vation. there are a number of other areasFederal procurement. international compe-tition. and .sectoral considerationswherethe Government can further innovation.

Federal Procurement and Supportof the Technology Infrastructure

Many of the rrAt dramatic examples ofthe Government's influence on industrialinnovation, espedally in defense and space-related products, have occurred primarilybecause of an intermingling of the effectsof Government R&D with the effects ofGovernment procurement. For example,4n both semiconductor and computertechnologies, heavy underwriting by theFederal Government of R&D early in thetechnology's life, as well as Government'spurchase of a large percent of the initialoutput,-tere very influential in tiie rapidgrowth of the fields. Virtually none of themajor innovations in semiconductors hasbeen a direct result of defense-sponsoredprojects. Rather, defense procurement andsupport for R&D togethe helped to createa climate condgcive to more rapid change.That finding is consistent with the Admin-

-istration's emphasis on market:based de-,

cisionmaking.It has been argued that standard setting,

as part of centralized planning and controlby some foreign governments (notably,Japan and France), in key areas of hightechnology reduces uncertainty amongpotential customers and thus stimulatesrapid market growth. It does so by limitingthe alternatives at an early stage in techno-logical development. The Administrationagrees that codifying industrial standards isa legitimate, role for the Federal Govern-ment, but it does not believe that suchstandards should preempt the opportunitykr the marketplace to select among 'alter-native systems, except in those cases

,Nhere, as a result of a direct Governmentneed, the procurement process determines,de facto, the subsequent industrial stan-dard. Such cases could include manufac-turing processes, measurement methodsand standards, properties of materials, andinterface standards (between word proces-sors and computers, for instance). Other

,

texr

Bend Research. Inc.

Synthetic membranes developed at Bend Research,Inc , under the National Science Foundation's SmallBusiness Innovation Research Program, are used tomeasure rates of metal extraction from polluted streams.

ways in wffich the Federal Governmentmay supptirt the technology infrastructureinclude technology transfer from the Gov-ernment to the private sector and thegranting of exclusive patents or licenses tothose willing to 'commercialize technologydeveloped with Government funds.

International Comptition*

Japan and some nations of Western Eu-rope (notably, West Germany and France)have chosen specific technological productareas for exports. The target industry strat-egy in Japan, for instance, meani coordi-nated Government support and industrialefforts to develop specific product lines forboth world and domestic markets.- Gov-ernment supports have included access tocapital, funding for basic and applied R&D,and favorable import/export policies andfinancing.

The basic commitment of the UnitedStates to a free market system, in the

29

belief that it can respond most effectivélyand rapidly in a changing technologicalenvironment.precludes that type of indus-trial policy. The Administration believesthat the Nation is best served by a solid

.Government Commitment to the supportofbasic research, and a healthy economythat will encourage lbng-term R&D andinnovation investment by the private sector.

Sectoral Coniiderations

Because of the complexity of the innova-tion process and the diversity Of U.S. in-dustry, incentives rday have a different im-pact on small firms than large firms, andthe rationalization of regulations may re-lieve high-technology industries differentlythan less R&D-intensive ones. Government

4

sensitivity to such-variation is best reflectedby a market-based approach rather thandirect intervention.

Conclusion_

The economic ifitality and internationalcompetitiveness of the Nation depend ona strong, innovative industilal sector. It istilt policy of the Administration to strengthenthe industrial sector and to stimulate itsinnovativeness, not through direct Federalsubsidies and Intervention jn corporatedecisionmaking, but through the provisionof a variety of market incentives and theelimination 'of disincentives, both of whichwill encourage the full exploration of newideas and new Opportunities. .

A

Military Re.search and Development

Introduction

The strategy of the AdministratiOn for im-proving the Nation's defense posture, stat-ed in the most basic terms, is to focus onmodernization and readiness. Research anddevelopment will play a keY role in achiev-ing both objectives. The vast and continu-ing Soviet programs for developing anddeploying advanced technological capabill-ties make it mandatory to continue, and insome areas to expand, our 'comprehensivemilitary R&D programs. The Administrationis committed to advance, apply, and deploy,more successfully than in the past, thoseareas of science and technology essentialto rebuilding our national defense capability.

The support of programs and institu-tional capabilitiesin the universities, inindustry, and in the national laboratoriesthat seek, nurture, and capitalize on thekind of new knowledge that supports de-velopfnent of new technologies will be ofparticular importance. The Administrationwill also continue to evaluate the Nation'soverall science and technology programboth civilian and militaryto make surethat the.flo(v of knowledge is adequate tomeet future defense needs.

Current Trendsand Developments

The Nation's military R&D activities havetwo prindpal purposes. One, at which mostof the effort is directed, is the deVelop-ment, testing, and evaluation of new andimproved weapons systems and other military equipment. Those activities are part ofthe acquisition process through which newsystems and equipment are procured forenhancing the capabilities of the armedforces of the United States.

The other, main purpose of military R&Dis the maintenance and strengthening ofthe technology base for future develop-ment, testing, and evaluation programs re-quired to meet defense needs in the fu-ture. Programs supported within the broadtechnology base range from bask sdentificinvestigations of new phenomena, materi-als, and devices to featibility dernonstra-

3/4

tions of new system concepts in militaryenvironments, which can lead to the de-velopment of promising future systems.The technology base program thus pro-vides the essential know-how needed toacquire technologically, advanced weapons. '

Countering our adversaries depends onthese weapons. The basic khgwiedge gainedwill, also enable us to avoid adverse tech-nological surprise.

Military research, ,development, testing,and evaluation (RDT&E) is, of course, mostlyunier the management control of the De-partment of Defense (DOD). Each of themilitary services has an RDT&E establish-ment comprising laboratories, developmentcenters, and test ranges that perform about30 percent of DOD's total RDT&E work.The three services and the Defense Ad-vanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)also have technical management and d-

ministrative structures to oversee the .percent of defense RDT&E performed outs*DOD laboratories; most of such research isdone by industry contractors, but a signifi-cant amount is performed at colleges anduniversities. Additionally, the National Aero-nautics and Space Administration (NASA)conducts aeronautical research in supportof both military and civil applications andis developing the Space Shuttle to meetthe needs of both sectors. Responsibilityfor RDT&E of nuclear weapons and ofnuclear propulsion far naval ships andsubmarines, currently vested in the Depart-ment of Energy and proposed for transferto the Department of Commerce, is car-ried out through selected national labora-tories and industrial contractors.

A central and difficult problem in forrnu-lating the overall defense program is todetermine what proportion of the budgetshould go for development, testing, andevaluation projects leading directly to theprocurement of new or improved capabili-ties to mAt requirements 'and challengesnow clearly apparent, and what proportionshould be applied to the preservation andenhancement of the technology base toprovide more and better future options.The problem is not one of seeking a tradeoffbetween research and development, butrather one of determining the proper amount

31

for each activity within the total program.The Administration's defense program rec-ognizes both needs. Development, test, andevaluation budgets have been increased toexpedite the acquisition of new and higherperformance systems. Technology-hase ac-tMties have also been maintained at ahigh level in spite of other heavy demandson the defense budget, especially the needto improve operational readiness and pro-cure more modem equipment for our fomes.In addition, considerable effort is beingexpended to assure both the high qualityand the pertinence to mission of thoseR&D efforts upon which funds are expended

The Administration's allocation of resour-ces for technology-base programs is impres-sive, but our defense needs are so broadthat stringent selection criteria need to beapplied to the various activities that areundertaken. Many of the projects support-ed by current DOD budgets involve- ad-vanced, long-range research intended toprovide a broad base for evolving defensetechnologies. Others have been selectedbecause of their direct potential for con-tributing significant improvements in ourfuture military capabilities. Specific projectspresently being emphasized include these:

(1) A new generation of integrated cir-cuits is being developed under the De-partment of Defense's Very High SpeedIntegrated Circuits (VHSIC) program toprovide a dramatic improvement in signal-and data-processing capabilities for mili-tary systems. VHSIC processors will pro-vide significant improvements in the per-formance of airborne tactical radar, sen-sors for guided missiles and munitions,and automatic communication, navigation,and battlefield systems.

(2) -A foundation for a new generationof sophisticated, intelligent weapons, andsupport swtems is being established throughresearch in artificial intelligence and rObot-ics, and their applications to systems auto-mation. Systems concepts,range from au-tomatic devices for assisting tankers, pilots,artillery crews,, and air defenders, to au-tonomous systems for manufacturing andammunition handling.

(3) Research in materials and structuresscience is leading to the development of,

32

111111' 1).

kfi:cUniversdyof Massachusettsat Amherst

The unique internal structure of a super high sfrengthorganic fiber, which is stiffer than steel, is shown byelectronmicroscopy Researchers are developing pro-cesses to use this fiber in a variety of milikm) systemsapplications.

and improvements in, a numh.er of ad-vanced materials, including carbon/carboncomposites, metal-matnx composites, andordered, self-reinforced polymers. Use ofthe new materials promises to improve thestrength, durability, survivability, and effi=ciency of many types of military equip-ment. Some of the materials are equiva-lent or superior to presently used alloysthat contain such critical elements as co-balt and chromium, available primarily fromforeign sources.

(4) Research in strategic laser commu-nications focuses on developing the nec-essary technology to provide communica-tions support, via satellite, to submergedsfrategic missile submarines without com-promising their immunity to detection. Re-search on high-energy lasers aims to de-fine the potential of laser weapons forforward battlefield ground combat, air de,fense against bombers, and space defenseand other space-related applications.

(5) A major technology thrust is direct-ed toward significantly improved aircraftperformance capabilities. The integrationof new electronics ,systems with the air-frame can improve the combat effective-ness of tactical aircraft by combining flight,

fire. control, and navigation systems to achieve

greatly improved maneuverabili bd en-hanced air-to-ground 'strike capability.s

(6) Research programs are under way toprotect U.S. military systems and personnel.in.the event of attacks with chemical or nu-

. clear weapons. Another current researchthrust is to assess the effects of high-altitudenuclear weapons detonations on the sur-vivability and durability of military command,control, communications, and intelligencesystems.

(7) Research on electromagnetic, seis-mic, and acoustic sensors underlies tech-nologies for a wide 'range of strategic andtactical surveillance needs. The principalemphasis in current research on spacesurveillance is on advanced visible andinfrared systems that can provide enhancedtarget detection in highly cluttered scenes.Research in nuclear arms verification tech-nology focuses on the development ofadvanced sensors and instrumentation fordeployment in remote areas and the eval-uation of combinations of seismic and hy-droacoustic sensors for ocean-based sur-veillance systems. Reseamh in near millimeterwave imaging and tomography aims at thedevelopment of sensors, for use on theintegrated battlefield, that can identify tar-gets partially screened by foliage, netting,or debris.

Continuing Issues

Whereas the goal of the Nation's militaryR&D programs is to improve national se-'curity, the programs will continue to havemajor impacts in the dvil sector as well.Conversely, restoration of our national de-lense capabilities requires that private in-dustry be able to maintain the capacity tocarry out a great deal of the requisiteadvanced development work Thus, theAdministration's commitment to a revital-ized economy has a direct and importantbearing on the achievement of its nationalsecurity goals. Additionally, the relationshipbetween the Department of Defense andthe Nation's universities, which is of in-tense interest to both parties, has beengiven a high priority in DOD. A Defense

41

Science Board Task Force report on Uni-versity responsiveness to DOD needs willbe transmitted to Congress in the nearfuture.

The Administration recognizes that thereare clear substantive commonalities in mili-tary and civilian R&D. Such areas of primemilitary technological interest as aviation,communications, eleetronics, and comput-ers also are each the focus of a major U.S.industry. Oceanographic and atmosphericresearch are examples of scientific areas inwhich both military and civil sectors havestrong interests.

In such areas of common interest, mili-tary and civil R&D are generally mutuallysupporting. In some instances, the,militaryhas taken discoveries or inventions madein civil R&D and developed them to apoint where they have been widely andbeneficially used in both military and civilapplications. The invention and subsequentdevelopment of integrated circuits is anexample. In many other cases, R&D con-ducted under military auspiceS has formed

.ahe basis for major advances in civilian aswell as military technology. The develop:ment of lasers and the development ofcomposite materials are two examples. Instill other cases, there have been usefultechnology transfers in both directionS. Forexample, commercial aviation has histori-cally benefited enormously from advancesin military aeronautics, but the impetus fordeveloping, first, lowbyPass and, later', high-bypass ratio turbofan engines came fromtheir projected importance for air transportapplications.

Transfd of military technology to civil-ian purposes takes place most effectivelywhen military contractors in the privatesector are also engaged in related civilianbusinesses. In such cases, subject to securi-ty constraints, contractors are able to in-corporate advanced military technologiesinto their civilian product lines. Anotherclass of interactions arises from the fadthat military and civil research is performedat many of the same universities acrctss thecountry. A university department may Fryegrants or contracts from both civil andmilitary agencies of the Government, usu-ally for separate projects but sometimes

33

"1-, ,

for closely related work or even jointly. funded.projects.

Military R&D and civilian R&D also facemany common problems, which the Ad-

, ministration is addressing. Maintaining conti-nuity of effort is a principal concern, as isassuring the adequacy of the overall ta-tional technology base. The Administrationaccepts the major share of the responsibili-

: ty to support byasic research, which is amajor gontributor to the technology base.It is also committed to the view that forapplied research, exploratory development,and advanced technology development anddemonstration, all of which are also essen-tial, parts of ,the technology base, the Na-lion's principal reliance must be on thenormal functioning of a strong free enter-prise economy. It has therefore taken steps,outlined in chapter I and elsewhere inchapter II, to rejuvenate our economy.

The Administration is also concerned-with maintaining the ability of the Nation'suniversities both to perform much of -thebasic research required to undergird futureMilitary systems and to educate scientisis

34

and engineers for embloyment by the NOtion's industrial defense contractors and byin-house defense laboratqries. It has en-couraged closer interactions aimed at abetter understanding of mutual needs andinterests between DOD personnel and repre-sentatives of universities, professional soci-eties, and industry groups, as vielt as be-tween the staffs of DOD and those ofother Federal agencies responsible for thesupport of I2asic research in universities.

" u9Lcimmatic initiatives by DOD to main-tain universitY capabilities include increas-ing research grant support to this sectorfor fiscal years 1981, 1982, and 1983.Additionally, a $30 million per year initia-tive starting in fiscal year 1983 aims toupdate and replace obsolete university re-search instrumentation. There are also spe-cial joint industry/DOD programs in se-lected technologies, including microVavetubes, composite materials, propulsion tech-nology, vertical lift technology, computersciences, and manufacturing technology,to support university research and gradu-ate education.

A

>

.1

Space Science and Technology

Introduction

The U.S. space program has aimed tomeet a wide range of scientific, commer-dal, and national security objectives, aswell as international interests. The Nation'sspace activities during the past two dec-ades have expanded and refined our un-derstanding of the planetary system andthe universe as a whole, h6ve providedunique technical information and data toimprove our understanding of the Earth,and have served national security needs.

As in other fields of science and tech-nology, application of the criteria of scien-tific excellence and pertinence, as meas-ured against significant national goals andneeds, as well as an emphasis on thepotential for significant private sector in-volvement, provides the overall context forthe Administration's space policy. Consist-ent with its broad commitment to furtherfundamental scientific research, the Adminis-tration also will continue to support select-ed space exploration projects likely to yieldappreciable scientific returns. The Admin-istration will deemphasize those programsfor which future exploitation appears un-,likely.


The creation of a viable infrastructure tosupport the development of space tech-nologies has been influenced by both na-tional security and dviian program objectives.tives. Most notably, the Space Shuttle wasconceived of and is being developed withthe objectives of both in view. Satellite re-mote sensing also serves both civil and na-tional security interesti of the United States.Advances in space-assisted communicationsand information technologies have beenimportant both for national sedulity rea-sons and for the development of a majornew element of the civilian communica-tions industry,

The Space Shuttle and, ultimately, thefull Space Transportation System, the ca-pabilities of which are highlighted in thespace section of chapter III, will providethe primary foundation-Or the U.S. spaceprogram into the 1990s. By the mid 1980s,

the Space -Transportation SYstem shouldbe fully in place,As currently planned, itwill include four reusable orbiters similar tothe Columbia, two launch pads and land-ing sites, space control centers, and all ofthe extensive infrastructure necessary toprocess, manage, and integrate shuttles,payloads, and' upper stages. The estimatedmaximum flight rate of the system whenfully in place will be several times thecurrent capacity.

The 'capabilities of the Shuttle will beexploited in the near future to further na-tional security needs. For example, theprincipal emphasis in current Departmentof Defense ptograrns on space surveillance ison advanced, satellite-borne, visible andinfrared systems. One promising approachfor satellite-based space surveillance is ex-emplified--by the Defense Advanced Re-.search Projects Agency's Teal Ruby exper-iment, designed for testing subsonic aircraftdetection from space in conjunction withone of the Shuttle's early operational mis-sions. Satellite-based laser communicationswill also be tested using the Shuttle.

The Administration's space program isalso intended to encourage intemationalcooperation. The Shuttle is already provid-ing unique opportunities for such coopera-tion. Its remote manipulator arm, success-fully tested on Columbia's second flight inNovember 1981:was developed by Cana-da at a cost of $100 million. The 10-nationEuropean Space Agency is developingSpacelab I at a cost of $1 billion, andJapan is developing a $20 million plasmaaccelerator for use with this facility. Giventhe complementary capabilities that Europeand Japan are developing in response tothe leadership that the United States haitaken in space, it is likely that there will beincreased opportunities in the. 1980s formore international cooperative space adtiVi-

ties. Such projects may also be richer intheir return of sdentific knowledge on whidhall nations carT draw.

The Shuttle has significant potential forincreasing private sector involvement inspace. The feasibility of proCessing suchmaterials as pharmaceuticals, semiconduc-tors, and special glasses in the microgravityenvironment of space is one of the most

35

dom.' Aeronautks and Space Administration

After completing its second mission, the Columbia Space Shuffle touches dowb.ot Edwards Air Force Base,California.

promising areas of space exploftation underconsideration by the private sector. TheShuttle will facilitate developments in thisarea by functioning as a unique laboratory.Eventually, it also might serve as a vehiclefor building up space platforms, factories,or even space industrial parks. While thelatter possibilities are being explored onlyfor the distant future, space processing ofmaterials is of considerable current interestbecause of the uniqueproducts that mightbe produced and because of its potentialfor independent private sector involvement inspace. The McDonnell Douglas Companyand Johnson & Johnson have enteredinto an agreement with the Federal Gov-ernment for a materials processing exper-iment to be carried by the Shuttle. Thatjoint venture, in which no funds will betransferred between the public and privateparties, commits the participants to pro-vide specific materials and seMces. lt couldprovide one possible model for future jointpublic-private sector cooperation.

Public and Private SectorRoles in Exploiting space

The evolution of space activities in theUnited States has involved private industryin several roles; for example, as contractor

36

and supplier to the government, as devel-oper of secondary serPices (e.g., value-addedprocessing of remosensing imagery), andas transformer of sPace technologies intonew commercial ventures and applications.Complete private sector ownership andoperation have already been achieved insatellite communications, where the con-tributions of satellites to the developmentand expansion of the Nation's communi-cations capability serve as an encouragingexample of the payoffs possible from time-ly R&D investments and industrial involve-ment in the exploitation of new technologies.

The Federally supported civil remote-Stris-ing program, for. example, is currently beingreviewed to determine the extent of con-tinuing Federal role and the dewee towhich transfer of all or parkpf its operatingauthority to the private sedor is possible.Such other space activities as fullscalespace industrialization, which are beyondthe promising but still relatively limited space-processing ventures described in the pre-vious section, are regarded as potentialcandidates for commercialization. Condi-tions required ,for exploitation by the pri-vate sector might well prevail in the nearfuture.

Further, some form of private sectorinvolvement in the management and *rationof the Space Shuttleand the full SpaceTransportation Systemis already being

4

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%or

considered an option for )he future. Analternative strategy might involve consid-eration of a'plan through which the SpaceTransportation System would be leased toa private operator through a Government-owned, contractor-operated arrangement.Such an' atrangement would, however, re-quire the establishment of,a managementand operations plan that Would be ade-quately responsive to national security needs.In all areas of space activity, a key ques-tion addressed by the Administration iswhat constitutes a fair burden for the tax-payerS in the development of technologiesthat are designed to serve multiple pur-poses for the Nation.

- Encouragement ,of greater private sectorinvolvement in space, as in any other high-risk, hightechnology area, can best be achievedby a coherent cluster-of policies designedto attract very long temi investments. Cur-rent inhibitions to greater pdvate industryinvolvement in space may be attenuated

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by policies that encourage such innovativeinstitutional arrangements as private. con-sortia for space research, developmat, aridoperations; joint ventures; and public-privatecorporations. Such. arrangements could alsorelieve the Federal Government of at leasta portion of the financial burden it nowassumes in underwriting 'theltiVilian corri-

ponents of the U.S, space program.Effective private sector involvement in a

variety of space ventures will help rational-ize the costs of the currently heavy Federalinvestments in space. R&D. It will .alsofacilitate the Achievement 'of uch otherpolicy objectives as determining future ex-ploitable directions for the space program,encouraging development of appropriatemarkets, accelerating the design of itrv-ices and systems to meet the criteria ofcommerciaroperation, and, confributing ina variety of other ways lo reducing, thetotal amount of public support requiredfor space activities.

37

Nuclear Energy

Intiroduction

The President's nuclear policy statementof October 1981 constitutes a strong en-dorsement of nuclear energy. The policyholds that nuclear energy is no "longer anenergy resource of the last resort but isone of the best potential sources of newelectriCal energy supplies for the comingdecades. That endorsement of nuclear ener-gy iS based on the recognition that therevitalization'of the U.S. economy requiresstable d economical supplies of energy,particutkly electricity.

Nuclear energy supplies about 11 potentof the electricity generated in the UnitedStates. With the approximately 70 to 80new plants expected to be operating bythe end of the decade, nuclear generationshould supply over 20 percent of electrici-ty demand by 1990. Nuclear energy is amajor source of clean, affordable, safe electri-city, and US. dependence on it is increasing.

Further growth of nuclear energy, how-ever, requires resolution of a number ofpolicy issues. Although nuclear power gener-

. ation will increase in the immediate future,the U.S. nuclear industry is experiencingsevere contraction. Major nuclear powerequipment vendors are reducing their manu-facturing 'capabilities: Private sector R&Dactivities are dwindling, and architect-engineers who play significant roles in thedesign and construction of nuclear powerplants are frantically competing for foreignjobs. Subcontractors anii component sup-pliers are rapidly ,disappearing -from themarket. Nuclear engineering ,schools arehard pressed to find American student's. Ifthese trends are allowed to continue, thefoundations of the U.S. civilian nuclearcapability will be seriously undermined. Areversal of the decline of the 'nuclear in-dustry is necessary if we are to maintainanticlear power generation capability. ThePresident's' nuclear policy is designed torevitalize the nuclear power industry and,more broadly, the technical infrastructurenecessary for further development of nu-clear energy.,

To address the problems unique to thenuclear power industry, the President hastaken five initiatives that form the basis of

a new approach to nuclear policy:improvements in the buclear facilityregulatory and licensing processes;continued development oftor technology, includiand operation of the CReador .

er reac: '

coustructiori,River Breeder -

resuMption of commercial fuel re-processing in the United States;early deployment of facilities for %or-ing and disposing of commercial high-level radioactive Wastes; andidentification and removal of deeplyrooted obstacles that prevent the in-creased use of nuclear energy. -.

The key scientific and stechnological is-sues faced by the U.S. nuclear power in-dustry are to operate existing reactors safe-ly, improve the quality and control the costof reactors under construction, and main-tain the technical readiness of the utilityindustry to supply a larger fraction of the_Nation's electricity needs from nuclear en-ergy in the future.

Issues and Approaches

In the followix sections, five major issuesand approaches related to the future ofnuclear energij in the United States arediscussed: regulatory reform, internationalaspects, radioactive tvaste and reprocessing,breeder and advanced reactors, and nu-clear fusion.

Regulatory Reform

The first and most frequently discussedremedy for the us. nuclear industry is thereduction or removal reguiatory delaysand uncertainties thaVbave excessively bur-dened the utility in ustry. During the pasttwerdecades, the co struction time for nu-clear power plants has mor than doubled.Under the preseict trend, will take 10, to14 years to build a nucl r plant sched-uled for completion around 1990. Delaysdue: to mulriple hiaring requirements, re--designing, and 'retrofitting have depletedthe financial and managerial resources ofthe industry. Consequently, utility execu-tives are reluctant to order new nucleargenerating plants.

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40

,

4

.Reduction of construction time can be

accomplished in many ways. Substantialtime can be saved by deleting unnecessarylicensing processes. and by keeping hear-ings within a reasonable schedule. Existinglegislation allows the Nuclear RegulatoryCommission (NRC) considerable room forsuch regulatory reform. In addition, therear.e several specific proposals for rationaliz-ing and simplifying the regulatory processthat may require legislative approval. Theyinclude "one-step" licensing, "precertification"of sites, and licensing of standardized plants.Whik legislative approval may be needed,'those: actions would not only streamlinethe nuclear regulatory process, they wouldalso advance the practice of nuclear plantdesign and construction.

Onestep licensing would require onlyone permit for conitruction and operationof nuclear power plants, instead of thepresent requirement for two separate permits.The .Nuclear Regulatory Comniission's re-sporisibility would be to conduct the re-quired licensing activity and closely inspectconstruction sites to assure adherence tothe original design. That would -eliminateuncertainty over the future of nuclear powerplants under construction.

Precertification of sites, or "early sitereview," would allow utilities to designate anumber of prelicensed sites for use at alater time. Some site preparation mighteven be allowed before utilities comniitthemselves to construction, thus enablingutilities to clear up problems of local politicsbefore committing substantial resources tonuclear construction Projects. It would al.§osimplify multiple siting of nuclear plants at//- existing single-plant sites. The ability todesignate a large number of precertifiedsites, a "site bank," would reinove uncer-tainties over availability of plant sites andthus help stabilize the nuclear power industry:

Independent site licensing implies thedecoupling of plant licensing fron% site li-censing. Nuclear pp.wer plant designs canbe prehcensed in-the same way that potentialsites can be preceitified. That would, how-ever, be a departure from the presentpractice. Most U.S. nuclear power' plantsare custom designed on the theory thatlocal geological conditions dictate custom

engineering of safetyrelated features. Butexperience has proven that a more stand-ardized approach to design may now bepossible.

These ideas for regulatory reform aresubject to intensive study and discussion.To implement them, substantive engineer-ing analyses will have to be performed inadvance. Furthermore,' utilities, engineers,and vendors need to establish new work-ing relationships. Although carrying outthe suggested measures will be challengingand at times difficult, it would definitelyhave a major impact on the competitiveposture of the nuclear power industry.

International Aspects

The main focus of the prior Administra-tion's nuclear policy was on nonprolifera-tion ,of nuclear weaPons technology anddiscouragemept of other nations' nuclearpower generation programs; it was believedthat this 'would decrease the proliferkionof nuclear weapon& to justify the policy,domestic reprocessing of nuclear fuel, wassuspended, and the constradion of theClinch River Breeder Reactor was delayedindefinitely. It is now evident that the policywas not realistic and had a deleteriousimpact on the U.S. nuclear power industry.

The President has expressed a strongcommitment to the fundamental objectiveof nonProliferation and has exhibited un-failing support of the Non-Proliferation Trea-ty as well as the International Atomic En-ergy Agency efforts. But this Administra-tion's approach to nuclear, safeguards isbased on the premise that the United Stateswill confinue to be the leading supplier ofnuclear technology and maintain its stat-ure in the international nuclear arena. Byleading the way for the peaceful develop.ment of nuclear energy, the United Statescan exert a more constructive influence todeter the spread of nuclear weapons bycontrolling the flow of nuclear technology,materials, and equipment

Present O.S. nuclear power technologystill compares favorablY with that availablefrom the other nuclear supplier nations,Other governments are trying to supporttheir developing nuckar industries by sup-

39

plementing their domestic markets with'subsidized exports. UnCler such policies,some of those suptr nations will be ableto develop their nuclear capabilities on apar with those of the United States. .

Recognizing the challenge from abroad,this Administration is spuning research anddevelopment on nuclear poWer plant de-sign- and nuclear fuel cycle technologies.Unleashing the inventive and innovativestrength of the American private sector isthe key policy instrument for maintainingU.S. leadership in international nudleartechnology.

Ratlioacthte Waste and Reprocessing

DisposaJand safe management of radioac-tive was es have been major issues for thenuclear power industry in the United States.The issues- have drawn great public inter-est in spite of the fact that adequate tech-nology now exists for disposal of bothlow level and high-level radioactive wastes.There exists a great need to bolster publicconfidence in the technology and its re-sponsible application.

In comparison to other hazardous wastes,wastes generated by the nuclear industryare the smallest in volume and the bestcharacterized and understood. Their physicaland chemical 1.1dracteristics are well de-fined, their containment barriers are highlydeveloped, and long-temn depository tech-nologies are available to ensure their safe-guarding for thousands of years. What re-mains to be done is implementation offormulated plans to relieve public concernover disposal of nuclear wastes.

To revitalize the nuclear energy industry,it is time to proceed With the implementa-tion of" waste management technology. Utili-ties with operating reactors are currentlYstoring spent fuels on site.Available on-sitestorage capacities are being filled, and it istime to proceed with off-site waste disposalfacilities. Retrievable surface storage is thepreferred option for spent fuels, which stillcontain valuable energy. resdurces.

Reprocessing of spent fuels has longbeen :considered a way to Tecover theenergy remaining in them and to disposeof the high-level radioactive wastes. The

President's initiative' in removing the banoh commercial reprocessing is an impor-tant step toward assuring the developmentof a closed nuclear fuel cycle. That initia-tive was a signal to utilities and indushythat the Federal Government will eliminateunnecessary impediments to a rational, in-tegrated approach to nuclear energy.

Under the new policy, the Federal Gov-ernment will encourage the developmentof pnvate industry's capability in reprocessing.Such incentives as guaranteed purchase ofplutonium by the Federal Government, al-lowance of foreign participation, and fi-nancial support for R&D activities are underconsideration.

Low-level radioactive waste disposal pro-grams, which do not require high-leveltechnology, are also being implemented.The 1980 Low-Level Waste Policy' A-aencourages regional arrangements for dis-posal of low-level wastes. The Federal Gov-

' ernment is helping each State arrange forregional disposal sites, for low-level wastes,which are produced not only by nuclearpower generation but also by the manymedical, industrial, and research uses ofradioactive materials.

The jUdicious implementation of currentlyavailable technologies will resolve the prob-lem of nuclear wastes. The public must beconvinced that those technologies are in-deed adequate and safe. The messageshould be clearly communicated that it istime to proceed with deployment of nu-clear waste disposal facilities.

Breeder and Advanced Reactors'.

The President, looking to the long-rangeneeds of the Nation, has directed demon-stration of breeder reactor technology andcompletion of the,Clinch River Liquid MetalFast Breeder Reactor. Breeder reactor tech-,nology enables the use of plentiful and"inexpensive fertile uranium-238 isotopes.and thorium for fuel, thereby essentiallyeliminating the problem 'of long-term fuelsupply for the nuclear pdwer industry Thetechnology will unleash vast energy sour-ces, much larger than all the fossil fuelsknown to exist.

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US Department of Energy

The Fast Flux Test Facility at Hanford Engineering Developl#Laboratory in Richland, Washington, is asodium-cooled fast flux reactor designed specifically for irradiation testing of fuel and components

Besides the liquid metal fast breeder,there are other types of breeder technolo-gies. The key problem for developing anybreeder or,advanced reactor concept, how-ever, is that it takes a long time and large

financial and resource commitments to re-alize commercial potential. The previousapproach, which divided technical and fi-nancial resources among many differentoptions, has not proven successful for theU.S. nuclear industry. The time has comefor strong and decisive leadership in set-ting priorities for the various technologicaloptions and focusing American ingenuityon attaining commercial success. The nu-clear policy of the Administration is todeliverlhat leadership, and completion ofthe Clinch River Breeder Reactor is thekey preparatory step. The strategy for thelong-term development of breeder tech-nology and adslancedi reactor concepts shouldbe finalized only after evaluation of operatingexperience at Clinch River and an intenseassessment of the relative merits and fea-sibility of the available options.

Fusion

Nuclear fusion is one of the promisingprospects for future energy supply. Oncesuccessfully harnessed and commercialized,fusion can provide an inexhaustible energysupply. \Fusion is capable of delivering Gen-

ii

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tral station power and liquid fuels withminimal environmental burden, Since it willnot generate high-level radioactive wastes.Fusion R&D is genuinely long-term, high-risk, highpayoff research.

The United States has been an interna-tional leader in fusion research during thepast 30 years. Vie Administration intendsto continue suploort for fusion resear4 aga cornerstone of the long-term energy re-search policy. It is iMportant to consider,however, that much basic research remainsto he done before the transition froM sci-entific research to large-scale engineeringdevelopment can be accomplished. Thereare also a number of potentially revolu-tionary ideas that deserve further researchand close examination. In view of the cur-'rent diversity of expert opinion on fusionreactor technology, care should be givento avoid prematurely fixing reactor config-uration. In contrast to nuclear fission, wherethe technology is mature, fusion R&D re-quires flexibility to incorporate scientific andtechnological innovations. Private industryhas responsibility for the eventual com-mercialization of nuclear fusion technolo-gy. Therefore, it is beneficial to increasethe private sector's participation in fusionenergy development. Also, U.S. fusion re,searchers should continue to participate inthe fusion R&D programs of other nationsand design international cooperative liro-

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4 1

grams more'carefully to optimize mutualbenefits from such collaboration.

Perspectives and Conclusions

The short-term policy actions' announcedby the President would begin the revitaliia-tiort of thct U.S. nuclear program'. The U.S.nuclear industry will be able to. plan astrategy for a healthier and more stablefuture. Also, with firm implementation ofoverdue Federal programs in huclear en-ergy, public confidence will gradually berestored. When additional nuclear powerplants are brought on line and the industrymaintains its exceptional safety record, nu-clear technology will be accepted as a

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major cornerstone of the U.S. enemy sfitem.The long-term prognosis for the- com-

petitive postigg_ of U.S. nuclear technicalcapability is uncertain unless new vigorand enthusiasm can be instilled amongnuclear scientists, engineers, and technol-ogists. To attain such 4 resurgence of sci-entific and technological activity, the Aciiministratioh is pledging sustained supportfor research at national laboratories, uni-versities, and private institutions. A contin-uing effort to improve public understand-ing of nuclear technology and its importancein the American economy would reinforcenuclear initiatives. Only in this way can theimportant benefits of safe, clean nuclearenergy be achieved by the Natiori.

4LU

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I.

Introduction

In 1953 Watson and Crick provided theunderstanding necessary to "crack the ge-netic code." In doing so;they were able toen the basic stmcture of deorsthonudeicadd (DNA), the molecule in all living thingsthat contains the genetic information thatprograms their development DNA was dg-covered to be a long, twisted, ladder-shapedmolecule (double helix) whose rungs al-ways consist of pairs of the same foursubunits. Differences between, the geneticprogram of one species and that of an-otti-er is due to the varying arrangements, cifthese basic subunits.

The unit that determines a specific charac-teristic of an organism is called a gene andis frequently made up of a number ofadjacent rungs on the DNA ladder. One ofthe gene's functions is to program repeat-edly the creation of a specific protein inthe cell (for example, a hormone), whichin turn ha's its own specific function th theorganism.

p.

ANational Ingttute (AAA** Mebbohm, and Nestiv*Diwases

A Staff Fellow at the National Institutes of Health exam-ines a model of a DNA molecule.

Gene.Enginiering

With that basic knowledge and under,standing, the door to a new era opened.Molecular biologists began developing anew set of techniques, known as geneticengineering or recdinbinant DNA technol-ogies, whereby 'specific genes can be re-moved from-one species and spliced iritothe DNA of -another. Once such a genetictransfer is stfr.ce.,5s1ul, the recombined DNAcan indefinitely replicate as the host re-produces. Recombinant DNA (r-DNA), genesplicing, or genetic manipulation techniquesallow one to transfer genetic informationnot only within species, but among speciesbelonging to widely different kingdoms oflife. In this way, science has overcome thespecies banier to genetic transfer that hereto-fore had seriously limited the developmentof new strains of organisms. Thus, geneticengineering provides virtually unlimited pros-pects for the, development of new strainsthat can be modified to serve human needseither in their acquisition of useful charac-teristics or in their production of new prod-ucts! The insertion of a single gene into abacterium, causing it to produce a targetedproduct, will be a common example ofrecombinant DNA technology....

Recombinant DNA techniques, which 'havebeen used in the laboratory to producesuch substances as human insulin, growthhormone, and interferon, are., now beingused to introduce new products into' themarketplace. Indeed, the prospects for apply-ing the techniques to medicine, agricul-ture, energy, and other fields seem virtual-ly limitless and have spawned. the emer-gence of an aggressive new industry. Potential

aPplications indude production of new vac-cines,. control of genetic disorders, improve- -ment of agricultural yields, arid productionof new energy sources:* The_largest mar-kets are likely to develop in.the chemicaland'agricultural industries.

Along with the -opportunities, the mid-den emergence of this innovative .technoI-Ogy will ilso generate problems and anxie- .ties with which,society will have to grapple.A great deal of time and effort has alreadybeen devoted ,9nticipating and assessingthe risks in ent in the technology andthe pot ohazard that could acCom-pany its espre-ad application. That as-

4 3

sessment is dearly a process that will needto continue and be reevaluated periodically.

This discussion focuses on the specificbenefits and advances that can be expect-ed in the near future from the now rapidcommerciabation of recombinant DNA tech-nology. It also points-Zut the initiatives theFederal Government may need to take tomaximize the benefits and minimize therisks to society. .

Current and LikelyApplications

The potential applications of recombinantDNA methods°Care expected to 'affect sig-nificantly medicine, industrial chemistry, andagriculture in the near-future. Longer termapplications include mining, pollution cori-trol, and the conversion of plant matter tousable fuels. It is antieipated that over 50nonexclusive licenses will _be granted in1981 on the basic patent imcferlying .ge-netic manipulation held by Stanford,Uni-versity and the University.of

. Atthe moinent,-the United States leadsin the fundamental science of geneticma:,

. nipulalion, but that lead could -be-shorf-lived. International competition is, heavy.Furthermore, the United States 96iv lagsbehind Japan-and, to a lesser extent, Eu-rope i fermentation technology. japan.holds 80 percent of the. patents in. thefermentation industrY, and it is worlaleader in the production of antibiotics and,enzymes. HOwever, Japan has not yet es-tablished an organized thrust into researchon 4plications in genetic engineering andwill most likely rely on the research ofothers, at least in the short term. By con-trast, a number of, Europeap countrigS,including England, France, Switzerland, andGermany, are actively pursuing genetic engi-neeririg programs; and all have establishedresearch and testing companies in appliedgenetics: ;

Medicine

It. is impossible to assess 1,:v.ith any confi-dence, or in .any detail, the future com-mercial significance, of genetically engineered

44

products. Both the substances and theproduction techniques yet to be developedmay be quite different from the ones nowbeing used. A striking example, however,gives ,some understanding of the excite-ment that .has .been stirfiuhted by the tech-nique:54nd file products that might beproduced through their use. The hormoneinterferon, known to be effective as anantiviral agent and under study as a potentialanticancer agent, is now being made byconventional.-extraction and purificationtechniques at a cost of 40 thousand dol-lars per ,milligram. Once genetically engi-

Wered interferon-producing bacteria aeewilable in cornmerdal quantities, the priceper milligram is expected to be abcut 10cents. Interferon from such bacteria hasAlready been tested on hutnans with somesuccess, and it is expected to be on theMarket in a few years.

However, that specfacular.early successin biomedicine may not be typical of otherareas of apillication for several reasons..

'First, the substances that have been pro-duced tus far are "one-gene" productsthat is, the genetic material responsible fortheir manufacture is readily inserted intobacreria which then can rapidly:reproduce

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in fermentation tank.< Second, money forresearch and develOpment, both privateand Federal, has been readily .available.Finally;theredistsinacfive:COmmunity othighly skilled researchers, trained both inrecombinant DilA technology and in bio-medical _research, who are strongly moti-

' vated fp develop approaches /with the potenfialof curing a variety of genetically deter-mined diseases. -

A number of commercially valuable bio-medical products already made in the lab-oratory bY recombinant DNA techniqueswill go into production in the very nearfuture. They include human insulin, humangrowth hormone, interferdn, and a vaccinefor hoof-and-mo,uth disease. It is- thoughtthat the commercial availability of manyother tlierapeuticallY useful products is simplya.matter of time.

Genetic engineering will not on -l.stakepossible the production' of useful substancesat affordable prices, it will also allow thedevelopment of far more precise methods

*dr

for detecting genetic diseases in utero. Even,direct intervention in the genetic makeupof fetal cells to repair genetic damage atan early stage of development may even-tually be possible. While it is still too earlyto know how successful such gene therapywill be, there are, in theory, no insurmount-able technical obstacles to the diagnosisand treatment of genetic disease at thecellular level. However, no successful ex-periments involving laboratory animals haveyet been reported, and .clinical trials withhuman subjects cannot proceed until dear-cut successes are achieved With animals,and the potential risks to humans are, ad-equately identified.

IriClUstrial Chemicals

The production of some industrial chemi-cals is expected to be transfoimed by gene-tic engineezing techniques. Industrial chemi-91s can be produced by either fermenta-tion (biolcigical synthesis) or chemical synthe-sis. Essential ingredients are petrochemicals,which provide the feedkock, and heat and,pressure which are required to overcomethe enery acti;ation barriers and to speedreactions, The high cost of fossil fuels pro-vides a great incentiiie to develop fermen-

-,.taton methods for synthesizing industrialchemicals. Also, biological processes requireless energy, are far more product-specific,and pollute less than presed chemical'production techniques. The new knowledgeof fermentation processes gained, and thenovel organisms produced, will improve theintemationally competitive market position,of U.S. commercial fermentation.

Agriculture

Agriculture stands to benefit greatly fromapphcations of genetic engineering. Genet-ically en neered plants can, in theory, bemade to x their ,own nitrogen, eliminatingthe need fr the energy-intensive and cost-ly ammoni&based fertilizers on which mosthigh-production agriculture depends. It isthought that plants can eventually be mod-ified through genetic engineering to flour-

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US DeparunentofAgriculture

A plant showing adequate nitragen fixation Ls contrastedwith one ihat'has a deficiency.

ish in salty wker, extreme heat or cold,short growing seasons, and other adverseconditions. Success would open great tractsof previously unusable planting sites toagricultural production and development.

While genetically engineered plants ofcommercial value have yet to be devel-oped, the 'fact that such companies asShell, Ocddental, AtlanticRichfield, Sandoz,Upjohn, Pfizer, and Ciba-Geigy have estab-lished agrigenetic programs suggests theseriousness of .corPorate interest in thefuture of genetic engineering in agricul-ture. At the present time, advances arehandicapped by gaps in the fundamentalknowledge- of plant physiology at the mo-lecular level, particularly with regard togenetic traits of agricultural importance.Perhaps partly for that reaSon, somepf themajor seed companies are moving into thenew technology slov4, suggesting that classi-cal plant-breeding techniques will continueto be important for the foreseeable future.

45

The Developthent of theCommercial Enterprise

In 1971, a group of scientists and invest-ors. recognizing the potential commercialimportance of developing improved strainsof microorganisms for use in the prepara-tion of pharmaceuticals, formed the firstcompany specifically addressed to suchdevelopments. The company, Cetus, Inc.,applied advanced technology to sort throughvast numbers of random mutations hopingto find commercially promising ones.

Two years later, in 1973, Professors Boyer,at the University of California, and Cohen,at Stanford University. invented techniquesfor splicing together genetic material fromtwo different life forms. By remoVing asection of DNA from one species andcombining it with DNA from another, they ef-

ficiently created their own aimed-for variants.

ThroQh that discovery, a new industrywas created. Byi,1975. Cetus and severalother companies were exploring the Vastpotential of the new field. Today there areapproximately 100 small firms and dM-sions of established companies applyingthe techniques of gene manipulation toproduce commercially valuable products,many of which are otherwise unavailable

. or available only in limited quantities athigh costs.

While the origin6I scientific accomplish-ments achieved through intensive researchwere supported by the Federal Govern-ment, the growth of genetic engineering asan industry has been richly aided by moneyfrom the private sector. As of 1981, a totalof approximately $400 million of privatecapital, not including public stock offerings,has been invested in 25 companies. Ven-ture capitat firms have played a major rolein funding the startup of many research-oriented firms and have Provided themwith financial, organizational, and market-ing skills. In 1980 alone, about $100 rnil-lion was invested by venture capital firms. .

Large corporations in the drug, oil, chemi-cal, and agricultural industries have alsoinvested money and rnanagernent consult-ing efforts in small research companies.

46

For them, this is an efficient way to gainentry to the field. lt is estimated that of thetotal amount invested to date, about $250million has been committed in this way. Inaddition, two of the leading companies,Cetus and Genentech, have raised mil-lions of dollarsgthrough recent public stockofferings.

However, it is expected that the rate of-new investment in gerretic engineering byyenture capital firms will decline."Such firmshave probably already made 'their com-mitments to the field. Since most productsare still a long way frorn the marketplace,a return on investment based on actualsales is unlikely for most in the short term.Future funding for the alreadyestablishedsmall companies will likely come from stocksales to the public and from continuedinvestments by large corporations. Thosechanges in funding patterns do not neces-sarily mean that the number of startupswill drastically drop, since companies cateringto specialty markets will no doubt continueto be formed.

Research in the application of recombi-nant DNA methods is not the exclusivedomain of 'small entrepreneurial firms. Inaddition to those already mentioned thatare active in the agricultural area, a number2f._ other large, established corporations areZieloping their own serious in-house ef-forts. They include Merck, Hoffman & LaRoche, Eli Lily, Du Pont, General Electric,and J.D. Searle. An example of a success-ful endeavor by a major corporatfon is therecently developed and patented bacteri .um that can decompose oil to aid in thecleanup of spills. This new life form was de-veloped at General Electric using a combina-tion of early genetic ervineeting techniques.

Clearly the range of applications possiblein genetic engineering is broad enoughand is developing fast enough that boththe large and the srnall comrnercial enter-prises can continue to flourish. lt is none-theless expected that in the longer term,themajor firms are likely to take over large-scale production efforts, while the smallerfirm's cater to demands for specialty prod-ucts and develoi) new substances for trialor clinical evalua ion.

5

Industry-Univeraity. Cooperation . .

Federally supported basic research conduct-ed in university laboratories was primarilyresponsible for creating the genetic e'rigi-neering industry, and academia will nodoubt continue to play a crucial role in itsdevelopment. Though the technology is inits infancy, the theoretical knowledge baseon which that technology depends is grow-ing rapidly. In other areas, as a new indus-trial technology emerges from science, thereis usually a gap of several years betweenthe fundamental results achieved in theresearch laboratory and the developm&itof the practical applications. While the full-scale manufacturing of viable products inthe industrial domain is largely in the fu-ture, the initial application of the results ofuniversity experiments in genetic'engineer--ing has been almost immediate. There is, .consequently, great demand by bbth smalland large firms for close collabbration withuniversity scientists and their students.

Collaboration between the two has be-come extensive. Some university facultymembers, who are, active researchers ingenetic science, are financially connectedwith one or more of the relevant commer-cial ventures. Others share ownership in new-ly formed entrepreneurial firms, participateon corporate sCieritific boards, or are con-sultants for the industry. Fbr those whohave involved themselves jg.the privatesector, tlitse roles have be-cie a signifi-cant part of their professional activities,Some have even leff the university altogetherfor positions in industry, where salaries arehigher and research facilities are often moreelaborate and up fo date. If this exodusfrom university teaching becomes.a trend,it could threaten the future conduct ofbasic science in genetic engineerins andthe continued education and training ofnew scientists vitally needed in the field.The current tug of war between industryand universities for molecular biologists isa striking indication of the pressures thatcan develop.

Nonetheless, industrial organizations areproviding needed (uncls to enable univOrsi .

ties to extend their research activities. Somerecent examples of major financial interac-tions have been widely and often criticallydiscussed. Harvard University recently de-cided to forego participation in a directcontract with Du Pont for the sharing ofresearch activity in genetic engineering. Sub-sequently, a somewhat different arrange-ment, involving a grant by Du ont of sixmillion dollars, was agreed up by theHarvard Medical Schodl.

As another example, Hoechst & Com-pany, ,a Wesf German chemical firm, en-tered into a 50-million-dollar,,10-year, con-tract with Massachusetts General Hospital,a teaching hospital for Harvard MedicalSchool The money is to help develop 40teaching and. research in genetic engineer-ing. While the research is not to be product-oriented, an y. proprietary rights that deVel-op will belong to Hoechst. In addition, the-Massachusetts Institute of Technology hasrecently accepted a sizable contribution froma Greenwich, Connecticut, industrialist,Edwin C. Whitehead,. to establish near theuniversity an independent inititute for bio-niedical rdearch, which will in part be en-gaged in genetic engineering research.These are only three examples of a wide.variety of possible university-industry arrange-ments under consideration at numerousacademic sites around the Nation.

These kinds of interactions are beingviewed with mixed emotions. Intimate in-dUstrial involvement with univers'ity researchhas occasionally been referred to as a"Faustian bargain." The university's role isto foster free and -independent research by.faculty and students in the quest for knovirl-edge and to disseminate openly to societythe results of that research. Industry, onthe other hand, is concerned priniarily withprofits, focusing on product-oriented researchand protecting through proprietary or tradesecrecy the information its researchers dis-

cover. Since those goals seem, at least onthe sudace, incompatible, a university's ac-ceptance of industrial moneY has beenviewed by some as jeopardizing its essen-tial research role, and academicians arebeginning to worry if university researchwill, with industrial support, become closedand narrowly product-oriented. .4

47

Some of the concerns being raised arefar more subtle. Will there, be, perhaps,subconscious pressures on researchers andtheir graduate students to change theirprioritieS to favor investigations with highercommercial rather than intellectual potential?Will free communication with colleagues'outside the commercially supported insti-tute or center be subtly compromised? Willthe "honeymoon period" that cuirently char-acterizes university-industry arrangenientsgradually turn sour as the difference inexpectations of the two sides becomes moreapparent?

Others argue that different academicdisciplinesphysics and electrical engineer-ing, in particularhave faced the samechallenges without being unduly compro-mised, and it mighttbe expected that thesame would happen in the biological sci-ences. The birth of genetic engineeringhas been compared to the previous emer-gence of computer technology or of laserand semiconductor science from universitylaboratories two and three decades ago.There were some, problems, but fruitfulcooperation was the predominant result.In addition, it should be noted that anumber of industrial laboratories have agood history of cOnducting open, funda-mental science and of interacting well withuniversities.

However,Ihe case of genetic engineer-ing ,is different in some rather importantways from the university-industry coopera-tive development of lasers and semicon-ductors. In these earlier cooperative devel-opments, indusby was independently facile ,

with the new science and hence not asdependent on academic partidpation. Fur !thermore, the path from university reseatchto actual use and extensive commercial ap-plication took substantially longer than ap-peals to be the case with genetic erigineeting.

Possible solutions tO potential or existingconflicts inherent in university-industry co-operative agreements include: providing forthe free and oPen publication of results,once patentability has been reviewed; vest-irig patent owners* in the university (possiblyin partnership with the faculty researcher);and giving the industrial,sponsor exclusive

48

royalty, a free right to Practice the patent,and sublicensing privileges. While such so-lutions could never be institutionalized, gen-eral discussion of the issue by the corpo-rate and academic communities could saveinterested parties from having to handlesuch problems on a case-by-case basis.

The Federal Government also has animportant role to play in enhancing suchcooperative airangements by providing a

- base of support for the most fundamentalresearch upon which universitY and indus-try researchers can build. It is noteworthythat when university-industry interaction inlaser and semiconductor science was sofruitful, Government _support for the fun-damental, basic research component oflaser and semiconductor sdence %es plentifulThus, the Government can be quite criti-cally involved in encouraging a healthycoupling between the university and indus-try. The recently enaded Patent and Trade-mark Amendment Act of 1980 is consid-ered a good example of this kind of in-volvement. The act stimulates applicationsand allows effedive industry cooperationby giving patent rights on inventions stem-ming from fgderally supported research touniversities -or small businesses. Perhapsmost importantly, the act permits the grant-ing of exclusive licenses undei certain sped-fied conditions. Exclusivity can at times bea crucial factor in providing an incentivefor commercial development Of a patentoriginating in a university lab. It should benoted, however, that the burgeoning ge-netic engineering industry would probably'not have been possible without the chang-es in ,patent policy intrbduced by the Na-tional Institutei of Health (NIH) in 1977. Itwas the new NIH patent policy that madeit possible fer universities-to-own_patents_based on NIH-supported work and to li-cense them exclusively to commercial firmsfor development.

Legal Issues1

The patentability of manmade life forms orscientific techniques involving life process-es, is not obvious. Although there is* some

precedent derived from the patentability ofplant hybrids, it was only in 1980 that thefirst patent of a genetically engineered lifeform was granted in a narro5-4 decisionof the Supreme Court'. The case was anappeal of the initial rejection of the patentfor General Electric's oil-decomposing bac-teria. Shortly thereafter, Frofessors Boyerand Cohen were awarded_ the patent fortheir 1973 basic gene-splicing technique.Those two patent awards establish that notonly the organisms created by genetic ma-nipulation, but also the general techniquesor processes themselves, are eligible forpatent protection. It is expected, however,that the application of the present laws tothe new techniques will be beset with confusion.

A basic problem in patenting living thingsis the intrinsic variability and complexity oforganisms and life processes. It will beexceedingly difficult to be sure what consti-tutes patent infringement. When one has apatent on a specific microorganism, it maybe quite difficult to say whether another'sorganism is or is not a descendantoreven, for that matter, whether it is identi-

. cal. Once an organism, no matter howdifficult to create, is out of the lab, it canreadily be grown in a suitable culture. Theproblem will be particularly acute in agri-

,culture, where seed is widely disseminated.The validity of patents on genetically engi-neered products will continue to be chal-lenged. Furthermore, spontaneous muta-tions can and do occur in nature, and theywill further complicate the entire issue. Inaddition, international law may play a role,given the degree of foreign and domestic ,cooperation in the area.

Uncertainty is a serious concern for peoplein the industry. Patent law determines to asignificant extent the commercial-value-oftechnical discoveries and,,therefore, someof the motivation to seek such knowledge.Patent law also helps determine the timingand .nature of, technical publication andthe extent of proprietary or trade secrecy.Some decades ago, the patent laws weremodified by Congress to include speciallybred plants. ,It seems reasonable to con-sider now whether another modificationmay be in order.

Technipal Personnel

If the industry based on the new geneticengineering techrfology is to develop andgrow in the United States, it will require asubstantial pool of highly trained people inseveral scientific and engineering disciplines.Molecular biologists, cell biologists, plantgeneticists, and plant physiologists are allcentral to the present scientific aspects ofthe field. Physical and analytic chemistsand biochemists will be increasingly need-ed to perfect the laboratory processes. Asthe movement to commercial-scale produc-tion takes place, biochemical engineers,process engineers, and experts in fermen-tation techniques will be needed in largenumbers,

The educational caliber of the peoplerequired at present and in the near futureis exceedingly high. Almost 20 percent(some 300) of the employees of the top10 new reSearch companies started be-

4

US.DepartmentofAgricuhure-

An Agricultural Research Service biochemist inoculates a

sunflower plant with Agrobacterium. This technique,has been sucCessfully used to transfer gnes via bacte-rium fragments.

49

tween 1975 and'1979 have Ph.Ds. Withincreasingly intensive activity directed to-ward the agricultural and chemical mar-kets,*-the availability of people with therequired skills may soon be sorely taxed.Some believe that the-most critical personnelshortages will be in agricultural areas, andin especially short supply will be individu-als with scientific and engineering back-grounds in fermentation technology.

Potential Hazardsand Social Anxieties

The techniques of splicing one organism'sgenetic material into another allow cre-ation of new species, types that never mayhave come about as a result of naturalpmcesses. The recognition of certain possiblerisks associated with the processes hasinduced concern among researchers andthe public that a hazardous organism mightbe created, releasedruRwittingly, and spreaduncontrollably. The lpot0qtial danger of sucha scenario originally appeared far greaterthan that posed by hazardous chemicals,since in theory a microscopic amount ofthe released organism could conceivablymultiply undetected throughoUt theenvironment.

Adding to the intensity of the concernwas the fact that a large fraction of the,experiments conducted in the mid:1970swere being done using E. coli as the hostorganism into which DNA from other spe-cies was introduced. E. coil, a bacteriumthat normally resides benignly in the humanintestinal tract, is the most thoroughly un-derstood of all bacteria, and for that rea-son it has long been the laboratory guineapig of_ microbiology. Nonetheless, it wasfeared that if a pathogenic strain of E. coilwere created, the new organism might es-cape into the environment and cause anepidemic of unprecedented proportions.This, was of particularly great concern sincegenes affecting antibiotic resistance andtumor formation were targets of research'at the time, and no previous experirrientsof that kind had ever been conducted.

Several scientists, including Paul Berg,who won the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chernis-

50

try for his research on genetic manipula-tion .methodology, voluntarily halted cer-tain of their own-experiments and initiateda public debate on the issue. The forumthat received the most attention was ameeting of the leading genetics research-ers, to which the press was invited, held atAsilornar, California, in 1975. kryrjr.sponseto a statement negotiated and altopted bythose attending the Asilomar Conference,the National Institutes of Health promulga-ted a set of guidelines for the conduct of ge.,,netic manipulation experiments. The guide-lines classified experiments into four hu-

t. .ard Weis and specified the precautions-tobe taketi for each level. All scientists fund-ed by NIH were required to comply. Al-though research conducted in industriallaboratories did not officially come underthe restrictions, essentially all researchersin the United States voluntarily complied.

Work conducted since the establishmentof the NIH guidelines has 'resulted in agreatly improved undethanding of the po-tential hazards associated with genetic en-gineering. In fact, experiments sponsoredby NII-1 have established the risk parametersfor certain types of activity. A great deal ofevidence exists today that genetic manipu-lation experiments are probably not as dan-gerous as was originally feared, although acontinual reevaluation of the risks will beneeded for all existing and future projects.

There are two bask reasons for therelaxation of concern, especially amongresearchers. First, attenuated strains of E.coli were ,developed. They do-kit surviveoutside the laboratory and can grow onlyunder special conditions. The attenuatedstrains are now widely available as thehosts for gene insertion. Second, it is nowunderstood that there is a basic differenCebetween-the structure ohlwgenes -of higherorganisms and the genes Of bacteria, adifference that prevents the lower organismsfrom expressing genes,.of higher organisms,and vice versa. The incompatibility can becircumvented, but only with difficulty. Itwould not come about accidentally, as hadbeen feared. There remains, of course, thepossibility that a person with high technicalcompetence, working either alone or in ateam, could intentionally set out to do

r's

mischief. That is, however, equally true in, many other areas of scientific inquiry, andthe Problem is not unique to geneticengineering.

,A number of researchers are now askingfor a reduction in the stringency of theNIH guidelines, or even for their rescis-sion-. The procedures mandated by theguidelines can be quite expensive and canappreciably slow the progress of research.An advisory comMittee td NIH recently,

. recommended that the guidelines be altbut removed. The recommendations spec-ified that violations of any guidelines beenforced through peer pressure. The com-mittee further recommended that universi-ty biosafety committees, to which all pro-posed gene manipulation experiments nowmust be submitted for approval, no longerbe required. The NIH Recombinant -DNAAdvisory Committee reconsidered these rec-ommendations in.early 1982 and voted toretain mandatory federal controls on gene-

-se- splicing research while relaxing their Pro-visions somewhat. Most researchers in the,relevant fields appear to support the advi-say commi j.toeskresommendations, but aminority have expressed strong reservations,agreeing that the hazards are less thanwere once feared, but preferring to moveslowly until much more is understockl.

The Federal Role

Substantial*actions 'of modern technolo-gp, health care, and agriculture can tracetheir origins to research suppOrted by Federalfunds. Rarely, however, has there been anexample as clear-cut as genetic engineer:ing. Only a fel!, years ago, virtually-ME\entire field of research in the United Stateswas Federally supported. NOnetheless, therewere critics Who argued at the time that,the Federal Government was wasting mil-lions on support of research to satisfy thecuriosity of molecular biologists, with 'noprospect of useful technology. There is

ev'ery reason to believe that a decade fromnow we will see genetic engineering as aprospering and socially beneficial technol-ogy with vastly greater payoffs than thetotal research investmenli '

, The Federal Government has a role inthe support of both fundamental researchfocused on acquiring new knowledge andapplied yesearch directed toWard specificsocially useful ends not piopriate for

,...,,92support by the private se or. en re-search has the likelihood o u nt com-mercial application to attract the invest-ment of substantial private funds, Govern-ment funding is. no 'longer appropriate.The area in which this filnding situation istrue for genetic engineAng is so large thatcare will have to be taken that importantbut not readily commercializable.research'does not get overlooked in the overall"progrim.

Of the $150 million annual budget de-voted to genetic engineering research bythe Federal Government through its.grant-ing aaencies, most goes to univerSities.The ITational Institutes of Health, the De-partment of Energy, and the.pational Sci-ence Foundation are the_ majoe-suppliersof grant funds in genetic engineering. Re-search funds are also available to inclUstry'through special small business innovationAiand research programs, through coopera-tive university-industry research programs,and by direct grant application. NIH hasrecently begun accepting grant applicationsfrom industry. However, the needs for re-search funding in this rapidly developingfield probably change faster than fundingdistribuiion channels can adapt. In sum-mary, genetic engineering prdyides an ex-cellent case study of an area, in whicK"through judicious funding of the most ex-cellent basic research and the fostering ofuniversity-industry cooperative arrangenientsthrough patent legislation reforms and taxincentives, the Federal Govgrnment hasplayed a critical role in leveraging the de-velopment of exciting scientific discoveries.

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44

aInternational Cooperation in Science and Techno ogy

Introduction

The United. States allocates more of itsresources to research and developrrientthan any other country, and its total na.tional R&D investments, in absolute terms,exceed those of Japan, West Germany,and France combined ,It alsec employs morescientists 'and ertgineers in its labor forcethan any other free world nation. Themagnitude and diversity of those resourceswill continue to make cooperation with theUnited States in 'Science and- technologyat individual, institution, and governmentallevels attractive and .important to scien-tists from other nations.

Policy Context for Cooperation

The guidehnes that shape the internationalcomponents of the Administration's scienceand technology policy are substantially thesame as those that apply to its purelydomestic components International coop-erative programs supported by the Gov-ernment must be consistent with the Pres-ident's commitment to maintain fiscalresponsibility in the public sector and en-hance incentives for private seCtor invest-ment.,They Must be characterized, on theUS side, by a clear distinction betweenappropriate public and private sectorroles.International research projects swill be sub-ject to cntena of excellence and mutualityof benefit International applied researchprojects will also beSubject to the criterion.of pertinence to national economic andsocial goals and needs.

Two corollary aspects of those criteriabear special emphasis. First, one of therealities of the 1980s is that whereas theUnited States retains international preem-inence in many areas across the spectrumof science and technology, we no longerhold.undisputed dominance in virtually allfields. Nor do we have a monopoly on theworld's scientific and engineering talent.The Western European nations and Japanhave reestablished the intellectual and pro-dative capacities they lost during WorldWadi, and several less developed coun-tnes have built their own capabilities for

52

carrying ouit scientific and technological.actiiities in selected areas of special con--cern to them. The United States can bene-fit from healthy competition, as well ascooperation, among scientists of' alL na-tions and must be prepared to meet thechallenge of making the best possible useof resources abroad to help ensure- con-tinued progress in scierice and technologyin this country.

Second, international cooperation is notsynonymous with FederallY sponsored co-operation. Arherican scientists and engi-neers cooperate in a great many interna-tional venturesoften through the universi-

.ties or the industrial firms that employ themin which the Federal GovernMent acts, atmost, as a facilitator. An important aspectof the Administration's science and tech-nology policy is to encourage such coop-eration. The Administration recognizes theunparalleled contribution made by U.S.universities to the development of scienceabroad. It also recognizes that internation-al cooperation among industrial firms intransportation, space corrercialization,communications, and energy productioncan serve important U.S. national and in-ternational interests, as well as the interestsof the firms involved. Indeed, new forms ofprivate, multinational arrangements maywell be needed to develop and commer-cialize expensive future technologiesinspace and energythat can benefit manycountries, including the United States.

The ways in which the Administration'sbroad policy guidelines apply to coopera-tive science and technology program with.particular Coubtries will depend in--eachcase both on the specific concerns that theUnited States shares with that country andon that country's science and technologypolicies, resources, and capabilities. Theindustrialized democracies share concernsabout sustained economic growth, improvedenvironmental citplity, and enhanced na-tional security, for example. Hence, in thosecases, the emphasis of the Administratiod'spolicy is on sharing R&D reSources tomaximize the return on investments to allcooperating parties. Such middle:incomecountries as Mexico, Brazil, Israel, and SouthKorea hd/e made impressive strides in

1.

I

SteIgo. -

Karl Schumacher. the White House-

President Reagan is greeted by Mexican President Lopez Portillo at the International Meeting on CooPeration andDeuelopinent in Cancun. Mexico

developing their xSpabilities in certain as- .pects of science and technology. As is thecase with Western Europe, Canada, andJapan, increasingly fruitful cooperation in-volving saenlists and their institutions indie United States and their counterparts inthe middle income countries is envisioned.

U.S. policy with respect to cooperation ,with the leSs developed countries was ar-ticulated by the President in his address atthe International Meeting on Cooperationand Development in Cancun, Mexico, inOctober 1981. On that occasion he em-

f7

4

phasized Me need for such countries tostrengthen their own productive capacities,and he stressed the vital role of the privatesector in international development. Thus,the Administration is emphasizing the de-velopment of indigenous policies and ca-pabilities for conducting scientific and techno-logical activities and for applying those 'capabilities to the solution of urgent inter-nal problems, particularly .those of food,energy, natural resources, and.hgalth. Thatapproach will enable the less developedcountries tò enjdy a greater degree of

53

self-reliance in applying science and tech .nology to their current and future nationalproblems. Additionally, stronger capabili-tis for science and technolOgy will permit in-dividual scientists and scientific institutionsto cooperate more substantially with theirforeign colleagues and counterparts andthus, for exarnp)e, use more effectively thevast university, industry, and Governmentresources for science and technology avail-able in the United States. .

China is a prime instance of a country _that has been able, by emphasizing indige-nous capabilities for science and technolo-gy. -to establish a- wicre range of coopera-tive projects with U.S. scientists and scientificinstitutions. Additionally, the developmentof. those bilateral programs, provides anexample of the importanceof kience andtechnology in furthering broad 'U.S. for-eign policy objectives.

The Soviet Union provides a counter-example of the linkages between coopera-tion in science and technology and overallpolitical .relationships. The Soviet Unioninvests heavily in R&D, particularly for na- -tional defense, and has made notable'ion-tributions in a nqmber of fields of scienceand te,chnology. Moreover:in the. past there

'have been some ffifitful cooperative pro-jects 'between U.S. and Soviet scientists.'

The nature of Soviet society has, how-ever., precluded many of the most impor-

-. tent -types of cooperative exchanges thatU.S. scientists and their colleagues in theindustrialized democracies have long en-joyed. Even when the overall political cli-mate _was favorable, American scientists

ere often frustrated by the bureaucraticcontrols -and secrecy of Soviet society andwere freuently denied access to'the bestscientist& and facilities. More recently, theSoviet Government's blatant disregard forfundamental human rights, .rnade m5piliftwigwith the 'trials of such Soviet scientists asOrlov and Scharansky and the internalexile and confirmed harassment of Sakharov,has led Many. American scientists to con-clude that they cannot particippte in scien .tific exchanges with the Soviet Union.'

- On the official level, the Administrationhas stated that the 'Soviet UniOn bears.aheavy and direct responsibility for the re-

pression in Poland 111,1 that concrete political-arid economic measures affecting our rela-tionship with the Soviets must be taken.On December 29, 1981, the Administra-tion announcecithat three official coopera .tive programs with the U.S,S.R. would notbe renewed this spring: one in space, onein energy development, and one coveringa number of specific individual projects inscience and technology.

Scientific Cooperationwith the Industrialized

Democracies

Scientific cooperation within the NATOalliance provides a means both for helpingaddress common broad. security conCems

, .of the United States and its allies and forsharing scientific resources and knoWledge.In defense, the Administration is emphasizingspe-Cialization in particular R&D areas byindividual penters of the alliance as ameans for rationalizing the common ap-

- proach to' fulfilling military requirementsand making more effective use of .limited.resources.

Space offers an imporfant arena for in-ternational cooperation. The successful testiaunches of the U.S. Space Shuttle in AprilaneNovember 1981 ushered in a new erain the scientific exploration and commer-cial"applications of space; they also her-.aided new opportunities for scientific co;operation. The Shuttle's remote manipulatorarm, successfully tested on the second flight,was developed by Canada at a cost of $100million. The 10-member .EuroPean SpaceAgency (ESA) is developing Spacelab I,at a cost 'of $1, Nihon, and Japan isdeveloping a $20 million plasma acceleraztor for use with' that facility. Spacelab, ex-pected to undergo its first flight 9n board,the Shuttle in ,1983,.will, with the-Shuttle,constitute a new Space Trargliortation Sys-tem, destined to meet many Of the needsof ihe United .Statei and its partneri into

, the 1990s.Space also provides an arena in which

U.S. capabilities.are likely to be challengedby the increaSing capabilities of Europeand Japan. Ariane an expendable launch

54

OM.

.. -vehicle developed by France in coopera-

.:- tion with other ESA countries, will enteroperational service during 1982; it, is themost impressive example of the significant-space capabilities being developed abroad.Additionally. France ha% developed impres-

.. sive capabilities for remote sensing, andJapan bas.made significant strides towardthe next generation of satellite communi-cation systems. Activities such as thoseaugment the pioneering leadership of theUnited States arid, by offering the chal-lenge ornew scientific ideas, can also stimu-late more imaginative efferts on our part.

Research underlying the developmentof advanced energy sources is.also fivit-ful area for international cooperation amongthe industrialized countries. No other countryhas hadthe resouries to maintain as broadan energy research prograh in botti publicand private sectors as The United States,

. . and few are so richly endowed with fossilfuel reserves. As a result, there has been agreater degree of specialization overseas.

- on options considered appropriate to spe-cific national sithations. The keystone ofU.S international energy cooperation isthe International Energy Agency, where tech-nical collaboration forms one element of a'broader strategy for reducing deOniclenceon oil imports. The Organization for Eco-nomic and Cultural-Development's (OECD)

'Nuclear energy Agency serves as the focusof our technical collaboration. on ,nuclearenergy problems.

The United States halso entered intoseveral bilateral research prograins as onemeans for establishing broad scientific ca-pabilities on which to base its future ener-gy options. In particular, this country can,through cooperative arrangements, drawon the results of promising work abroadon advanced nuclear energy systemsparticularly European research on breederreactor technologyand, for the more dis-tant future, European and Japanese re-search on nuclear fusion. Regarding thelatter, Japan has invested $60 million inth,e Doublet III Tokamak magnetic fusioniesearch facility at General Atomic in -San

Diego in recognition of tte advantagesthat can regult from poOling resources forscientific research.

The United States has an informal butincreasingly effective program of scienceand technology cooperation with the Co: rn::mission of the European Eionomic. Com-munities. That program, for the most part,consists of Memoranda of Understandingbetween the Commission and the Depart-ment of Energy calling for the exchange ofinformation on nuclear energy. In at leastone case, actual interchange of materiel isinvolved. Similar information exchanges alsoexist in health services; materials research,carbon dioxide contamination of the/at-mosphere,and muclear fusion.

Cooperativ,e frojects involving individu-al American _scientists and their foreigncounterparts also prcwide an effective means(or expanding the.scope of U.S. efforts inbasic research in science and engineering.There are cOstly, specialized facilities abroad;that would -be- prohibitively expensive oreven impossible 'fo duplicate here. It is

-therefore_logical for American scientists tocarry out research using those facilities,just as it has been routine for scientistsfrom all over the world to conduct re-search using U.S. facilities. High-energyphysicists in this country and abroad havelong since recognized that imperative. -Ameri-can astronomers routinely make use ofunique observation facilities in the South-ern Hemisphere. More recent specific bi-lateral arrangements have given Americansaccess to other types of .specialized facili-ties. Japan's Building Research Institute,'for instance, where engineering design testsare intended to leadtto the developmentof more earthquake-resistant structures, orunique Canadian facilities, where optionsfor the undergound disposal of nuclearwastes .are being developed and tested.With constrained research and developmentbudgets facing many nations, joint researchprojects in many other areas of comMonconcern Will surely become increasinglyattractive.

Sciehigic Cooperation withthe Micrale-Income Countria

Er:ten as European scientists in an earlierera .made. immeasurable contributions to

5.5

the development of scientific capab.ilities inthe United States, so have U.S, scientistsc9ntributed, in the more recent past. to thedevelopment of research capabilities abroad.The strong, competitive resources for theconduct of research that exist throughoutthe world are a tribute to science as anenterprise that transcends natiOnal bound-aries and is a vital factor in the socjal andeconomic development of all nations.

Several countries in addition to the UnitedStateS, Canada, the Western European na-tions, and Japan have, in recent years,developed scientific and technological ca-pabilities of sufficient strength and sophis-tication to enable them to cooperate on anequitable basis with U.S scieRtists and thustake advantage of the vast resources avail-able in this country. For example, SouthKorea, through its ot,tin efforts and throughthe judicious use of U.S. technical assist-ance, has now become one of the largest

exporters of high-technologyzproducts out-side the United States, Western Europe, andJapan. Israel and the United States havejointly endowed three binational founda-tions for the support of R&D projects ofinterest to investigators in both countries:Official scientific exchange programs withMexico span a range of projects in energy,instrumentation, information sciences, railwaytransportation, and agriculture. The agri-cultural projects encompas research onthe management of arid and semiarid lands,control of desertification, and the conser-vation of soil and water.

Scientific cooperation with those andother middle-income countries results indirect benefits to the United States. Ameri-can scientists are closely monitoring pro-grams to produce.alcohol from agriculturalwaste products in Brazil and synthetic fuelsfrom .coal in South Africa. Bilateral arrange-ments with Israel provide U.S. scientistswith some access to the facilities and ex-pertie of Israel's strong academic and in-dustnal solar R&D program. Joint researchwith Mexico on arid lands managementand' the control of desertification couldresult in improvements in agricultural pro-,ductivity on bottt..sides of our commonborder.

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Scientific Cooperationfor Development

The United States has made enormous'contributions to economic developmentthroughout the world. During the 1970swe provided $57 billion to the developingcountries$43 billion in development as-sistance and $14 billion in contributions tomultilateral development banks. '

As the President noted in his, October1981 address at Cancun:the contribution,made by the United States through tradehas been even more significant than itsdirect assistance contributions. This coun-try absorbs about one-half of all manufac-tured goods exported by th'e non-OPECdeveloping countries to the industrializedworld, even though our market is onlyone-third of the industrialized world .mar-ket. In 1980 alone, U.S. imports fromdeveloping countries totaled $60 billionmore than twice the official development as-sistance from all OECD countries combined.

Throughout the developtrig world thereis and will continue to be a strong demandfor applications of sdence and technology.Experience in many countries has shown,however, that science and technology canonly be effective in helping to bring aboutmodernization in countries that have ap-propriate policies and that are villing todevote adequate resource's to their ownindigenous capabilities. The cases of SouthKorea, Israel, and Mexico, noted above,and several other middle-income countriesillustrate the crucial importance of strong,indigenous capabilities in science and tech-nology. Countries that have developed suchcapabilities are able to cooperate morefully with scientists and engineers in thindustrialized countries. Sdentific and techno-logical capabilities provide the knowledgebase and expertise that developing coun-tries need to set realistic objectives forusing science and technology for devel-opment, to negotiate technical contractswith foreign suppliers, to weigh subtle chacesamong technologies; and to adopt anduse acguired technolOgies effectively. Fi;nally, technology provides a 'basis for -im:provements in the manufacturing sed4

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.,

and thus enables developing countries toincrease their jprticipation in world trade.

The Administration's policy toward sci-entific and technological cooperation withthe less developed countries follows fromthese considerations. Briefly stated, it en-courages such countries to make use ofthe vast scientific and technological resourcesof 'the United States that are available inboth the private and public sectors. Thoseresources include U.S. universities that have,for many years, played a critical role in thetransfer of scientific expertise and-technol-ogy to developing countries. The Adminis-tration is 'taking steps to promote a greaterdegree of long-term stability to those U.S.universities that provide such technical as-sistance through memoranda of understand-ing. Beyond such official programs, U.S.universities continue to provide enormoushelp in developing indigenous capabilitiesfor science and technology by educatingstudents from abroad. At present, for ex-ample, almost 200,000 foreign studentsenroll annually in science, mathematics, endengineering programs in U.S. universities.

The Administration's focus on the im-provement of indigenous productive ca-pacities looks toward a future in whichincreasing numbers of scientists, whereverthey may work, can frome fill& paitcipatingmembers of the international scientific corn- .munity. Meanwhile, as the President rec-ognized at Cancun, there is a need toprovide shoitterm assistance to help solveurgent developmental problems.

With regard to food, the emphasis ofU.S. technical assistance will be, in thePresident's words, "on raising the produc-tivity of the small firmer, building the ca-

pacity to pursue agricultural research, andstimulating productive enterprises that gener-ate employment and purchasing powerl.That emphasis will include, in particular,"new methods of plant improvement todevelop crops that tolerate adverse soils*.and climatic conditions, insects, and dis-eases; research to increase the efficiencyof using irrigatiori water; systems for the

. production of several crops per year in thehumid tropics; and methods of humanand animal disease control to remove suchserious problems as the tsetse fly in Africa,

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which bars agricultural production in vastareas of potentially productive land.".

In the energy area, as the President alsoemphasized at Cancun, U.S. bilateral aidprograms will "stress technical assistancerather than resource transfers. We will sup-.port energy lending by multilateral institu-tions provided the, projects are economi-cally viable, and they expand developingcountry energy production through greaterprivate investment."

The United States "will also supportselectea elements of the programs of ac-tion of the (August 1981) U.N. Confer-ence on New and Renewable Sources ofEnergy. These include intensified energytraining programs for technicians from de-veloping countries and efforts to help de-veloping countries assess and more effi-ciently utilize their resources."

Scientific Cooperation withthe People's Republic

of China

U.S. cooperation with the People's Repub-lk of China (P.R.C.) takes place within theframework of the January 1979 U.S.-P.R.C.Agreement on Scientific/and Technologi-cal Cooperation. The implementation ofthe agreement is overseen by a U.S.-P.R.C.Joint Commission on Sdentific and Tech-nological Cooperation, cochaired on theU.S. side by the Presidenesiicience Advis-er. During 1981, .there was a rapid in-crease in the implementation of coopera-tive projects, in contrast to the two precedingyears that were dominated by the processof protocol negotiation,, orientation visits,

.and project planning. The scope of coop-eration covered by the overall agreementwas reviewed at the second meeting of theJoint Commission held in Washington inOctober 1981. At that time, three newprotoCols for cooperation were signed (inbuilding construction and urban planning,surface water hydrology, and nuclear safe-ty technology), bringing the total numberof protocols.to 17.

. While cooperative activities covered byall 17 protocols are likely to provide long-

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term mutual benefits to the Unifed Statesand China by enhancing contacts betweentherr science and technology communities,certain actMties stand out because of their

-more immediate benefits. Cooperative re-search projects of particular interest to theUnited States include projects in earthquakestudies, a marine sedimentation project inthe Yangtze River and East China Sea, theexchange of Ciata on incidence of disease,the exchange of plant and soil specimensand gennplasm, and projects involving Chi-nese archaeological and pharmacologicalsamples. Several of the scientific projectsconducted under the auspices of those bilat-eral agreements carry substantial potentialfor enhancing U.S. commercial opportunitiesand/or Providing shOrt.term or longtermfacilitation for future commercial activities.Trade vAth China is already increasing dra--matically.'Quing the first quarter of 1981,that country became our third greatestexport market in Asia, .behind Japan andSouth Korea. Activities under the U.S.PRC.agreement, such as the hydropower, space,agriculture, housing, and metrology proto-cols, have the potential for increasing tradeeven furthfir. In addition, U.S. commercialprospects in the area of technical instru-mentation are enhanced by virtually allprojects under the cooperative agreement.

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Several nongovernmental organizationsin the United Statei also have cooperativeagreemehts with scholarly organizations inChina. Among them are the Natibnal Acad.emy of Sciences, the Amedcan Associa-tion for the Advancement of Science, andseveral dozen universitieg. Those agreerptntsprovide Chinese scientists and engineerswith access to the vast resources in thiscountry, resources they are eager to tap.During the past year, for example, 6,000Chinese students were enrolled in Ameri-can university courses, the large majorityof them in science an engineering.

The rapid expa an of scientific and tech-nological lio ips between the People'sRepublic of China and the United Statesat both the govemmerital and nongovern-mental levels provides a significant illustra-tion of the efficacy of the Administration'spolicy to help facilitate the development ofindigenous capabilities for science and tech-nology in those countries willing to focustheir own resources to that end. Addition-ally, since relationships between the Unit-ed States and China are a major compo-nent of U.S. global and regional securitypolicies, cooperation with China also-pro-vides an example of the central importanceof science and technology to broader for-eign policy objectives.

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This chapter describes q byoad range of 'Federal tesearch and development programsdirected at national problems. The 11 papers were produced by 11 task groups, 'eachworking -within a particular sktbstantive area con-esponding generally to one of thebudget functioNcategories used by the Office of Management and Budget (OMBf.The task groups consisted of tepresentatives of 22 executive branch agencies withmajor science- and technology-related mission activities.

In making their contributions to this chapter, the agencies were asked to provideinformation about their recent major programmatic thrusts and accomplishmentsrelated to science and technology, confinjng their reports to accomplishmentsduring fiscal year 1981 wherever. possible. They were also asked for informationon important new progrcinunatic initiatives for-fiscal year 1982. The chapter, there-fore, does not-cover all scienge and technology programs of the Federal Govern-ment. Nor does it discuss recent accomplishments of the non-Federal sectors ofthe science and techHblogy enterprise. Rather, it is designed to highlight majorchanges that have occurred in federally supported science and technology programsat the agency level and point to significant developments likely to occur withinapproximately 1 year.

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A Cambean fruit fly lays eggs on a grapefruit peel ,Researchers at the U S Department of Agnculture hope todeuelopstrains of grapefruit that, like oranges, are naturally resistant to this and other costly citrus pests

National Security

Science and technology are important com-ponents of U.S. national security and for-eign policy. The Nation's supremacy intechnology is-a major source of its militarystrength. The strong research and devel-opment programs of the Department ofDefense (DOD) and the related programsof other Federal agencies provide a levelof technological superiority that enablesthe United States to develop, acquire, andemploy new military capabilities. The strat-egy is to employ science and technologyto offset the growing quantitative disparitybetween deployed U.S. military equipmentand that of potential adversaries. Funda-mental to that strategy is the fact that theUnited States leads by 5 to 10 years inmany of the basic technologies that arecritical to our advanced weapons.

The most essential function of DOD andrelated Federal research and developmeritprograms is to provide the technologicalinfrastructure that is sd important to thesteady, evolutionary growth of our militarycapability. The programs are made up ofhundreds of Projects covering a spectrumof technologies of relevance to national-security. Many of the necessary projectsinvolve advanced, long-range research toprovide technological progress on an evolu-tionary basis. Others have been selectedfor management and fiscal emphasis be-cause of their potential for a revolutionaryimprovement in future military capabilities.The sections,that follow highlight new ini-tiatives and past accomplishments in na-tional security research and developmentprograms.

Electronics /4414v

The defense mission requires highly so-phisticated electronic systems that can transmitand process information at high speeds,operate in`hostile ,environments, resist in-terference and intercepton, be apphed acrossthe entire electromagnetic spectrum, andbe highly reliable and easy to maintain.

Very High Speed Integrated Circuits

The Very High Spe'ed Integrated Circuits(VHSIC) program is a major thrust to

k.1

develop high-speed, high-density, digital inte-grated circuits that require little mainte-nance and can tolerate adverse environ-ments. Under the program, a new genera-tion of integrated circuits is being developedto provide a dramatic improvement (by afactor, of 100) in signal- and data-processingcapabilifies for military systems. VHSIC proc-essors will provide revolutionary improve-ments in the performance of airborne tac-tical radars, sensors for guided, missilesand munitions, and automatic communi-cation, navigation, and battlefield.systems.In addition to performance ilipprovements,

.the concept of maintenance-free electron-ics is nearing reality. The built-in test capa-bilities and fault correcting designs of VHSICtechnology will provide the improvementsin reliability, self.repair, and affordability need-ed for significant life-cycle cost reduction.

Ultrasmall Electronics Research

As one,of the programs supporting VHSIC,Ultrasmall Electronics Research (USER) ispushing the, frontier of solid state electron-ics toward a generation of devices withcritical dimensions no larger than a mole-cule. Such small dimensions allow an in-crease in the density of transistors on a ,

Meeger ComtnerdalPhotographers

A computer chip on the end of a fingertip. Currentresearch is aimed at producing even smaller chips withgreater capabilities for use in microelectronic systems.

61

single semiconductor substrate and .pro-vide an increase in dataprocessing speed.As the 'critical dimensions of solid statedevices are reduced, the time and spacedomain become so small and electric fieklsso large that new concepts and theories ofoperations need to be developed. In rec-ognition of these needs, the USER pro-gram is centered around the physics, chemis-try, and metallurgy of the geometricallyconstrained semieOnductor structures of thenext generations of integrated circuits.

Physical Electronics, Electronic Ma-terials, and Devices

Physical electronics research provides basicunderstanding of the electric, magnetic,and optical properties of materials,,as wellas the generation, transport, and coritrol ofcharge carriers. New concepts concerningsuch electron devices as the free electronlaser and the permeable base transistorhave resulted directly from this researchprogram. The free electron laser, for ex-ample, has the potential for efficiently pro-ducing high-power, coherent radiation fromthe'rnillimeter wavelength to the X-ray re-gion of the spectrum. The permeable basetransistor makes possible signal processingcircuits that can add to military communi-cations an order of magnitude improve-ment in jamming resistance and coVertness.

Electromagnetic Propulsion

The electrOmagnetic propulsion programexplores the.application of electromagnet-ic force propulsion techniques as alterna-tive propulsion sources for military gunsand launchers. The primary purposes areto demonstrate a unique laboratory launchersystem for accelerating appropriate payloadsand, subsequently, to develop a demon-stration system for air defense, armor, andartillery apPlications. The advantage of theelectromagnetic gun is that, in principle,the exit velocity fore projectile launchedby electromagnetiê.,4ins is not.limited asit is for a convenit,pnal bun. An unlimited .exit velocity provid the potential for manynew applications. n experimental, twin-

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rail, hypervelocity launcher and high-current,homopolar generators are being .developedtb launch scaled gliders and projectileswith high payload efficiencies. A variety ofelectromagnetic guns may meet conven-tional mission requirements by as early asthe 1990s.

Materials

Pioneering developments in advanced ma-terials emerging kohl the -materials andstructures science and technology programshave led to vastly improved military capa-bilities as well as the creation of new indus-tries. For example, virtually every U.S. andfree world military aircraft, spacecraft, andballistic missile uses fiber-reinforced plasticcomposite materials in its constrUction. MOre-over, aircraft now in development will useincreasing amounts of such materials toimprove efficiency and reduce fuel con-sumption. These research programs con-centrate on cost reduction and performanceimprovement with some emphasis on con-servation-where a dependence on foreignsources of raw materials is involved.

Carbon/Carban Composites

Research and devdopment activities in ercsbn-resistant carbon/carbon (C/C) compositematerials are directed toward improvingthe survivability and accuracy of advancedreentry Vehicles under adverse atmosPher-ic conditions caused by severe weather ornuclear bursts. Research supported underthis program includes investigations of in-novative concepts for Improving the con'-struction and processing of C/C materialsand changing the contents of the composite's.

The technological base in C/C compos-ites is being further exploited by the gasturbine community. The practicality of ap-plying C/C composite materials to the hotsections of gas turbines is being investigat-ed. In addition to performance gains be-cause of the high-temperature capabilitiesof these comPosites, their domestic avail-ability and potentiallow cost make themattractive alternates to high-cost, gas tur-bine superalloys. Also, since those super-alloys contain appreciable amounts of im-

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ported cobalt and chromium, the use ofC/C composites for this application cansubstantially alleviate our dependence onother nations for those metals.

Metal/Matrix Composites

-The development of metal/mabix composite(MMC) materials for a variety of militaryapplications is proceeding. Applications in-clude helicopter transmission housings, portablebridging .components; structures for mis-siles, mines, and torpedoes; airframes; gasturbine components; and satellite compo.nents. In addition, MMC materials showpromise for an ever-widening range of ap-plications, among them laser mirrors, light-weight gun mounts, submarine propellers,and large antennas. One of the early re-sults emerging from this research programis the development of reinforced lead gridmaterials for submarine batteries. If. thatdevdopment proves successful, it will length.en the submarine battery replacement cyclefrom 5 to 10 years, aligning it with thenudear core replacement schedule andappreciably reducing maintenance costs.

Another significant outcome of-early workis the potential substitution of MMCs forsuch critical or long-leadtime materials aschromium, cobalt, titanium, and beryllium.As an example, high-modulus graphite fiber-reinforced magnesium alloy composites ekhibit. stiffness, strength, and "dimensionalstability equivalent to or superior to thoseof beryllium. In another case, a sheet ofgraphite fiber-reinforced titanium aluminumalloy material has displayed structural proper-ties comparable to those of a solid sheet oftitanium 1.5 times thicker; yet, the com-posite required only 7 percent titanium.Such MMCs can save as much as 93percent of the titanium normally neededin sheet materials.

Ordered Polymers

Polymer research has demonstrated thepossibility of designing polymers with proper-ties e9uivalent to fiber-reinforced cdmpos-ites, without the need for the fiber rein-

forcement. An example of such an orderedself-reinforced polymer is polybenzothiazole(PBT). These types of polymers possesslong.range rigid chain alignment, which isresponsible for their excellent meChanicalproperties and .environmental resistance.The outstanding properties of PBT willprovide a new, high-performance, lightweightstructural 'material for missile, Spacecraft,and aircraft applications.

Rapid Solidification Technology (RST)

The technology of rapidly solidified metalpowders promises to produce high-qualitymaterials for developing new types of alumi-num and titanium alloys as well as pre-viously unobtainable high-temperature su-peralloys for gas turbine engines. Experi-ments with aluminum-lithium and aluminum-nickel alloyS have demonstrated the potentialfor producing superior superalloys with onlyminor ammints of critical or scarce materials.

Computers

An imptortant area for computer researchis the design of architectures (system,organization) to make possible efficient mul-tiple computer data processing, improvedmemory-access techniques, reliable digitaltransmissions, reduced costs in software,simplified operating systems, methods forparallel processing, artifidal intelligence, androbotics. DOD has established artificial in-telligence as a special area of interest. Theprogram is directed toward, developing ''smart"computer systems with the capability tomimic man's capacities for commonsensereasoning and physical dexterity. The workis closely tied to robotics, industrial auto-mation, and expert machine advisory ser-vices for maintenance personnel.

Artificial Intelligence and RototiCs

A foundation for a new generation of so-phisticated, intelligent weapons and sup-port systems is being established throughresearch on artificial intelligence (AI) and

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robotics and on their applications to sys-tem automation. The new automated weap-ons and systems provide new capabilitiesand ease manpower needs. Systems con-cepts range from automatic devices forassisting tankers, pilots, artillery crews, andair defenders to autonomous systems formanufacturing and ammunition handling.Automated consultant systems will assistusers in such tLsks as planning and schedul-ing air operations and diagnosing and re-pairing complex machines. Autonornoussystems will have some capability to com-mand, control, and conduct some aspectsof military activities. Artificial intelligenceinvolves techniques for processing symbol-ic data (as opposed to numeric data) andfocuses on methods both for representingknowledge and for reasoning in computersystems. Specific research efforts investi-gate methods for. representing knowledgeand reasoning independently for such particularknowledge domains as image understand-ing. Other efforts examine issues involvedin developing large AI systems using mul-tiple computer data-processing techniques.

Embedded Computer SoftwareTechnology

Software technology has not advanced ata sufficiently rapid pace to meet the expec-tations generated by the dramatic advanc-es in tomputer hardware technology. Atthe same time, the softwarq, now embed-ded in Most military systems continues tobe an increasingly important and expen-sive "ernponent of those systems:' D01)has specialized software needs that are notshared-with most commercial and indus-trial applications, of computers. They in-clude reqprements for automatic enor re-covery and fail-safe execution, the needfor simultaneous control of a variety ofsensors and activators, critical real-time con-straints, and extremely complex systemsrequirements that are continuously beingmodified.

New congepts and methods are beingsought for advances in software to com-plement the rapid progress in computerhardware', which is. exPected to accelerate

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as a result of the MHSIC program. Also,the standardization of Ada, a high-order,common programming language, has nearlybeen completed. Thus, opportunities willbe provided for coordinated developmentof generic sOftware, significant reduction induplication of DOD software support, andgreater' interoperability among military soft-ware systems. Important objectives of re-search are to reduce software life-cyclecosts through automated Oftware technolo-gy and to improve programming produc-tivity and reliability. The ability to modifysoftware reliably and efficiently will permitrapid response to changing tactical andstrategic scenarios.

Computers for Mining and Simulation

Those who develop computer technologyfor training and simulation must keep inmind the advanced technologies built into 'military hardware systemS and the under-developed skills of military enlistees. Moreeffective methods of. training are feasible .through the increased use of simulatorsand computer-based methods of instruc-tion. Simulators permit personnel to betrained in the operation and maintenanceof complex equipment with greater safetyand convenience, with less wear and tear,and with Iess expense, thin using actualequipment. The use of powerful, portablecomputers will permit individuals to betrained at their own pacea techniquenot feasible in the recent past.

Another promising area is the idapta-tion of computerized electronic arcade gamesfor military training. Such games, someofwhich can both speak and recognize voiceinputs, are knom to strongly motivate peopleto leam. A prototype c&mpUterized systemwag, recently demonstrated for training air-craft controllers; it uses computerized voicerecognition to provide students with indi-vidualized instruction, thereby reducing boththe need for instructors and the total class-room time' required to master the tasks.

Simulators for hands-on maintenancetraining have aavanced from technologydemonstration to actual trainers costing 50percent less than conventional devices.

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Mobility and SpaceTransportation

A major technology thrust is directed to .ward new and revolutionary aircraftperformance capabilities. Forward.swept-wing(FSW) and kwing aircraft technologies com-bine reasonable cost with substantial im-provements in aerodynamic performance.To relieve the pilot's workload and im-prove mission performance, digital electron-ics technology is being in'corporated intoaircraft tontrol systems. Research on vehi-cle dynamics and hydrodynamics is orientedtdward improved air, land, and sea mobility.

In comparison to existing space trans-portation systems using expendable boost-ers, the Space Shuttle offers increasedreliability, payload weight, and volume ca-pacity: the ability to recover and refurbishspacecraft; and the'ability to assemble largestructures in space. These unique featuresand the increasedalexibility they offer prom-ise an era of new .6perattonal concepts,increased effectiveness, and greater econ-omy for military space operations.

Aeronauics - .

/New electronics designs are being integratedwith the airframe control system to achievea significant improvement in the combatcapability of tactical aircraft. That integra-tion makes it possible to "fly.by-wire" withsmaller control surfaces on more highlymaneuverable aircraft; to Iriaximize aircraftperformance by automatically changing inflight the shape of such key aircraft com-ponents as wing sweep, airfoil camber, andengine.inlets; to protAde independent 6-decjee-of-freedom control for increased agility andminimal weapon delivery errors; Wand tointegrate the flight, fire control, and navi-gation systems. Those advances providetask-tailored han8ling qualities. 'Fife con-trol information will be used to assist thepilot autornatically or semiautomatically inmaneuvering the aircraft into the proper.launch position for a specific weapon. Ad-ditionally, the new control concepts pro-vide improved capability for carrying outmaneuves for bunching air-to-ground tkeap-

ons, thereby incrtasing survivability againstground defense.

Forward.swept-wing technology, madepossible by advanced composite structuresarid digital "fly-by.wire" flight control sys-tems, offers the potential of major techno-logical breakthroughs in structures,. aero-

, dynamics, stability, control, and configuration.After it is demonstrated that. advanced corn-posite structures can solve the aeroelasticdivergence phenomenon, a static structur-al instability experienced by forward- butnot aftswept-wings, exploitation of the bene-fits of the forward-swept-wing configura-tion can begin. Engineering analysis indr-cates that an FSW tactical aircraft could beas much .as 25 to 30 percent lighter thanan equivalent aft-swept aircraft or couldhave equivalent improvement in range/payloadperformance. The FSW design's excellentlow-speed stability and control characteris-tics, higher lift capabilities, and enhancedtransonic performance all promise revolu-tionary wealpons capabilities.

The x-wing concept is a major innova-tion in vertical/short takeoff and landing(V/STOL) aircraft design. The ebility* tostop the rotor in flight combines the verti-cal lift efficiency of a helicopter with thespeed, range, and altitude performanct ofa transonic fixed-wing aircraft. The design,fabrication, and flight test demonstrationare proceeding for vehkles of a size repre-sentative of an operational aircraft. Designanalysis indicates that an operational x-wingvehicle would have approximately threetimes the range, speed, and altitudeperformance of a conventional helicopterwith equivalent payload lifting capability.Such characteristics would greatly enhanceall current. V/STOL missions and couldprovide flexible sea-basing and deploymentoptions.

Aircraft propulsion technology researchis oriented toward improving reliability, ef-.ficiency, durability, and ,maintainability. Theincreasing costs both of propulsion sys-tems, and of supporting them when inoperation are major concerns. The large'number of parts in a propulsionc,system ismainly responsible for the high costs. Re-cent research and development efforts areaimed at reducing 'the riumber of com-

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pressor stages by improving indMdual stageperformance. In addition, supporting costs'are being- reduced by increasing the life ofengine components. The National Aero-nautics and Space Administrption (NASA)demonstrated a highly efficient turbofancompressor rated at a pressure _ratio of23:1, the Most advanced one ever designedfor an aircraft engine.

Space Transportation

Efficient, effective transportation go andfrom space is required for both civilian andmilitary payloads. The Space Shuttle hasbeen developed as the Nation's next gen-eration space transportation system. Thisyear the Space Shuttle has completed itsfkst two orbital test flights, and it is expect-ed to achieve lull operational status iniate1982. The Shuttle is discussed in greaterdetail in this chapter's section'on space.

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Vehicle Hydrodynamics

The hydrodynamic performance characteris-tics of new naval ships must be far superi-or to those of older ships if the new shipsare to meet more stringent performancecriteria. Traditional methods of predicfingthose characteristics are often too expen-sive, tim% consuming, or inaccurate. Newnumerical algorithms have been developedfor more Ofectively and accurately predict-ing such performance characteristics as thewater resistance of various hulls, and themotions of the hull in the waves. Addition-ally, a methodology has been developedfor designing the hull shape of lowspeed,high-endurance submersibles for minimumhydrodynamit resistance. Submersibles em-ploying those hull designs, which maximizelaminar flow, would have approximatelythree bales the range of the conventionalautonomous submersibles now used for

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Naval PhotogrhIcCentrThe nuclear powered submarine, U.S.S. Los Angeles. Research is Peng conducted to develop submersibles withminimum hydrodynamk resistance.

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intelligence gathering and covert deliveryof payloads.

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Command, Control,and Communications

The purpose of the comniand, control,and communications (C3) program is todevelop advanced communications technol-ogy and system architectures to improve`the Nation's ability to control its fighting

, forces around the world. The effective-ness of C3 depends on .recent advancesin information processing that allow reli-able and rapid manipulation and movementof Information across long distances. Effortsare devoted-to the development of highlysurvivable, interservice operable and flex-ible, computer-based C3 architectures em-ploying packet-switched communications.Current research activities involve compu-ter science, packet radios, combined voiceand data networks, network security, inter-connections to all services, and local net-work arrangements.

Efforts are also directed at applying arti-ficial intelligence concepts to make int--mation systems easier to use. For example,applications of 'distributed systems andautomatic data processing on the battle-field are under evaluation. Another researcharea of special interest is the strategiclaser communications technology prciram.An aircraft-to-submarine lasir communica-tions experiment is being conducte& toverify the theory of propagation for thetransmission of laser"- beams through clouds

-and water.

Computer-ControlledCommunications Technology

Research On packet communications teclt"nOlogy is exploring coMputer-based meth-ods for.compressing,inforrnation into densegroups or packets and then controlling,allocating, and accessing a variety,pf in-forrnatioLtransmission, means (e.g., mo-bile radios, broadcast sateilltes,soaxial and. ,

optical cables, and leased,,Telet;hone cir-cuits). Collections of Ttworks are inter-

connected to each other by small comput-ers known as gateways. Security systemsfor packet-switched networks and messagesystems using multiple'transmission meansand real.time packet-switched voice systemsare being developed. Packet communica-tions technology forms a sound basis for-supporting these integrated voice and dataitcommunications a multiple network en-vironment. It i he only technology thatcan achieve both fleAble allocation of trans-mission resources -and efficient use of corn-.munications capacity while concurrently sup-porting real-tinle information exchange amongpeople, among computers, and betweenpeople and computers. NASA demonstratedthe technology for transmitting packet .clatafrom Earth-orbiting_ spacecraft to _groundsystems. The accomplishrrient involved de-sign and development of new data syS--te -._ms that greatly simplify user access andreduce user cost.

Advanced C3 Technology

The purpose of the strategic C3 experi-ments is to demonstrate the feasibility ofadvanced technologies in survivable stra-tegic command and control systems. Anexperimental system has _been- created in -which such advanced technologies as theairborne packet_radio, end-to-end networksecurity, and Clistributed knowledge anddata bases can be applied and evaluated.The program specifically focuses on thereconstitution of surviving command, con-trol, and communications capabilities andstrategic forces following a major nuclear.attack.

Research in strategic laser communica-tions is developing the technology to pro-,vide essential commu`nications support tosubmerged strategic missile submarines;without cOmpromising their natural 'immun-ity to detection. The communications cap-ability is provided from satellites bltte-

green laser pulses that can penetrate Clouds

and sea water to reach the submarines. Thelaser pulses are provided either directlyfrom a satellite.based laSer, Whith is' COn=strained to low-power leveli by the limitedavailable power in space, or from a high-power, ground-based laser, which tranlmits

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pulses to a space-based relay mirror. Keytechnology elements needed for an earlydemonstration of the best system are beingdetermined

The Advanced Command and ControlArchitectural Testbed (ACCAT) has beenestablished to explore the applica_kility ofadvanced information-processing technol-ogy to Navy systems The testbed providesa realistic command and control contextfor demonstranng and evaluating a broadrange of information-processing technolo-gies, including natural language access togeographically distnbuted data bases: re-mote maintenance of software, and device-.independent graphic systems

The Army Data Distribution *tem (ADDS)testbed expenmentally evaluates the operational

"and doctnnal impact of information pro:cessing on the tactical battlefield. A paCketradio computer communications networkis- covected through gateway computersto provide access to selected computingresources that support êxperimental fieldand_ garrison operations. Software packages.with numerous applications have been de-veloped to iupPort field use of automatedtactical 'reporting, systems. automatic air-borne load planning recordkeeping, andvesource management.

Nuclear Effects Technoroglj

Major objectives- of .current research on -nuclear effects are to asiess the Survivabili-

_.. ty of our military systems in a hostile nu-clear environment. tb predict the lethalitycriteria for confident destruction of enemytargets, _and 4o, develop technological ca-pabilities;that will enhance theater nuclearforce effectivenMajor areas of researchinclude the_follPog: .

(T) The effects of nuclear weapon det-onations, particularly those occurring athigh altitudes, are, of, continuin g. concernto the survivability and endurance of mili-tary command, control, communications,and intelligence functions. Techniques are

-being developed' l'Or the mitigation of nu-clear e'ffects on ground communicationsnetworks, satellites, signal propagation, in-frared systems, and micr,oelectronics.

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(2) The nuclear environment and issuesof survivability and hardness of the MXMissile and Low Altitude.Defense System_(LoADS) are being addressed; MX Missile*components are being extensively tested.

(3) Techniques for improving the effec-tiveness. surVivability. security, safety, andreadiness of tilpeater nuclear forces are beingdeveloped.

(4) Efforts are being made to enhancenuclear survivability and targeting effective:ness of strategic systems. For example, the-electromagnetic'. pulse hardness maintenance/assurance methOdology win be expandedto include blast and thermal effects onaircraft. The targeting assessment for.nu:dear antisubmarine warfare weapons isbeing updated

(5) Efforts continue to lessen dependenceon underground nuclear tests. Potentiallimitations imposed on underground testsby a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty ac-centuate the importance of radiation ;imu-lators Capable of operating at X-ray levelspresent during a nuclear detonation. Ahigh explosive test will include large-scalethermal simulation to expose weapons sys-tems shultan'eously to simulated nuclearblast and therinal pulses. The effects ofatmosphenc fiticlear detonations on signalpropagation will be simulated with an at-pospheric release of barium in -the MID-,NI6HT SKY experiment:in addition, there is

strong.effort to develop the capability forlaboratoly siMulationseto verify missile andreentry vehicle hardness, which currentlycan be assessed.only at underground tests.

Guidance

- Research in guidance technology empha-sizes the development of an autonomousadverse weather , capability to counternumerically superior armor, reduce launchplatform 'vulnerability, ahd improve the prob-ability of killing engaged targets. Low-costadverse weather seekers against land andsea targets are capitalizing on recent landprojected advances in solid state electronics and signal processing. A concentratedeffort on target signature characterizationfor millimeter-wave seekers has been start-

I.

ed. Joint 'North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) cooperative programs, such asthe one jerk completed in which ,infraredand millimeter-wave signatures were mea-sured for armor and other militarily impor-tant targets, are planned.

Pattern Recognition Research-

Optical pattern' recognition offers signifi-cant advantages for terminal guidance sys-tems in missiles- The advantages ar'e dueto the ability of such. systems. to processdata in real time ancli.in parallel with alarge memory capacity as well as makinguse of potentidy lightweight and low-costcomponents.peveloping the capability foroptical pattern recognition, however, de-pends on improving the ability to recog-

- nize images from different types of sen-sors. For example, in -radar-map matching,the classic prObletn is to locate portions ofan online radar imáge in a stored refer-ence aerial photograph. Similarly, guidanceconcepts for projectiles require the regis-tration of radar images with images storedon black and white films Research hasdemonstrated that radar images of a targetscene can be correlated, with preyiously_stored photographic images, of the samekene. The optical correlator, using pre-processed reference imagery and weightedmatched filters, can correlate multiple sen-

, sor iMagery (e.g., optical and radar) in thepresence of various types of noise.

Precision-Guided Munitions

Precision-guided munitions (PGM) providethe potential for revolutionary advances incombat effectiveness. Effective exploitationof PGM technologies can significantly in-crease the Natioris ability to counter numeri-cally superior forces and to deploy significantfirepower economically.

Because the seekers that guide PGMsdepend on atmospheric transmission ofelectromagnetic signals in the optical or-infrared frequency band, they are moresensitive to adverse weather and dirty bat-tlefield environments than are convention-al weapons. Activities to model adverse

Harry Diamond Laboratories

The orotron, an open resonator oscillator tube in oper-ation at the U S. Army's Hany Diamond Laboratories,is the first step toward providing a high power _sourceof imillimeter waves for military applications in targetacquisition and swueillance

weather effects and to evaluate seekers.under such realistic battlefield conditionsas smoke, dust, and fog are importantaspbcts of research on PGMs. The researchis focusing on developing technologies -andtechniques to mitigate the effects of ad-verse weather and- battlefield environnients.

Millimeter-wave (MMW) and infrared (IR)array technologies are 'potential candidates

for improved seeker designs.Millimeter-wave seekers operating at the

atmospheric window frequencies fdr .elec-tromagnetic wave propagation offerisomeimmunity from adverse weather and bat-tlefield conditions. However, the develop-ment of effective MIvIW missile seekers hasbeen constrained by poor resolution, thelack of maturity of MMW electronicvices,' and lack of knowledge about targetand background signatures. Advanees inthe- state of the art of small,. solid skateelectronic devices and. signal-processingtechniques are needed to enable detectionand recognition of military targets' at us-able ranges. Because of the long rangeacquisition problem that exists with passive

69

MMW systems, dual mode techniquesAbothactive and passive) have been developedto allow relatively long range acquisition oftargets in the active mode, then automatically, transfer quidance to the passive modefor "hit-to.kill- accuracy.

Also being emphasized are seeker sys-_terns that operate in the IR region of thespectfum. Although the adverse weathercapabilities of IR systems are limited, theuse of multiple detector arrays can im-prove the operation of IR seekers. Therange capability, or sensitivity, oFIR seek-ers related to the number of detectorsused Recent advances in imaging IR focalplane arrays offer a potential for signifi-candy increasing the number of detectors.in seekers:with a concomitant improve-ment in sensitivity

Autonomous Terminal Homing

Research on autonomous terminal hom-ing is developing and demonstrating criti-cal technologies for advanced, day-nightcruise missiles. The guidance system.usesan onboard IR sensor to obtain images ofthe target area. Those images are thencompared by means of advanced scenematching algonthms with preStored,refdr.ence images generated prior to launch ina highly automated reference preparationfacility ReseartherS are also exploring theuse of IR sensorS for obtaining terrain-following and obstacle avoidance informa-.tion, thus significantly reducing flight alti-tudes for cruise missiles and improvingtheir penetration survivability. The technolo-gies being developed are difectly-applk'a-

i ble to the current and the next generationof cruise missiles.

Directed EnerCS

The application'' of directed energy tech-.nology to new weapons concepts offersthe potential of revolutionary contnbutions-to the Nation's defense capability. Researchin directed energy physics is being carriedout t& define and exploit that potential.Such directed energ'Y weapons as hi§h-

7 O.

energy lasers Sand particle beams-may wellcontnbute to air defense against bombers

antiship missiles, space defense andr space-related applications, and groundbat on the forward battlefield.

High-Energy Lasers

The high.energy laser (HEL) program involves research and deirelopment in manytechnology areas, including laser devices,pOinting and tracking systems, laser beampropagation, and laser beam interactionwith targets. Research is also being con .ducted on techniques for hardening sys-tems against laser weapons. While baskfeasibility has been shown, the objective ofthe current research program is to demon-strate laser system lethality at representa-tive ranges against representative targets.Full.scale performance of an integratedsystem has_yet to be demonstrated.

Current devdopment efforts consist of anumber of feasibility and lethality verifica-tion demonstrations The airborne laserlaboratory will demonstrate an,in-flight lasersystern against instrumented targets andairtoair missiles. The Sea Lite'lethalityproOram will demonstrate generic surface-based air defense with particular emphasison antiship' missile defense. Talon Gold,ALPHA, and the Large Optics Demonstra-tion Experiment (LODE) indMdually ad-dress the pointin'g and tracking, laser de-vice, and large optics 'technologies for aspace-basecrlittser system that can performa variety of defense missions. The' Road-runner and Forward Area Laser Weapon-Demonstrator (FALW-Q) programs.will pro-vide demonStrations of potential forwardcombat area laser weapons for battlefieldapplications.

Particle-Beam Technology

The Objedive of work on pa le-beam-iptech.nology is to determine the

feasby Of both chaTed and neutral particle-Nbeam weapons-concepts. The 'critical issuefor charged particle beams is the stable,predictable 'propagation of relativistic elec-tron beamS in the atmosphere oVer dis-

tances of military Interest. The thrust ofneutral particle-beam research is to dem-onstrate the capability of generating low-divergence beams for potential space -ap-plicabons. Particle beams penetrate deeplyinto a target, without burning through from

the surface, depositing damaging amountsof energy in the interior of a target in ashort 'period of time. Potential applicationsof charged particle beams include antishipmissile defense and defense of ballisticmissile silos. Neutral particle beams offerpotential applications -to space-based bal-listic mislile defense.

Charged particlebeam research effortshave provided experimental 'data on lowelectron beam energies propagating throughlow-density atmospheres. The data havebeen' extrapolated through fulldensity at-mospheres. That research has also provid-ed the advanc9d high-current linear induc-tion accelerator technology that is essentialto demonstrate 'propagation through full-

density atmospheres. An experimental testaccelerator has_ produced 4.5 MeV elec-trons at beam currents approaching 10KA. An .advanced test accelerator underConstruction has a design goal of 50 MeVelectrons at 10 KA bearn current.

The neutral particle-beam research pro-'gram focusei on theoretical and experinient-al studies to minimize beam divergence inradiofrequencyion:bearn accelerators. Anaccelerator test stand, which is being con-structed, will provide the essential experi-mental tools for evaldating critical beam

divergence issues fer the initial stages ofpotential Highenemy neutral particle-beamsystems.

SurveillanceNer'

Advances in sensor iensitivity and signal-processing techniques provide importanttechnology options in strategic surveiMnceof . early missile launch,:discrinrination oftarget signatures, and tke`suppression ofinterference. Distributed ri-dalsurveillancetechnology for reducing primary transmit-ter vulnerability without a loss of signaltakes advantage of digital components andnew signal-processing theory. These con- .

cepts in signal processing and distributedsurveillance sensors are -also being appliedin several major sea experiments related tosubmarine warfare. The broad technologybase in visible, infrared, radar, and acCusticsensors provides -a basis for sophisticatedfuture surveillance missions.

SurveillanCe from Space

The principal emphasis in current researchon space surveillance is onsadvanced visi-ble systems and infrared detector arrays.The enhanced cakabilities of advanced sys-tems permit-a variety of surveillance andbattle management missions not possibleprevicusly. Technology _development efforts6re stressing infrared detector arrays with ahigh level of integiated signal processing,broad spectral sensitivity, large dynamicrange, and high producibility. Advancedfilters and signal processing aTe under de-velopment for enhanced target detectionin highly cluttered scenes. The Tesultingsensors will provide improved surveillancesystems.

The highresokition, calibrated airbornemeasurement program (HICAMP) has re-sulted in systems to demonstrate some ofthe advanced sensors. The HI-CAMP sen-sor is an infrared measurement system formaking high-res" pluton, two-dimensional meas-urements of earth backgrounds and mo-bile and stationary air, sea, and land tar-gets. The HI-CAMP sensor.has two types ,.of advanced two-dimensional monolithicinfrared arrays with chargecoupled devicemultiplexers capable of providing data intwo broad infrared bands. It is integratedinto the lower hatch of high-altitude air-craft 'to make measurements above mostof Earth's atmosphere.

HI-CA7vIP dernonstrates the infrared charge-coupled device technology and develops adata base of two-dimensional- pictures ofbackground ected tariets. In addi-

ctfl191CAMP will provide fundamentalatmospheric:target, and background Mea-surement data; assess advanced 'focal planedevices, signal processing, and tracking al-gorithms; and support advanced technol-ogy *grams associated. With _advanced

surveillance concepts.

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S.

Nuclear Test Verification Technology

Research in nuclear arms test verificationtechnology is responding to national re-quirements for enhanced caPabilities .for

S Monitoring existing and future test bantreaties. Research is focusing on the de-velopment of advanced sensors and in-strumentation for deployment in remoteareas, data reception, management, andanarysis: magnitude .estimates' of foreignunderground explosions, countermeasurestc evasive testing; and ntriseismic tech-niques. Full-scale laboratory testinR is underway for a miniaturized, rugged, broadbandborehole seismometer and a sensor thatcombines strain and inertia data. New seis-mic'arraYconcepts for detection and iden-tification are being implemented. Combi:nations of seismic and hydroacoustic sen-sors are being evaluated for ocean-basedsurveillance systems. In ei.iasion andcounterevasion research, theoretical andexperimental eiialuations of ihe generationof seismic waves are being used for devel-oping ,improved detection and identifica-tion methods.

. .

Target Location and Identification

Research on radar target identification hasdevgloped a technique for classifying shipmodels at widely separated aspect anglesin laboratory experiments. The major ad-vantage is that the natural resonances donot vary as the target aspect angle chang-es, thus the method works well even atbroadside angles where other recognitionmethods usuallygive poor yesults.

A basic problem of sensors operating onthe integrated battlefield is the difficulty ofpenetrating fog and smoke to identify tar-gets partially screened by foliage, netting,or'debris. Research in two techniques,. nearmillimeter wave imaging and tomography,may solve the problem. Tomography, origi-nally developed for analyzing medical X-rays,uses,several images of a scene to find andaccentuate an object otherwise ,hidden byits surroundings. The target scene is illu-minated with near millimeter wavesitheonly electromagnetic radiation band that

'can penetrate smoke and fog' like micros

7-2 .

wave radar waves and, like infrared radia-. tion, can resolve images in sufficient detail

to identify targets. The reflected waves fortn atorilagraph that is then analyzed Tor targetinformation. In addition, recent research inacoustics indicates that acoustic tomogra-pty may be'a cost-effective way of moni-toring ocean phenomena. Of particular in--terest are phenomena, that 'distort sonarpropagation paths, affect submarine nydro-dynamic wake signatures-, or cause hydro-dynamic "noise," which interferes with sonarsystem operation.

Energy

Guaranteed access to assured supplies ofenergy is essential to theliationaLdefense,but meeting military energy needs is be-

. coming increasingly difficult as energy sup- ,plies become more costly and less subject

..:to direct control. The current and antici-pated mobile equipment inventory pointsto continued reliance upon liquid hydro-carbon fuels, now and in the foreseeablefuture. There are four overall.objectives ofthe energy research and development pro-gram: the, development of rapid and im-proved fuel specification methods and teststo provide the ability to respond rapidly tochanging fuel supplies, the developmentof more efficient propulsion and power-generating equipment; the broadening ofthe specification range of mobility fuelsthat can be used in military systems; andthe reduction of the petroleum dependenceof military installations by prOmoting theuse of more abundant or renewable ener-gy sources to replace liquid hydrocarbonfuels and natural gas.

The energy program has resulted in acontinuous-combustion gas turbine engine,multifuel diesel engines, and the adiab ic

engine. The operation of T-56, J-79, J-and F-101 combustors using shale-derivedfuels has been demonstrated. New instru-mentation for the tests has provided diag-nostic tools for determining design chang-es necessary for buming hydrogen-deficientfuels. Tests have been performed on mod-ified engines that show the ability to bumfuel with a wide range of specifications.

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Techniques have alio been Oveloped toincrease the energy utilization efficiency.ofships.

Manufactiiiing Technology-

The function of the manufacturing tech-nology- program (MTP). is to ensure 'themost effective Use of DOD's resources forrnateriali acquisition. By providing new orimproved,pro4uction processes, equipment,and mMods,.the 'MT15 reduces produc-hon costs, shortens production leadtime,improves product quality, and, reliability,and provides alternate production so-urces.Substantial benefits are derived from im-proved production safety and conservationof critical materials.

Current research emphasizes technolo-gies associated with the latter stages of themanufacturing cycle, when the value ofassembled and tested products is highest.For example, the cost of assembly anddisassembly for refurbishing turbine enginesis high because it is labor intensive. Some

. of the technologies being applied to re-duce the 'cost include optical recognitionand metrology, computer vision, roboticcontrols, and-nondestructive evaluation.

A nondestructive evaluation 'technique,vihrothermography, has been developedfor helicopter quality control. The methoddetects the presence of small fatigue cracksor delaminations in composite helicopterblades and is sensitive enough to detectflaws long before the effectiveness of the,

-;

r-

component is threatened4t is based onthe increase of temperature in a vibratingsolid as observed in 'a thermal image re- -corded on a video camera: Vibrotherynogra.phy can detect otherwise unobseivablestreisconcentrations, vokls, inclusions, microcracks,,delaminations, and other defects in struc-tural materials.

Research in manufacturing technologyshould provide fundamental knowledge tosupport increased pnxluctixrity in the -manu-

facture of high-technology aerospace equip-ment. Developments in cornputers'play animportant role. For example, higher ordercomputer languages are being tailored specif-

ically for the control of robots by factorypersonnel with a minimum of specializedtraining. Research in artificial intelligence isleading toward the development of "co-operation" among advanced generaion ro-boti having vision, adaptation, and loco-motion. Research initiatives . are focused

on parts recognition, tactile sensor' development, and conditional responsiveness.Optical data-processing techni4ues are beingconsidered as an alternative to digital com-puting in order to match better the natureof ima-processing algorithms. Coinputer-aided design (CAD) will be integtated withcomputer-aided manufacturing (CAM) tech-niques to eliminate redun4anEy in the gen-

eration of diap, specifins, and amend-

ments to próc s control documents. Sim-

plified presentation of status, data to pro-duction managers for decisionmaking will.be studied, with emphasis op interactivequery systems.

.11

Space*-

The moSt important accomplishments ofthe Nation's space program during 1981were the first two orbital flights of theSpace Shuttle and the encounter of Voy-ager 2 with Saturn. Attainment of fulloperational status for the Shuttle will con-tinue to be a principal objective of theGovernment's space program for the im:mediate future. That objective includes de-veloping SYstem improvements to increasethe Shuttle's performance and the servicesIt can provide. As a resdlt of the emphasison making the Shuttle fully operational,the need for budgetary restraint, and areview of' space program priorities, someprojects in .other areas have been resched-uled to later dates or postponed indefi-nitely There also have been some modifi-cations in a few flight projects: for exam-ple, the United States will not provide aseparate spacecraft for the InternationalSolar Polar Mission, although the Europe-an spacecraft will carry a joint European-U S. complement of instruments. The UnitedStates will continue fo provide a shuttlelaunch, an upper stage booster, and flightoperations support for the mission as pre-viously agreed.

Spate Transportation Systems.

The Space Shuttle, in combination withSpacelab, will introduce a new era in theuse of space for scientific and national,security applications. Together they will pro-vide an opportunity for conducting a greatervariety of ispace activities, and they prom-ise to do so more efficiently and effectivelythan was possible in-the past.

Space Shuttle

Efficient, reriable transportation to and from'space is required for both civil and nation-al defense payloads. The Space Shuttle, areusable, manned, space transportation sys-_tem. is being developed to satisfy into the1990s most U.S. requirements, and a largepart of the free world's requirements. TheShuttle will provide transportation tospaceand such other services as the delivery,retrieval, and repair of free-flying satellites

74

in space, or their return to Earth for repairor refurbishment. The reniaining require-ments for transportation to space are ex-pected to be filled mainly by such expend-able launch vehicles as the U.S. Deltaseries and France's Ariane, which enteredoperational service in 1981. For the Unit-ed States, the Shuffle will serve nationalsecurity needs as well as the civil spaceprogram's needs. The current forecast in-dicates that Department of Defense payloadSwill make up abobt a third of the Shuffle'spayloads during the vehicle's early years.

In 1981, the Shuttle completed the firsttwo of its four planned orbital tesi flights.The first, launched on April 12, was a 541/2-hourflight that met all mission objectives.The second, launched on November 12,had to be shortened from its planned du-ration of 124 hours to 541/2 hours be-cause of a malfunction in one of the threefuel cells. All other Shuttle subsystemsperformed satisfactorily, and the crew, work-ing on a revised "minimum mission" flightplan, met nearly 95 percent of all flight testobjecttves.

On its first orbital test flight, the Shufflecarried only instruments for measuring itsown behavior and Performance. On itssecond flight, it canied and tested the oper-ation of the Canadian-developed RemoteManipulator System, the articulated armthat will perform such functions as deploy-ing payloads from the Shuttle's cargo bayand retrieving Objects from space for in-skection, repair, or .retutn ,to Earth. Onthat flight, it also carried a payload packagecontaining a 'complement of instrumentsfor Eart garvation studies. The data col-lected .1e now being evaluated by scien-tists fri, many different parts,of the coun-try. I arations are in process for thethird a fourth orbital flight tests, planned ..for March _nd July Of 1982.

The Shuttle's operations era is expectedto start in late 1982 and to continue wellinto the 1990s. Continuing projections ofrequirernents for Shuttle flights show thatthe expected demand for Shuffle serviceswill grow and that the needs of someShuttle uSers will requ.ire' increased per-formance. Improvements to 'provide thatincrease r ormance are already planned.

They include increased power from themain engines and reductions in the weightof the external tank and the solid rocketbobster cases. The additional need for highenergy upper stages with increased abilityto boost payloads from the Shuttle's orbitto higher orbits is under study.

Spacelab

Spacelab is the reusable space laboratorydeveloped by the European Space Agen-Cy. It can provide several combinations of

/pressurized modules and unpressurizedplatforms called pallets that, when assem-bled and mounted in the Shuttle's cargobay, will provide both a pressurized envi-ronment for space experiments tended byhumans and an unpressurized environment'for .untended or remotely tended experi-ment& The long module and pallet ,thatwill make up Spacelab-1 were delivered inDecember 1981. Experiments for Spacelab-1will be mounted in its racks and, inlate1982. the racks will be mated with themodule and pallet. Following appropriatetests, Spacelab-1 will be ready for its firstflight, scheduled for late 1983.

Life Science Studies in Space

After nearly 6 years without a U.S. mannedspace flight, Shuttle flights are providingnot only a return to closely phased mannedflights, but also an increase in U.S. capabil-ities for studying the effects of the spaceenvironment on humans. An issue of con-cern in both U.S. and Soviet space flights

has been the physiological changes thatoccur irr crew members, inclOing motionsickness, cardiovascular and endocrine re-sponses, loss of calciUrn from bones, lossof niuscle mass, changes in red bloodcells, and fluid shifts in the body. Spacemotion sickness is a partiCularly importantconsideration for Shuttle missions', sinceShuttle crews will include, in addition toveteran pilots, mission and payload spe-cialists, whose training for flight in space isless comprehensive.

Other bfe sdences experiments are plannedto be conducted regularly on Shuttle flights.

For example, several investigatois have de-veloped experiments to explore how bio-logical organisms sense gravityone ofthe most fundamental and exciting areasin modem basic biology. The fourth Spacelabflight will provide a major opportunity forsuch research, since h will be dedicated tolife sciences investigations. The selectionof investigations to be included, was com-pleted in September and emphasizes med-icar area's that are of concern on short-duration flights.

Origin, Nature, andEvolution of the Universe

Data returned by space science missions inthe last year continued to fuel the revolu-tion in the way we think about the Sun,the planets, the stars, interstellar and inter-galactic space, and mankind's place in theuniveise. For example, we acquired newinformation about matter-antimatter annihi-lation in the center of (Air galaxy and learnedabout the causes and effects of solar flares.The second Voyager's obeervations ofSaturn gave us unanticipated new factsabout that planet and its system of moonsand rings. The Shuttle and Spacelab areopening the door to a new era of rapidlearning in the space sciences. In additionto providing a capability for conducting awide variety of human-tended investigations,the Shuttle will be able to deploy, retrieve,repair, or refurbish in orbit and even returnto Earth the spacecraft and experiments of.such missions as the Space Telescope.

Planetary Exploration

The successful encounters of the two Voy-ager spacecraft with_ Saturn in late 1980.and August..1.981 Were the most significantrecent achievements in planetary explora-tion. They provided-an unparalleled opportuni-ty to make* sophisticated scientific measure-ments and obtain high-resolution imagesof Saturn's rings, upper atmcisphere, andmoons.-The abundant data they providedare still being analyzed, but early findingsconfirm their importance to basic knowl-

75

;-'

Voyager 2 took this photograph ofSaturn from a distance of 21 million miles.

edge and understanding of the universe.The rings, long thought to be uniformdisks 'of Material, are now suspected tOconsist of thousands of tiny ringlets.,Voy-ager's images of Saturn's atmosphere show,in much greater detail than formerly avail-able, circulating storm regions, dark beltsalternating with bright zones, and otherdark and light cloud .markingsall Mutedby a thick upper atmospheric haze. Thetiny and large moons_of:Satum, some ofwhich had never before been seen, atenow known to range in size from about 65,to 5,120 kilometers. .apd to vary..in form

-.from (*brig antl Irregular to spherical andsmooth. The next key event in Voyager 2'sepic journey is its 1986 rendezvous withUranus. A Voyager 2 rendezvous with Nep-tune in 1989 is alsb -planned.

Astrophysics

The High Enerw Astronomy Observatories,HEAO-2 'and HEAO-3, completed theirmissions in 1981 and are no longer return-

1

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National Aeronautics and Spbce Administration

ing data: However, analysis of the acquireddata continues. That analysis has alreadyprovided new insightsfor example, thatthe energy being converted to antimatterin the center of our galaxy is 10,000 timesas great as the energy generated by theSun's consumption of its nuclear' fuel.

Development of the Gamma Ray Ob-servatory began 'in 1981. In that year, itsdesign*was defined( final selection of itsinstruments was made, and a contractorwas selected for the Observatory. How-ever, the need for budgetary restraint hasdelayed its proposed launch date from1986 to 1988. Its highest priority objectiveswill include observing' the center of ourgWaxy and searching for evidence of the

_

synthesis of matter in stars.The spectacular successes of the Na-.

tional Aeronautics and Space Administra-tion's (NASA) astrophsisics systems havebeen paralleled by many recent advancesin ground-based astronomy. The NationalSdence Foundation's Astronomical en-

tation and Development Progra s appli-

8 i')_

..

PS

.4

cation of the latest available instrumentand computer technology has enabled suchactivities as.

the use of new electronic array,detec-tors, e g., charge-coupled devices, to .map radiating sources huncfreds oftimes fainter (hence more distant) thanpreviously could be detected;the use of computers to interpret the..vast quantities of data sensed by theadvanced detectorssuperimposingphotographic and digital images, re-ducing noise, and removing atmospher-ic distortions to yield unprecedentedsensitivity and resolution;the use of 'computers ,to combineobseivatpns' from vvidely separated radio

telescopes in a technique called verylong baseline interferometry that pro-vides extremely high resOlution, andthe:dissemination to university research-

ers of the most advanced detectors

and special computers:,

t .Solar-Terrestrial Investigations

Solar-terrestrial phygics investigations are'dedicated to understanding the processesthat control the near-space environment.That environment is dominated by energyfrom the SUn, which arrives in Earth'svicinity as electromagnetic energy and asthe plasma flow of the solar wjnd. Thoseforms of energy affect Earth's atmosphere,ionosphere, and magnetosphere, as wellas such More familiar characteristics asweather, climate, 'auroral displays, and radiodisturbances

One program that 'is increasing knowl-edge of the Sun is the Solar, MaximumMission (SMM), which is studying solar.flares nd other types of solar activity dur-ing the present peak of, the 11-year sun-spot 'cycle.' Althoiigh gyro, control of SMMhas been lost, three of SMM's originalseven instruments continue to provide new_

scientific information because they requireno greater directional accuracy than the

torquing exerted by Eailh's rn,agnetic field.A Shuttle rendezvous with SMM is Plannedfor I te 1983 or early 1984 to,tarry outin-o it repair of SMM's gyro controls,

The interaction of the Sun's energy withEarth's magnetosphere is best studied withsuch mulhspacecraft missions as the three-spacecraft International Sun-Earth Explor-er and the two-spacecraft \Dynamics Ex.plorer (DE), launched durihg 1981 andstill operating, The pnmary objective of theDE mission is to investigate the 'stronginteractive processes coupling the hot, tenu-ous, convecting plasmas of the magneto-sphere and the Cooler, denser plasmas,and 'gases corotating in Earth's ionosphere,upper atmosphere, and plasmasphere. Tofulfill that objective, the two DE satellitesare obtaining simultaneous measurementsfrom different altitudes in their coplanarorbits.

'Applications of SpaceTeChnology

The ultimate objective of most .sPace pro-jects is to develcip the basic knowledgethat may lead to practical applications foreveryday problems. Some activities relatedto those objective conducted; during 1981are described belOw.

... ..

._

Processing of Materials Under Low-Gravity Conditions

'One new technology being investigated bythe space program is the processing ofmaterials in an environment where the2ffects of gravity are greatly reduced oreliminated. By reducing of eliminating theeffects -of buOyancy, sedimentation; and ,convection, bw-gravity promising can changesignificantly the results obtained- in alloysolidification, trystal growth, biological separa-tions, and chemical and fluid physics. NASAhas developed facilities and equipment foruse in low-gravity processing experimema-tion and has invited industry to participatein joint investigations and Projects. One

, concept for involving the private sector is,the Technical Exchange Agreement, under -which NASA and a private company agreethat eachwill be responsible for a separateportion of a joint research projecti no fundsare .transferred between the two. During1081, the first Techni,cal Exchange Agree-

.

77

S.

ment was signed with Deere and Compa-ny to study the effects of low-gravity pro--,cessing on iron alloys.

Land Remote Sensing

The Landsat. series is an experimental se-nes of satellites developed to evaluate theremote sensing of natural resources from

Landsat.D, the fourth in the series,Is scheduled for launch in 1982. Datafrom the senes have been tested in a widevanety of apphcations during the approxi-mately one decade of its experimental use.Highlights during the past year include.thefollowing- .

use by the Statistical Reporting Ser-' vice of the U.S Departm'ent of Agri-

culture to improve crop statistics inkiwa, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma;development of techniques that im-prove both the accuracy and the effi-ciency of estimating the extent of areasplanted in spring grains;production, under the interdepartrnentalAgriculture and Resources InventorySurveys Through Aerospace RemoteSensing (AgRISTARS) program; of themost coMprehensive set of correlateddata ever obtained from observationson the ground and remotely sensedfrom space for use in assessing cropconditions and qstimating crop yields;

o completion of a cooperative projectbetween NASA and the National ParkService that demonstrated sorne ofthe benefits remote sensing from spacecan provide' to aid in administering,.U.S. national parks; andcompletion of a cooperative researchventure between Government and pri-vate industry designed to evaluate the

utility of remote-sensing techniques forgeological Mapping of areas Of knownMineralization. (Joint analysis of remote-ly sensed data acquired by the=merit and verification data acquiredon the- ground by industry showedthat imaging from space in the visible,infrared, and microwave portions ofthe electromagnetic spectrum can signif-icantly improve our capabilities for geo-logiCal mapping. The.results have led ,

78

to expanded private sector interest inthe data to be collected by Landsat-Dand to private sector interest in in-creasing spectral and spatial resolu-fion through advances in rernote-detectortechnology for geological applications.)

AtMoSphere and Ocean ReMote Sensing

Accomplishments in remote sensing of the,atmosphere and oceans from space dur-ing 1981 include:

completion of studies based on datafrom the Global Weather Experiment;for example, thoSe studies have shownthat incorporation of wind data fromsatellite observing systems may improveweather forecasting;demonstration of an ability to mapfrom geosynchronous altitude the dis-tribution of water vapor in the atmo-sphere to significantly improve suchimportant predictions, as sudden chang-

'es; a fullin numerical

es in the courses of huevaluation of posweather predicting, sto 'development,storm tracking, flash' flood warning,aircraft operations, and river-state fore-casting is under way;determination that such data as thosefrom the cooperative Govemment-indus-

NationaiAeromiuticsandSpacemminwration

Hunicane Allen, which brought devastation and loss oflife to the 'Caribgan and other areas, pnd HurricaneIsis in the Pacific are shown clearly in this photo taken in1980by the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis.tration's GOES EAST satellite.

1.4

/

ft try Seasat Commercial DemonstrationProgram could satisfy needs for im-proved Wave and weather foretastsand also provide an improved datatbase on ocean climatology; andinitiation, through the successful launchof the Solar Mesospheric Explorer inOctober 1981, of a number of meas-urement programs to*study ultravio-let (UV) energy, input and mesospher-ic chemistry; measurements -of LN flux

variability of mesopheric ozone and of

minor species are being acquired.

Shuttle Remote-Sensing Experiments .

On its second test flight, the Shuttle car-ried a payload of land-, ocean-, 'andatmospherebbserving experir.nents designedto provide an early test of the Shuttle'S

, research capabilities. Those experimentscollected various types of remotely senseddata that are now being analyzed. Theindividual experiments were designed tostudy sevefal kinds of phenomena, includ-ing Earth's crustal structure and.composi-tion, air pollution, distribution of nutrientsin Earth's ocearit, and lightning dichargesssociated with severe storms. Experience'gained will help terrestrial and space scien-tists make more -effective use of the Shut-tle as an orbital laboratory.

Responsibility for OperationalRemote-Sensing Systems

TI.1 National Oceanic' and AtmosphericAdministration .(NOAA) is responsible formanaging the Government's civil' remote-sensing, space systems after they progressfrom. developmeRtal to operational status.NOM has been using two series of mete-orologicaigatellites as operational systemsfor some time. Geostationary Operational.Environmental Satellite-5 (GOES-5) andNOAA-7,. the latest in each series, werelaunched fn May and Juere 1981, respec-tively. The Landsat series of developmen-tal land remote-sensing systerns Will reachoperational status after the 1982 launch ofLandsat-D. NOAA, with help from NASA:

now making plans to transfer operating

responsibility for Landsat to the commer-cial sector as soon as possible.

During the past year, the Departmnt ofCommerce took several additional impor-tant actions related to operational remote-sensing systems and private sector participa-tion in them. It developed a pricing proposalfor Landsat-D products and services ,de-signed to recoup, starting in 1983, thecbsts of operating the system. It estabrishedthe Piogram Board on Civil Operational'Remote Sensing from Space, which con-sists of Federal officials at the assistantsecretary level from 11 agencies and de-parthients, to help it plan and implementthe Government's interim operation Of theLandsat-D system and the eventual trans-fer of Landsat-D's operation to the privatesector. NOAA conducted a series of con-ferences with users of remotely, senseddata to refine its analysis of their dataneeds and requirements, helddiscussioriswith companies that 'may be interested ininvesting 'in operational remote sensing,and is participating in a series of regionalLandsat meetings in Africa, Asia, arid SouthAmerica to inform Users in those regionsof the products and services that will beavailable from U.S. systems.

Participation of 'Local Governments,in Remdie:Sensing ,

State and local governments are taking agrowing interest in comprehensive man-agement of their natUral resources arid areincreasingly accepting space...kensed dataas an important source of infoh-nation es-

' sential to decisionmaking. State governmentshaye invested .$28 million in the use of,Landsat data, and the amount of Statefunds being,used appears t6 be'increasingin comparison witli the amount of State-controlled 'Federal funds, although theseinvestments are still only a small fraction ofthe total cost of providing,Landsat data to.users. Capabilities for cohtinuing use of

,satellite data exist in 15 Statei and areunder development in 10 others Apical/applications have iriduded the inventorying of land resoUrces for use in compre-hensive planning by California, and SouthCarolina: the monitoring of urban gtowthand conversion of prime land-by Hawaii and

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Iowa, the evaluation of the effects' of indus-triallopment by Florida, the planningfor: conservation of such unique or sensi-tiveresources as wetlands by New Jersey,and the siting of waste disposal areas byMaryland.

Although there are many pofential usesfor land remotesensing.data such as thoseproduced by Liindsat satellites,.a key qUes-tion that is stilibeing evaluated is thecost-effectiveness of continuing Landsat-typetechnology on an operational basis. Landsatsatellites and their ;dated ground.supportsysteins are co;tly to build and. Operate,and in many instances, users have alterna-tive and lass costly means to meet 'theiressential needs. A careful evaluation is._under way of Federal needs-for Landsat=type data, and continuing investmeng inthis techriology will depend upon the provencost,effectiveness of land remote-sensingtechnology relative to other availablemethods.

Space Research andTechnology,

Extensive cooperative efforts between NASAand the Air Fora have developed majorspace R&D planning tools that identifytechnologies needed for current and fu-ture systems. The joint planning effort hasfound extensive commonality of technolo-gy needs in the civil and national securityspace programs. A number of researchand. technology activities directed toward'satisfying those needs are under way orplanned (or the near future,, and somemajor accomplishments were achieved dur-'ing the past year.

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Basic Research and Technology

Basic research and technology work pro-vides for the formulation and characteliza-'pon of 'technologies in a laboratory envi-,ronment. For example, in laser research in1981, 'direct solar pumping of a laser wassimulatecl for the first time. Repeated Niseiwith peak power output up to 4.5 wattswere .obtained.Volar-pumped lasers couldrevolutionize energy transmission in space,

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since they could be developed into closed,kingfife, relatively lightweight systems. Dur-ing 1982, work will focus on developing amore efficient lasing material. -

In solar cefi research, an extremely thin(10-micrometer); single-ays$1,1eurn-arse-nide solar cell was successfully fM--,ted ona thick substrate. That cell produced a spe-cific power of 2.5 KW/Kg, the highesteverachieved by. a solai celland. 20 timesareater than that produced by other cur-rent cells. The new fabrication process that ,eyielded the breakthrough has the potentialtd reduce cell cost drastically and will bedeveloped further in 1982 to grow a thincell on a thin substrate.

Secondary Applications of SpaceTechnology and Systems

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Space 'sy'stems have a particularly strongneed' for parts with low weight, small size,low power requirements:high reliability,and long lifecharacteristics that frequentlymake them valuable for Earth applications.During 1981, almost 50 Earth applications inbioengineering, rehabilitation, public safety,and the environment were cosponsored byNASA and other Federal agencies, indus-try, and State-and local governments. Someexamples are: ,

(1) In mid year, tests in human patientsof an implantable system for the controlledrelease of such medications as insulin di-rectly into a patient's blood stream began.The system constantly measures the patient'scritical Oarameters and provides 'timely warn-ing or caution signals' to the patient. Thedevelopment of this device is being sup,'pOrted by NASA, the Applied Physics Labora-tory of Johns Hopkins University, PacesetterSysterns,sInc., Parker-Hannafin Corporation,Novo Research Institute, and the NatiOnalInStitutes of Health (NIH)..

(2) NASA's Ames Research Center andthe Children's Hospital at Stanford 1 s Re:habilitation Engineering Center for e Na-tional Institute of HandicaPped Researchdeveloped a wheelchair-moUnted speechprosthesis for the nonvocal severely hand- 'icapped. The technologY for that' prosthe-

'sis came from a program in which Amesdeveloped a syntheSized voice system for

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I.. gttional Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration

A quadraplegic demoilstradis a voice-controlled wheelchair and its manipulator that can pickup packages, oireri'doors, turn TV knobs, and perform a tiariely of other functions for severely handioapPed'persons. This device wasJointly developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Vettgaris Administration

advanced cockpit systems. Testing has shownthat the prosthesis, has greater languagecapability, flexibility, And speed than-exist-ing commercial devices, It is being readiedfor manufacture.

(3) ,A hybrid wastewater treatment sys,tem basedkon the use of anaerobic filters incombination with vascular aquatic plants ha.sgreatly reduced the cost of such treatnient.1t can remove hazardous substatrices frOrnindustrial, mining, and Urban wastewater.'

(4) Three projects cosponsored with NASAwere concerned with volatile hydrocarbonsin connection with public safety and the

. environment, In the first, NASA, in coop-eration with the Gas Research Institute,destgned and fabricated taser instrumentcapable of detecting and ,rneasuring very

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small leaks and emissions of methane andliquid natural gas. Initial tests inelicate thatthe instrument will be useful the gasdistribution industry in locating small leaks,which' have caused, great toss and damagein the past. The second project combinedthe efforts.of NASA, the Q.S. Coast Guard,and the Department Of Energy in deveslop-ing detectors for measuring. Methane con-centration and plume dimensions. The de-itctdrs have demonstrated good correlationdnd rapid response in smallscale spill tests.In the thifd project, NASA and the U.S.Coast Guard have applied knowledge onthe effectiveness of various types of flameand detonation arrestors, used in systems

"to recover hazardous volatile-hydrocarbonvapors, to detonations in long pipessand torepeatable quenching of detonations.

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Health

Recent years have witnessed a striking in-4-Tease in knowledge of living things. In-deed, it is generally acknowledged that theflood of basic discoveries in biochemistry,physiology, and medicine, combined withachievements in allied disciplines, consti-tutes a "revolution in biologY!*11P:Relorchallenge facing health research managerstoday is to Maintain the level of nationalresearch capabilities in a, time of increasingresearch costs and finite resourCes, so thatthe exceptional scientific oppoftunities af-forded by that revolution can be fully ex-ploited. As noted in last year's annualreport, a key element in the Federal healthresearCh strategy is to stnve for a fredicta-ble level oPsUpport for investigatOr-initiatedresearch project grants. This Would stabi-lize the single largest and most importantcomponent of ,the health science tbase.Beyond knowledge development, a keyFederal concern is the application of healthresearch findings to health care services.

Illustrative examples of the rapid growthin fundamentalknowledge in the life sci-ences and the impact of new discoveries-on human health and well-being are high-lighted below. Briefly considered are someof the most recent advances in biomedi-cine; the assenment and transfer of thenew health IIIIIhnologies into the healthcare system, and international initiatives inhea It h research.'

Advance's in Biomedicine

Genetics:

During the past few years, discoveries aboutthe hereditary material inside the cell,haveopened entirely new worlds in'biOloy. Aquantum leapr has occurred in Our Under-standing of. the way genetic information isencoded and transmitted. Researchers aretantalizingly close to identifying the fun-damental defects in specific genetic dis-ease? and to answering such key ques-tions as how cells differentiate tO servespecialized purposes, why some cells"' be-come malignant,"a,nd why cells eventuallyage and die. .Today ill the essenttal ele-ments for momentous research advances

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in .genetics are at hand: highlY creativeinvestigators, fundamental knowledge onwhich to build, appropriate materials forresearch studieg (model organisms rangingfrom yeast to bacteria to the sea squid,and animal and human cells available intissue culture), and increasingly powerfulinvestigative tools, of which recombinantDNA technology is only one.

Much of the fundamental work in genet-ics has been funded by the Ilational Insti-tute of General Medical, Sciences (NIGMS)in the National Institutes of Health (NIH)and by the National Science Foundation(NSF). A iignificant portion of the biomed-ical research in genetics is aimed ultimate-ly at replacement of disease-causing ab-normal genes with new genes that willcode for normal function. The research,while prómising, is still in a very prelimi-nary stage. Extensive basic studies to en-Sure proper control of gene expresSionincluding experimentation inbe required before what has become knownas gene transfer can lead to gene therapy.

One exciting area of current researchconcerns transposable genejic elementssocalled jumping genes. The ability of por-tions of chromosomes to move about andrearrange themselves has now been recog-nized as being responsible for the tremen-dous diversity of antibodres that individualscan. produce. Studies are expected to shedlight on genetic ffiechanisms resulting inmutations, differentiation of tissues in theaeveloping human body, and genetic ab-errations associated with certain malignan-des. Moreover, the movable bits 'of DNAmay provide useful markers to speed link-

'age studies that can tra.;14 the inheritance'of genetic diseases.

The term genetic diseaSes covers a bi-oad spec-trum of human disorders, some arising from defectsin a single gene (e.g., cystic fibrosis, Huntington'sdisease), others from chromosomal abnotmatities (e.g.Down's syncliome). and still others fromlhe complexinteraction of..indMdual genetic inheritance and suchenvironmental factors es diet, smoking, pollutants,and lifestyle. The single gene disorders are relativelyuncommon. thodgh often devastating in impact; the emultifactor disorders.include 4 number of frequentlyoccurring serious health problemsartxtg them d. ,abetes, hit blood pressure, atherwlerosis, and sev-eral forms of cancer:

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Another area of great research interestis that of genetic regulationthe process-/ es by which organisms and their- compo-

411. nent cells control the synthesis, rttainte-nance. and b?eakdown of cell constituentsin response.to changes in the internal andexternal environment. Studies make it in-creasingly clear that a rich fabric of regula-tory, activities operates within cells,

Researchers have found the cell and itshereditary material to be far more complexthan had been expeded. Nevertheless, thereis intense anticipation that research devel-opments in the areas outlined a'boveandotherswill make possible effective inter .vention in a vanety of perplexing and dev-astating human disorders.

Immunology and Infectious Diseases.

Revolutionary hybridoma (cell fusion) tech-niques and recombinant DNA technolo-gies continue to provide opportunities forvaccine development. Research is supportedby N1H. with related activities' conductedby suich other agencies as the Centers forDisease Control (CDC) and the Food andDrug Administration (FDA). Several initia-tives to exploit those opportunities wereoutlined in last year's annual report.

During the past year, clinical trials con-ducted by N1H demonstrated the safetyand efficacy of a hepatitis B vaccine, whichhas now been liqnsed by. FDA. Immuniza-tion programs eventually may reduce notonly the incidence of acute hepatitis B(now at about 100,000 cases per year inthe United States) and the pool of chronic .carriers (now at about 800,000), but themorbidity and mortality fromAchronic ac-tive hepatitis and cirrhosis orthe liver aswell. At the present time, production of thevaccine requires blood fr.= patients as asource of antigens (substances that stimu-late the production of antibodies). Furtherresearch has led to: a second candidatevaccine for hepatitis B, which has now beensynthesized with probable greater avail-ability at lower cost. CDC is conductingdemonstration . projects to test the public'health use of hepatitis B vaccine on specif-

.ic populations at risk. Similar efforts are,,

Bluct Wen I and fiarry Schaefer. Natsonal Canier Insttute

A scanning electron microscope imiige of normal eircu.lating human blood shows red blood cells, seueral whiteblood cells including lymphocytes, a monocyte, a neu-trophil, and many small, disc-shaped platelets.

under way to synthesize antigens for vac-cines against other microbial agents.

Studies at N1H have also established theexistence of a new human hepatitis virtisnow designated non-A, non-B JNANB).Most hepatitis following blood transfusionhas been found to be due to NAN Thevirus may also be a major cause of so e

forms of cirrhosis of the liver. Researchindicates that the exclusion of blood do-nors withl art elevated level of the. enzymetransaminge (associated with NANB hep-atitis) might prevent 30 percent of post-transfusion hepatitis and reduce fhe donorpopulation by, only 1.5 percent.

The Veterans Administration (VA) serves agrowing number of patients who niay be atrisk for pneumococcal disease. It is current-:ly evaluating the efficacy of pneumococcalvaccine in high-risk patients (the elderly,diabetics, persons tvitk chronic renal, he-patic, cardiac, Or pulmonary diseases, and

.chronic alcoholics).New opportunities to treat and.prevent

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aSthma and allergies have also been pro-vided by recent research on the biochemi-cal actions involved in aflergic and otherinflammatory reactions. For example,arachadonic acid, a fatty acid,, how hasbeen shown to play a key role in theproduction of mediators of inflammationthat, are medically important. Based onsuch research, new drugs are being de-signed to prevent and treat asthma- andother allergic and immunologic disorders.

Cancer

Many chemical compounds, both naturaland synthetic, love been found to possessthe capacity to limit tumor formation. Com-pounds using vitamins A and C have beenshown to be particularly effective; and, as aconsequence, the National Cancer Insti-tute (NCI) is systematically testing thosepotential cheMopreventive agents. For ex-ample, vitamin A intake, whether throughfood or as a supplementary vitamin, hasbeen specifically associated with low risk of

(\ cancer. Vitamin A and synthetic analogs of

vitathin A are cated retinoids. These,chemi-cal agents may play important roles inmodifying both the initiation and growth ofcancer, and research in retinoids for pre-vention of cancer is gaining momentum.Indeed, studies have demonstrated that vari-ous retinoids can reverse or suppress themalignant behaA induced in cultured cellsby viruses, chemicals, or ionizing radiation.

Studies now in prOgress also suggestthat it is possible to reduce mortality from

. cancer of the colon by dietary or chemicalmanipulation. For example, studies relat-ing dietary factors with cancer incidencehave indkated a slightly lower than aver-age incidence of cancer among peoplewith an above average intake of greenleafy vegetables. At the present time, it isimportant to determine whether the lowercancer incidence is due to the substance

5betacarotene, found in 1- een leafy vegeta-

bles; to the products retinal and retinol,which are generated f om betacarotene inthe intestine; or to -other conStituents ofvegetables. .

New hybridoma, or cell fusion, technol-ogy is also being exploited in cancer re-

National coca Institute

A saentist sorts B-celts taken from'the bone man-ow of a pattent with Lupo as part of a procos using hybridoma, orceilusiori technology, to manufacture identkalantlbodibs indefinitely and4in large quantitiei:

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search. That technology may permit detec-tion of cancer at a very itarl; stage byallowing scientists to label cancer cells any-.

tvhere in the body. The high specificity ofthe monoclonal antibodies produced byhybridorna techniques should permit sci-entists to kill cancer cells directly by meansof radioactive substances or, toxic chemi-cals attached to ,the antibodies. Thus, hy-bridorna technology holds considerablepromise for cancer therapy.

Diabetes

Treatment with special diets, exerdse, insulin,and other medications has extended theaverage life expectancy and improved thequality of life for diabetic persons. How-ever, it has not prevented the developmentof such tissue-damaging aspecti of thatdisease .as heart attacks, strokes, kidneyfailure, gangrene, blindness, and damageto the nervous system. Most of the, morbid-ity, mortality; and economic cost associat-ed with diabetes is due to those degenera-tive tissue changes.

A long-standing, unresolved controversyexists over whether strict and precise con-trol of blood glucose levels in diabeticpersons will prevent those life-threateningdegenerative changes. During the past,fewyears, new technologies have been devel-oped that may permit scientists, for thefirst time, to assess whether tight metaboliccontrol will prevent diabetic complications.The technologies include open loop de-vices for delivery of insulin and the institu-tion of systems for, hom6 monitoring ofblood glucose concentrationboth of whicgpermit better metabolic re'gulation of dia-betes" than heretofore possible: Witt theadvent of those techdologies, the NationalInstitute of Arthritis, Diabetes, and, Diges-tive and Kidney Diseases (NIADDK) hasinitiates a clinical trial to determine whetherlond term notmalization of blood glucosewill prevent the dironic degenerative changein persons with diabetes. The first phase ofthe' trial begatt in late 1981. '

Also being emphasized are studies to'determine the relationship between diabe-tes and obesity, diet, and exercise. Most

.inditriduals (80-85 perdent) with Type II dia-

betes (not insulin dependent) are overweightand physically und ractive. Evidence sug- .

gests that th att Merit of optimal bodyweight, plus ence to sound diets andregular physkal exercik, will reduce themetabolic abnormalities and clinical symp-toms in patients with that type of diabetes,or even prevent its deelopment. %

In addition,an ongoing clinical trial being.;carried out by the VA is seeking neW in-formation on the natural history of lowerextremity vascular disease in diabetes. Itwill also provide definitive data about theefficacy of antiplatelet" agents in .diabeticvascular disease.

During 1980, researchers were able toreverse diabetes in mice by transplantinginto them normal insulin-producing isletcells from healthy 'rats. AlthoUgh severalobstacles need to be overcome before thattype of transplantation can be attemptedin humans, it represents a major advancenot only in the treatment of diabetes butalso in overcoming the immunologic barri-ers to transplantation between species.

Alcoholism

Alcoholism and problem drinking are amongthe most serious public health problems inthe United States today. Early identifica-tion of alcoholism is particularly critical in

" dealing with the medical, personal, social,anct economic tragedy of the disease. Onepromising procedure now being developedby the National Institute on Alcohol Abuseand Alcoholism (NIAAA) and CDC involvesa sophisticated analysis of blood chemistryprofiles. The profiles can be used to classi-fy individUals as alcohqiic or not Alcoholicwith high precision. Other gcreening teStsbeing examined include a method thatrelies upon the measurement Of an un-usual ,hemoglobin fraction. Unlike otherbiological screening' tests available today,t4neW test can be used to detect alcoholabuse in fhe\absence of the types of impairment that oqcur at the later stages ofchronic drinking. Such.screening tests maYreveal unsuspected or unrecogRized com-ptilsive drinking, provide grounds for med-ical intervention, and therefore seiVe as apreventive measure.

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NIMA has also sponsored research deal-ing with the effects of alcohol on liverdisease, cardiovas. cular disorders, alterationsin the central nervous system, and fetaldevelopment. For example, recent studieswith animal models have clearly disproventhe hypothesis that cirrhosis in man is adisease. caused primarily by nutrient depri-vation, rather than induced by alcohol.Alcohol-exposed animals devpioped drrhosiseven though they were fed more thanadequate diets. Clinical investigation isnow under way to confirm a preliminaryobservation that prednisolone, an anti-inflammatory drug, may have therapeuticvalue in,treating patients with.severe alco-holic liver disease.

Recent studies of the effects of alcoholon the central nervous system support theview that prolonged ovGnndulgence in al-

- coholic. beverages affects the structure andfunction of the brain. At least 50 percentof the alcoholics receiving treatment areafflicted with brain atrophy. Recent studiessuggest that alcohol abuse also causes learn-ing and memory failures. Computedtomographic (CT) scanning has demon-strated a decrease in the number of braincells and a reduction of brain size in chronicalcoholics However, several encduragipgstudies have shown partial ieversal of both

. brain atrophy and neuropsychological im-pairment in abstinent alcoholics.

Fetal alcohollyndrome is the third lead-ing cause of birth defects with associatedmental retardation, and+ it is the only oneof the three that can be prevented. Re-search 'is beginning to identify the risk; forpregnant women of moderate and socialdrinking' It is known that women whoconsume moie than a certain minimum ,amount of alcohol are at increased risk orbearing infants of lower birti; weight and ofsuffenng spontaneous abortions. In addi-tion, recent research indicates that the thirdtnmester of 'pregnancy appears to, be aparticUlarly vulnerable period in which al-cohol can cause fetal alcohol syndrome,and itslrelated effects.

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Drug Addittion

The Natiorkil Irtute on. Dug Abuse (NIDA)has long supported investigations into the

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factors controlling drug addiction and therelationship between addiction and crimi-nal behavior. Although it has been generallyrecognized that there is a close statisticalcorrelation between opiate addiction andcriminality, recent findings have providedsolid evidance of the extent and characterof that relationship.' It has been found, forexample, that the average narcotic addictengages in at least one criminal act notinvolving drugs (burglary, robbery, etc.) perday for 248 days *of the ye-an The sameindividuals engaged in crime on 41 daysper year when not addicted':

Evaluation of treatment effectiveness hasdetermined that a number of well-definedtreatment methods can achieve dramatic.reductions in clients' drug use, with con.comitant marked reductions in criminalactMty and increases in employment andparticipation in productive activities. Of greatpotential as a treatment method for ad-dicts are new drugs now being developedand evaluated that can be used as interimtherapies while people are becoming total-ly drug free.

Mental Health

The National Institute of Mental Health(NIMH) is the agency with prime responsi-bility for research on mental and emotion-al disorders. The VA also sponsors impor-tant mental health research, as about 30percent oeVA hospital beds are occupiedby Patients labeled as sFhizophrenic.

The depressive illdesses are a majortarget of.current clinical research. They areamong the most prevalent of mental illnesses,affecting some 9 million ['persons in theUhited States. The major thrust of research ison the neurochernistry of depression (forexample, the role of naturally occurringpeptide substances); its physiological corre-lates; the elaboration of subtypes of de-pressionshhe evaluation of. pharinacological,psychorcial, and, comIRined treatment ap-Proacrhes; and genetic .and psychosócialmechanisms of Aransmission. Childhood de- -bression ,and tne diagnosis of depressionand dementia in the ag'ed are ,areas ofpa*rtioular significance (or future research.Such investigafions should provide a firm

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foundation for prevention and treatmentstrategies.

Positron emission transaxial tomography(PETT)the new noninvasive computer-ized imaging technique enabling visual map-ping of metabolic processes of the brainis now being applied eXperimentally to thefield of psychiatry. Current and potentialuses include study of schizophrenic (in-cluding actively hallucinating) patients, moni-toring of manic and depressive phases ofdisordered patients, and study of electro-shock therapy. The NIMH program is un-dertaken in close consultation With theNational Institute oi Neurological and Com-municative Disorders and Stroke (NINCDS),which supports an experimental PETr pro-gram at seven research centers throughoutthe country.

Vision Research

Scientists at the National Eye Institute (NEI)have shown for the first time that .somecases ,of uveitis (an inflammatory disease°I the innet\eye responsible for 10 percentof all visual jrnpairment in thestinited States)may be triggered by exposure of lire im-

mune system to a retinal protein called'thodopsin kinase, an enzyme present in allnormal eyes as a component of the light-sensing cells of the retina. The discoverysuggests thaf many cases of uveitis areautoimmune in originthat is, they mayoccur because the body's immune systemsomehow encounters one of the normallyhidden components of.eye, tissue, mistakesit for an invading microbe, and attempts todestroy it. With the benefit of those clues,NEI investigators have been able td*testvarious drugs as treatthents. They havediscov red that cyclosporin A, a drug nowuse to control graft rejection in tissue

plantation, can prevent the develop-ment of uveitis in laboratory animals in-jected with rhodopsin kinase. To deter-mine whether the human 4 can be protectedfrom uveitis in the same Way, NEI investi-gators .plan to conduct a clinical test ofcyclosporin A in the near future.

Dental Health

Experiments with image-enhancement tech-piques using successively recorded X-ray

National Eye Institute

Human retina showing a type Of welds, an inflammatoty disease Jf1he inner eye, known as "bird shotretinothoroidopathy:'

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images and digital computer manipulation'have achieved earlier detection of dentalabnormalities with lower radiation dosesthan conventional methods. The applica-'tion of -the technique to dentistry, a majorresearch effort of the National Institute ofDental Research (NIDR), should permitnot only early, detection, but also earlierand more accurate assessment of treat-,ment effects.

Premiture Birth and Infant Health

Scientists suPported by the.National Insti-tute of Child Health and Human Devel-opment (NICHD) have obtained evidencethat -)lb c teria that cause urinary tract or(vaginal i fections dunng pregnancy con-tain 1)igh levds of phosphohpase A-2. Humanphospholipase, an enzyme found in themembrane containing the embryo, is thoughtto initiate notinal labor. Baderial phosphohpasefrom maternal infections may be responsi-ble for premature labor. Other investiga-tors have documented a relationship be-tween urinary tract infections and dercrtasedinfant birthweight.

Toxic-Shock Syndrome

.Stiglies of toxic-shock syndrome (TSS) havebeen under way since January 1980 as a-result of its emergence and visibility as adisease of significant public health impor-tance. The studies have been sponsoredor carried out by a yariety of Federal agen-'des, including CDC and FDA For example,

CDC has demonStrated an association be-tween,TSS and the use of tampons, and anational surveillance system has been .estab-fished. Future research' can be expected toprovide additional information about TSSand its treatment and prevention.

Legionlaires' Disease

CDC studies have shown an astoCiationbetween the presence of Legionellapneumophila in potable water and the

,occurrence of Legionnaires' disease., The. organism has also been identified in Water

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from fresh water. lakes and potable watersystems without any apparent associationwith human disease. CDC and the VA arecurrently studyingthe significance of those -

findings for human disease and investigat-ing means for eradicating the organisms insituations where they produce disease. .

'Low-Level Radiation*

In recognition of the risks associated withtow-level radiation, the Nuclear RegulatoryCommission (NRC) is performing researchon limiting the .discharge of radioactivematerials from nuclear facilities. Emphasis'is placed on fuel-cycle facilities that pre- --pare the fuel.for electricity.generating reac-tors. Significant progress in measuring ef-fluents and assessing occupational exposureshas been made.

Assessment of New andExisting Technologies

'Several Federal agencies, including NIHand FDA, have responsibilities for the as-sessment of health care technologies. NIH,through its Office of Medical Applicationsof Research, , conducts consensus develop-"ment conferencest concerned primarily withthe medical and scientific aspects (safetyand efficacy) of particular technologies. Find-ings are made available to interested partiesand groups through a variety of channels,including publication of statements in medi-cal and lay journals and through NIH'sLister Hill National Center for BiomedicalCommunications. Recent NIJ-I consensusdevelopment conferences have dealt withsuch topics as thrombolytic therapy in throm-bosis, adjuvant chemotherapy of breast can-

* See the Annual Seience and Technology *Reportto the Congress, 1980 for a description of the coordi.nated Federal research initiative to asiess the healtheffects of low-level radiation. A recent study by CDCof patticipan he .1957 nuclear test "Smoky"indicates a s ewhat her occurrence of cancers inthat group of participa ts. as compared te levels inthe general population. 'More comprehensive fol-lowup is being undertake by the National Academyof Sciences.

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cer, cervical cancer screening (the Papsmear), .endoscopy in upper gastrointesti-nal 'tract bleeding, childbirth by cesareandelivery, and coronary artery bypass sur-gery. Dunng fiscal year 1982, N1H plans toevaluate the following technologies throughthe consensus process: CT scanning of thebrain, the effect of diet op hweractivity,hip joint replacement, validation of bioma-tenals, treatment of insect sting allergy,and critical case medicine.

The FDA is, or will be in the near future,evaluating the following technologies fromthe perspective of its regulatory responsi-6ilities: ,

hybndoma technology (saiety and ef .fectiveness of new products derivedfrom monoclonal antibodies or hybri-domas),nuclear magnetic resonance imaging(effects of low-level exposure to elec-tromagnetic radiatiorecombinant DNI tech ques (safety

. of products . sdentific, medicalethi-cal, and politi I issues), andnew approa es to risk asseSs ent(evaluating tj potent adve e ef-fects of tec ogy on individuals andthe environment).

Transfer of Research Findingiand New Technologies

The National Library of Medicine (NLM)in BetheSda, Maryland, is,the world's prin-cipal curator for biomedical research in-, formation. Nearly every country uses andcontributes to NLM's program of data col-lection and retrieval. The demands for datamanagement are rising rapidly, and ,newtechnical gains introduce marked jumps inneed. For example, the accelerated paceof research in genetics is produdng a streamof data that miist be stored and madeaccessible so that the rich contenf of new.knowledge can be used efficiently.

Important new medical technologies havealso emerged .from the Nation's space pro-gram. The National Aeronautics and Space

, Administration (NASA) has announced thatduring 1981 its Technology Utilization. Pro-gram produce& significant advances in bio-

'

engineenng devices for implantation in humanpatients. One example is the Programma-ble Implantable Medication System (P1MS),which provides patients with a supply ofmedicine for seyeral months and constant-ly monitors critical body parameters; Alsoduring 1981, the following two other.pr&jects reached advanced stages of the tech-nology transfer process: an advanced wheel;chair design (a prototype chair has beenmade far use in airplanes through applica-tion of compyteraided design and-use ofadvanced matdiak.), and a wheelchair-mountedspeech prosthesis for the nonvocal severe-ly handicapped.

International Health Activities

Malaria

The Uni.t d States has supported malariaeradication and control programs throughoutthe world Since World War II, and, since1965, the Agency for International Devel-opment (AID) has supported research todevelop an effec-tiim vaccine against malar-ia. In the 1950s and 1960s massive effortsto eradicate the disease were mounted inAsia and Latin 'America. The campaignswere -initially: successful, resulting in a re-duction by '500 million of people at risk.However, in Asia and the Americas therehas.recently been a resurgence of malaria,as malaria .parasites on all continents havedeveloped resistance to the drugs general-ly in use to corn* ,thern (e.g., c)lonoquine)and as mosquitoes, which tfansmit ihedisease, have developed resistance to suchinsecticides as DDT and dieldren. The se-verity of the worldwide resurgence oflaria is causing grave concern. An effectivenew vaccine .for control of malaria wouldprovide new hope in relieving one of theworld's leading health problems.

One of the AID-supported laboratorieshas made the mosf significant advance inmalaria research of recent times: the contin-uous cultivation'of the parasite Plasmodiumfalciparurri, in human 'erythrocytes in vitro.AID network laboratories have also immu-nized monkeys against human malaria (p.falciparum) using cultured material as a

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source of immunogen. Those immuniza-tions obtained varying .degrges of protec-tion. The current focus of the program ison purification and characterization, usingthe. latest hybridomd and genetic engineer-ing methodologies, of antigens that mayprotect against human malaria.

Other International Health Activities

in addition to malaria control, the UnitedStates has participated in a variety Of otherinternationally focused activities. "The fol-lowing are illustrative.examPles:

e Over 250,000 .pxeschool children indeveloping countries become blind eachyear from vitamin A deficiency. The

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'United States has recently joined inan international effortIto reduce thatpreventable form of blindness.Most developing countries dcl not have.adequate information on the nature,extent, or .capses of malnutrition topermit them to design effective nutritionprocjams. AID has developed and test-ed survey and surveillance methodol-ogies for assessing nutritionatstatus inthe populations of developing countries.An international symposium was con-vened in Copenhagen in September1981, under the joint sponSorship ofNIH, the European Medical ResearchCouncils (EMRC), and the Worki Health

Organizatioti (WHO), to foster inter--natio-nal collaboration in health caretechnology assessment.

Energy

The energy challenge for the near future isto provide a healthy economy and a policyenvironment that enables citizens, businesses,and State and local governments to makerational energy prtduction and consump-tion decisions that ieflect the true value ofthe Nation's resources. Lorig-term researchwith high risks but potentially high payoffs

. will continue to receive Federal support.-The sections that follow highlight trends irkFederal energy research and developmentprograms.

Science and Technology,Related to Energy Production

LiquidFuels

Petroleum will continue to be one of theNation's major energy sources for manyyears. The difference between cOnsump-ton and gradually declining levels of do-mestic production will continue to have tobe made up by imports, unless other do-mestic supplies are developed, dr conser-vation continues to drive down<oil con-sumption. While the counny has vast resour-ces Of coal, current national foreign energydependence is PAnarily on liquid fuels.

The most sigMicant long-range sburceof liquids for supplementing conventionalpetroleum is expected. to be coal. FederalassiStance helped to finance pilot-scale test-ing of several Coal conversion processesthat potentially offer significant improve-ments in efficiency over indirect and olderdirect liquefaction processes. Research ef-forts are now focusing on more advancedconcepts that can achieve significantly higherthermal efficiencies by reducing the amountof steam, oxygen, and hydrogen required.Research is also under way to further charac-terize and test plant effluents to determineif available control technology is adequate.The effectiveness of different levels of up-grading in destroying harmful cOmpoundsthat occur in certain direct liquefactionfractions (discussed later in this chapter) isunder irwestigation.

Oil shale is expected to be the mosteconomical .major 'iource of synthetic lig-

uids in the nearer term.. An importantaspect of the Federal research program isto help private industry obtain an improved

.understanding of the basic chemistry of oilshale retorting and the factors tilt% affectcontrol of the retorting process in order todevelop advanced concepts for both sur-face and underground retorting processes.ksignificant component of the program isconcerned with characterizing liquid andgaseous emissions, studying the long-term

, impact of solid disposal methods, and in-Itstigating potential problems associatedwith the abandonment of in-Situ retorts.

Conventional petroleum techniques re-cover on the average only about.one-thirdof the original crude oil in place. There areover 300 billion barrels of discovered, do-mestic oil that are a target for advancedrecoyery techniques. This may be the mosteconomical alpproach for obtaining addi-tional liquid fuel supplies in this century.Federal research..efforts are focusing pri-marily on a fundatnental understanding ofhow injectants designed to mobilize trappedoil perform under different reServoir condi-tions, with the objective of assisting theprivate sector in developing new injectantsthat can overcome problems of deteriora-tion under reservoir conditions.and bypassingsignificant pockets of oil in a reservoir.

Gaseous Fuels

Natural gas is the second largest source ofdomestic energy, accounting for 26 percentof all energy consumed and 30 percent ofall energy produced in the United Statesin 1980.(Anticipated declines in domesticconventional production in the 1990s ofthis clean, versatile fuel will increase pres-sure to import additional gag and oil.

Federal research support is concentrat-ing on gas from coal and unconventionalsources. An important aspect of the cur-rent surface coal gasification program isestablishing, for different coals, -the keymechanisms of coal behavior throughout aprocess in order to develop, significantlyimproired concepts. Studies to determinematerials that can withstand the extremeoperating environments are being conducted.Effluents from advanced processes are being

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U S Department of Energy

Laser Doppler Veloomeby Ls used to measure velocities in a diffusion flame. Scientists will be able to use suchadvanced lasers and computers at the Combustion Research Facility in Livermore, Califomia,,to study how and why

fuels buin

analyzed to determine if controls pre suita-ble or if gaps exist that can be filled by proc-ess modifications or new external controls.

Federally sponsored research and test-ing has created a substantial knowledgebase applicable to the production of gasfrom Devonian shales, western blanket tightgas sands, coal bed drainage, and thegasification of underground coal seams.Recent Federal research has emphasizedwestern lenticular tight gas sands. ResearCh-ers are seeking to develop the diagnostictools necessary to measure the geologicalproperties of underground formations, de-termine the resulting underground on;..enta-tion of sand lenses, and achieve and at r-mine .the resdhing location of fractures lopenough to intersect multiple lenses.

Coal

Direct combustion of coal is expected toaccount for an increasingly large share ofthe energy consumed by industries andutilities. Federal research has sought to

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help private industry develop technologiesthat are sufficiently clean and economical-ly attractive to displace oil and gas incertain applications or to provide a moreefficient and environmentally benign alter-native to existing coal technologies. Theresearch has typically had a strong basiCscience component designed to auginentt analytical tools and understanding avail-abl to the designers of combustion pro-c s and equipment. Other combustionresearch activitieg include fundamental stud-ies of fuel and sorbent behavior in order toextend fluidized bed technology to low-quality solid fuels, studies of the effects -ofburning Coal-water mixtures, and researchon advanced concepts to retrofit oil andgas combustors.

In addition to research on combustorswith favorable emission characteristics, re-search is being performe&on improved.,methodS for cleaning stack gas emissionsfrom conventional boilers. For such tech-nologies as the pressurized fluidized bedcombustor or the combined cycle gasifier

L)

itt

ft

ti

that initially expand the combustion gasesthrough a gasturbine, gas stream 'cleanupresearch is attempting to find improvedways to clean the gas before, it reaches theturbine. Such gas stream cleanup resegrchis also_applicable to the molten carbonatefuqt tell, which is`being suPported throughFederal research and offers the potential-

, of providing an extremely Glean, modularsource for electricity production. .

necessary focus for the development ofbreeder technology. Programs are underway to continue planned...test operations of

, the Fast Flux Test EacilitOki-11-) and to-complete constniction and 9peration ofthe Clinch River Breeder Reactor (CRBR)

.,,and other test faciHtles. ThOse plant proj-':' ects will be supported by a base research

and development progrem thaf providesthe necessary engineering and safety anal-

ysis along with the technolbgy improve-ments required for plant scale-up.

. In an effort to develop technology thatwill significantly reduce the cost of urani-um enrichment, research iskbeing conductedon advanced isotope separationconcepts.Three candidate processestwo laser iso-tope separation techniques and a plasmamethodare being investigated. The re-sufts will lead to the selection in 1982 ofone preferred prmess for engineering de-velopment toward an, eventual demonstra-tion facility and a production facility.

.

Nuclear Power

In 1980, 75 nuclear plants generated morethan 250,000 million kilowatt ohours orapproximately 11 percent of-the Nation'selectricity use for the year. An additional92 plants now have construction permitsgranted or pending and, if completed, wouldraise peak nuclear output capacity fromSS million kilowatts to approximately threetimes that amount.

In accordance with the National EnergyPolicy Plan (NEPP), the Federal civiliannuclear energy effort is not intended tosubsidize available technology or the ap-propriate private sector apblication of strchtechnology. Rather, it foCuses primarily ongeneric, king-range research and develo)mentundertakings that comrneriial enterprises(yr even the industry as a whole) mightnot pursue on a pure investment basis, butwhich nevertheless are important to thecountry's mid-term to long-term energy fu-ture. The overriding Federal goal in regardto nuclear, power (as for other energy iourc-es) is o enable it to compete fairly in themarketplace.

For more than two decades, major breed-er reactor research and development activ-ities have concentrated on 'the liquid metalfast breeder reactor (LMFBR). LMFBR tech-nobs', as contrasted to other high-technologyinexhaustible resource options, is well beyond,the proof-of-principle stage of developmentand into engineering scale-up. The goal ofthe LMFBR research program is to devel-op the technology and engineering base topermit developmeiat of commercial breed-er reactors. A sequence of developmentalplants is required to permit an orderlyscale-up of plant size arid to provide the

. ,

Renewable Energy Sources

.R&D on renewable energy sources focus-es on projects of 'a long-terin, high-risk,high-payoff nature, which industry, givenits choice of economic priorities, is unlikelyto fund. Examples of program activities

. .solar thermal technology .. reSearch coil-

ducted in close cooperation with in-dustry and otheis in the private sector,research to address production, of asufficient supply of appropriate bio-mass feedstocks to make,..COnversiorfeconomically feasible without -clisrup-tipn of food and fiber markets andthe development of technologies toconvert biomass to liquid and gaseousfuels and Chemical feedstocks,at com-petitive costs and in sufficient quanti-ties;

,0 high-risk, high-payoff research to im-prove kw-cost, high-effidency photovoltaicenergy systems; andR&D directed toward providing morereliable and cost-effectiVe techniques

.for identifying and exploiting'geothermal-resources.

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International Cooperation

Various Federal agencies have activelyparticipated in such energy-related UnitedNations activities as the .Conference onNew and 'Renewable Sources Of Energy inNairobi in August 19,81 J.S. policy hasbeen to entourage competent analysis ofpotential applications of new and renew-able energy sOurces to the energy balanceof other countrieiarid to identify means ofovercoming barriers lo the use of thoseresdurces. U.S. experts served on the eighttechnical panes that covered each of thetechnologies under consideration. The ?Ener-gy Policy Institute of the Brookhaven Na-tional Laboratory provided scientific andeconOmic expertise to the Conference Secre-tanat in preparing the synthesis of panelreports and the draft ptogram of action forthe meeting.

Energy assistance programs are beingexpanded to assist developing countries inaddressing significant energy.constraints totheir development. The emphasis is ontechnical assistance tactiyities for:

analysis of needs, uses, resources, andpolicies;training and institutional development;site testing and demonstration of newtechnologies-," andincreasing energy supplies, both con,ventional and renewable:with signifi-cant attention to fuel-wood activities.

Involvement of the'private sector and coord-ination and infonnation exchange with otherdonors, the World .Bank, and other multi;lateral organizations are being encouraged.

_Research Base forEnvironment. and Safettj

Synthetic Fuels Production andDistribution Effluents '

Coal and oil shale, the primary 'raw mate-rials for sNinthetic fuels, are natural prod-ucts, known to contain condensed ringStructures. In synfuel productiOn, coal andoil shale are heated, sometime§ under pres-

94

sure, to break cloan the megamoleculesinto smaller condensed ring'structures'calledpolynudear aromatics (PNAs). Since PNAsas a class bi compounds contain' manyknown or suspected carcinogens, it hasbeen important to know their ambient con-centration levels and to estimate total ex-posure to human populations at risk.

With that information, Federal, State, andlocal officials concerned with air Pollutioncan make the appropriate cost-benefit analy-sis commensurate ail the degree of emis-sion 'controls that may be required to min-knize the risks of PNA exposure. In 1981,an interagency effwt resulted in develop-,

ment of a miniature gas chromitograph,(GC) that can conveniently monitor 10preprogrammed organic compounds, indud-ing some environmentally important PNAs.

Other Energy Sources

Research on such health and environmen-tal issues as diesel exhaust, the Clean AirAct, acid rain, low-level ionizing radiation,and indoor air quality is being concludedbecause of the potential impacts that healthand environmental constraints can haveon the cost and availabilitV of energy.

Two successful demonstrations in remov-ing sulfur dioxide through the combineduse of limestone and small quantities ofadipic acid have recently been completed.If that process proves successful from bothtechnical- and economic standpoints anddoes not create any new adverse envi-ronmeital effect, it will be transferred tothe private sector for utilitsi, industrial, andcommercial applications. An industrial-sized'unit was tested at the Rickenbacker AirNational Guard Base in Columbus, Ohio,and another evaluation was conducted at theSpringfield City Utilides' Southwest PowerStation in Springfield, Missouri. At the Rick-enbacker site,- a limestone wet scrubberincreased in effidency from to 94 percentafter the addition of a s all amount ofadipic add. At Springfield, an average sul-fur dioxide removal rate of 92 percent wasattained; it had been 70 percent withoutadipic acid. Those successful demonstra-tions of adipic acid use in wet flue gas

desulfurization suggest possible applicationin spray dryer processes. Further successwould improve scrubber econoinics with-out adversely affecting sludge disposalmethods.

TwOstage electrostatic precipitator (ESP)research is assessing and developing technology for effectivelY cleaning particulatefly ash from low-sulfur coals.,Sucli particulateemissions are difficult to collect with con-ventional ESPs, but two-sta6e- ESPs havenot been used by industry because theysuffer frotn reentrainment (the resuspen-

- sion of previously collected dusts) and lossof particle.charging potential thie to clog-ging of the charging electrodes. Two signif-icant accOmplishments in overcoming thecritical clogging problem resulted from Fed-eral research: invention of a tri-electrodeprecharger and a cooled.precharger dec.trode. Both inventions are now in the pilotStage.of development and evaluation.

Commercial Nuclear WasteManagement

The problem of nuclear waste- manage-ment and disposal is a primary issue yet tobe resolved. Current policy is to assurethat the capability for high-level waste iso-lation will be available when needed. Ag-

gressive programs to support that goal arebeing conducted in all related areas oftechnology-

Technology. is also being developed to'immobilize high:level waste by convertingit to forms that will provide added safetyand economy of management and meetregulatory requirements for disposal. Sincethere are different categories of radioactivenuclear wasteshigh-level, lowlevel, transu-ranic, and airbornewith differing charac-teristics, development of several waste forms

is under way.. 4 Regulatory research in fiscal years.1981-

83 will focus on the mitigation of hazardsfrom high-level wastes'in deep repositorieslocated in four types of ge logic media:basalt, tuff, bedded salt, a domed salt.

Studies on properti an acceptability ofwaste forms and containers, site suitability,and migration of radionuclides from shal-

low land-blial facilities for low-level wastewill be conducted. In addition, there will beests and studies on characterizing millailings and their byproducts; the pathways

of toxic and radioactive materials from milltailings, and their environmental impacts;and decommissioning techniques.

The use of nuclear material for electrici-

'10d

will be at capacity for storing spen fuel.That fact emphasizes the need for a na-tionally approved high-level waste reposi-tory. Capacity at the three low-level wastesites is also nearly used up. Thus, there isa need for new ways to reduce the size ofincoming wastes and to locate new sites.Abandoned uranium mill tailing sites, con-taminated by radon gases and toxic mate-rials, have been exposed to the natnralelements for years, in some cases creatinga potential hazard to nearby communities.Also, currently active facilities have uncov-ered tailings piles with the potential fordistributing radioactive and toxic materialsthrough both air and water systems.Thus,the tailings must be isolated from theenvironment.

ty generation and for other industriposes is increasing inventories of nwastes. In the mid-1980s, some r

Nuclear Plant Safety

Most of the commercil power reactorsoperating in the United States today, andall of those under constniction or planned,are light water reactors (LWRs).1-he LWRis a converter reactdr, currently operatingon the once-through fuel cycle. The Fed-eral technical effort is directed principallytoward improving LWR safety and lower-.ing the probability -and consequences 'ofnuclear accidents. that objective is? met

timenthrough develo t of Unproved plantand systems d igns, operating techniques,and data and ..sk analysis. A complemen-tary effort is to assist in the cleenup of theThree gtle Island (TMI) plant. One of thebenefits of TMI remedial actiOn will te.additional .understanding of the accident,'which.shorild lead to reinforcement safety

standards and practices and imøOementof postacddent recovery opera ions.

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. Energy-Supporting Research

Basic Energy Sciences

Energy-related research is sponiored inthe materials, chemical, and nuclear -Sci-ences., in biological energy; in engineering,

. the geosciences, and.in' ^.f.; jed4i addition, there

ori it-crap:ANA applicationsof new knowledge to erfergAtoblems andon the early application'of the results.

More than 1,000 projects are supportedunder the basic energy sciences program.While the prithary results of most long-term. high-rtsk research are not immedi-ately exploitable, there have been somerecent accomplishments.

(.1) A sobr-stimulated 15hotochemical re-action provides a practical solution to amajor problem preventing large-scale ap-plication of heat to drive a senes of chemi-cal reactions to split water into its compo-nents:, hydrogen and oxygen. The photo-chemical reaction can substitute for thestep.in a sulfuric acid cycle_ yielding hydro-gen, for which no satisTactory thermallydriven reaction has yet been found.

(2) The "fabricability," and hence theindustrial application potential, of a, class

.of materials called intermetallic cbmpoundshas been increased. intermetallic compound

-atomic configurations 'are ordered arraysthat,are more difficult to deform i.+tithoutfracture than are metallic alloys of thesame atoniic composition but having a-,random atomic arrangement. One suchcompourfd, Fe3Si, is used extensivelY forcorrosion-resistant piping and for other com-ponents for the-chemical Industry. Researchon the structure of materials reSulted in aprocedure by which the composition wasmodified so that a desired ordered phasewas formed in a solid-state phase titans-formation after cooling to facilitate extru-sion. The ability to make thin gauge andclad products could have important, newapplications in the automobile and coalindustries.

(3) k new technique for seismic studyof underground structures has already at-traded strong interest from oil company

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geophysicists. The technicNe features apneumatically driven oscillating piston suit-able for producing either compressional orshear waves a any desired depth in anexploratory hole. A major advantage ofthe periodic source is that each pulse de-velops as much energy to the geophonesas a 5 gram explosive shot. The ability toadd 400 to 700 indMdual pulses in 10seconds results in a seismic signal far strong-er than that of the explosive chargeout damaging the borehole. The new hard-ware is complemented by special methodsfor mathematical analysis of the measure-ments from det4tors placed around thehole at the surfa e. Major improvementsin defining undersund structures in oilfields appear possible.

(4) A major nuclear data measurementeffort produced a new and- definitive de-termination of the average number of neu-trons emitted per fission for the spontane-ously fissioning, manmade tisotope, Cali-fornium-252. Because CalifOrnium-252' isused as a standard against Aich measure-,ments for other fissioning isotopes aremade, the new measurement has immedi-ate impact' upon reactor fuel-cyCle costs.For the commercial light water reactors, ithas -been estimated that additional costsattributed to the previous uncertainty inthat measurement have been more thanone-quarter of a million dollars for eachfuel loading in each reactor.

Fusion

Great 'progress has been made in magnet-ic fusion reseaof the past yeawas the demons

and development. OneMar& accomplishments

ation of current drive inthe Princeton Large Torus using radio fre-quency wave energy. The odstence of acurrent in a tokamak reactor is essential tomaintaining the stability of the plasma.Driving toroidal current by means of radio,frequency waves may allow steady-statetokamak operation rather than present-daypulsed operation and could drastically re-duce the power required for current main-tenance. Both improvements could travesignifica t positive effects on the ec'onomicprojecti ns for tokamak reactors.

A

0,4USDntoIEnerj

The Princeton Large Torus, an advanced tokamak device, has demonstrated that generation oj a substantial electric

currenheithin a confined plasma by means of radio frequency waves is feasible

-The principle of the tandem mirror con-cept was demonstrated at Lawrence Liver-more National Laboratory. The experimentshowed improvement in confinement para-meters as a function of ion energy 100 timesbetter than that of single mirror cells. Prootof that principle strengthens the fusionplogram in two ways: it confirms the basicdesign principle of the' lrge. tandem mir-ror fusion test facility under construction atEawrence Livermore, and iti provides thebasis for a strong mirror confinement reac-tor candidate in addition to the tokamakconcept. .

Soon after initiation of the poloidal diver-tor.expenment' vAth beams, 8 megawatts ofneutral beam power were introduced intOthe experiment's plasma; 5.5 megawzttswe're absorbed by the plasma, raising dieion temperature to approximately 70 mil-

1 t I

lion degrees. Such rapid availability, coin-bined with the basic purity control capabili-ty of the poloidal divertor, has provided apowerful tool that will now be used tostudy reactor plasma.

Quiescent operation of the Z140 de-vice at L.Os Alamos National Laboratorywas extended from 0.2 milliseconds to 3to 8 milliseconds along with a hundredfoldimprovement in confinement parameters.That change providedexperimental con-firmation of theoretical wOrk on the re-versed field pinchdan approach to reac-tor conditions that emphasizes high-efficiencyplasmas and has possible advantages insort& areas of technology.

Another project involved the operationof a new, very powerful steady-state mi-crowave heating tube. A 28gigahertz,200-kilowatt gyrotron was developed at

97

Oak Ridge National Laboratory and set aworld power record s(by a factor Of 200)for a carrier waim tube. That permittedsuccesiful scaling experiments on the ElmoBumpy Torus5 (EBT-S), the leading al-temate condept machine.

In two instances, radio frequency waveheating has been applied successfully totorokial and mirror plasmas. Over 1 mega-watt of radio frequency wave heatin§ wasapplied to the Princeton Large Torus, athigh efficiency -ind with no plasma degra-

,. dation. The phaedrus tandem mirror ex-periment at the University of Wisconsinwas operated successfully using radio fre-quency waves at thel ion cyclotron frequency,

withour-rtral beam heating. Those two

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ID

demonstratins indicate that radio frequencyheating is an attractive alternative for heat-ing plasmas to reactor conditiont. Becauseplasma-heating equipment is a dominantcost element in reactor systems, develop-ing cost-saving alternatives is of consider-able importance to the fusion program.

Two innovative advanced technology con-cepts have been successfully demonstrat-ed: a radio frequency, quadruple-focusingaccelerator now being used in other accel-- reatoP\applicatioris arid a flowing lithiumtarget ulsed primarily for a materials-testingdevice. Those advances constitute a largepart of the research and development neces-sary for, a major testing facility based uRonthe deuterium-lithium reaction.

,

,

11.

General Science and Technology

The activity of the Federal Govemment inproviding a balanced program of supportfor fundamental scientific research is anessential ingredient in the developinent ofour knowledge basemthe reservoir fromwhich we draw for ?ge development ofmechanisms and products to satisfy a vari-ety of human needs and to stimulate in-dustrial innovation and productivity for eco-nomic growth. Maintalning and nurturingthe U.S. scientific enterprise tnd its under-lying infrastructure are important elementsof our national science policy.

Expanding the Science andEngineering Knowledge Base

During the past year, research supportedby; the Federal Govemmeri and carriedout in university, industry, an Governmentlabgratol-ies has continued to produce newknowledge and insights. Such atIvancesare expected to expand our view of theuniverse and to benefit society. Some ofthe major new findings are described below.

Life Sciences* -

We are in the midst of a biotechnicalxevolution; new discoveries and valuablenew techniques are beingannounced withgreat frequency. Twd aspects of bioNchnicalresearch have already made 'enormous irri-pacts in a remcilobly short time monoclonalantibody production and .kcombinant DNAtechnology. The new techniques provideinsight into long-standing and.fundamen-tal 'questions about living organisms. Dra-matic opportunities exist for new vaccinedevelopment and for the treatment of dis-ease, and major breakthroughs in the un-derstanding of gene regulation, facilitatedby modern recombinant DNA technology,are expected to result Ultimately in applica-tions leading to improvements in food qualityand in the increased physiological efficien-

Additional information 1:rtairVng to researchin the life sciences can be found in the section onhealth in this chapter.

1,

- .cy of crop plants. Examples of 'recombi-nant DNA applications can be found inthe sectiOns of this chapter on health -andagriculture.

Biological methods of pest control re-cently have receivea much attention b?-'cause of the majoreconomic consequencesof pest infestations, particularly of crops,and the increased costs and hazards ofpetroleum-based pesticides. Studies of thereproductive systems of insect pestS are,leading to.improved understanding of possi-ble methods for-sterilizing insects and thuscontrolling the damage they do.

Earth and Atritc;spheric Sciences' .

Research in the earth and atmosphericsciences has broad potential, both for fur- :thering our understanding of naturalphenomena and for improvihg our inter-actions with the environment. For exam-'ple, federally supported research in Ant- .arctica plo`vides data essential fOr analysesof e global environment and assists in

luating the region's potential as a. source ..of renewable and nonrenewable resources.

, The U.S...Antarctic Research Program in-dudekapproximately 85 research projects:annuakinvolving some 300 sdentists and700' support. personnel They are doingiesearch in biological and medical scien-ces, upper atmosphere physics, meteoro4-

< *gy, glaciology, geology, and ocean scien:ces. Published researth results have formeda highly cited core of literature on magne-tospheric and ionospheric processes, at-mospheric chemistry, plate tectonics, andthe adaptations of organisms to extremeenvironments.

The intemational Deep_ Sea Dnlling Profect, using the drillphip Glomar Challenger,has' collected deep sea cores for scientificresearch pli-p-oses from.all over the world,thus providing greater understanding ofthe, earth's crustal motions and internal

tysstresses. During the ast year, tests using amarine seismometer tem lowered into adrillhole 1,700 feet below the ocean floorwere conducted successfully. That accom-

, plishment 'is a significant" development inearth sciences research, providing critical

99

data that will expand our understanding ofthe dynamicsof the earth and it crustal'movements.,

In the atmospheric sciences, a new andpromising application of existing technolo-gy involving stratosphere-troposphere ra-dars has resulted in horizontal and verticalwind (velocity) measurements with. timeand altitude continuity through the tropo-sPhere and lower siratosphere. That unique

-meastizement capabitrty, with much improvedtime resolution, will not only extend thebase of knowledge in dynamic meteorolo-gy, but it also should permit cost.savingapplications for weather service groups andair carriers (e.g., real-time tracking of at-mospheric motpns, including the jet stream).

The Global Weather-Experiment, an el-\-- ement of the Global Atmospheric Research

Program (GARP), concluded field operationsin late 1979 and has now near-1Y Completedfinal data- processing and archiving. This

comprehensive international research effort,in which the United States has played a leadrole, has analyzed early sets of data in detailand gained a substantially impioved under-standing qf large-scale weather patterns. Nt,

.

Physical Sciences and Mathematics

There has been a broad range of recentaccomplishments in the physical sciences.

*or exkple, in. a project involving indus-try and the Special Research Reactor ofthe National Bureau of Standaras (NBS),an importank new measurement methodfor characteking metallic oxide surfaceshas been developed. It uses angle-resolvedphoton stimulated desorption (PSD) to iden-tify pathways for significant chemical reac-tiOns on the surfaces of material?. Themethod is expected to clarify and, potentdal.ly, help solve important problems relafed tosubstance corrosion, catalysis, and semi-conductor device processing.

Other reSearctr efforts in the Chemical*iences focus on energy applications andexplore .the effects of liquids, gases, ancl_.'plasmas on the behavior of submicroscop-ic particles. For example, laser analyses ofphenOmena occurring In combustionrsys;tems are now being provided to users at a

100

fl NationalBureaudStandards

Equipment use4 in salt- es of the photon stimulateddesorption of ions from surfaces at the National Bureau of

Standards' Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility(SURF 11).

new and unique Combustion Research Facil-ity (CRF) atihe Sandia National Laborato-ry, Livermore, California.

The past year Witnessed significant prog-.ress in materials-related research. One ofthe more interesting and exciting areasinvolves the study of systems of reduceddimensionality. In the past, most materialsresearch dealt with the bulk (volurhe) proper,ties of matter. It is now possible to prepare'and study specimens whose dimensions inone or two directions are so small (i.e.,monomolecular layers) that the normal prop-erties and phenomena of bulk no longelpertain. Fo r. example, the consequences gfreducing the diameter of a metal wire olits conductivity are so profound that suchspecimens behave more like insulators thanmetals at low temperatures. In an era whenthe electronics industry is striving to devel-op devices whose primary elements are. inthe submicron size" range, the practecal im-portance .of such drastic property changesmay be extrernely significant.

Additionally, scientists are exploring theproperties of materials called compositionallymodulated alloys. A thin film, consisting oftwo elements (for example, copper and

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nickel), is vapor-deposited in such a waythat the composition varies in a continu-ously modulated manner across the thick-ness of the film. The wavelength of themodulation is typically 2 to 5 nanometers,or 20 to 50 atoms. Such filfris have un-usual mechanical and Magnetic properties.Both the elastic modulus and magnetiza-tion of the modulated structures are, appre-ciably greater than those of either elerrient.These observations suggvt a nAber ofinteresting technological possibiliti; amongthem are improved superconductors, mem-branes with a high modulus of -stiffness,bulk materials with enhanced elastic mod-uli, and corrosion-resistant material surfaces.

High-energy physics is an exploratoryfield of basic research in which experimen-tal and theoretiol studies are conductedon the fundamental constituents of matterand the fundamental forces of nature inan attempt to understand energy and mat-ter and their transformations. 'In recent

-years, great progresi has been made to-ward understanding the forces, of natureand the ultimata structure of matter, withits basic constifuent quarks and leptons. Inachieving those new levels of knoWledge,U.S. high-energy physicists have won threeNobel Prizes in physics during the Aast 5years.

Highlights among recentaccomplishments

in U.S.-based high-tnergy physics include;the discovery and confirmation of a newheavier kind of lepton (1975-78); the dis-covery of evidence for a new heavier kindof quark (1977-80); the completion of con--struction of PEP, aiièlectron-pOsitrOn col-liding beam facility (1980); and the direct

observation of the lifetime of.particles con-,taining "charmed" quarks (1980-81). fur-thermore, U.S. Physicists working at Euro-pean research facilities were prominent inthe discovery of evidence for the gluon,

believed to hold nuclear matter together(1979-80).

In the fields of astroniomy and astro-physics, the Very Large Array (VLA) radiotelescope has been particularly productive.Its, daily maps.....101 sensitivity and resolu-

tion exceedin t se of other radio tele-scope arrays bsi. one or two orders ofmagnitude, have led to important discoveries

about radio stars, interstellar gas clouds,supernova remnants, galaxies with *ctivenuclei, and quasars.

Engineering

There have been many major achievementsin the engineering sciences in recent years.For exanple, in ,civil engineering, the meth-ods of analysis and numerical simulationfar exceed our knowledge of material proper-ties and of at he opeNive environmentalinfluences'. As the characteristic dimensionor scale of engineering projects continuesto increase, so does their difficulty. Withsuch new processes as deep earth injec-tion of hazardous wastes and the buildingof artificial islands for Arctic oiyexPlorationand production, the scale and diffcculty areeven greater. Accordingly, there is, increas-.

ing need for physical simulation of larger,more representative models and for thecollection of corroborating 'field 'data. Inresponse, a process of "modeling of mod-

els" is now being employed. The tech-nique has been applied to the determina-tion of wave spectra as they relate tooffshore structures, wind-loading effects onstructures and on water circulation pattems,-and "keel-dragging" 'effects of ice on ocean

floor pipelines. .,AmOng the most prominent of such mod-

eling 'approaches is the. Federal Govern-ment's Earthquake Hazard Mitigation, Pro-gram, which aims at reducindthe adverseimpact of earthquakes on existing and newfacilities. The following are examples ofrecent advances accomplished with Fed-eral suppoe

By employing contained explosives,earthquakelike ground motions tanbe generated under controlled condi-tions and with a high degree of safety.A series of research projects is exam-ining the potential hazard to existingfacilities from earthquakes. One proj-ect has .produced a computer-basedprocedure for- examining the hazardpotential for structures over four sto-ries high.Methods are .0eing developed to pre-dict the nonlinear behavior, and de-formations that woukl occur in particular'

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structures 'vulnerable to earthquake*Parallel with those analytical efforts

: are experimental studies to provideverification of analytical predictions.

Chemical engineering research in theUnited States is of increasing importanceto the resolution of a number of nationalproblems in such areas as synthetic fuels,minerals, and renewable resources. In ad-dirion, a portion of chemical engineeringresearch has recently been focused onmeth* for reducing processing energy

r=Consumption and on better technologiesfor environmental controls associated withchemical processes.

The chemical industry is capital inten-sive, with large and expensive equipment.lonsiderable research effort is being de-

voted to finding ways to reduce expendi-tures for new'plants. For example, a uni-versity group is working on uhique andcost-effective methods for producing co-balt from low-grade ores. Others are takingnewAooks at methods for separating chemi-cals from feedstock, because distillationprocesses use about 3 percent oi the en-ergy consumed in the United States. .,.._

Chemical engineering research also isconcerned with such areas as catalysis and

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particulate and multiphase processing. Onemineral industry concern is the low effi-ciency of mineral crushing -and grindingoperations. Because such operations con-sume about 2 percent of all U.S. electricpower, research is being encouraged toreduce their energy use.

Other Federal programs in chemical engi-neering have been initiated to provide thecherfrical process industries with improvedmeasurement techniques, engineering data,and predictive methods to enable improvedprocess design, monitoring, and control,especially as those industries convert fromheavy-reliance on petroleum and naturalgas feedstocks to more readily availableand less expensive altematives. Emphasesare on fluid engineering, thermal processes,and thermophysical properties of materials.

In the fields of electrical, computer, andsyste* engineering, a great number ofadv-Stes have occurred. Research on high-frequency communication systems has beendevoted to extending the performance ofdetectors by evaluating fundamental rela-tionships between material and devices thatrequire submicron lithographic capability.Extensive use has been made of the Na-tional Research and Resource Facility for

,National Submicron FactIty

A researcher operates the Electron Beam Lithography equipment at the National Research and Resource Facility ,

for Subrnicron Structwies at Cornell University. Industry as well as university scientists else this equipMent.

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Submicron Structures. Significantly improveddetectors have potential scientific applica-tions in, for example, radio astronomy,"aswell as commercial_applications in, for ex:ample, large information capacity cornmuni-cation systems.

Standard protocols are being developedto enable computers, terminals, and spe-cial purpose dqmputer systems to be inter-connected arid- to work together. Thoseprotocols will greatly assist users in con-structing networks from commercially avail-able equipmerit and in using the programsbnd other resources available in such anetworking environment.

Related efforts, aimed at increasing in-dustrial productivity through new measure-itient capabilitigs, have involved 'using apl-ototypicesystem as the basis ior hierar-chical control of an automated manufac-turing reSearch facility. Incorporated in adistributed network of miapprocessors linkedin hierarchy to a larger computer, the sys-tem now controls a single robot with sen-sory capabilities. In large scale, the systemwill control combinafions and groupings ofrobots a'nd metal-cutting machines.

.Information and CommunicationSciences

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Information science and technology are ina period of revolufionary change and growth.Computei and-communications technolo-gy hagie converged to provide a new capa-bility for distributing and utilizing informa-tion in all formsprint, film, digital, 'analog,and video. Those powerful information tech-nologies constitute an indispensable partof the web of linowledge that finks oursociety, and enables it to carry out moreeffectively, our social, governmental, andbusiness transactions. Research in informa-tion science and technology covers thebroad range of scientific disciplines thatform the basic elements of the new infor-mation technologes, including mathemat-ical, computer, and econometric modeling;the anal 'S of and experimentation withhardwar and software systems; and suchrelated ields as cognitive science, linguis-

. tics, and economics. One of the most chal;4

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lenging goals is to increase the productivityof woriters by augmenting human perform-ance through the power of information-intensive inaChines, just at previous tech-nologies have supplemented and replacedhuman. muscle Power.

New applications for data comrnunica-tion services coupled with deregulation ofthe telecommunications industry have cre-.ated an urgent need for uniform mett__y2--of specifying and measuring the performanceof data communication services as expert-enced by the user. Over the past 5 years,standards groups from the Federal boy-emment and industry have been workingtogether to meet that need by developinguser-oriented, systern-independent perform-ance parameters and measurement meth-ods. Results are bOg promulgated in theform of Federal Telecommunication/Federal 'Information Processing Standards and, inindustry,' in the form of American NationalStandards. Two related data communica-tion performance standards 'have been de-veloped. They should promote innovationand fair competition in the data communi-cations industry by providing. users with-apractical method of measuring deliveredperformance, theretiy enabling users to bakemore intelligent choices among alternativeservices and .equipment In many cases,the standards will lead 'to more realisticcommunication requirements, with a con-sequent significant savings in cost.

The Scientific andTechnological Infrastructure

A highly competent and productive scien-tific and technological fcommunity provides-a great resource for furthering the Nation'sprogress toward a wide variety of nationalgoals, among thetn national security andeconomic_development. The effectivenessof that resource-in turn, depends 'on thestatus of its infraStructure. That includessuch elements as the qualiti,) of its personneland the effectiveness of research and de-velopment support mechanisms, includingmechanisms for transferring or commUni-cating information among the members of

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that diverse community and between thescience and technology community andthe industries and service providers, that

*use the'. information generated. A wideP.riety of mechanisms for maintaining and

further developing that infrastructure exist.They include a broad range of activitiesand initiatives carried out by all levels ofgovernment and by the private sector. Dis-cussions of .many of these activities andinitiatives appear elsewhere in this report,including several sections in chapter II,and in other sections of this chapter, forexample, those on health and education.Below are some highlights of recent activi-ties and new initiatives related-to the main-tenance and development of the scientificand technological, infrastructure.

The Adequacy of-Science andEngineering Personnel

For the science and technology enterpriseto function in the most efficient and pro-.cluctiVe ways, it must have a strong base ofhigh-quality participants. Not only-must therebe general competence, but there mustalso be adequate numbers of personneltrained in specific fields of need. Many ofthe programs for providing highly trainedpersonnel with relevant skills are discussedin other portions of this report, includingchapter II and the sections on nationalsecurity and education elsewhere in thischapter. Although the primary responsibili-ty for education in science and. engineer-ing lies with State and local governments,in some cases, such as those related tonational security needs, Federal interven-tiOn has been deemed' necessary. For ex-ample, the Department of Defense hasOft-kilted a program of fellowships that willsupport graduate students in those scienceand engineering fields of most direct inter-est to the military and national defense-related industries.

Innovative Support Mechanismsfor Research

The mechanisms through which 'researchgrants are administered- have long been

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. considered important to the success ofthose projects, and those mechanisms areconstantly being, reviewed and improved.Changes, in the grant and contract systemare now being evaruated by a variety ofFederal agencies.

1-,;w example, an experiment in researchgrant administration iS being;carried out at12 academic institutions. The experimentaims to improve Government-university re-lationships and the effectiveness of federallysupported research projects. It has beenargued by some that, in.the past, methodsof funding research projects have reliedtoo heavily on assumptions carried overfrom the Federal procurement system; thecurrent project support system has a ten-dency to fragment research into individualprojects and lacks stability and conlistencyover time. Thus, the National Science Foun-dation (NSF) is conducting an experimentthat delegates to universities additionalpostaward authority in allocating funds. Inthe experiment, Government's role during

.perfortrance of the researeh is feduced,but its mle in making scientific or technicaljudgrnents on the merits of individual pro-posals, as well as its utilization of the, peerreview process, is not diminished. As asecond example, the Department of De-fense has been experimenting -with a sim-plified contracfing agreement that couldresiuce the time it takes to award contractsfrom 90 to 45 days.

Technology Yransfer Programs.

Concern, his-developed over the Nation'sinternational technological position. In-creased foreign cornpetition in high-technolo-gi fields threatens US. markets at home andabroad. A variety okmechanisms for im-proving the U.S. position are discussed inchapter II. The mechanisms include facili-tafing the use of information derived frOrnscientific and technological research in thedevelopment and commercialization phases.

One mechanism that may foster suchtransfer is the US: patent file. More effec-five domestic use of the patent ,file as atechnological information resource cOuldhelp increase the pace of innovation in

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U.S. industry, improve the national techno-bOcal infrastructure, and stimulate the eton-omy.- The patent file maintained by thePatent and Trademark Office contains 23million U.S. and foreign patencdocumentsclassified into 110,000 tecimolohical catego -

ries. That immense tekurce of technolog-ical information forms the base for a Coor-dinated program, involving public libraries,private sector information vendors, andgovernment agencies, to promote wider,more effective utilization of the technologydisclosed in patents:

The patent technology transfer prograthinvolves a three-pronged approach. TheNation's growing network of Patent De.

, pository Libraries (now numbering. 37) is 7being strengthened. The Patent and Trade-mark Office (FTO) and the National Techni-cal Information Service (NTIS) are coop-erating to help private information servicesobtain patent information and to encour-age them to begin or expand theff existing

patent information services. SPecific efforts

at the PTO (through the Technology As-sessment and Forecast program) and atNTIS (through the Applied Technology"and Patent Information program) are being

geared to. increase public awareness andprovide directly a range of patent informa-tion products and services.

Industry-University Cooperation

Fostering the creative interaction of uni-versity and industrial researchers is anoth-

. er of the components of the Federal Gov-ernment's efforts to increase the flow ofscientific .knoWledge and ideas and techno-logical innovations betWeen academic 'andind,ustrial sectors, to increase the sensitivityof university researchers. to industrial Aedsand perspectives, and to encourage indus-trial support, for the acadenniG iesearchinfrastructure. Ultimately, the effort is in-tended to improve the productivity of U.S.industry through application of universityresearch results, as well as to strengthenthe base of support for academic science.

. The industry-university cooperative re-search center mechanism is being examinedin a numberof scientific and technoloOcalareas. Centers are jointly funded by Indus-

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Ohio State University

An automated welder at the UMversity/Indusay Cooperative Research Center at Ohio State Unluersity.

trial firms and the Federal Government, withthe Government's share declining over a5-year period until the centers are fullysupported by industry. Currently, four cen .ters are in operation: in welding research,applied polymer science, computer graph-ics, and basic polymer sience. Those cen-ters appear to be highly successful in meetingtheir objectives. Each center includes anevaluative component, and progress in meet-ing -prouram goals will be carefully moni-tored and assessed. Several prospectivecenters have received planning grants, andstudies of the research needs of industryand the possible utility of centers in vari.ous areas of 15asic and applied science andindustrial technology are under way.

Federal Laboratory Program

The Federal Government, through variousagencies, operates some 750 research anddevelopment laboratories and centers through.out the United States. Theyemploy more

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than 200,000 scientists'and engineers. Thogelaboratorievand centers form a vast piklicresource for science andlechnology, which, ifproperly utilized, could have a significantimpact upon productivity and the econom-ic health of both the public and the privatesectors of the Nation. The Federal Labora-tory Program was established to design,de'velop, and implement, on a syStematic

mechanithns to transfer the results offederally sponsored research and develop-ment to meet the needs of the privatesector, State and local governments, andcolleges and universities.

For example, technical personnel fromthe Navy's Underwater Ssstems Center were

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assigned, under proons 41he Intergov-ernmental Personnel Act, to the federallysupported New England Innovation Group.Those scientists and engineers, working astechnical advisers to New England citiesand towns, provided assistance in suchdiverse areas as designing community en-ergy plans, developing'online informationretrievaisystems, and helping the Slate ofRhode Island develop a statewide cabletelevision system. In another area, the Feder-al Laboratory Consortium assisted the De-partment of Commerce's Office of Minori-ty Business Development in identifsAng andtransferring a medical device to a smallfinn.

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There are extensive scientific and techno-logical programs, in ',1he various Federalagencies with responsibilities fdr rganagingand monitoring the Nation's natural 're-sources. Those prograins.provide new tech-

nologies to support the* wicle range ofduties of the Nation's natural resource man-agers, Federal natural resource responsibil-ities are considerable. For example, muchof the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) isunder Federal control, and almost 30 percentof the entirt U.S. land area is federallyadministered public land. .

The inception o( the new Administration'sprograms early in 198r brought a philo-,sophical change to the natural resourcesarea. Rather than trying to solve nationalproblems thypugh ektensive Federal pro-grams, the decision was made to -relywherever possible, on the private sector fornatural resources development. As onemeans .for achieving both, that goal andthe related goal of increasing private sec-tor innovation and piroductivity, a cabinet-level review was initiated to deferrnine whichFederal regulations were unnecessary and.impeded private sector development ofour riatural resources. Extensive regulatoryreforms are expected in the coming years.

A second guiding premise of the Adminis-. -tration

,s policies is that many functionspreviously held by Federal agencies reallybelong to State 'and local governments. Inthe natural resources area, the objgctive be-comes reduced Federal involvement, which

.has led, far example, to revisions of sur-face mining reclamation policies. Thosenew policies reemphasize State respOnsi-bilities, in keeping,with the original intentof Congress. For example, the' States willbe expected to. support research effortsdealing with their own water resoume prob-lems and development projects. ,

Ocean Resources

As part of its comprehensive review ofpolicy matters, the Administraticin announcedin March 1981 that it tiras conducting a re-view of the draft Law of the Sea treaty,presentIst under international negotiation.

The Administration believes that the treatyprovisions concerning international controlover the mining of mineral-rich nodules onthe ocean -floor are neit in our natidnalinterest because, in part, of the iimitatiohsthat would be imposed on deep seabedmining by private consortia. Discussions toexvlore a satisfactory compromise on thisissue are getting under way. The UnitedStates has played. a dominant role in de-veloping the technology to eckit the ccean'smineral resources. To allow U.S. industryto proceed in an orderly manner to devel-op ocean mining while the Law cdthe Seatreaty issue is being resolved, Congresspassed the Deep Seabed Hard MineralsResources Act (P.L. 96-283) in. June 1980.That act charges the Department of -Corn-merces National Oceanic and Atmospher-ic Administration (NOAA) with responsibil-,ity for developing. interim regulatory pro-cedures for U.S. ocean mining activities.final regulations v.ere issued in mid-September

1981.One of the major highlights of 1981 1.

ocean research activities was the discovery

of several new ocean mineral deposits inthe Pacific Ocean. Govemment scientistsreported finding a _large deposit of copperand other strategic metals on the PacificOcean floor west of Ecuador; similar lodeswere reported off Oregon and probablyexist off Washington. Researchers from theU.S. Geological Survey found significant

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US Dep.trtmentof theInterfor.Geologic/Stnvey

The U.S. Geological Survey research vessel, SP. Lee,took this sulfide sample from the Juan de Fuca Ridgeduring a recent cruise.

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amounts of copper, lead, zinc, and silver in'oreAsarnples taken in 7,000 feet of waterfrom the Juande Fuca Ridge in the PacificOcean, 250 ma-s west of Astoria, Oregon.

According to NOAA's National OceanSurvey, the discOvery west or Ecuador isprobably one of the richest mineral depos-)ts found anywhere in the Arid. Conser-vative assays of samples returned by theresearch submarine Alvin show the depositis 10. percent copper and 10 percint iron,with lesser amounts of silver, zinc, cadmi-um. moOdenum, lead, tin, vanadium, andcobalt French scientists also believe thatgold might be in some of the mineralsamples. The deposit is Marked by a forestof chimneylike cones and is judged to beat least 130"feet thick, 650 feet wide, and3.2(X) feet long. It is in 8,250 feet of waterand lies along a normal fault of the riftvalfey of the Galapagos Ridge, 240 mileseast of the Galapagos Islands and 35(:),miles west of EcuAdor.

A number of new and varied research-' efforts in marine resources development

and marine observation and predicfion areunder Way. Research on living marine re-sources is performed by the National Ma-rine Fisheries Service (NMFS) in four bre&areas: the conservation and managementof Marine fisheries, protection of marinefisheries habitats, protection of marine mam-.mils and endangered species, -and the eco-

"nomic development of the U.S. fishing indus-try. The research is performed at fourresearch ceoters and 22 laboratories.

Forest flisources

Management of the National Forest Sys-/. tem is carried out by the Forest Service.i Research iS conducted at eight RegionalForest Experiment Stations and a ForestProducts Laboratory at Madigon, Wiscon-sin. Research programs are also underway at 81 locations in the United Statesand the territories. Nearly 950 scientistsare involved in roughly 4, studies. Thosestudies serve a broad con ituency,beyondthe Forest Service, includi other Federalland Management adencies and State and

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private resource managers and users. Amongthe highlights of research efforts in 1981was the Continued development of a methodto form paper out of such short-fiberedtrees as oaks and other hardwoods. Sub-stitufing hardwoods for sipftWoods in paperproduction ttn increase the supply of soft-woods available for such othe.r, purposes ashousing constiuction. Pilot plints to test thenew technique are now being estalished.

Another major development in 'forestmanagement is the improvement of pro-ductivity of loblolly pine forests throughbiological research. Genetic research com-bined with other management controls isproviding important increases in loblollypine yields. Since the turn of the Century,loblolly forest yields have risen from 75cubic feet per acre to as much as 200cubic feet per acre on experimental plots.Over 80 million acres Of U.S. forests, mainlYin the South and on private lands, areloblolly pine, and their yields are increas-ing annually as the new tech'nology isintroduced.

In forest products research, a new, pow-ered backup roller has been developed tolessen the losses when logs Are being peeledto make plywood veneer. The power rollerprevents logs from spinning out of thechuck as they are being stripped and willcontribute to reducing production losses,currently estimated at 5.7 percent in theplywood industry. Boise Cascade is install-

-ing the newly developed system on a pro-duction basis.

Strategic Materials Policy-

An area of great concern and a primaryobjective, for the Administration is the de-velopment of a strategic minerals policythat will lessen U.S. imports of such min-erals as chromium, manganese, cobalt, andthe platinum-group metals. At the Federallevel, A Cabinet council working grOup hasbeen examining strategic minerals policyissues in depth:including mineral and ma-terials research and developmeot policies.The first report is expected to be forward-ed .to Congress in early 1982. The issue

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review is expected to stress the major rolethai techniCal innovation has historicallyplayed in the minerals' area. It also willlikely emphasize the need for a favorableatmoSphere to encourage private sectorinvolvement, greater cooperation betweenindustry and Government to foster techno-logical innovation, and the rred for Gov-ernment to support long-term, high-risktechnology that will have application to awide-variety of material problems.

Remote Sensing ofNaturl,Resources

The use of satellites to provide remotelytensed data has had a Wide variety of usesin determininq the extent of the Nation'snatural resources. The experimental Landsatseries of satellites, initiated in 1972, con-

, tinues to be the principal civilian meansof

satellite sensing of land natural resources.Early in 1979, a policy was establishedcommitting the United States to the conti-,nuity of land remote-sensing data for thebalance of the 1980s and to an operationalland remote-sensing system similar to those

that presently exist for communications andweather-monitoring satellites. Details of theplans for sucb an olperational civil remote-tensing- plan were released in November1979. The plans give NOAA the Man-agement responsibility for the operationaluse of remote sensing, stating that a majorU.S. goal is the eventual operation of civil ,remote-sensing actMties by the private sec-tor. Plans call -for the civil remote.sensingsystem to be turned over torS the privatesector by the mid-1980s, if not sooner.During 1981, draft legislation to assist thechangeover was prepared by NOAA andreviewed by other Federal agencies. Con-gressional hearings were held in late July1981. At those hearings, a private corpora-tion proposed a plan to restructure andunify the land and meteorological systemsundti its management; the proposal isunder consideration.

Landsat satellite data have by now beenused extensively in a wide variety of natu-ral resource applications. Some of the high-lights in 1981 were:

(1) A U.S.. Geological Siirvey' (USGS)project combined Landsat data with digital

terrain data for a study site in a nationalforest in western Montana. The combineddata served as input to a Forest Servicemathematical fire simulation model thatcould assist in predicting site-specific spreadof forest fires.

(2) A joint USGS/Corps of Engineersproject used Landsat 'data to evaluate thegrowth in irrigation agriculture practicesover the period 1973-79 in the UmatillaRiver Basin in north-central Oregon. Thatstudy allowed the Corps of Engineers toassess the annual expansion of irrigatedlanci and estimate future water and powerweds in the regioninformation essentialto proper planning.

(3) A joint USGS/Bureau of Lapd Man-agement ripject used Landsat da.t."a to pro-

duce a .set of map overlays for' a site inArizona. The map, overlays viould permitland managers to identify specific locationssuitable for firewood collection, wildlife re-establishment; and range improvements.

(4) In late 1980, NOAA conducted amajor cooperative scientific experiinent onthe use of remote sensing to, measureocean waves off the North Carolina coast.'Collaborators included representitives from

Federal and State governments, universi-ties, the private sector, and four foreigncountries. Improved methods for, protect-

ing coastlines from- erosion, designing off-shore Structures, and forecasting wave andsurf,conditions are expected from the anal-yses.mat during 1981.

Weather

NOAA's scientific efforts are conductedprimarily by its Office of Research andDevelopment, which has major programsin the weather, marine, and solar-terrestrialareas. Current research on weather obsetionand prediction includes the developmentof computer models of various atmospher-ic phenomena, as well as the developmentof such specialized observing and measur-ing systems as laser radars, research air-craft, satellites, and automation of surfaceobservations. As better predictive tools are

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developed for severe weather and climateconditions, the techniques are transferredto the National Weather Service for appli-cation. Other reearch in 1981 includes aweather modification study known as the

nRcitida Area Cumulus experiment: in whichtests.are being m stchle to determine if mas-sive randomized rig of cumulus cloudscan produce a net increase in rainfall overa largrarea.

Natural Hazards

One of the Federal Government's primaryresponsibifities is to provide timely warn-ings to the pubjic about natural hazards,ranging from such fr.equent events as hur-ricanes arid tomadoes to such rare, cata-strpphic events as the May 1980 'eruptionof Mount St. Helens. NOAA's environmentalsatellite sy4tems are tools used by the Na-tional Weather Service to provide timelyalerts of severe weather and oceanic con-ditions. The Department of the Interior'sUSGS has the responsibility of wamingthe public of natural hazards caused bysuch geologic actions as earthquakes, land-slides, volcanic eruptions, and subsidence.

Through a natural hazards program es-tablished formally in 1977, USGS has ac-quired the Federal .responsibility to alertthe public to imminent geologic hazards,as %es done in the case of Mount St Helens.In late March 1980, University of Washing-ton seismologists working with U.SGSscientists detected swarms of small andmoderate earthquakes near and belcw MountSt. Helens. The USGS's National Head-quarters in Virginia contacted and dailybriefed interested and responsible Wash-ington State and Federal agencies. Fieldheadquarters were established in Vancou-ver, Washington, about 45 miles from MountSt. Helens, and, witfi the support of theU.S. Forest Service, USGS geologists moni-tored the volcano's activity and briefedlocal emergency response officials and thenews media. After the major volcanic erup-tion was declared a national disaster, USGSsent additional support to Vancouver towork with the Federal Emergency Man-agement Agency's (FEMA) emergency re-

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sponse team. Many lessons were leamedfrom the.response to the Mount St Hel-ens eruptions. Some were scientifis and

. will be invaluable in assessing future erup-tions of Mount St. Helens and other sim-

- ilar volcanoes. The occurrence ha alsohighlighted the value of a well-preparedresponse teaM. Therefore, during 1981,USGS drafted formal emergency responseplans that detail the procedures key scien-tists and administrators are to follow dur-ing or in anticipation of geolocjically relatedemergencies. Those plans will be reviewedby FEMA officials to enaire compatibilitywith their plans and responsibilities.

An example of the type of comprehen-sive study that integrates natural hazardscientific studies with overall resources andenvironmental planning is USGS's San Fran-

:cisco Bay Resourtes study, which was 5iventhe American Planning Association's 1981Outstanding Planning &yard. Designed tocollect and interpret scientific informationfor the use of_planners and decisionmakers,the study began in 1970 as a demonstra-tion project in which Federal and localgovernment . agencies joined forces withother regional planning agencies in theinterest of sound local and regional planning.Federal support came jointly from USGSand the Department of Housing and UrbanDevelopment (HUD). The 'program stud-ied the 7,400 square mile San FranciscoBay region and, through the collaborationof interdisciplinary teams, produced 150reports and maps that translate and com-municate scientific information to nonsci-entists. One of the major goals of thestudy was to reduce the hazards associat-ed with floods and earthquakes throughimproved planning.

.Earth scientists unanimodsly agree thatMajor earthquakes similar to the devasta-ting 1906 Northern California earthquake(825 magnitude) MI recur:Extensive earth-quake studies by Federal, State, and uni-versity investigators have been under wayfor many yeths. In 1981, FEMA issued areport, prepared with major assistance fromUSGS, that stated that the probability of amajor catastrophic earthquake in Califor-nia in the next three decades exceeds onechance in two, Dollar losses would likely

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.U S. Departnlent of the Inteor.Geological Survey

The plume from the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mt. St. Helens reiched more than 60,000 feet into the atmosphere.

Its initial btnit released the energy equivalent of about 10 to 50 megatons ofTNTIN, .

total tens of billions of dollars, and fatali-ties are estimated in the thousands. Inrecent years, earthquake specialists havedeveloped a "seismic gap" theory as apredictive tool, and the location and mag-nitude of more than a half-dozen majorearthquakes have been predicted success-fully. In California, USGS has 400 teleme-*ered seis- mographic stations and 25 geo-detic networks containing hundreds of surveylines to provide information for their mod-els. Continued refinement and analysis ofthe data will lead to improved prediCtivecapability.

Movement between the North American-and Pacific tectonic plates ranges from Ph

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to 2 inches per year. That movement oc-curs in tile San Andreas and related faultsystems. Precise measurement of the move-inent and such related phenomena asearthquakes is the objective of a majorFederal cooperative program in crustal dy-namics and earthquake research Initiatedin late 1980 among the National Aeronau-tics and Space.Administration (NASA), NOAA,USGS, and the National Science Founda-tion (NSF). The Federal implementationplan is being developed, and regional de-formation measurements began in 1981.Three new networks for monitoring crustaland polar motion will be established in1983 and 1984.

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Environment

.The attainment, protection, and'enhance-ment of an environment that is healthful,safe, and staining to Earth's natural eco-systems are the major objedtives of Feder-al environmental programs. Environmentalresearch and development activities pro-vide the scientific and technological infor-mation necessary for. chooiing among al:ternative policies that will help the Nationmeet its major environmental goals in acost-effective manner. This section describesmajor recent accomplishments and newinitiatives in federally supported environ-mental researth and deVelopment Particularlynoteworthy have been accomplishments insensing and measurement technologies andmethodologies for performing risk/benefitnalyses in support of regulatory reformefforts. Other areas where recent advanceshave been made include nuclear and otherhazardous wastes, ground-water supplies,the atmosphere, acid<ecipitation, and todcsubstances.

Regulatory Reform

Executive Order 12291 of ,Febivary 1981requires explicit documentation that bene-fits of proposed regulations exceed costs.To improve the estimation of economicbenefits and satisfy other legal requirementsfor risk information, the Environmental Pro-tection Agency.(EPA) has undertaken acomprehensive program, of research andassessment to determine the risks associa-ted with a range of environmental pollutants.During the past few years, advances havebeen made in understanding .and testingthe4eurological effects of.exposure to toxicchemicals. A recently developed portableneuro-behavioral laboratory for, assessingneuro-behavioral effects hi field test situa-tions will soon undersd validation. A sys-tern for modeling the behavioral effects ofchemicals n the young has also been

cinidevelope ose tools will help measurethe 'seriousness of health risks presentedby the production of'variOus chemicals.

Also suppbrtind risk assessment areachievements in Marine toxicity evaluation.Tests of todcity using two marine organisms

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(oysters and polychaete) have been success-fully valkiated. The tests provide reiarcherswith a more rapid, less expensive-tool fOrassessing the environmental risks posed IN,pollutants to marine ecosystems.

Newly developed techniques can esti-Mate more accurately the economic bene-fits arising from pollution control actitins,and EP15+ has been using them in develop-ing guidelines to impletzKot Executive Order12291. Among the more successful ,tech-niques are a microepidemiological approachfor determining the dollar value of reduc-ing health damages from air pollutton and-a ,contingent valuation approach for de-termining visibility and intrinsic beneets fromair pollution control.The Agency hopes todevelop new methodologies and providetedhnical assistance in implementation ofExecutive Order 12291, with emphasis ontopics not stressed in past research.7-inc1udinghazardou waste and toxic substance coh-trol, effluent guidelines, municipal wastetreatment, ocean dumping control, and.hazardous air control

Measurement Technology

Advances in environmenthl sensing andmeasurement techniques span all mediaand have improved the accuracy, reliabili,ty, and validity of data used in environ-mental decisionmaking. A. major accom-

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US Department of the Interkg.Geological Survey

A newk refined method of radioactiue "fingerprinting" oforganic pollutants shows promise in tracking differentsources of industricg munidpal, and agricultural carbonwastes.

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plishment in environmental measurementtechniques .is the development of analyti-cal test procedures for Measuring toxicorganic pollutants in industrial and munic-ipal wastewaters. Refinements in gas,chroma-tography and mass spectrometry Will be.used in cOntrolling the discharge of organictoxic pollutants into wastewater.

A further accomplishmenys the devel-opment of r?iore sensitive and accuratetests of soils and other media for determining

r" the type and quantities of toxic pollutantsemanating from .hazardous waste disposalsites. The improved testing techniclues re-sulted from the establishment of monitor-ing criteria, the development and testing ofneW collection substrates, and the refine-rtient of _analytical procedures. Uhrnately,ttosetechniques will enable scientists toestimate better the risks posed by disposalsites

A third accomplishment lies in the areaOP:personal monitoring of human expo-sure to air pollutants. A. miniature gaschromatograp`h that will enable .the pro-duction of small portable monitors capableof measuring airborne organic cornpoundshas been developed. Advances in the tech-nology of personal monitoring are criticalfor allowing scientists to make more accu-rate estimates of actual human exposuresto air pollutants.

Contaminants in drinking water must bemeasured accurately to allow for confidentcertifications of the presence or absence ofenvironmental problems assodated vAth watersupplies. Analysis techniques must there-fore be standahlized among all laboratories,both public and private, thafare author-ized to meaSure "compliance, with estab-,lished maximum contaminant levelS. Dur-ing 1981; the latest,-best techniques We&incorporated into a, manual for use by alllaboratories testing drinking water supplies.

Nuclear Wastes Disposal

Researchers are evaluating improved waysto dispose of different types of nuclearwasteshigh-level Wastes, low-leve/ wastes,and uranium mill tailings. High-level wasteS

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(HLW) are mainly the concentrated fissionproducts arising from the reprocessing ofspent reactor fuel, and they require ther-mal cooling and shielding. HLW researchfocuses on the stability and integri& ofwaste forms, the performance of packagingmaterials, and the capability of erigineeringdesigns to ensure the long-term contain-ment of wastes in geologic fonnations."i'Results Will help determine the form ofwaste matrices and packages for disposaland the types of sites and repositories thatmight be acceptable for licensing as dis-posal areas. In 1981 and beyond,Tesearchwill locus on the migration and hazards,ofHLW from deep repositories located infour types of geologic media: basalt, tuff,

. bedded salt, and domed salt.e Low-level wasfes (1...LW) include a widevariety Of radioactive 'materials generatedin the operation of nuclear reactors andfrom medical: industrial, knd academic uses.Such materials do not normally require

. cooling but generally do require specialhandling. Federal LLW research is aimedtoward helping State governments and in-dustry find acceptable solutions for disposal.Researchers are placing strong emphasison identifying acceptable waste forms, de-termining site suitability, and preventingthe migration of radOnuclides from shal-low land burial facilities.

Uranium mill tailings are the volumInousresidues left after uranium has been ex-tracted from the ore. They haVe very lowlevels of radioactivity but contain uncov-ered uranium and sych other radioactivecomponents as radium and thorium. Themill tailings also release radon-222, andradioactive particulates. It was not untilrecent years that the health hazards repre-sented bY- uranium mirtailings '(restiltingfrom operations stretching back to the 195(s)were recognized as potentially serious. Ura-

nium mining and milling,have expandedsignificantly since 1977, further exacerbat-ing the situation. In response to the prob-lem, researchers have characterized the milltailings and their byproducts, the pathwaysof toxic and radioactive materials from thetailings, and their environmental impacts.Decommissioning techniques also are beingevaluated.

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Other Hazardous, Wastes Disposal

Of the approximately 4 billion tons of in-dustrial, municipal, and agricultural wastesproduced annually in the United States,about 30 to 40 million tons are consideredhazardous. Not only must the Nation man-age such waste products in an environ-mentally sound fashion, but it must alsoclean up existing disposal sites that maypresent threats to public health.

To tselpL9akrate acceptable disposal plans,researchers at EPA, the U.S. GeologicalSurvey (USGS), and the National Oceanicand Atmosphenc Administration (NOAA)have deVeloped mechanisms forirsessingthe health and environmental damagescaused by hazardous-wastes.

Diinn'g fiscal year 1981new federallyfunded programs focused on the problemsof existing disposal sites. Work was initiat-ed on finding better ways of idekifyingand monitoring hazardous waste sites; de-veloping analytical procedures to estimatethe composition, size, and potential risk ofsites; and deterniining appropriate on-siteremedial actions for areas where disposalof hazardous, wastes has not been ade-quately controlled. EPA has begun to lo-cate existing waste sites and take steps toclean them up, reducing the risk to publichealth.

Atmospheric Pollution

To evaluate properly the consequences ofair pollution control strategies on ambientair quality, extensive laborasory and fieldstudieS have been conducted to develop,evaluate, and verify air quality models. Airquality models are sets of mathematicalequations that describe the processes ofpollutant emission, reactions with and. trans-port through the atmosphere, and ultimatedisposition (or fate) of pollutants. Modelsare used to determine the effect of apreposed or existing emission source onthe ambient air quality of -a given area.The ultimate goal of this kind of researchis to provide air pollution offiCials withaccurate tools for handling a variety orair

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pollution problems, including single andmultiple source pollution, urban and re-gional pollution, and air pollution prob-lems associated with sources located inareas of complex terrain.

Modeling research activities are designedwith the expectation that, in.the future,State and local air pollution agencies willassume a greater role in developing airpollution abatement strategies. It will there-fore be increaSingly important that researchprograms provide reasonably accurate mod-els that are readily accessible for the usercommunity. Due to the extensive variety ofsource emissions-and terraill and meteoro-logical configurations, a number of model-ing approaches hve been investigated. Todetermine the impact of single or multiplestationary sources on:their environs, a numberOf statisticallAased models 'have beendeveloped and applied to problems relat-ed to sulfur dioxide and particulate matterpollution. Urban and regional scale mod-els will be developed within the next 3years to assess the air quality impact ofphotochemical oxidants and particulate mat-ter, especially fine-fraction (less than .5

microns) and inhalable (less than 10 mi-crons) particulates. Complex-tenain air-quali-ty models will continue to be deVeloped, add

evaluated to assess the air quality associ-ated with new and conventional pollutionproblems related to energy production. Overthe last few years, several new pollutionproblems have emerged that ore begin-ning to receive increasing attention in themodeling program; among them are acidprecipitation, visibility impairment, and in-terstate pollutant transport.

The mcst §gnificant recent accomplishmentsin air-modeling research have been asso-ciated with the verification program onurban-scale photochemical models for ceoneFour models Were chosen to representdifferent model classes, and, although thedetails of the chemistry models are slightlydifferent in the four, the chemistry is gen-erally compatible from model to modeland uses tlie latest methodology. The fourmodels were tested against a comprehen-sive, high-quality data base acquired throughan extensive field measurement programconducted in the St. Louis area. The re-

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NationalCenterforAbnosphericRezsearchMationalSdenceFoundalion

A National Center for Atmospheric Research chemist changes filters during an alrbomesampling mission. The filterscollect ammonia, sulfur dioxide, nitric acid, hydrochloric acfd, and particulates for chemical analysis in acid rainexperiments.

sults of the verification program swill help'define the models and evaluate theirperformance. When the models are fullyevaluated and verified, State and local gov-ernment officials responsikle for air pollutiondecisions will be able to develop appropri-ate, cost-effective, pollutant emission-abate-ment strategies for urban areas in the UnitedSiates where the ozone standartl is exceeded.

Current atmospheriF pollution researchis also exploring the effects of ozone andsulfur dioxide pollutants on the productionof nationally important agricultural cropsto assess the resultant economic impacts.A series of nationally coordinated fieldstudies has been designed to provide dose-response data that can correlate changesid air quality with crop production. ,

In those studies, crops 4rown under fieldconditions have been exposed to artzbjentair, various air pollution concentrations ofozone and sulfur dioxide, and air freed ofpollution by charcoal filtration. Results fromthe first year of the program indicate thatcommonly occurring ambient ozone con .

centrations inhibit the yield of soybean,lettuce, peanut, and garden bean crops.Ambient ozone appears to cause a .de-crease in the yield of tomatoes, and aneven greater decrease occurs.when con-centrations of sulfur dioxide are 'added.Ambient concentrations of ozone and sul-fur dioxide found in many agricultural areasof the United States make these results_highly relevant to maintaining and improv-ing nationally important crop production.

Because of the undespread distributionof air pollution and the billions of dollarsinvolyed in the agricultural industry and inpollution control strategies, making appropri-ate decisions requires economic assessmentsof pollutant impacts. To quantify the eco-nomic impacts of crop loss, a valid database for projecting the responses of cropsto pollution levels and assessments of ruralair quality are being developed at variousregional sites. Those efforts will provideinformation for air-quality criteria documentsand for State and local economic assess-ments of air pollution control.

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Ground-Water Supplies

The Nation's ground waterunderground,water sourcesis one of its most valuablenatural resources, exceedingits surface coun-terpart both in quantity and, genarally, in.quality. Ground water supplies the domes-tic water needs of 20 of our largest 100cities and 96 percent of rural America._Prevention of ground-water contamiciation

'is vital but complex because of the numberand wide variety of sources of pollution,geological -differences from place to place,difficulties in assessing the quality of waterbdow the earth's surface, and limited knowl-edge of ground-water transport processes.

Research at EPA and USGS has at-tempted to increase knowledge of the Na-tion's ground-water resources. During fis-cal year 1981, transport models were linkedwith transformation process models to forma subsurface transport and transformationprediction- model, and the results werepublished in two scientific journals. Themodel was verified in an application usingorganic contaminants, and it will be usedin assessing the risks of contamination ofgroundwater supplies by waste disrvalsites.

Ground-water research activities duringfiscal year 1982 will include selecting andevaluating indicators of underground watercontamination, studYing the transport andtransformation of chemical contaminantsin the subsoil environment, investigatingthe economic and technical feasibility ofcleaning up polluted underground watersources in situ, and providing needed in-formation for EPA, State, and local controlactivities. Issues related to the disposal ofhazardous wastes will receive particular at-tention. Plans Call for development of pro-tocols for physical model construction anddesign of a two-dimensional mathematicalmodel for/ predicting the mobility of con-taminants and their fate.

In fiscal year 1982 and beyond, theknowledge gained about processes in andcharacteristics of the subsurface will beused in developing and improving meth-ods for predicting the movement and trans-formation of contaminants in ground water.

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Transferring such knowledge and methodsto the user community will' continue toreceive priority.'

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Toxic Substances

Reseamh and development efforts oil toxicsubstances have been planned triCoiRcertwitl? EPA's regulatory and operational state-gid, with a central emphasis on chemicaltesting and assessment. More specifically,research helps support thd Office of ToxicSubstances' multistage risk assessment proc-esses, which are designed to select sys-tematically chemicals for increasingly de-tailed levels of analysis. Using that approach,judgments can be made about the ade-quacy of available inforrnation and theneed for control action. Implicit in theprogram's design is the use of data fromother research efforts whenever possible,with a view toward building on it andalapfing it specifically to a regulatoryperspective.

In considering health and environmen-tal effects, the types of tests being pursuedand validated range frorn screening tests,for indicating the need for further investi-gation, to evaluation tests, for helping de-termine whether regulatory action is nec-essarifi A significant portion of the program isdevoted to improving current tests andmaking sure they are valid. As methodolo-gies are ,validated, effects data on individ-'ual chemical compounds or groups areobtained for use in risk 'evaluations.

In assessing human and environmentalexposures, research and development ac-tivities include analyse* environmentalrelease of pollutants, environmental trans-port and fate, and exposure through use,distribution, and disposal of toxic substances.Emphases are on developing, refining, andvalidating tools for dealing methodicallywith large numbers of compounds anddeveloping predictive capabilities through,for example, the use of chemical structure-activity relationships. Information obtainedwill ultimately help provide a basis for therisk and risk-reduction analyses that arepart of regulatory decisionmaking under-the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)and other statutes.

Add Precipitatio

The atmospheric n of pollutants, par-ticularly sulfur di nd nitrogen oxides,results in increase, acidity of precipitation.Potential environmental effects may includedamage to lakes and streams, forests andrangelands, crops, soils, materials, are- al-Vik-ing water. The objective of research is toassess the magnitude, extent, and envi-ronmental effects of acid precipitation. Re-search activities .will focus on identifyingsources of acidifying precursors; modelingtheir atmospheric release, transport, trans-formation, and deposition; evaluating thehealth, environmental, and economic ef-fects of acid precipitation; and, based onthat information, assessing possible controltechnologies or mitigative strategies, if

required.The Add Precipitation Act of 1980 (Title

VII of the Energy Security Act) establishedthe Interagency Task Force on Acid Pre-cipitation, cochaired by NOAA, EPA, Aidthe Department of Agriculture (USDA). InJanuary 1981, that task force submitted adraft National Acid Precipitation Assess.ment Plan to Congress. The final plan willserve as a general strategy for acid precipi-tation research over the next decade.

The United States and Canada haveestabbshed bilateral work groups under theMemorandum of Intent on TransboundaryAir Pollution. In fiscal year 1981, the Im-pact Assessment Work Group produced adraft report on transboundary air pollutioneffects. SPecial emphasis was placed onassessing the effects of acid deposition onaquatic ecosystems in both countries. At-tention was given to evaluating the roles ofhydrogen and of nitrate and sulfate ions incausing undesirable changes to ecosystems.Also c,onsidered were ways to quantify athreshold for the sulfate deposition rate,above which adverse effects can be ex-pected for sensitive ecosystems. In addi-tion, the work group analyzed the potentialfor adverse impacts from transboundaryair pollution on terrestrial ecosystems; onmanmade materials, monuments, and struc-tures; on human health; and on visibility.

The Atmospheric Sciences and AnalysisWork Group produced a draft report onthe applicability of mathernatical Models totransboundary air pollution and the rela-tionships between pollutant sources anddeposition sites for sulfur compounds. Thereport evaluated atmospheric transport proc-esses in eastern North America. The Emis-

sions, Costs, and Engineering AssessmentWork Group produced a draft report thatassessed the quantity of emissions releasedin eastem North America and analyzedthe availability and cost of emission controltechnologies for various types of pollutantsources.

The United States has also participatedin the implementation of the United Na-tion's Economic Cornmission for Europe'sLong Range Transboundary Air PollufionConvention, signed in 1979 and acceptedby the United States in 1981. Signatorygovernments have participated in the pro-visional implementation of the convention.The U.S. contribution has been to makeavailable to the commission the results ofits domestic acid rain research program, aswell as U.S./Canadian. Work Group doc-uments developed under the 1980 U.S./Canadian Memorandum of Intent onTransboundary Air Pollution,

During 1981, a complex field study calledOSCAR (Oxidant and Scavenging Charac-teristics of April ains) coordinated a mas-sive network o sequenty rain samplers inthe Eastern United States and Canada toassess the scavenging (cleansing) behaviorof frontal storm systems. Over 3,000 rainsamples are being analyzed. The informa-tion derived from OSCAR will be used forseveral purposes: to assess the spatial aridtemporal variability of precipitation chem-istry in cyclork storm systems; to providea comprehensive, high-resolution data basefor use in developing a regional deposition'model; and to develop an increased un-derstanding of the wet removal process.Another major accomplishment during 1981was the Improvement and use of regionaltrajectory models in the Northeastern UnitedStates, Canada, and the Mount St. Helensarea.

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Trangiortation

Federal activities in transportation researchand development for 1981 and subsequentyears will increasingly reflect the Adminis-tration policy of expecting the conduct ofresearch and development to be appor-tioned among various public and privatesectors according to their appropriate rolesand responsibilities. In large measure, titransportation services, including airlines,most freight railroads, ship and barge lines,pipelines, truck's, intercity buses, and tk,i_are privately .owned and operated. Themajor exceptions are intracity bus and rapidtransit services, which are often municipal-ly owned and operated. Such transporta-tion fablities as airways, waterstreetsand highways, and some ports and termi-nals are a public sector responsibility, butin many cases that responsibility lies withState or municipal governments rather thanwith the Federal Government. In thosecases, the Federal Government only indi-rectly aids or facilitates, the activities ofthose sectors. Furthermore, the President's-Econifiart&.Recovery Program is expectedto stimulate technological advancement inPrivate industry by providing such indirectincentives as tax and patent policy chang-es to increase the level of R&D in areas ofprivate sector control and responsibility.Therefore, direct Federal activities In trans-portation science and technology will beincreasingly concentrated in those areas ofits own speciatiisponsibifities, which include:

national security ancr emergencypreparedness;special areas directly required by statute.,,

areas supporting direct governmentaloperating authority, for example, ma-rine navigation and air traffic control;

such recognized gwernmental misansas safety, where the gckemment main-tains a continuing regulatory role; 'and

, areas where the R&D is clearly in thenational interest but where somepeculiarity of the market or the indus-try prevents the investment from beingmade privately; for example, much ofthe work by the National Aeronauticsand Space Administration focuses onlong-leadtime, high-risk technology andon research requiring unique facilities

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where there is insufficient economicincentive for private industry irdestment.

The focusing of Federal transportationR&D activities will affect science and tech-nology efforts at a wide range of/agencies,including the Department of Transporta-don (DOT), the National Aeronautics ndSpace Administration (NASA)the Envi-ronmental Protection Agency (EPA), theDepartment of Energy (DOE), and theNational 8cience Foundation (NSF). Thefollowing discussion highlights both recentaccompbshments and new initiatives in transpor-tation R&D programs of these agencies:

TranspoAation SystetnImprovements 4 -

The Nation's transportation system is es-sentially develOped. Rapid expansion hasceased as the interstate highway systemnears completion, and emphasis has shift-ed to maintenance and replacement ofaging components. Future system improve-ments will be aimed primarily at increasingefficiency, capacity, or safety of the presentplant and equipment, and at evolutionaryrather than revolutionary change. The highcost of fuel will remain a strong incentivefor improving operating efficiency, and com-.petitien and general economic considera-tions will encourage improved produ;tiVityar, reduction of waste in all areas.

Automobiles

The Nation'S automobile fleet is undergo-ing a major shift to smaller, lighter weight,more fuel efficient cars-and light trucks.US. manufacturers are moving toward thefront-wheel-drive configuration for larer--cars as well as the subcompact size. Their..current experimentation deals with still small-er two- and three-passenger sizes and withnew, Eghtweight materials. Research Ey NAMinto graphite,epoxy materials, while initiallyaimed at aircraft applications, might havepossible long-term application for the de-velopment of new motor vehicle structuralcompone%

The National Highway Traffic Siety Ad-ministration (NI-LISA) has studied the per-

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4formance of various components of motorvehicles to detennine their actual and poten-tial efficiency and their contribution to motorvehicle fuel economy. The studies includeasseasments of vehicles now improductionas well as new concepts and prototypesystems.

Through the Transportation Ssstems Cen-ter. NHTSA maintains an *ensive database on the U.S. automobile industry andits suppliers, including infortnation aboutproduction facilities, product lines, finan-ces, and future plans for new products and.facilities. From that data base, the agencyis able. to assess the ability of thesindustryto produce safer, more fuel efficient vehi-cles and to improve its manufacturing ca-pacity and productivity.

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Highway System Improvements

Maintaining a4equate pavement markingson the Nation's two million miles of pavedstreets and highway is a continuing ex-

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The newly developed Epoxy Thermoplastic Pavement?narking is evosed to normal highway wear and weather-

ins for comparison with convention9I paints.

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pense. ConventiOnal marking paints oftenfail tq survive a single winter and cancause both air pollution and traffic hazardwhen they are replaced. The Federal High-,way Administration (FHWA) has developedan epoxy thermoplastic paVethent (ETP)

. marking material designed to replace con-.ventional marking paints, especially in en-vironments with heavy traffic load and/Orsevere weather conditions. ETP markingshave 3 to 6 times the service lifg. of con-ventional paints, contribute no 'organicpollutants, can be applied in subfreezingweather, and can take traffic immediatelyafter application. The ETP material's lowcost per gallon and long life offer substan-tial savings in highway maintenance costs.

Highway system capacity can be increasedby use of the Traffic Controller Synchio-nizer, an electfonic device designed anddeveloped by FHWA as a low-cost meansof coordinating traffic signals. Using a pre-cision electronic timing element _equippedto retain accuracy through power outages,the Synchronizer systems are far less ex-pensive to install and have an overall 2-to-1 life-cycle cost advantage ovef hardwiredsystems. On a ,typical 2mile, seven-intersec-tion test site, use of the Synchronizer unitsresulted in a 7-mph average increase inspeed, a 25 percent reduction in traveltime, and significant reductions in emis-sions and fuel consumption, The Synchro-nizer has potential for use at 65 percent ofthe Nation's signalized intersections and,by smoothing traffic flow, could save asmuch as 2.5 million gallons of gasolinedaily.

Aircraft

The NAM Composite Primary Ain:raft Struc-tures (CPAS) program is providing designand production- technology and technicaldata on the service fife of graphite-epoxymaterials in aircraft structures. During-thepast year, the program achieved a majorMilestone with .Successful completion oftests that generated durability and mainte-nance data for selected components. Aprincipal limiting factor in the design anduse of composite structures has been tracedto the mechanism of delamination, which

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has been identified as the initial mode offailure in graphite-epoxy composite mate-rials. Experiments and analytical modelingare now under way to identify the condi-tions for initiation and propagation of de-lamination. as well as its structuralconsequences.

Noteworthy advances were achieved inthe NASA Short Take Off and Landing(STOL) research program, Which empha-sizes propulsive-lift flight researchwith theQuiet Short-Haul Research Aircraft (QSRA).

, The QSRA's basic flight charaderistics were,documented, and flight data were foundto correlate well with wind tunnel andsimulator data. During fiscal year 1982,the QSRA flight research activities skill becontinued to provide data for developingcertification criteria and' design methodol-ogies for propulsive-lift, short-haul trans-Port aircraft

Water Transportation

Through its St. Lawrence Seaway Devel-opment Corporation (SLSDC), DOT is in-creasing the capacity of that waterway byextending the navigation season. This leastcapital-intensive means of adding capacityto the system is directed at improving iceconditions on the International Rapids sec-

-tion of the river and includes mathematicaland hydraulic modeling of the ice controltechniques for. various reaches of the river.SLSDC is experimenting with U.S. coastGuard (USCG)-devebped Harbor and .Har-bOr Entrance (HHE) navigation equipmentto improve safety and reliability of the StLawrence Seaway and, by maintaining traf-fic flow, to increase the effective capacity ofthe system.

There has also been increased interestiri navigating Alaskan Arctic wateri, primanly as a result of increased oil and gasexploration. The Coast Guard is investigat-ing the feasibility of a remote-sensing sys-tem to aid vessels in navigating -throughice-infested waters.

The advanced maritime technobgy pro-gram of the Maritime Administration ex-plores fundamental concepts in 'marine sd-ence and technoldgy and provides scientif-

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ic data on which future technology mightbe based. Programs include advanced shipsystems, market analysis, and marine scien-ces. The latter progiam addresses propulsors,structures and hydrodynamics, and inter-national information exchange. Ongoingresearch includes atsea evaluation of_ aprototype stress-monitoring system and in-ternalional cooperative tests of ship-maneuvering capability. The National Mar-itime Research Center at Kings Point, NewYork, indudes the Computer Aded OperationsResearch Facility (CAORF), vAiith providesan environment for controlled experimentsin ship handling. CAORF is now investigat-ing the use of simulator training in themariner licensing process for the CoastGuard. The increasing size of ships andamount of ship traffic pose new accidenthazards. Current information suggests thatdesign of navigation aids and channel di-mensions may be major -contributing fac-tors in harbor accidents. CAORF is con-centrating on vessel maneuvering and pilot-ing limits in narrow channels.

The Coast Guard is developing a simu-lator that will provide analytical data need-ed to assess`the influence, of both visualand radio aids on the movement of largevessels in, Jestricted waters. ExPeriencedpilots will maneuver computer-simulatedships in ttarbor environments, while respond-ing to computer-generated aid displays,other vessels, and radio navigation systemoutputs. The results should lead to betterdeployment of buoys and other aids. An

, Aids to Navigation design manual, relatedto this work, was published in October1981.

Mass Transportation

The Urban Mass Transportation Adminis-tration (UMTA) has supported many typesof near-term and long-term research aimedat improving the technology available tothe U.S. transit industry. Long-term transitresearch and product development are nowbeing deerriphasized by UMTA, however,since they can be done best by privateenterprise. Ong UMTA R&D -Produd near-ing the stage for transfer to industry is theComputerized Rider Infomiation System

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(CRIS). CRIS is an automated system forproviding route and schedule informationto transit system patrons, including up-to-the-minute bulletins on service delays. Thesystem uses automatic voice response andcan handle hundreds of calls an hour, 24hours a day. It is also applicable for videoresponse over cable television, a potentially

useful attribute as public service channels,become increasingly available. In its initialsmall-scala test, system off-peak ridershipintreased 7 to 11 percent per year whenimproved rider information was provided;two larger tests are planned.

To assist local transit sysiems, UMTAdevebped a Track Geometry MeasurementSystem at the Transportation Systems Ceri-ter. The device can be attached to anytransit car and will identify those portionsof the track in need of realignment andimprovement The system prototype is un-dergoing a 2-year evaluation by the NewYork City Transit Authority, while specifi-cations for an improved system are beingdeveloPed jointly by industry and the Fed-eral GovernMent

UMTA conducts a Service and MethodsPemonstration (SMD) program aimed atimproving the quality and efficiency of urbantrarlsportation by sponsoring the implemen-tation of new transportation managementtechniques and innovative transit servicesthroughout the United States. The pro-gram_focuses on strategies requiring rela-tively low capital investment and whichcan be implemented in a short time. Someof the strategies have already been em-ployed in other countries; others are.basedon recent conceptual or technological de-velopment by UMTA or by local U.S. tran-sit authorities. The program is designed toperform the final critical experimental testsand development steps, where required,'and to bring the innovative strategies intofull operational application.

Typical of the smp program is a seriesof projects seeking specialized services tomeet the needs of the elderly, the' handi-capped, land the poor. Projects have in-Cluded testing of specialized equipment tornake public transportation more accessibleto handicapped travelers, trials of special-ized demand-responsive door-to-door semi-.

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ces, anh coordination of social service agencyprogrms. UMTA also initiated a numberof planning studies intended to help locali-ties assess their special transportation needs,and evaluate, select, and introduce appro-priate services for elderly and handicappedpersons.

Trans/iodation Safety

In terms of fatality rate relative to thevolume of passenger movement, transpor-tation in the United States ranks amongthe world's safest,Nevertheless, there is nocause for complacency with a system inwhich 54,507 lives were lost in 1980. Trans-portation safety has long been a majorgovernment activity at local, State and Fed-eral levels. Safety-related activities consti-tute the major part of the Federal trans-portation science and technology effort.

Highway and Motor Vehicle Sidety

The National Highway Traffic'Safety Ad-ministration is responding to concerns aboutsafety associated with the shift to srrialler,lighter vehicles. Despite the strides alrea4made in improving the structural.integrityof vehicles, the laws of physics place asmall vehicle at a serious disadvantage in acollision with a large automobile or truckNHTSA concentration is thus in two areas:accident avoidance and crash survival. Majorresearch in both areas is supported by theNational Center of Statistics and Analysis.The Center collects data on the cause and -mechanism of accidents through the Na-tional Accident Sampling System (NASS)and the Fatal Accident Reporting System(FARS). FARS is a census of crashes thatresult in a fatality, and NASS is a statisticalsampling of all crashes in the country. ,

The National Center of Statistics andAnalysis conducts detailed analysis of FARS,NASS, and other files to detvaine thenature and extent of the current national

.traffic safety problem, to describe trendsand Project future dranjes in motor vehi-cle safety, to support work on improvedr-safety countermeasures, and to evaluate'

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standards and countermeasures that are ineffect. Driver and pedestrian safety pro-grams. especially research on safe driverlicensing and safe operation of two-wheeled,vehicles, are aimed at developing and test-ing effective accident countermeasures. Theagency is also designing and testing suchlaw enforcement equipment as speed de-tection devices and blood alcohol levelmeasuring devices.

In crash survival research, NHTSA isstudying the relatiohip between the typesof physical insult typical in motor vehiclecrashes and human injury. Specifically, theagency is studying human tolerance levelsto such injuries as rapid head rotation,neck flexion. and abdominal impacts thatare 'ielated to particular forces and accel-erations. The purpose is to determine-the

US, Devertrnentof Tranoportation

New crash test dummies will provide a more accuratesimulation of the motions of living occupants and theestimation of cxash forces and potential injuries.

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limits of human tolerance to motor vehiclecrash forces and to support the develop-ment of human surrogates.

'The agency is developing a new genera-tion of human surrogate dummies for usein vehicle crash testing. Particular empha-sis is being placed on a dummy for vehicleside impact testing and a new universaldummy for testing in all crash modes. Thedummies must not only simulate the ki-nematics of human motion, but must becapable of accurately measuring the potentialfor human injury in vehicle crashes.

NHTSA is also investigating the proper-ties of various energy-absorbing materialsand structures for use in vehicles for crashenergy management. They include plasticfoams for interior padding of vehicles, foam-filled metal structures for vehicle bodies,and other material combinations. The re-,search is concerned particularly with findingmaterials that will limit forces on occupantsto tolerable levels and that have a highlyefficient ratio of energy-absorption capabil-ity to weight; because of the need to re-duce vehicle weight for fuel economy.

The agency is also completing a pro-gram for computer-aided design of occupantrestraint systems. The components of theprogram include efforts to simulate gasgeneration in inflatable restraint systems,occupant kinematics in a crash situation,and the interaction between the occupantand the restraint system in a-crash. Suchtechniques reduce substantially the numberof vehicle crash tests and sled tests re-quired to design an effective restrains system for a new vehicle.

A self-restoring roadside barrier (SERB),developed by FHWA, offers a solution tothe serious problem of conventional high:way guardrails snagging the new, lightWeight,front-wheel-drive cars The -new bar-ilex-ill;corporates a convention& post;mountedsteel guardrail in a unique sloping, hingedconfigurption. SERB has been successfully'crash tested with standard, cOmpact, andsubcompact passenger vehicles, as well aswith school buses and intercity buses. Thesystem safely redirects impacting lightervehicles and contiiiiS heavier vehicles atspeeds up tb 60 mph and impact anglesup to 15 degrees. _Jr

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Aviation Safety

The Federal Aviation Administration (FM) isattempting to reduce the potential for midaircollisions with the development of the ThreatAlert and Collision Avoidance System(TACAS). The system uses signals trans-mitted =by either 'the Air Traffic Control

,Radar Beacon Sysfem transponder or theMode S transponder. The goal.is to pro-vide a compatible aircraft backup to theAir Traffic Control (ATC) system to ensureseparation when aircraft are operatingin ATC coverage area and to provide pri-mary protection against midair collision inareas not covered by the ATC system.TACAS will be designed to be operationallyindependent from ground equipment.

Marine Transportation Safety7

More than half of the 4,367 marine acci-dents in 1980 involved collision, ramming,or grounding of commercial vessels. TheCoast Guard program of marine safetyR&D explores the causes of such acci-dents, evaluates the resultant structural dam-age, and includes development of up-to-date Vessel Traffic Service (VI'S)- technol-ogy and procedures. The program includesstress measurement instrumentation of GreatLakes ore caniers, extensive computer simu-lation oi vessel maneuvering and vesseltraffic movement, and development of con-flict predictions and avoidance techniquesfor VTSs.

Included in the USCG R&D programare Forward Looking, Infrared (FUR) Sen-sors to aid aircraft and helicopters in de-tecting persons in distress under low visibil-ity. At present, searches at night or in poorvisibility are often ineffective if the personor object being hunted has no illuminatedsignaling device. The infrared equipmentis independent of such a light sourte. Searchand rescue missions will be enhanced bybetter search planning data and techniquesaimed at improving the probabirrty of detection.

The Coast Guard is developing an air-borne remotesensing system, AIREYE, forinstallation on six of its new.aircraft. AIREYEwill include a side-looking airborne radar,

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an infrared/ultraviolet line scanner, an aer-ial reconnaissance camera, a prototypeactivegated television, ad a computer-controlled command console. The systemwill improve surveillance for ocean oil.pol-lution

tand for search and rescue.

The Coast Guard has instituted amultimission R&D program that includessuch items as lighter-than-air patrol vehi-cles, advanced marine, vehicles, commandand control systems, energy-sdving tech-nology applications; shore-based VHF-FMdirection finding and technoloGy assessment/forecasts. Until the program's formation,there was no central advocate in DOT forpursuing R&D solutions with combinedapplicability for several Coast Guard andother agency missions. Such activities gener-ally have higher risk but a higher payoffthan the mission-specific, short-term R&Dprograms. Moreover, technology transfer

to and from other Government agenciesand the international scientific communityis extensive, in these programs. For exam-ple, the advanced Marine vehicle projectincludes a joint Coast Guard/Utak studyof-hrgh-speed ferry/patrol craft technology.The command and control R&D project isevaluating long-term requirements for in-formation processing as well as near-termfeedback from users. This will provide amore effective and comprehensive infor-mation .processing system that can utilizecurrent technology, satisfy the needs ofboth operational and administrative users,arid reduce manual processing.

Railroad Safety

Federally sponsored railroad technologyresearch,is being redirected to focus exclu-sively on appropriate Govemment func-tions while, allowing private enterprise toconduct research on railroad industry pro-ductivity with a minimum of Governmentinvolvement. The Federal Railroad Admin-istration (FRA) is thus concentrating itsscience and technology efforts on its prin-cipal mission, which is to ensure, safety inrailroad operations.

The program is directed t ard reduc-tion in the likelihood of cat phic rail-

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U S Department °transportation

This section of raihoad track was intentionally buckledunder compressve stew to study the impact of possiblein-service conditions such as temperature expansion

road accidents, improvements in track struc-tures and in track defect detection, andmethods, of reducing employee arid publicfatahties'Land injuries. FRA's research is notinvolved in economic, operating efficiency,. or product development activities, all ofwhich are the responsibility of the privatesector.

Pipeline Safety

The Research and Special Projects Adminis-tration (RSPA) of DOT is carrYing out amultifaceted pipeline R&D program sup .porting the Department's pipeline safetyresponsibilities. The program involves thedevelopment and application of methodsfor evaluating and testing new pipelinematerials and structural designs that arebeing studied for possible introduction bythe pipeline industry It will provide exper- !imental data for limited development andvalidation of new analytical failure theoriesthat will predict more reliably the safeoperational limits of pipeline systems andcomponents. . .

RSPA is studying the application of frac-ture mechanics technology to pipeline weldinspectipns as a possible altemative to theexisting standards for pipeline girth weldacceptance. The goal is to improve thesafety and productivity of natural gas andliquid -oil transportation by a variety of

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R&D activities, including analysis of fatiguetesting on X-70 pipe welds to assess thesignificance of blunt flaws, development ofmathematical models of fracture mechan-ics, and performance testing to verify the-models.

Hazardous Materials

Many materials moving through the Na-tion's transportation system are classified'as hazardous, and those materials havethe potential for serious consequences inthe event of a transportation accident. Thus,research and development activities arefocused primarily on preventing accidents;on detedting, containing, or neutralizingthe material in the event of accidents; onminimizing the consequences of accidentsto people and property; and on cleaningup spilled material. Because many haz-ardous materials are essential to societyand the economy, the Government is in-terested in ensuring that such materialscan move safely as needed. Many Federalagencies are involved in hazardous mate-rials safety. Within DOT, the Materials Trans-portation Bureau of RSPA has primaryregulatory authority over hazardous mate-rials, but the Coast Guani, FRA, FAA,FHWA, and NHTSA all contribute to thesafe movement of hazardous materials bywater, rail, air, and highway. The Depart-ment of Energy (DOE) has authbrity overradioactive materials, the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) has responsibilityin certain hazardous materials accidents,and NASA makes research contributionsto the development of safety technology.

Current science and techriology activi-ties in support of hazardous materials safe-ty include:

(1) RSPA's prCject on cargo tank/portabletank integrity is attempting to investigateand identify alternative methods for im-proving tank safety through msearch activ-ities on valve modifications, conStructionmaterials, loading requirer9ents; and insu-lation techniques.

(2) NASA, in a jointly sponsored effortwith the Gas Research Institute, is developingsensitive laser methods able to detect very

small methane. and liquefied natural gas(LNG) leaks. Other NASA work, cospon-sored by the Coast Guard and DOE, hasdeveloped and tested detectors for meth-ane concentrition and plume measurement.

(3) The Coast Guard, in efforts Coordi-nated with EPA, is creating hazardous chem-ical response equipment, procedures, andtechniques to prevent or reduce the dis-charges of hazardous substances from strick-en vessels. USCG work includes researchin hazardous chemical forensic identifica-tion and on analytic techniques and mod-els for predicting the hazards posed byrelease of hazardous chemicals. The CoastGuard is developing and testing contain-ment, treatment, and reCovery techniquesfor response to hazardous materials spills.and protective clothing and other systemsfor personnel involved in cleanup. Otherefforts inslude examining the health effectson persSnnel involved in routine employ-ment in the transportation of hazardousmaterials.

(4) As the use of nuclear energy grows,the transportation of nuclear fuel and ra-dioactiye waste grows with it. Althoughthere have been no transportation incidentsthat resulted in any danger to the public,the expansion of transportation intivity hasresulted in a number of potential`problemsin packaging, leading the Nuclear Regula-tory Commission (NRC) to increase em-phasis on testing nuclear material trans,portation casks and improving emergencyresponse procedures. NRC has construct-

- ed data bases on the shock forces experi-enced by large shipping casks in highwayand rail transportation and on the safety ofirradiated fuel in storage and transporta-tion. ln fiscal year 1982, the analysis of theshock forces associated with air and matershipment will be completed. Codes will bedesigned for analyzing impact tests Of shield,ed shipping casks. An integrated computercode, combining thermal, criticality, and

.shielding models for shipping cask evalua-tion, will be released for use by the industry.

Transportation Mission Support

DOT, through RSPA,1g conducting andsupporting research to itnprove its capabil-

_ity for providing fast, safe, efficient, andconvenient tranSportation of persons andgoods at the lowest cost. A significant ef-fort deals mnth systems analysis methodology.

DOT,supports several science and tech-nolow activities through the University Re-search Program. The program is a Depart-mentwide effort to take advantage of thewealth of talent and resouines available inthe academic community. The progratn isdesigned to optimize the use of universitytesources in solving transportation prob-lems, especially ththe problems related tothe missions of the Department. -

The University Research Program seeksto expand the knowledge base in a rangeof transportation, areas. The problem areasare identified through comprehensive needsdeteiminations by key DOT leaders, andthe Deputy Secretary makes final selec-tions. Problem areas, being addressed byongoing research efforts are transportationenemy conservation, improvement in goodsmovement, transportation and econcimicdevelopment, efficiency and productivity intransportation systems, and transportationsafety. In addition tb research activitiesinvolving all academic disciplines, the Uni-versity Research Program conducts con-ferences/workshops each year on majortransportation issues.of importance to the -Department Recent iesearch accomptshmenisinclude the development of computer-basedpredictive models for improving the designand performance of passenger rail vehiclesuspensions and the demonstration thatfire retardants can be inccirporated intopaints through microencapsulation of in-tumescent compounds in polymer Systems.Future research will focus on enetgy andtraniportation, efficiency and, productivityin transportation systems, transportation sys-tem rehabilitation and maintenance, andtransportation 6nd economic analysis.

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Agrictilture

Science and technologii are part of amiderange of efforts useful-in meeting the Na-tion's needs in food and agriculture. Thoseneeds include having enough agriculturalproducts to meet both domestic and ex

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pOrt demands, allowing for adequate re-- furns to farmers, minimizing fluctuations in

faid prices, maintaining our soil and waterresource base, and improving the efficien-cy and reliability 6f domestic and exportagricultural 'marketing systems. Coopera-tive and coordinated activities of various

-Federal agencies and nonFederal institu-tions 'constitute a large part of the totalnational effort to-meet those needs. Areasof major resgarch-- and development acfivityare related to:

improVing agricultural productivity;maintaining and developing the quali-ty and quantity of agricultural landand water resources;improving concepts for efficient pres-ervation, protection, and conversionof agricultural goods. in Postharvestmarketing channels;,decreasing agricultural energy use;providing information about world cropand natural resource conditions; andhnproving the Afire stnicture andsocioeconomic situation in theagricultural communities ..of the Nation andthe warldf'

Agriciiltural Productivity',

To provide an. ample food and fiber sup-ply tr.; meet domestic and export marketne-Ydi ai reasonable prices, the L.J,q. igri-cultriral system must be highly efficient.The agricultural research, teaching, andextension systems contribute to improvedagricultural prockiaivity and prodUct quali-ty by prOviding improvements in biologicaland genetic. resources; by improving thetechniques for management of microenvi-ronmerits, and by aiding in the control ofplant and animal pests that reduce overallproduction efficiency.

. Crop Production

The biotechnology revolution is rapidly in-creasing the potential for 'improving agri-

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cultrii-al crop productivity. One recent ta-matic accomplishment in the area- of re-combinant DNA techn6logy 'has been -an .._

impioved understanding of the controllingmechanisms of proteins in corn kernels. Ithas Been found that the DNA controllingelements, or "trangposons," responsible formoving genes from plate to place withingenome (a single .set of chromosomes)have a direct influence on the presence orabsence of protein. In mutant strains, theprotein observed in the presence of thetransposon is larger than in the' riormalstrain, and the protein is absent altogetherwhen the transposon is absent. That find-ing shoWs that the dene product, the pro-tein, is heavily under transposon control,which increases the possibility of usirfg,in-serted mutations to alter the coding se-quence of DNA The ability to alter theDNA sequenc in croP plants holds prom-ise for improving quality and increas-ing physiological efficiency.

Additional regearch on protein chemis-try in corn has resulted in the develOp-ment-Of a sophisticated system that pemlitscorn lines to be "fingerprinted." The sys-tem could be used by the corn industry forquality control, the identkation of seedlots,and the resolution of Casesiitivolving plantprotection rights. Another recent development isthe discovery of a bioregulatoithat increasescold tolerance in plants. Treatment withthis or similar bior,egulators will aid in "theprotection of young plants- from 'freezingtemperatures, thus protecting plants fromunseasonal cold in the spring:

Recent retearch on the chemistry ofplant pidments resulted in the isolafion ofan anthocyanin from the flower's of Heav'-enly Blue momingtory.- The substance isnow being used in a patented probesi toproduce a nontoxic and 'stable color addi-tive for foods and beverages, replacingpreviously banned red dyes No. 2 and No.4.

Studies on the basic mechanisms of plant'growth and development have improvedtissue culture techniques for strawberries,blackberries, and peaches. The improvedtechniques will lead to lower costs in propa-gating those plants. Specific research onthe genetics of pest resistance in soybeanshas resulted in approximately 7Bsercent

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of the 1980 U.S. soybean acreage beingplanted with multiple-pest-resistant, high-yiekling varieties. Those varieties have beendeveloped by a number of State agricul-tural experiment stations in partnership withthe Department of Agriculture's (USDA)Agricultural Research Service. During thepast year, a large number of germplasmstocks of wheat, oat, barley, and rice havebeen released to breeders for incorpOra-don into State, Federal, and industry breed-ing programs, and several new and im-proved small grain varieties were releasedto growers. Continuing efforts on the ge-netics of pest resistance have also resultedin the, development of multiple pest- sanddisease-resistance characteristics in new varie-ties of fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals.The Lemhi Russett potato, for example, isa new high-quality, disease-resistant bakingand processing potato that can be grownin major production areas. It out-yields thetraditional Russetf Burbank by more than30 percent and has a 22 percent higher

US.Departmentof Agriculture

Ajler thawing, the Eremodtrus hybrid produces newfruit. Less resistant udrieties damaged severely during afreeze will not produce at their prefreeze capacity for 2*to 4 yews.

content of vitamin C. Of further signifi-cance are new citrus hybrids, derived fromcoldhardy relatives from Australia, that sur-vived the 1981 Florida freeze of 10T.

Crop production in other countries hascontinued to be of interest to the UnitedStates. The Government has continued itsefforts to, assist the international agridul-ture enteOise in; order to increase pro-ductivity and to develop a set of agricultur-al technologies that can be quickly adaptedand used by develoPing countries. Through

the Agency for International Development(A1D),`the United States has assisted in theformation and maintenance of the Consul-tative Group on International AgriculturalResearch (CGIAR), which works through ag-ricultural research centers located throughoutthe world. The efforts of those centers arenow producing results. For example, aboutthree-fourths of the wheat and one-fourthof the rice acreages in Asia are now planin high-yielding varieties developed iiisociation withthe Asian and Mexican inter-national centers. The availability of semi-dwarf high-yiekling varieties of wheat has alsohelped India and Pakistan triple their wheatproduction in recent years..Central Ameri-can nations are planting disease-resistantbean varieties developed in cooperationwith a South American center. African na-tions are developing new corn varieties

, using Materials supplied by local centers,and one centet is developing minimumtillage techniques. to conserve the fragilesoil structure in the wet tropics. Potatoesare being planted in tropical lowlands asiaresult of breeding Work on heat tolerance.An African center is making good progressin developing a perinanent vaccine to con-trol trypanosomiasis, which kills cattle andcauses sleeping sickness in man.

Also in the international sphere, the De-partment-of Agriculture is sponsoring re-search in Pakistan, Egypt, and Yugoslaviaon various nematode species that posepotential threats to U.S. agriculture: Oneparticular target is the daggar nematode,which has appeared in European vineyardsand can spread to the United States, Arelated program of innovative research isattempting to develop new soybean vazie-ties resistant to species of soybean cyst

nematodes. Agricultural research Conduct-ed in the United States is used in manycountries around the world and demon-strates the universal aspects of research.

Animal Production

Major recent developments affecting ani-mal production have been in the areas ofdisease prevention_ and control, physiology,and animal breeding. A new vaccine forTexas Fever is now available. That diseasehas been eradicated in the United States,but still poses a threat to U.S. cattle: IfTexas Fever were reintroduced from Mexi-co, where it commonly occUrs, the newvaccine, which contains nonviable organisms,would provide ready and safe protection.Similarly, a globulin that is antibody specif-ic for the antigens associated with aviancoccidiosis has been developed. The glob-ulin could not only control coccidiosis, butit could also prevent the development ofresistant strains. Present methods of con-trol through medication are costly and hayeenvironmental implications, and resistantstrains of coccidia continue to develop.

Understanding the basic physiological ef-fects of hormone compounds and envi-ronmental factors, including light and tem-perature, has led to increased reproductiveefficiency of food animals through synchroni-zation and maintenance-of estrus cyclesand ovulation. As a result, lambs per ewe,calves per cow, piglets per sow, and chicksper hen per year continue to increase asthe new technologies are applied, Baskresearch in physiological processes led toembryo transfer techniques now in com-mercial use, increasing the impact of supe-rior genetic stocks.

More efficient ways of using the vastrangelands and pastures in the United Statesare enhancing the economic production offood of animal origin. Cultivar selection,manipulations of crop culture, and new bar-,

vest and postharvest technologies are con-tributing to advances in aninial production.

Long-term animal breeding research ingenetics, nutrition,.and eritAronmental fac-tors has produced an initial payOut in thedevelopment of the "Line 1 Hereford':variety of beef cattle. Line 1 breeding waspresent in 65 percent of the registered

6Hereford herds surveyed last year. Studies

US.DepartmentofAgnalture

Sibling calves and their biological mother are shown at the USDPRC field fiscility in Prairie du Sac. Super-highreprOduction rates are achieved through increased fertility and embryo transplants. Dairy Fientisti are able to raisegenefical41 uniform groups of cows quiclkby using simogate mothers.

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show that 20 years of genetic progresshave resulted in a 40-pound increase inweaning weight of calves sired by Line 1bulls.

Pest ManagementS.

Two significant frontiers in pest manage-ment are being approached simultaneous-ly. One deals with the control of peststhrough programs focusing on the man-agement, reduction, or elimination of indi-vidual pesis. The other, an integrated pestmanagement approach, seeks to developeconomically and environmentally soundmanagement systems for pest cOmplexes' -associated with particular cropping systems.

A new bait toxicant for control of the fireant has received conditional registrationfor areawide use in noncrop areas. The,bait toxicant is essential to Federal andState fire ant control programs and willhave a significant impact in those areaswhere the fire ant has become a severenuisance to both people and pets.

To assist the Department of Defense indeveloping approaches to control ticks, re-search revealed that clothing impregnatedwith permethrin proOdei complete protec-tion against ticks. The treatment has com-mercial application to proted hikers, camp-ers, and recreationalists, especially in areaswhere ticks are known to carry RockyMountain Spotted Fever.

Research in biological and integratedpest management programs has also re-sulted in several important new develop-ments. The chemical basis of the naturalresistance of plants to certain insects hasbeen identified for several crops. Duringthe past year, maysin, a flavone glycosidefrom corn silk, has been identified as beingvery active against corn eatworm larvae.Maysin is one among several such natural,resistant chemicals that have been recentlyidentified. These kinds of discoveriei willgive direction to future plant breeding pro-grams and may lead to improved biologi-cal .resistance to pests and, thus, a reducedneed for pesticides.

Other biological approaches to pest management have alio experienced recent ad-

, vances. For example, interbreeding of two1

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species of cattle fever ticks has resulted inthe male progeny being sterile and in thefemales passing on the sterile male charac-teristic to their progeny. The sterile traitmay lead to a new method to aid cattlefever tick control programs. Progress has._been made in controlling the widely distrib-uted alfalfa weevil by introducing parasites,from countries where the alfalfa weeviloriginated, that destroy the weevil. Further-more, biological weed control is beginningto show results in Missouri, Virginia, Mon-tana, and several ,other States wherepopulations of musk thistle along agricul-tural fields have been reduced significantlydue to attack by an introduced musk this-

, tle weevil. Bask research is also beingconducted to analyze the relationship ofsoil microflora to seedlings as the basis forusing beneficial fungi and bacteria for in-oculating seeds prior to planting to reducethe effects of nonbeneficial fungi and bac-teria on plants in early growth stages.

Agricultural Land and Water

With projected increases in U.S. and worldpopulations, there is growing concern aboutthe future adequacy of land and waterresources for agricultural purposes. Onemajor problem has keen the amount of

sal lost annually through erosion and theresulting long-term 'effects on ,productivity.It recently has been recognized that one ofthe best ways ti3 reduce soil erosion oncropland is through conservation tillage, asystem that eliminates moldboaid 'blowingand reduses tillage to maintain crop resi-dues on the surface:Basic research usingisotopically labeled nitrogen shows that con-servation tillage and trop residue manage-ment resulted in increased,reserves of soilnitrogen and organic matter in the surfacelayers. Also,. principles of cropping systemsare being developed: to permit a widereconomic application of conservation till-

age practices. -

New principles" have also been devel-oped for dealing with water resource con-straints in the Great Plains, where droughtmay occur as frequently as.excessive pre-cipitation. Grass barriers, originally designed

129 '.

for erosion control, have been founli totrap sufficient moisture from snow so thatacceptable yields of wheat and barley cannow be produced during years of lowprecipitation.

With increasing emphasis on making themost efficient ,use of all available water forirrigation purposes, interest in the use ofnontraditional water resources has increased.Recent studies have indicated that sewagewater might be used safely for irrigation ingreater quantities than previously believed.It has been found that, when applied tosoils during ground-water recharge or irri-gation, most enteric viruseS in sokage waterdo not move below the surface layer, ex-cept in very coarse sands and gravels. Inaddition, recent experiments have foundthat viruses held in the soil survive nomore than 5 days after the soil has dried.

Postharvest Science andTechnology

Postharvest science and technology activi-ties are directed toward greater efficiencyin assembling, handling, converting, pro-tecting, storing, transporting, wholesaling,and retailing farm and forest products.Those activities focus on the portion of the,agricultural system between harvest of foodand fiber products and their ultimate useby the consumer. The postharvest compo-nent of the agriCultural system is critical tofarmer return, consumer cost, and produc-tivity of the total agricultural system, Re-cent achievements that will lead to increasedconversion and handling efficiency includea better understanding of the principles offood drying at ambient temperatures andthe development of two low-cost, energy-conserving, Environmental Protection Agen-cy (EPA)-approved methods for control-ling fungal growth in high-moisture grainsduring storage.

Under a cooperative regional project,State a. gricrtItural experiment station andAgricultural Research Service scientists areidentifying toxicants that occur naturally infoodstuffs and are determining conditionsconducive or inhibitory to their production.For example, recent results have shown

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US.DepartmentofAgricukure

Nearly 17 of the 42 million pounds of live weight catfishprocessed by industry in 1979 was waste material.Through aquaculture research, U.S. Department ofAgriculture scientists havedeveloped a liquefying proc-ess that turns the waste into profitable byproducts.

the influence of the microclimate on fun:gus populations and have clarified thecausesof Aspergillis flavus in'pistachio-nut orchards.

In another area, research on the chem-istry and nutrierit quality of agriculturalwastes has shown that many wastes have ahigh market value. For example, wastefrom catfish processing Can now be treatedto yield fish oil, bone meal, and a high-protein feed ingredient. Two catfish proc-essors are building facilities for this pur-pose. In the cotton fiber industry, researchhas shown that 2 to 3 percent of theuseful fiber now lost during-the lint clean-ing operation can be reclaimed. That re-duction of losses can increase a farmer'sreturn by $10 to $12 per bale.

Federal researchers have found severalalternatives to conventional chemical fu-migants. Modified atmospheres composed

of varying percentages of carbon dioxideor nitrogen gases have been very effectiveas fumigants.for insect control in raw agri-cultural commodities. Ten quarantine treat-ment recommendations to eliminate theMediterranean fruit fly from host productshave also been made. Fumigation sched-ules,for avocados, bell peppers, cantaloupes,cucumbers, nectarines, naval oranges, peaches,pears, strawberries, and tangerines havebeen developed.

Fumigation with ethyl formate, a naturalfumigant, was shown to be a potentiallyeffective treatment for the control of west-ern flower thrips on fresh strawbenies. Kill-ing all live insects on strawberries is essen-tial to meet Japanese quarantine requirementsand permits U.S.-grown strawberries to beexported to Japan. Progress in protectingsoybeans during transportation has also ,

been made. Soybeans were one of thelargest U.S. agricultural exports in 1980,valued at over $6.1 billion. Continuing orexpanding the export market is extremelyimportant to maintaining a favorable bal-ance of trade. Results from a recent re-search project have shown that extensivesoybean damage and deterioration wereoccurring in transit between shipping pointsand overseas destination ports. Informa-tion is being provided to shipping compa-nies to' foster a better understanding of

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where handling losses are occurring in theshipment process.

Rural Community Studies

Renewed rural population growth and eco-nomic vitality are providing the primaryfocus for a new emphasis on evaluatingthe scicioeconomic aspects of rural com-munities. Migration rates have started tochange from those that characterized theprevious 50 years; rural outmigration isdecreasing and rural inmigration is increas-ing. This turnaround is the- primary deter-minant of change in the demography ofrural populations. Demographic research,currently being conducted by USDA andState agricultural everiment stations througha system of cooperative regional technicalcommittees, seeks basic information to help,Federal, State, and local officials anticipateand adjust to changes in populations. Un-derstanding the determinants and conse-quences of population change will be es-sential for planning the delivery of services,the development of economic opportunities,and the provision of infrastruct orcommunity facilities. The rural area f theNation is therefore receiving significantlyrenewed emphasis by the agricultural re-search and devebpment community.

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tdgcation

The productivity, security, and quality oflife of the Nation depend in large part onthe effectiveness of its educational system.Although primary responsibility for Ameri-can education lies with the citizens, withtheir State anti local governments, andv.ith private educational institutions, the Fed-eral Government plays an indirect, catalyticrole in the educational process. This sec-tion addresses three areas 'in which theFederal Government works to provide in-

direct support (or efforts to improve thequality of education in the United States:

fostering academic excellence throughassessing the current status of the en-tire educational enterprise,'supporting educational research anddevelopment activities, andhelping to maintain the strength ofthe Nation's scientific and technicalhuman resource base.

Excellence in Education

To provide a firm basis from which futureplanning andyrogramming activities.mightensue at all levels of government, the Sec-retaryof Education, in August 1981, estab-lished a National Commission on Excel-lence in Education. The Commission, whichcomprises school, college, and universityeducators, State and local Officials, andleaders in science and engineering, willcarry out an 18-month study and makerecommendations to foster academic ex-cellence throughout the American educa-tional system. The Commission will:

review and synthesize the data andscholarly literature on the quality ofteaching and flearning in U.S.. public

ànd private scbools, colleges, andversifies;

. examine and compare the -curricula,staridards, and expectafions of the edu-cational systhrns of _other advancedcountries with those in the UnitedStates;study college and university admissionstandards and their effect on educa--tional quality in the schools;review and describe unusually effec-

132

review major changes in American edu-cation and events in society during thepast -quarter-century that have signifi-cantly affected educational achievement

The National Institute of Education willlodge and staff the study.

Educational Researchand Development

Educational research and development hasthe objective of generating knowledge andtechniques that aid the learning processand serve as a base for im roving- educa-tional practice._ Federal su port for suchwork is concentrated pri pally in t De-partmenrof Education ( D). The lationalInstitute of Educatian (NIE) in the De-partment's Office of L'Oucational Researchand Improverfient (OERI) provides leader-ship in scientific inquiry into the educa-tional process. The National Science Foun-dation (NSF) also !Sas been concerned .with research and developinent on learn-

cesses to improve science educa;ion. Some recent acbievements and newprogram initiatives in Federally sponsorededucational research and development arehighlighted below.

Information Technology

file Secretary of Education has assigned a

high priority to fostering optimal use of thenew informatiqn technology in Americaneducation. The new technology includespersonal computers with graphic displaysand videodisc systems, as well as broad-cast and cable television. Thus, the De-

, partment of Education's plans for an edu-cational technology initiative for fiscat year1983 will involve research and develop-ment, plus schOol trials and demonstra-tions, in collaboration with educationalpublishers and information technologymanufadureit.

A joint NSF/NIE prograrn\supports de-velopment of prototypes of corhputer-baSedinstructional materials in many areas ofmathematics, including elementary school

. mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonome-

tive college-preparatory programs; and, fry, spatial visualization, logic, statistics, and

/

,

, Jr "- ,Air

VOX

A young child uses computer technology to learn mathematical principles.

mathematical Modeling. Bcamples'of proj-ects indude:

Invesbgators at Wittehberg Universityin Springfield, Ohio, are developing10 to 15 computer games'to supple-ment mathematics instruction in grades.one through four. The-games providepractice in basic mathematical skillsand introduce students to problem-solving techniques.Researchers at the All Indian PuebloCouncil in Albuquerque, New Mexico,are developing computer-based coursesin mathematics and science for Pueb-lo Indian students in the upper ele-mentary grades. The courses use thestorytelling format, a familiar educa-lional device in Puehlb culture. -

Scientists at Virginia CommonwealthUniversity in Richmond are designing

;-

Advanced LearningTechnology

. There is increasing interest in using com-puters for educational tests of far greatersorThistication than those using the stan-=dard multiple-choice format, an applica-tion extensively explored in a widely distri-buted report of an earlier NIE conferenceon testing; NIE is now developing com-puter programs and other -aids so thatmicrocomputers can be used by teachersfor classroom testing.

The Department's Office of Special Ed-ucation and Rehabilitative Services is de-veloping and adapting technology to facirtate communication for the sensonally hand-icapped and to improve instmdion for handi-capped students. For example., blind chem-istry students' can hear readings of scien-tific instrumenrs through voice-synthesizingmicroqomputers and can use the comNt-er to record notes on experiments. In addi-

15 to-20-lessons in-computer-graphtion,students-with_impaired_uprier limbsing for high school algebra and adult. can use robots controlled by voice corn-trigonometry stUdents. The lessons will mands to perfdrm laboratory operations.enable students to see immediately Outside NSF and ED, the Agency for

' the results of their equations. International Development (All)) 11 testingSeveral projects involve *the participation radio as the central component of an in-

of local schools, teachers, shidents, and structional system that can deliver high-parents. Some focus primarily on the stu- quality 'instruction tb large audiences indent; others On, tire teacher. countries that have neither the trained teach-

133

,

1

hiurraytolkh

A blind siuffirit reads usinithe Optacon. The image istransferred by the camera in the right hand to a directtactile display of the lettets felt by the left hand.

ers nor the financial resources to support atraditional school system. The rate of re-turn on such primary education investmentsis very high and is associated with increasedagricultural productivity and lower infantmortality. In earlier tests of a radio-basedelementary school mathematics program.in Nicaragua, children learned and retainedmore information than under, traditionalsystems. The mathematics model is nowbeing adapted in several countries, a lan-guage arts curriculum is being put togeth-er, and a complete radio primary school,induding a science cuniculum, will be testedbeginning next year.

AID is also working on applying corn-.munications satellite technology to thel so-lution of development problems in theleast accessitle area's of developing coun-tries: The purpose is to demonstrate thatthe new satellite technologies using twd-way telecommunications can provide, atteasonable cost, a.breakthrough in deliveryof education, information:agriculture, health,and social services to ,the "poor majority,"the mandated target of AID assistance inhe-less-developed-countries

Cognitive Science

:

precise descriptions of 'the processes humanbeings usein solving scientific, artistic, andother sorfs of. Problems: 'those descrip-tions are tested and refined by using themto program a computer and paringthe-ways that humans and com tem handle ,spedfic problems. The sam ethods arebeing Used to gain insight into the criticaldifferences between the performance ofexperts and that of new students in solving 'physics problems. A conference held inOctober 1980 by NIE explored, the rela- .tionship between such research in cogni-five sdence and innovative programs aimedat developing skill in thinking and learning.The skills fell into three areas: learning,comprehending, and remetnbering comple;.<bodies of knowledge; thinking through andsolving stich complex problems as thosearising in science and in composing es-says; and formal reasoning, analysis, andsystematic and organized approaches tointellectual tasks: The conference reportforms the basis for a research programinvolving both contracts and grants for ,field-initiated projects.

Research conducted at the NIE-supportedCenter for the Study of Reading and else-where has produced a major reconcePtu-alization of the reading process. The older.view, which chafacterizes most cUrrent in-structional practice', is that if readers can"decode" written langtiage into oral form,comprehension occurs without further ef-fort. Emerging theories show how igoodreaders manage their atterltion and applytheir existing knowledge in the additionaltask of reconstructing for themselves the,meaning of the written text. The center,which is at the University of Illinois, is nowentering a second 5-yearftiicdingperiod. Itwill maintain its focus n comprehensionprocesses while incr ing work aimed atbringing the new kn ledge into schoolpactice_by_a_vari5L.of meanc., inch trlingdeveloping content and proce4es for teachertraining and continuing interaction witheducational publishers.

Cognitive sciencethe new interd iplin-ary science of human intellectuali,s being ,applied in various ways eduCa-

tional problems. For example, inv.. sga Orsat Carnegie-Mellon University 'have made

134

Brain Science

The National Institute of Education andthe National Science.: Foundation are co-

operating with the Alfred P. Sloan Foun-dation in holding -a conference in 'early1982 on the brain, cognition, and-educa-tion. The conference will seek to further,the contribution to education of currentand future researCh on the brain by.estab-fishing stronger links between such researchand research in cognitive science and ed-ucation. Three areas of central importanceto education will be emphasized: attention;

e acquisition, representation, and use ofowledge, brOadly defined to include facts,

concepts, and intellectual skills; and cogni-tive development as related to develop-ment of brain structures arid effects ofabnormalities and environment.

Education Related toScience and Technology

The maximal functioning of the scienceand technology.enterprise depends on anadequate supply of high-quality personnelat all levels to carry out its activities. Inaddition, the increasingly technologically

,oriented nature of our society requires thatall citizens have some minimal level ofscience and technology understanding. Theeducation of Americans in science- andtechnology is the responsibility of Stateand local governments. However, the Feder- ,

al Government plays an indirect, catalyticrole in that educational process in a variety'of ways. For example, through grant' andcontract programs, the Federal agenciesprovide funds for facilities and equipmentin the Nation's colleges and universitiesthat may be used for instructional as wellas research purpc?ses. In addition, theysponsor technical Conferences and teacherinstitutes, and many Federal agencies pro-vide fellowships, traineeships, and studentemployment opportunities in areas closelyrelated-to -their-nlissions: They-also-makeavailable their own research facilities forboth research and edufational purposes.All of those activities-dugment,and facili-

, tate the efforts of State an& local govern-ments to provide adequate educational op-portunities related to science and technology.

In addition to those general kinds ofactivities, which have been ongoing and'

tik

NorthCartilhaSchc;q1of Scitnceand Mathematics

In a workshop conducted at the IVorth Carolina Sclioolof Sdence and Mathematics, high School teachers les:irn to

use microcomputers for teaching science and mathe.malics classes.

continue in many different agencjes, theDepartment of Defense has recently initi-ated a series of new activities intended tooffset an increasing, shortage of scientific,and technical -manpower needed to fulfillnational security objectives, particularly inthe armed services. One 'Cause for themilitary shortage of scientists, engineers,and technicians is believed to be the in-creasing demand for scientists and engi-neers in the civjlian sector. That demandhas increased salaries to the point that thearmed services are having difficulty com-peting in recruitment. In addition, thereare indications that the lucrative civilianjob market is affecting the retention ofmilitary scierdists and engineers; loss ratesfor military engineers have increased 20percent in the past year.Witfrpreditled inueases iii .iiidustriI demand for science and engineering personnel,even greater problems of recruitmerft andretention are being anticipated by the mili-tary service departments. As a result, theDefense agencies have been actively seek-ing remedies to the worsening condition ofthe science ,and engineering human re-.source base. Measures are being institute&

135

to.increase the supply, quality, and !No-ductivity of the scierice ,and technologywork force by providing incentives to at-tract more science and 'technology personnelto military or related activities.

The Air Force, for example, has recently.taken a number of significant actions: pro-posals have been drafted to prOvide bo-nuses and incentive pay for officers withrare and needed scientific anci engineeringskills, the recruiting of engineer technolcrgists has been increased, and efforts havebeen made to increase the numbers ofscience and engineering, graduates fromsubsidized undergraduate precommissioningProgams (espedally Air Force Reserve Officer

and Airman Education andCo ioning Procjarns). Developing newcooperAtive and subsidized programs andenhancing existing ones to tap the collegemarkets once inaccessible to traditionalprecommissioning programs are other meas-ures being taken. For example, the Air ,orce is testing a program that provides

summer employment in laboratories andreserve commissioning to undergraduateengineering' students. UPon graduation, thestudents will serve on active duty.

The Army has been working with otherbranches of the Department of Defense(DOD) to initiate programs to stimulatebroader interest among higfFschopl stu-

dents for careers in science and engineer-ing. The objective is to provide a coopera-tive education (work/study) program thatwill afford handson experience in Armyresearchdevelopment, and acquisitiop ac-tivities tb high school students who-Maychoose to enter and complete basic edu-cation in science and enginffring. Highschool students accepted foi''apprentice-ships are paid during work periods andwork directly under a mentor scientist orengineer. In addition to Research and En-gineering Apprenticeships, the Departnent ofthe Army offers student work/study optionsthrough nonbaccalaureate prograras kr 2-yearcomrnunity and junior colleges and' teCh-nical institutes, through baccalaureate pro-grams, and through graduate programs.

In the Navy laboratories, needs alsocenter 9n maintaining technical excell'enceand diverse capabilities under conditionsthat make it increasingly difficult to recruitand 'retain highly, qualified people. TheNavy intends to intate a number of pro-grams, similar to" those outlined above forthe Army and the: Air Force, aimed atattracting ,more scientific and engineeringtechnical and professional personnel Forall the-defense agencies, DOD is planninga new graduate-fellowship program to sup-port up to 400 predoctoral students by1984.

International Affairs

4

International cooperation in science andtechnology (S&T) is as old as our Repub-lic. Many Federal departments and agen-cies engage in joint research and othercooperative scientific endeavors with for-eign countries; and many of those activities

'occur under umbre114 agreements adminis-tered by the Department of State. Thereare currently 54 such bilateral agreementswith 29 countries, and over 30 Federaldepartments and agencies are implement-ing scientific projects with their foreigncounterparts.

America's international science and tech-nology programs have extraordinarily var-ied agendas. They range from fundamen-tal questions in basic research to practicalproblems of applied technology. They in-clude the most elaborate of modem elec-tronic devices in the industrial world andthe simplest of basic machines in the thirdworld. As a common denominator, Ameri-can international science and technologyprograms place science and technology atthe service of American foreign policy, whilesetvinddomestic goals as well.

' Many of today's most important scienceand technology issues that have interna-tional ramificationsdeep seabed mining,biotechnology, environmental pollution,transport of data by computerwere vir-tually unheard of 10 or 20 years ago. Theyhave created drastic changes in the tradi-tional political and cliplOrnatic agenda, oblig-ing-bur foreign policyrnakers to acquire newexpertise and to remold their ways of think-ing. As seience progresses, new, unantici-pated challenges will arise.

In his address to the opening session ofthe U.S./People's Republic of China JointCommission on Scientific and Technolog-ical ,Cooperation, the President's ScienceAdviser, Dr. George A. Keyworth; summedup the relationship of U.S. science policyto the achievement of our national goals;

(T)he major thrust of the Ad-ministration's economic and researchand development programs is to pro-vide enhanced incentives for, andremove disincentives to, increasedindustrial innovation and prodUctivity

(W)e believe that Government

1 41

must continue to bear responsibilityfor the mod; portion of basic researchsince, for the most part, it is concernedwith fundamental discovery in areas oflong-term payoff anthbroad societalgain.... As we move ... from:basicresearch to applied research to devel-opment and demonstration, we believethat the Govermrient's role should.decrease, and that the private sec-tor will respond to market forces ifthe technolOgy is needed .... Whilewe have been making these changesin our domestic research and devel-opment policy, we have sought tocoil* our international cooperativeresearch and development programs.In fact, with constrained budgets forresearch and development facingmany nations around the world, ...collaborative scientific and technologyprojects will increase in importancein the coming decade.In meeting -those foreign and domestic

policy goals, the U.S. science and technol-ogy enterprise cooperates with other na-tions of all types. Examples of some majorcurrent international cooperative programsare discussed belay.

Cooperation withDeveloped Nations

Although the U.S. publiC and private sec-tors spent about $70 billion on researchand development in 1981, that represent-ed Only a small portion of the world sci-ence and technology effort. We must nowthink in terms of an international divisionof labOr, where achievements in one placecan complement those in another. ThroughCooperation with other developed nations,we can achieve a more Aficient distribu-tion of the burden of scientific and techno-logical research on a, world scale and pro-vide access for U.S. scientists to special orunique facilities abroad that would be pro-hibitively costly to reproduce at home. Tofacilitate such cooperation, the President'sScience Adviser led a delegation, of high-level representatives from a range of Fed-eral agencies with major R&D programs.to

137

Japan in September 1981. They met withtheir Japanese counterparts and identifiedseveral areas for cooperative efforts.

Examples of current productive collabo-ration between the United States and de-veloped nations include:

(1) Under a ractioadive vaste managementagreement with Canada, we have acceSsto a Canadian underground test facilitythat uses granite as a repository for nucle-ar power wastes. Conversely, Canada bene-fits from U.S. ,work on salt deposits as astorage medium.

(2) Under the 1979 Energy Re.4earchand Development Agreement;the UnitedStates and Japan are cooperating in the"Doublet III" fusion research project. Japan iscontributing $60 milfiOn over a 5-year periodto upgrade the fusion facility in La Jolla,California. That contribution will enablethe United States to greatly decrease itsown outlays for experimental activities infusion research.

(3) Japanese and U.S. scientists are study-' ing methods of controlling forest tree dis-

eases prevalent in Japan. The diseases, ifintroduced into the United States, couldthreaten U.S. forest species and cause mil-lions of dollars in timber losses.

, (4) Under an agreement signed in 1980,U.S. scientists have access to the uniquefacilities of Japarfs Building Research In-stitute. The tests performed there will leadto.imProved seismic designs for structures.

(5) There is widelanging cooperationbetween the Unifed States and France inoceanogxaphy covering, among otherthe ecological effects of oil spills, marineinstrumentation and data buoy technolo-gy, and diving medicine under the Man-in-theSea Program.' Mutual rescue operationsof French and American research submers-ibles will continue to be explored.

(6) U.S. scientists are cooperaling with-their counterparts in Japan fn studies ofrenew, charge, and mass of atomic particles.'The Japanese resources, expertise, andfacilities for preparing photographic emul-sions for that work surpass any other inthe world.

(7) U.S. scientists are using an Austra-lian atomic-reactor that is uniquely equippedfor neutron-radiography.

,

138

-(8) U.S. astronomers have acceis totheMt. John observatory in Australia, the onlyone in the Southern Hemisphere equippedfor research.

-(9) Auslialia is also the site for NationalScience Foundation-sponsored high-altitudeballoon launches used for cosmic ray, me=teorological, and other studies and for testing ,

instruments that axe later flown in satellitee(10) U.S. scientists are using a system

developed in Chile for growing plant tis-sues or cells in glass vessels to gain basic.knowledge-of-cell wall development in co-niferous trees.; (11) For several years, the U.S. Nation-

al Bureau of Standards has cooperated withthe Central Testing Laboratory for Construc-tion Materials in Madrid in studies of thecorrosion of steel in prestressed concretestructures. The information has *Ided high-ly useful information for design of bridges,buildings, and other structures.

Cooperation withDeveloping Nations

The U.S. commitment to scientific cooper-ation with developing countries is motivat-ed by three principal considerations. Oneconsideration is that the scientific and techni-cal capacities_ and infrastructures of thosecountries must be strengthened if they areto transform themselves into modem soci-eties, a transformation "that will fadlitatetheir relationship and interaction with. theUnited Slates. Whether in The manage-ment of nafural resources or in the diffu-sion of technological techniques, we are

. involved with countries at every stage ofdeyelopment iltiough our Agency. 'for In-ternational Development (AID) programsuhder 'reimbursable arrangements or byother means under umbrella agreements.

AID, in cooperation with the Departmentof State, will place even greafir mphasison the use of science and technolOgy,in itsdevelopment programs in the future.. Toimplement its new policy, AID has createdthe Bureau for Science and Technology,which will seek to improve the scieoce andtechnology capabilities of AID to plan andimplement Agency programs both in the

1

1

field and in Washington. The Bureau willemphasize the transfer. of technology todeveloping countries and improvetnent ofscientific expertise in the Agency.

As one example of the increased em-plrigrsat science and technology in AID's

, the Agency is expanding its en-ergy assistance programs with dev6lopingcountries to help them in addressing ener-gy constraints to their development Theexpansion of AID's energy programs fo-.

. cuses on technical assistance activities foranalyzing energy needs, uses, resources,-and policies; for enerwrelated training andinstitutional development; and for site te'st-ing and demonstration of new technologies:

The impact of AID's science and tech-nology emphasis will also be felt in, healthprograms. In response to a resurgence ofmalaria throughout the World, efforts tofind an effective antimalaria vaccine haverecently been intensified. AID-supportedlaboretories have recently made major ad-vances in malaria research, including im-.proving the background technologies onthe basis of which an effective vaccinemight be produced in the near future.

The second consideration involved inthe US. commitment to scientific coopera-tion with developing countries is that wecan enhance the competitive position ofU.S. industry in third-world marketplacesthrough such cooperationby orienting sci-entifid communities in .developing coun-tries to U.S. technology and fo our indus-trial standards, laboratory equipment, andquality controls. The long-run benefits forU.S. exports are obvious.

The third consideration is that, despitelimitations of infrastructure and personnel,scientists in many developing countries aredoing significant research in specializedareas from which the United States canprofit. Because of their cultural and envi-ronmental characteristics, those countriescan provide unique natural laboratories forcollaborative studies. For example, the US.Public Health Service and the NationalInstitute of Nutrition in Hyderabad, India,are,planning joint studies on nutrition-relatedblindness. In Egypt, U.S. and Egyptian sci-entists are working together on the man-agement of desert ecosystems and on the_

ecological implicat cins of the Aswan Dam.Scientific exchange programs with Mexicocover a broad range of substantive areas, in-cluding energy, instrumentation, inbnnationscience, rail transportation, and agriculture.These are examples of the mutual benefitto be derived from our cooperative scienceand, technology agreements.

rc U.S. Science Cooperation- with the People's Republic

of China

Scientific and technical programs play amajor role in the strengthening of ties tothe People's Republic *of China, where'scientific, educational, and institutionallinks developed a generation ago have re- .appeared after long hibernation, becomingcentral to a political relationship of worldsignificance.

U.S. cooperation with the People's Re-public of China (P.R.C.) takes place withinthe frarnework of the January 1979 USiPRC.'Agreement on Scientific and. Technologr-cal Cooperation., The agreement's imple-mentation is overseen by a U.S./P.R.C.Joint Comrtrission on Scientific anciTechnological Cooperation, chaired on the Amer-ican side by the President's Science Advis-er'. During 1981, there was a rapid in-crease in the implementation of cooferativeprojects, and the _overall scope of science N.and technology cooperation Was reviewedat the second meeting of the Joint Com-mission held in Washington in October ofthat. year.

U,S./P.R.C. cooperatiortin science 'andtechnology involves marrY Federal agen-cies and is cOvered in 17 protocols for spe-.cific areas. of cooperation. Althbugli budget:ary realignments in China haiie slowedsome projects, including those in high-energyphysics, most programs have been pro-ceeding apace. Partkularly noteworthy arethe U.S. Department of Agriculture'S col-lection in China of live specimens of natu:ral enemies of crop pests, which are to beused in experiments on integrated pestmanagement, and the U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services' investigationsin epidemiology, which should give new

139

,

I

Departmentof State

Presidential Science Adviser, Dr. qeorge.A. Keywarth II, makes closing remarks to tha Second Meeting- of theUSIP.R.C. Joint Comnli;slorr on Sdentific and. Technologicat Cooperalion. ".

,

insights into disease prevention anyli Con-trol. The National Science Foundation con-cluded a pew bilateral science agreementwith the P.R.C. on December 10, 1980. Itcalls for cooperation 'during the, next 5'years in the .physical, life, and behavioraland social sciences, en4ineering, history ofscience, research and development man-

140

agement, and science an:d technolc;gyUnder :the agreement, U.S. scientists willenjoy-irpproved-acces,s to the subject_ mat,'ter. df their stucfie:g. -The prpbsed joifitactivities include the biganizing of scientificmeetings; the exchange of scientists, re-

, search 'materials, arid infonnation; ..:4 theconduct of coopefative research projects..

1 1 P

1

APPENDIX

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The Budget ofthe United States 'Government, 1983

OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

February 1982

Nota,All years referred to are fiscal years, unless otherwise noted. De-tails In the tables, .text, and charts of this booklet may not 'add to totalsbecause of rounding.

di

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

RESEARCH. AND DEVELOPMENT

This analysis summarizes the fundinvof research and develop-ment across all departments and agencies. It consists of two parts.The first highlighth the R. & D. policied and trends in the 1983budget. The second describes in Jnore detail the R. & D. programsof the 13 agencies whose 1983 obligations account for over 99% oftotal Federal funding for R. & D.

The Federal Government does not hai,e a separate R. & D.budget. Rather, R. & D. programs are reviewed and funded primar-ily in the Context of the missions of individual agencies afid on thebasis of their importance in meetihg midsion objectives:

PART I. HIGHLIGHTS

R. & D. activities are supported by the Federal Government intwo broad categories, namely, to meet: .

Federal Government needswhere the sole or priniary userof the R. &: D. is the Government itself, for example, innational defense and environmental regulation.National needswhere the Federal, Government helps toassure the strength of the Nationis economy and the welfareof its citizens tinough the support of R. & D. in specific areassuch as agriculture, energy, and health.

The 1983 budget reflects a clearer delineation, than has been thecase in the past, between the responsibilities of the Federal 'Gov-ernment- and those of theprivate sector with respect to R, & D. tohelp meet national needs.

The Federal Government has two main responsibilities with re-spect to R. & Dlio meet national needs.

First, it should provide a climate for technological innovatkinwhich encourages private sector R. & D. investment that bestreflects the realities of the marketplace where new and im-proved processes and products are developed, bought, andsold. The adminidtration is fulfilling his responsibility pri-

k.,inarily by reducing Government spending, regulation andtaxes. Thus, the administration's R. & D. policy is part 'of itsoverall economic policy.

6 Second, the Government should focus ith direct R. & D, sup-. port on those areas where there is substantial prospect for

significant economic gain to the Nation, but where the pri-

t-

14 3

144.

THE BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1988

vete sector is unlikely to invest adequately in the nationalinterest because the benefits, in large rnbasure, are npt imme-diately "appropriable" by individual firms: Thus, for example,the Federal Government supports basic research across allsCientific disciplines but limits its spending on technologydevelopment to technologies requiring a long period of initialdevelopment, such as fusion power, where the risk is high butthe payoff to the Nation is potentially large. This strategy isreflected in the funding for R. & D. to meet national needs inthe 1983 budget.

Total obligations and outlays for the conduct of all Federal R: &D. programs and for related facilities are shown in table K-1below.

Table KI. TOTAL FEDERAL FUNDING FOR CONDUCT OF R. & D. AND RELATED FACILITIES

(la biros of dolars)

Opt=1911 atiat 1912 est:pate 1913 estimate 1981 actual 1912 estimate 14l3 estivate

Conduct of R. & D

R. & D. facilities

Total

35.01.5

38:8

1.5

43.01.3

34.31.6

37.4

1.7

41.11.2

36.5 40.4 ssi 35.9 39.1 42.3.

CONDUCT OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The 1983 budget includes $43.0 billion in . obligations for theconduct of R. & D., an increase a $4.2 billion over 1982, largelyinthe R. & D. programs of the Department of Defense. &nailer butsignificant increases are also proposed for the R. & D. programs ofa number of agencies including the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration, the Department of Health and Human Serv-ices and the National Science Foundation. A major further de-crease is proposed in 1983 in Federal support of energy R. & D.tobe funded through the proposed Energy Research and' TechnologyAdministration within the- Department of Commerce. Includedwithin, the total funding for the conduct oft. & D. is support, forthe conduct of basic resedrch, but not the funding for R. & D.facilities, which is reported separately in this analysis.

Highlights of the programs of major R. & D. agencies that ac-count for 94% of the proposed obligations for the conduct of R. &D. by all agencies are presented below:

Department of Defense (D00).Obligatians for the conduct ofR. & D. by DOD will rise to $24.5 billion, an increate of $3.9billion over 1982; this represents 57% of the total Federdl

'funding for R. & D. In 1983, the Department will provideincreased support for basic research and for R. & D. related to

1 4C.)

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K-

the development of advanced strategic systems, such as bomb-er*, ballistic missiles and ballistic missile defense.National Aeronautics and .Space Administration (NASA).-0b-ligations for the conduct of R. & D. by NASA are estimated at$6.5 billion for 1983, $0.7 billion over 1982. Increased fuhdingfor 1983 is proposed 'to assure timely transition of the SpaceShuttle to an operational system and tc continue the- highestpriority research and space exploration projects, including thefurther development of the Space Telescbpe, Gamma-Ray Ob-servatory and the Galileo Mission to Jupiter. 'Department of Commerce (DOC).-Obligations by this Depart,ment for the conduct of R. & D. would be $4.2 billion in 1983,$0.6 -billion below 1982. Included in the 1983, total ainount is$3.9 billion for programs transferred to the Department aspart of the proposed dismantlement of the Department ofEnergy. This represents a net decrease of $0.6 billion for theseprograms but includes increases for nuclear weapons R. & D.and for long-term research in energy sciences and fundamen-tal physics. These increases are more than offset by eliminat-ing subsidies to industry, for near-term energy research and_

. ,Table K---2 summarizes Federal support for the conduct of 4. &

D. by agency.

Table K-2. CONDUCT OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT BY MAJOR DEPARTMENTS AND AGENCIES

(In nava of dalers)

Department a agency

Ctigatues Mays

1981 actual1912

ramie1913

estimateac1911 tual 1912

estunate1913 '

estmlate

Defense-military functions 16,494 20,553 24,469 , 15,720 18,784 22,673

National Aeronautics and Space Ad-ministration ' . 5,407 5,841 6,513 5,279 5,696 6,460

Commerce 5,276 4,793 . 4,157 5,466 5,240 4,352

(Energy Research and Technology Ad-

ministration) (4,943) (4,522) (3,917) (5,121) (4,948) (4,104)

Health and Human Services 3,973 3,972 4,122 3,991 3,935 4,039

(National Institutes of Health) .- (3,332) (3,427) (3,533) (3,350) (3,390) (3,487)

National Science Foundation 964 961 1,033 892 1,018 . 908Agriculture 773 807 838 805 824

Interior 424 397 371 438 402. 380

Transportation.

420 329 366 418 321 .316Environmental Protection Agency 326 317 230 344 335 274

Nuclear Regulatory Corfimission 227 . 223 220 211 209 206

Agency for International Development 156 160 186 151 157 159

Veterans Administration 147 137 . 145 , 138 130 140

Education -91 74 76 96 94 112.

M other , 354 279 272 366 298 280

Total conduct of R. & D 35,033 33,143 42,997 34,252 37,425 41,122

I Includes the Depertmeis ji Haug and Urban Ormlocenent hula. tato. Treasury. and State. the Times* Why Author*, theSnottooman Instrtubm the OM of Engeneen., the. Federal Emergency lienagemen Amy, the US Office of renewed Ihnegement. the limyof Caves :. the kms Control and Dammed Agerrcy. the Federal Commune/tons Commisice. the Mealy Committee our letergommentelWoe n. and the rodent Trade COMIIIIS3ite

145

0

/Sur

146

4h,


technology development. The .other R. & D. programs of the-Department of Commerce, such 'as metrologY and oceanic,marine and atmospheric research, would be reduced by $31million below 1982, to a level of $240 million in,1983.Deparhnent of Health and Human Services (HHS).Obliga-tions for the conduct of R. & D. in HHS are estimated, to total

, $4.1 billion in 1983, $150 -million above 1982, of which theNational Institutes of Health (NIH) accounts for about $3.5billion, $106 million above 1982. The 1983 budget for NIHcontinues to support a strong national effort in biomedical,research, including research related to potentially hazardousoccupational and environmental exposures.National Science. Foundation (NSF).Obligations for the con-duct of R. & D. by NSF are estimated to total $1,083 millionin 1983, an increase of $72 million over 1982. Ipclutre`d in thetotal is $984 million for the siipport of basic research, anincrease of $72 oyer 1982. The 1983 budget for NSFproposes increased support of research in the natural sciencesand engineering.-and selected retrenchment in relativelylower priority programs.

CONDUCT' OF BASIC RESEABCHI

upport for the conduct of basic research is includdil within' theoverall funding for the conduct of R. & D, Obligations .for theconduct of basiè research are estimated to increage in 1983 by $0.5to $5.8 billion or 9% over 1982;

The 1983 budget recognizes the need to maintain a strong nation-al research effort in all scientific disciplines. Basic research in suchfields as chemistry, physics, biology, materials, oceanography, andearth sciences provides the underpinning; for example, for ad--vances in health care, improved nutrition and agricultural produc-_tion, and new technologies-for defense, Space and energy.

The allocation of funds if the 1983 budget provides for the ftir-ther strengthening of basic reeearch in specific -atlas of Govern-ment responsibility such as defense and space. Special emphasis isalso being given, in the national interest, to strengthening basicresearch in the physical sciences and engineering as exeMplified inprograms of the .new Energy Research and Technology Administra-tion in the Department of Commerce and the National Science,Foundation. Such areas of research are of particular impOrtance tolong-term industrial productivity and economic growth.

The increase- in basic research support will particularly encdur-age scientists at the NatiOn's colleges and universities in theirefforts to advance the frontiers of knowledge and thereby also aid'in the training of future scientists and engineers. About one-half of -the total Federal obligations for basic research are made to support

/

-

.sar`

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

reseatehets in universities and colleges who conduct.about one-halfokali basic research performed in ;he Nation.

table K-3 summarizes' Federal suppOrt for the conduct of basicresearch by agendy.

'Table K-3. CONDUCT OF BASIC RESEARCH BY MAJOR DEPARTMENTS AND AGENCIES

,Wliats 6ahrs),

Department a ;sexy

.

' ttigabcis

1931 actual1911

estmatp1913

estimate.ism xta

,

1912estsnate

19$3estimaa

1

heitl0 anii Human .Srvices ~ 1,955 2,000. 2,069 1,944 1,978 2,034

(National Institutes of Health) .... : (1,767) (1,839) (1,897) (1,750) , (1,813) (1,869)

Naticoal Science Foundation 898 912 984 830 972, 861-

Defense-military functions 603 673 481 554 616 712

awnmerce . 608 665 762 614 670 759

(Enere Retearch and Technolog Ad-ntnistration) .. , (591) (647) -(741) (597) (652) (737)

National Aeronautics ?Id SinCt Ad-

ministration ....... . .. .......... 532 , 580 682 538 575 661

Agricalture 314 332 359 302 337 354

Interior ' 80 ' 73 68 79 . 73 69

Smithsonian Institution.......... ... ... . 44 45 51 41 44 51

Veterans Administration 15. 13 14 15 13 14

Education. 17 14 14 18 18 22

Environmental Protection Agency 10 15 10 12 12 10

All other 2 32 27 28 29 29 28

'Total . 5,108 5,821 4,975 5,574

l Mounts (eroded in the Tatie are mciaded es Totas la =duct at C & 0kludes the Departments al itreiltireparistisrelireasury nd Later, the emessee Autturly, the Capi Enreers, the Federal

Trade 00111250a, the Way ess. and the Army tor Internatmal Deveispent

R. & D. FACILITIES

The successful conduct of R. & D. is depende*on the quality ofinstrumentation and facilities that ere available to the tesearchtommunity. A significant amount of funding for equipment andinstrumentation is included, but not separately identified, in thefunding fot the conduct of R. & D. Funds separately identified forR. & D. facilitiestak Federal Government agencies are summarizedin table

Obligations for R. & D. facilities in 1483, including the construc-tion or renovatibn of' facilities and the adquisition of major equip-ment, will amount to.$1.3 billion, $265 mil io low 1982.

Significant changes in R. & D. facilities sup rt are being pro-posed 'in 1983, primarily for programs that are being transferred tothe Department of Commerce, as part of the proposed dismantle-ment of the Department of Energy. In these programs in 1983,support will be maintained generally for basic research facilities,such as those fdr high energy physics research. However, signifi-cant reductions are proposed for facilities 'related to the demonstra-tion of energy, technologies, largely in keeping with the, policy of

1:

-147

T.

4

THE BUDGET. FOR i7iscAL YEAR 1983

a

. .relying more 9n industry inirestment. The 1982 budget inch:idesfunds to bring,many enefgy demonstrations to an orderly blose orto assist industry in taking over the support of these facilities.

Table1-4. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FACHIT1ES BY MAJOR DEPARTMENTS AND AGENCIES

(lo pain ol Men) -

CoperProl trivia"-Ctivtas Whys

1911.advii )912 estaie. 1993 eftinutt 19E, ideal 1942 Wiest M3

... .. 982 964. 681 1,112 1,191 644(Erin/ Research' and

Tedmolory.A.dministntion) (980 (955) (678) (1,111) (1,184) (640)

Plense7militaryfunctions .... 278 285 366 238 248.:j 320

National kroi.I;utiC

and Space'Administration 114 143 116 147 135 li2

Agnculture 21 35 30 39 39' " 34,Health and Human

Services 25 62 20 43 35 38(National Institutes of

Health) 123). , (18) (20) (42) (32) (28)National Science

Foundation........ 13 10. 16 13 10 15M other' 47 28 33 35. 43 . 25

Total 1,4110 1,526, 1,262 1,627 1,702 1,198'

'kdjdes the Departments d the Intenor. Trempodation, and Tram the Velem Adnwestratm the Aram V*y Apt**. the MacyP ternawnal Development and the Soto:man leatitvtat

, PART II. AGENCY R. & D. PROGRAMS

Presented below are summaries of the R. & D. activities of the 13agencies that support more than 99% of Federally funded R. & D.

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

The primary purpose 'of the Defense R. & D. program is todevelop new strategic and taCtical weapons and supporting systemsto-improve the Nation's defense. In 1983, DOD obligations for theconduct of R. & D. will increase by $3.9 billion to $24.5 billion,which represents over one-half of total Federal funding for re-search and aevelopment in 1983. Within the total funding by DODfor the Conduct of R. & D,, funding of basic research will inCreasefrom $673 million in 1982 to $781 million in 1983. Funding for R. &D. facilities will increase by $81 million in 1983 to a total of $366million. By mission category, major & D. efforts-for 1983 include:

Technology Base and Advanced Technology DevelopmentTherewill be substantial real growth in DOD support of these areas,above the 1982 leirel, to investigate promising new technologies..andto avoid technological surprise. Current thrusts in very high speed

-

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

integrated circuits and guided munitions capable of being operatedin adverse weather will continue. Increased emphasis will be givento new technologies that offer significant opportunities-to increasethe effectiveness of existing military forces, such as improved infor-mation processing, better materials, and improved sensors. Otherprograms include work on electronic,deVices that will continue-tooperate when parts malfunction, electronics that are Tesistant tovarious types of radiation,advanced computer languages and meth-ods of computing high-power lasers and advanced cOmpositematerials.

Strategic ProgramThe budget provides significant increases inthis, area. for the accelerated development of ballistic missile de-fense, as well as the exploration of future options for MX basing,either deep underground or in continuous patrol aircraft. In addi-tion, development efforts continue on an anti-satellite system andan advanced technology bomber. Developinent. of the communica-tions and control systems needed to support strategic weapons willreceive increased emphasis. .

Tactical Programs.Funds will be provided in 1983 to continuethe development of systems to increase the capability of U.S. gener-al purpose and theater nucle'ar forces, as well as to develop thecapability to project forces rapidly wherever the vital interests of

; the U.S. are, threatened.Army efforts include improvement programs for the M-1tank, Cheinical defense eqiiipment and chemical weapons,*andvarious.helicopter systems, and continued development of thePatriot anti-aircraft missile system.The Air Force is developing deep strike interdiction versionsof F-15 and F-16 fighters; LANTIRN night/all weather navi-gation and targeting Pods. for tactical aircraft, and theAM.RAAM advanced medium fange air-to-air Combat missile.The Navy is developing a lightweight anti-submarine torpedo,a new destroyer and a vertical launch .system for missiles.Upgrades to current subsystems to improve detection, track-ing and targeting will also increase the capability of majOrsystems now in koduction:

Intelligence and ComnInications, PrOgram Management and Sup-portR. & D. on intelligence and coMmunication systems will,,focus on communication satellites, on radios that will work in theelectronic noise of the battlefield, and on battlefield surveillanceradars. Work will also continue on the use of technology to reducemanufacturing costs 'and to extend the life and capability of exist-

. . idg defenlle systems.

149

THE BUDGET FOR FISCAL IIIFAH.1983

NATO Cooperation.Cooperation in research and developmentand joint production of new weapon systems v,"Fill be pursued toexploit, fully, Alliance resources. Funding -for these activities is notidentified separately in table K-5 but is included in the ,othercategories discussed above.

Table K-5 provides the details of the Department' of Defensemilitary R; & D. funding. .

.

Table K-5. DEPARTMENT 6f DEFENSE-7MIUTARY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT'. aces of edits)

Twe cia:bvity 1311 31INSI 19*2 estalle th3 dblAile

013UGAT1ONS

Conduct of R. & D.:

Research, development, test and ialuation:Technoloo baseAdvanced tectinolop development

Strategic Programs.Txtical prokramshtteligence and communicatioas

rProvam management and surfed

Other appopriations

Total conduct of R. & 0 ......

Total conduct of basic Tesearib;incIt'xied alXive

1. & D. facilities

Total obligations fa

OUTLA. TS

:onduct of R. & 0 .L & D. *hes .

-.Total outlays . -. .

.,,

,

..7 ...

.

.

.. ,....--.

.

2,570

5783,1845,914

. 1,5652,096

585

..

...

2,849

736

. 4,8027,029

.

2,167,2,289

681_

..- .- ..

3,288, 9286,520

7,5242,575

2,849685

16,494 -20,553.

24,469

(603)278

(673)285

(781)366

16,772 , 20,133 24,135

15,720: :238

. .

4,784248

.

22,673320

15,99 , 19,032 22,993

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Through the programs of NASA, the Federal Government makesinvestments in ft, & P. that yield new space technologies to im-prove the national secntity and the long-term scientific and techno-logical strength a the Nation. They also provide new knowledgeabout the earth; theeolar system, and the universe. ..

In 1983, the R. ffk D. request would iontinue flight missionslaunched in ptior iears (e.g., Voyagers' to the Outer planets). andfurther development, of most major ongoing projects, including, theSpace Shuttle. Obligations for the conduct of R. & D. would in-crease by $672 million in 1983 to a total of $6.5 billion.Yithin tpisamount, basic research would, amount to $682 million, An increaseof $102 million over 1982. Obligationi for construdtAt of facilities ,in .1983 would total $116 - '

15E

1.

.6

V.

IMO

4

. SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

Space Transportation.Shuttle development, testing and pro-curemenLof a fleet of four orbiters will continue in the spacetransportation. systems program. The Space Shuttle is 'essential toexploit space effectively and-will' help.maintain U.S. leadership iqspace throughout this century. It will allow retrieval, -repair. midseryice of saailites in space and the operation of space laborato-ties,. such as the European-built Spacelab, for scientific and tech-nology applications. Because it is reusable, the Shuttle has thepotential to reduce the cost of space missions.

The Shuttle 'is expected to operate on a routine basis in 19f,3a to-meet the needs of domestic and foreign users, who have alreadymade significant investments in anticipation of its availability jnthe earli 1980s. Also, regular Shuttle operations are impoitant tomeet civilian and national security commitments in a 'timelymanner at the lowest total cost to the Nation; While the Shuttle is

-expected to replace most expendable., launch vehiclea; the budgetcontinues efforts tO.,assUre adequate exlien,dable. vehicle, capacity:until the Shuttlê beconies fully'operatiohat, .

With the second successful.launch of the Space Shuttle orbiter,Cotumbia, the U.S. clearly demonstrated that a manned reusable-space vehicle is feasible.. The 1983 budget proyides the funds

- heeded to make 'possible a timely and effective operational-Shuttlesystem.. Included are funds to:

Demonstrate the 'ability to -use the Shuttle for rep airing adamaged satellite while in'orbit;Enhance the payload lift, performan'oe of the Shuttle, provid-ing users with additional assurance that its full planned capa-'bilitie 'will be available to both-civil and national securityusers.Continue procurement of the second.,Spacelab (with an initialflight of the first Spacelab planned for mid-1983) and continueto develop and procure an upper stage for use with the Shtt.t-tle for high-Earth prbit and for interplanetary missions. TheShuttle will be operated from the Kennedy Space. Center inFlorida and from the Vandenberg Air Force Base in Califor-

,nia. .

Space Science.In this area, in-flight projects are conductingdeep space astfonomy while in orbit and others are exploring thesolar system. Most of these spacecraft will continue their flightmissions and will gather scientific data well beyond 1983.

The Solar Maximum Mission, launched in 1980, will continueoperations and data analysis activities. .

Two Voyager spacecraft, launched in 1977, have succes sfullyencountered Jupiter and Saturn, and Voyager 2 will continueon its way to Uranus.

.1411;1

-

151

THE BUpGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1983.

The flight of several other scientific satellites (e.g., Interna-tional Ultraviolet Explorer) will be extended.

The 1983 budget, supports continuation of the flight of thesesatellites in space and analysis of scientific data sent back toEarth. It also provides for the retrieval and repair in orbit of thepartially disabled Solar Maximum Mission Satellite.- The. proposed budget continues development of major flight proj-

eCtato be launched in the future.The Space Telescope is planned for launch in 1985 and willserve as a major astronomy, facility for a 15to 26-year period.The Gamma Ray Observatory is planned for launch ,in 1988and will enhance basic research in high energy astrophysics,providing new knowledge about objects in deep space.Spacelab astronomy experiments, designed for repeated use,will be conducted on the Shuttle to improve our understand-ing of the Sun and the universe from Earth ,orbit.Work is continuing on the 'Galileo mission to Jupiter; thespacecraft is composed of two segmentsan orbiter and aprobe to enter the upper atmosphere of Jupiter. The Galileoorbiter and probe will be launched in 1985 and will arrive atJupiter in 1989 to carry out long-term studies of the giantplanet, its satellites, and its magnetosphere.Experiments will'be conducted using several smaller Explorersatellites, balloons, aircraft, and sounding rockets.

, Space dad Terrestrial Applications.The 1983 budget continuesto suppOrt research that could lead to the broad application ofspace technology to national needs. The 1983 budget requests con-tinued funding for relatively fundamental and long-term researchactivities to:

Improve understanding of Earth resOurces, climate, weat her,and pollution;Develop agriculture forecasting techniques based on satellitedata;Advance knowledge in materials 'scienee through low gravityexperiments; andExtend the capability for satellite communications'at higherfrequencies than those employed with current satellites.

Development of the fourth 'and fifth in the series of land remotesensing satellites is continuing with launches scheduled for 1982and 1985. With the completion of Landsat development activitiesby NASA in 1983, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-tration (NOAA) in the Department of Commerce will -assume re-sponsibility for an operational satellite data system based. on theLandsat-D series of satellites. Space remote-sdnsing technology,such as that employed by Landsat-D, has the potential \to improveour ability to manage critical Earth resources.

4152

, .

*-

f

/SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

The climate-observing satellite program, designed to provideglobal measurements of the Earth's radiation, if; being continued.The missiOn, is an important part of the national "effort aimed at.providing a 6etter understanding of the Earth's climate.

In addition, NASA is developing ways to use the Spacelab (to beflown in the Shuttle) for materials processing and other applica-tions.

Aeronautical Research and Technology Programs.=-In 1983,support will be focused on fundaniental research in all basicaeronautical disciplines, the maintenance of specialized"facilitiesfor research and testing, and technology development and demon-stration activities critical to the Nation's defense needs.

Research emphasis will be placed on:Aerodynamics, propulsion and avionics;Flight controls and human-vehicle interaction; andMaterials and structures.

Technology development and demonstration projects with rela-tively near;term commercial applications will be curtailed as aninappropriate Federal subsidy.

Agency-wide Support Activities.Obligations for agency-wide sup-port activities will increase by $168 million in 1983 to $1.9 billion.These progfams include, primarily, satellite tracking and data ac-quisition support, all NASA civil service and administrative-costs,construction and maintenance of the agency's R.. & D. facilities,and R. & D. addressing fundamental space technology problemsand opportunities common to a hroad spectrum Of space programs.For 1983, the increased obliptions are needed primarily to initiatelease payments for the nei, Tracking and Data Relay SatelliteSystem.

Table K-6 provides the details of NASA's R. & funding.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

In 1983, the scope of the Department of Commerce R. & D.activities will expand significantly as a result of the proposed dis-mantlexnent of the Debartment of Energy and the transfer of its R.& D. programs to the Department of COmmerce, where they will beadministered by the new, Energy Research and Technology Admin-istration (ERTA).

R. & D. support for the ongoing R. & D. programs of the Iiepart-ment is provided primarily through the National Bureau of Stand-ards (NBS), and the Nationhl Oceanic and AtmospheriC Adminis-tration (NOAA). .

-Totai obligations for the conduct of R. & D. will decrease from

$4.8 billion in 190 to $4.2 billion in 1983. The Department's activi-ties by area are suminarized below.

153

154

-.61


Table K-6. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATIONRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

- (Iinu pi Man)

Type cl xtrd51 1581 xtval 1912 Ornate 1983 estimate

OBLIGATIONS

Conduct of R & D.: .lit

Space transportation systems 2,729 3,090 3,468Space science 542 568 682Space and terrestrial applications. 340 334 320Aeronautical research and technology 271 233 232Space research and technology Ill III 123Energy technology , 2Tracking and data acquisition 341 402 509Research and program management 1,071 '1,103 1,179

Total conduct of R. & 6 5,407 5,841 6,513

Total conduct of basic research, included above (532) (580) (682)1 & D. facilities 114 143 116

Total, obligations - 5,520 5,984 6,629

' OUTLAYS

:onduct of R & D . 5,279 5,696 6,460t & D. facilities. 147 135 122

Total, outlays. 5,426 5,131 6,5132

Energy Research and Technology Administration (ERTA)Sup-port will be Provided by ERTA for a substantial R. & D. programrelated to the development and testing of nuclear weapons; a gen-eral science program comprised largely of bahic research -in highenergy physics and nuclear sciences; and a broad energy researchprogram focused on long-term R. & D.

Obligationi for the conduct of research and development atERTA will total $3.9, billion in 1983, a reduction of $604 millionfrom 1982. Obligations for R. & D. facilities will total $678 million .

in 1983, $277 million below 1982. These decreases foi energy R. &D., particularly the deerease for R. & D. facilities, reflect the pro-posed curtailment of Federal Support for major demonstration proj-ects (e.g., in fossil and solar energy conversion) consistent with theAdministration policy that such projects are more appropriatelythe responsibility of the private sector. ERTA programs by majorarea are highlighted below.

The national defense program of ERTA supports the continuefldevelopment and production .of new nuclear Weapons. This pro-gram also supports the development of improved technologies formonitoring nuclear weapons treaties and of improVed methods foksafeguarding nuclear materials. Efforts will be continued to devel-op improved technologies and methods for the safe siorage anddisposal of radioactive wastes produced by the national defense

SPEUAL ANALYSIS K

programs and to develop improve4, propulsion reactors for navalvessels.

Obligations for these activities are proposed to increase from $1.5billion in 1982 to $1.7-'7billion in 1983 for the conduct of R. & D. toassure an effective long-term nuclear weapons program. Obliga-tions for R. & D. facilities in this area will be $336 million in 1983,a.decrease of no million below.1982.

The general science and research program of ERTA primarilysupports research in high energy and nuclear physics. An increase.of $56 million to $483 million in 1983 for the conduct of R. & D.will allow continued emphasis on advanced accelerator conceptsand efforts to understand the fundamental nature and constituentsor matter at about the 1981 level of effort. Life sciences researchand research on nuclear medicine applications, \also supported aspart of the general science program, are continued at a .reducedlevel. In addition, $117 million will be obligated in 1983 for R. & D.facilities in this area, approximately the same level as 1982.

Because of the exceptional research opportunities in high energyphysics and the demonstrated excellence of the U.S. program, theadministration is committed to maintaining a strong national

\Wort id this field. The 1983 budget request f $429 ,million for theconduct of R. & D. and related facilities in this field represents a$65 million increase over 1982. This would provide for an increasedlevel of utilization of existing research facilities, expeditious com-pletion of the Energy SaVer and TEVATRON I and II projects atFermilab, research and development work at the Stanford LinearAccelerator Center leading to the planned-Stanford.Linear Colliderproject, and accelerator research and development on improvedcomponents and novel concepts. A principal thrust in this field Willbe accelerator R. & D. efforts at the Brookhaven National Labora-tory, related to a future high energy physics accelerator project.Any decision to proceed with this project will be based.on overallscientific potential and budget considerations.

The energy program of ERTA includes a broad program of sup-port in the basic energy sciences and other long-term research toprovide a scientific underpinning for advancements id energy tech-nology bx Government and industry. It also includes support forthe development of selected energy technologies of a high risk butpotentially high pay-off nature, such as magnetic fusion, wheresignificant private investment is unlikely at this time.

Obligations for the conduct of energy R. & D. are .proposed todecrease from $2.6 billion in 1982 to $1.8 billion in 1983. Obliga-tions for R, & D. facilities in this area will J;)e $224 million in 1983,

,

adecrease of $216 million below 1982.In the basic energy sciences, funding for the conduct of R. & D.

and related facilities will be increased by $40 million to $284 mil-


lion in 1983 for long-term research in such fields as nuclear sci-ence, chemistry, engineering, materials science, mathematics, biol-ogy, and geoscience. Such support is intended to strengthen thescientific,.stnd technical base for future advances in all energytichnologies. In addition, emphasis will be given to providing sup-port for the operation of several unique national user facilities,which the basic energy science program manages (e.g., the Nation-al Synchrotron Light Source at the Brookhaven National Labora-tory). In 1988, the basic energy science program, for the first time,will assume full responsibility for the Stanford Synchrotron Radi-ation Laboratory: This facility was previously funded by the Na-tional Science Foundatiom

The 1983 budget will continue the redirection of the non-nuclearR. & D. programs to emphasize long-term generic research Andplawgreater reliance on the private sector for technology develop-ment: Obligations for the conduct of R. & D. in fossil, solar, bio-mass and other renewable energy sources are expected to be $315million in 1983, down from $814 million in 1982, with an additionalreduction of $95 million for dennstration projects included undersupport for R. & D. facilities. 14fe budget provides .$107 million forthe conduct of fossil related R. & D. and associated facilities whichstrengthen the scientific base, in such areas as catalysis, kinetics,waste charicterization, flame research and coal structure. Fundingat the level of $90 million will be provided for research in supportof solar energy and energy conservation.

The 1983 budget provides for a broad nuclear program of fissionand fusion R. & D. The breeder reactor program will be funded at$577 million in 1983, Maintaining a priority on the design andconstruction of, the Clinch River Breeder Reactor (CRBR). In addi-tion, long-range research will continue in support of breeder tech-nology. Total funding for breeder R. & D. will- decrease by $108million from 1982, through curtailment of technology developmentin supPort of the follow-on Large Developmental Plant (LDP) and,through phase-out of the Light Water Breeder Reactor demonstra-tion.

In other fissionit & D., there will be a focus on Safety and wastemanagement research. The DepartMent, in cooperation with theNuclear Regulatory Commission, will conduct technical inVestiga-tions associated with the disabled .Three Mile Island (TMI) plant.This will permit a better understanding of accidents-such as theoccurrence at Three Mile Island and will help to pstevent them inthe future. Thg disabled TMI plant will serve as a source of usefuldata to aid thik-research. The budget includes $205 million in 1983for the conduct of other fission R. & D., a reduction of $47 millionbelow 1982.

156

1 t;

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

The budget request for fusion R. & D. and related facilities in1983 of $444 million, is a decrease of $10 million from the 1982level. This change consists of an increase of $66 million in theoperating budget Offset by a decrease of, $76 million in capitalequipment and construction. The increase in the operating compo-nent of the budget is based on the goal of resolving key outstandingphysics and technology issues before continuing the pace -of con7struction of new large facilities. _.

Finally, the energy R. & D. program of ERTA includes researchon the environmental effects of energy production and use whichwill continue at about the same level of effort as 1982 with empha-sis on determining the health effects of radiation and generic re-search related to synthetic fuels technology. Fundin'also will cop-tinue Jbr research to determine the relationship between the COzcon t of the atmospheric and the Earth's climate,changes.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).NOAA will continue research programs in the development ofsystems and components in such areas as mapping ,and charting;ocean research; conservation, protection and management. of- en-dangered and threatened species in the Nation's fisheries re-sources; forecasting, detection and tracking ,of weather systems andviolent storms; and air pollution. Obligations for the .conduct ofR. & D. by NOAA in 1983 will decrease slightly from $159 millionto $152 million.

National Bureau of Standards (NBS).R. & D. efforts for NBSare organized into four programs: measurement research andstandards; engineering measurement and standards; computer sci-

ences and technology; and central technical support.In 1983, NBS is- expected to obligate $76 million for the conduct

of R: & D. This is an $11 million decrease from 1082. Most of thisdecrease is related to the transfer of the governmentwide ADPstandards program' to the General Services Administration. In ad-,dition, there will be selected reductioni in activities that are moreappropriate for private sector funding (e.g., automated manufactur-ing) and increases for basic 'research activities needed to improvemeasurement techniques an standards.

Other Commeece- R. 4 D. ctivitiis.The Bureau of the Census,the Patent and Trademark Office, and the National Telecommuni-cations and Iriformation Administration also maintain smaller re-search and develonment programs. R. & D. funding for these areasin 1983.would be $12 mi4on: .

Table K-7 provides the details of the R. & D. funding by theDepartment of Commerce.

1 6:

_

,

157

..

158


Table K-7. DEPARTMENT 'OF COMMERCERESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

(0 milord el Mats)

Type of actmly 1981 actual 1382 esthete 1913 estroate

OBLIGATIONS

Conduct of R. & D.:

Enero Research and Techndory Administration 1 4,948 4,522 3:§17

National defense , (1,347) (1,504) (1,684)General sciences (395) (427) (483)Enerb research (3,206) (2,590) (1,750)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 201 159 152

National Bureau of Standards - 83 88 76

Other department activities 44 24 - 12

, Total conduct of R. & D - 5,276 4,793 4,157

Total conduct of basic research, included above (608) (665) (762)R. & D. facilities:

Energy Research and Technolov Administration 981 955 678

National defense (319) (396) (336)General sciences (126) (119) (117)Energy research (536) (440) (224)

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1 0 0

National Bureau of Standards 0 . . 9 3

Total R & D. faalities 982 964 681

Total obligations 6,258 5,757 4,838

OUTLAYS ,

Conduct of R. & D - 5,466' 5,240 4,352

R. & D. facilities . 1,112 1,191 644

Total, outlays 6,578 6,431 4,995

fame* peovarns of the Departemot ot Dori

TEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICE'S

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) obliga-tions in 1983 for the conduct. of R. & D. would increase by $150million over the 1982 level to tt total of $.4.1 billion. Within this

. total, funding for basic research will increase by $69 million to $2.1billion. Obligations for R. & D. facilities will total $20 million in1983. This represents a substantial decline from the $62- millionprovided in 1582. However, it should be noted that the relativelyhigher level in 1982 was primarily due to the nonrecurring cosfor a single large projectconstruction of pew research headquar-ters for the Food and Drug Administrationfor which $35 millionwas.provided in 1982. .

Health.Over 85% of the Department's, funds for the conduct of.R. & D. and over 90% of the department's basic research funds areobligated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) for biomedicalresearch to advance the Nation's capabilities for the prevention,diagnosis, and treatment of disease. R. & D. programs in health-related research also are supported by several other agencies

(.;

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

within the Department. The 1983 budget will also provide for-Con-tinuation of these health research efforts in the Alco'hol, DrugAbuse, and Mental Health Administration, the Food and DrugAdministration, the Centers for Disease Control, the Health Serv-.ices Administratimth : ^ dministrationrand the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health.

The National Institutes of Health would obligate $3.5 billion in1983, an increase of $106 million above the 1982 level; over one-halfor $1.9 billion of NIH's total 1983 B. & D. budget would supportbasic research. Among the most significant activities to be support-ed by NIH are:

Basic research on fundarnental 'life processes in health anddisease;Clinical research designed to transfer and apply the results ofbasic science to intervention, including development and re-finement of techniques, processes, methods; and practices;Cooperative clinical trials of new antiviral drugs againstneonatal herpes, herpes encephalitis, herpes genitalis, andrhinoviruses; 4

*Basic and clinical research into the gause, Cui4,- and preven-tion of aiabetes;

(Targeted research in epidemiology and risk estimation; 'andTest development related to reProductive toxicology, fertility

.

assessment, and neurological toxicology.The Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration

would conduct studies of mental disease and neurological di§orders,biomedical factors and health effects of drug abuse, and causes andcOnsequences of alcohol abuse; with emphasis 'on strengtheningprevention activities.

Specific research areas would include:the use of computerized imaging techniques for mappingmetabolic processes of the human brain;the role of endorphins and enkephalins in addiction and sub:stance abuse;the role of genetic factors in alcoholism; and the -role of alco-hol in fetal defects.

The Food and Drug Administration would support research rele-vant to its mission of regulating food, drugs, and biological andradiological products.

The Centers for Disease Control would continue studies on theepidemiology and control of communicable diseases and on healthpromotion and disease prevention.

Other Health Related -Agencies within HHS would support re-search in areas such as -treatment and control of Hansen's disease;survey methods and techniques for analysis of health s cs; andthe organization, delivery, and financing of health se ices. is

St

" 159

/16°At.

THE BUDGET FOR FIS6AL YEAR 1983

supPort will be provided through programs of the Health ServicesAdministration, the OffiCe of the Assistant Secretary for Healthand the Health Care Financing Administration.

Hunian.Services..The Department's obligations for R. & D. inhuman services programs inf 1983 would be *100 million, $9 millionabove 1982. These funds would be devoted to research related to the'missions of the Office of Human DeveloPment .SerVices and theSocial Security Administration and to policy research condticted onbehalf of departmental management.

Table K-84rovides the details of,the R. & D. funding of theDepartment of Health and Human Services.

Table K-8 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICESRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

(m Mons of alas)

las ol activity sat a/nab:oat tads 1981 actual 1982 estatate 1983 atmate

OBLIGATIONS ,Conduct of ii & D - t

Health: -

National Institutes of Health

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration

Food and Drug Administration

Centers for Disease Control '

Health Resources Administration.,

Health Care Financing Administration -

Office of Assistant 'Secretary for Health.

Health Services klministrationSpecial Foreign Obrrency program ..

Subtotal, Health...

.,Human Wins:

.

, Office of Human Development Services

ke

.

3,332

286

71

74

5

39

35

.19

1

3,427

256

73

68

2

- 30

20

3

2

3,533

289

1, 75

74

30

20

. 1

1

3,862 . 3,884 4,023

70

'56 59

25

15

Social Security-AdMinistration ,...

Departmental Management r. .

-Subtotal, Human Services .

Total conduct of R. & p

'Total confluct of basic research, included above

I. & D. facilities

Total obligations. .

OUTLAYS

'nnduct of R: & D.

!....8, D facilities .

- Tad outlayi.

z320

21

43.

112 91 ioo

3,973 ° '3,972 4,122 '

(1,955)25

(2,000)62

(2,069)20

3,999 - 4,034 4,142

3,991

43

3,935

35

4,039

38

, 4,034-

. 31971 4,078

DiATIONAL CE1OUNDATIONA

The National Science Foundati (NSF) pritharily supports basicresearch in all scientific disciplin s through grants, largely to ki-entists and engineers in academic institutions. The Foundation'ssupport is of particular significance because it compleinents the

SPECIAL ANALYSIS 'K

basic research programs of mNsion agencies, such as the Depart-ment of Defense and the National Institutes of Health, and helpsto balance Federal, support across all fields of sciende and engineer-ing. . .

NSF obligations for the conduct of R. & D. would increase from$961 million in -1982 to $1,033 million in 1983, an increase of $72million above 1982. In addition, $16 million wjll be obligated ihr

. research facilities and major equipment in 1983, $6 million Abovethe 1982 level. Funding for basic research programs would increasefrom $912 million in 1982 to $964 million in 1983.

These increases will allow primarily for . cost increases due toinflation in research project support, partially offset by reductionsin some lower priority activities. Specifically, the 1983 budgetwould:

Provide an increase over 1982 in the support by NSF ofresearch in the natural sciences and engineering that wouldmore than offset the estimated cost increases due-to inflation.Emphasize support of the mathematical- and physical sciences(particularly computer,,sciences), engineering and the earthsciences largely hecause of the importance-Of these disciplinesto the long-term technological advancement and economicstrength of the Nation.Continue supportpf TJ.S. 'activities in the:Antarcticmanagedby the NSFat approximately the ongoing level of effort.This support is continued because of the importance pf theAntarctic as an area where a number of nations'conductvaluable scienteic research.in peaceful coexistence under theterms of the Ahtarctic .Treaty, of which the U.S. is a signa-'tory.

. Continue ,1441SF's research fellowship program, as a comple-ment to the Foundation support of research. HoNeVer, otherlower priority science education activities previously support- ,

ed by the NSF would be phased out in 1083.Provide incrktses in 1982 and *1983 over the previously re-duced level of the adminiskration's 1982 (March) budget forthe social, behavioral and economic sciences to allow contin-ued funding for relatively higher priority areas. Examplesinclude maintenance of long-term data bases, methodological .improvements and quantitative research which are-importantto the continued development of these disciplines as fields pfscientffic inquiry.Emphasize, within the funds provided for the -conduct of re-.search, support for upgrading research instrumentation.

1 ,z 161


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The Department, of Agriculture supports research and develop-ment in several disciplines .related to agriculture and forestry..

Obligations of the Department for the conduct of research. anddevelopment are estimated to total $838 million in 1983, comparedto $807 million in 1982, an inc;ease of $31 million.

The Department's 1983 budget is highlighted- below by agency:The Agricultural Research Service would obligate $454 million

for research on protection of plants and animals against diseasesand pests, and on the conservation, use and improvement of &Oil,water and air resources.

The Cooperative State Research Service would obligate $223 mil-lion to maintain support of the cooperative program with the land-grant institutions and to expand the competitive grants for basicplant reseArch.

In additicinc$9 milliomIN%ould be provided to initiate a 5-year, $50million, facilities improvement program for the 1890 Colleges andthe Tuskegee Institute.

The forest Service would obligate $98 million to improvb knowl-edge needed to manage and prothct forest and related rangelandresources to meet demands- for their use. Research will be conduct-ed on: genetics, silviculture and, timber management, watershedmanagement, range and fish habitats, protection for forest re--,sources from fire and forest pests, sufface environthent ,endmining, forest engineering and utilization, and _economics of forestcommodity production, processing and distribution. .

In addition, $62 million would be obligated for other areas, suchas economic research,-international cooperation and development,agricultural marketing, transportation of commodities, statisticalreporting, arid agricultural cooperatives.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR *

The Department of the Interior's R. & D. activities derive from abroad range of responsibilities, ranging from' encouraging wise de-

. velopment -of the Nation's energy. nd nonenergy mineral, water,lend, and kecreaiion resources to managing those resources on thepublic lands; in,the public interest. , .

Obligations for the conduct of R. & D. for the Department ofInterior for 1983 are estimated at $371, million. This represents adecrease'of approximately $27 million from the 1982 level, primar-- ily in areas of geological hazards, and mining development anddemonstrations: .

The,.Departinent's research objectives for 1983 are highlighted. below by major organization.. ' .

The Bureau' of Land Management and The -Bureau of Reclama-- tion would continue, programs in watershed.ctnservation and devel-

,

162 .1

-

p.

7-

Vet.

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

opment, timber and range forage production, wildlife habitat,water resources planning and-research, and dam safety. .

74he Fish and ,Wildlife Service would emphasize R. & D..activitieswhich:

Improve the quality of habitats and the availability of fishand wildlife; andContribute to population control methods and preserve endan-gered species of fish and wildlife. ,

The National Park Service would emphasize rei,earch in ar-cheology and.the natural and social sciences.

In energy and minerals R. & D., A small overall reduction ineffok is proposed. Decreases are proposed in the Geological Surveyand the Bureau of Mines, with a sinall increase for the Office ofSurface Mining.

The Geologil Survey reaearch priorities would include:Developing accurate appraisal and exploratioh techniques 'to

. determine mineral resources;Developing basic data on geological:principles ,aiur processes;Understanding theiways to appraise 'and evaluate our:waterresources; andImproving uses.of satellite acquired data in Earth and marinesciences.

The Bureau of Mines would stress:Health and safety in mines and processing plants;Helping, the Nation become less dependent on foreign miner-als; and- to.

ProtectIon of the environment during niifieral extraction._The Office of Surface Mining research plans involve' studies deal-

ing with regulations compliance, Monitoring of coal mining oper-, ations and ecological investigations.

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

The Department of Transportatioh's R. & am is orientedtoward prOviding ihe information and new technology needed forits own operational (e.g., air traffic control) and" regulatory (e.g.,automotive safety standards) Rriagrams. Obligations for the conductof research and develoPment by the,Department are estimated at$366 million for 1983, an' increase of $37 million over 1982. TheDepartment's 1983 budget is highlighted below by agenoY.

The Federal Aviation AdminiAtration,(FAA) is expected to obli-gate $152 million' in 1983. The proposed 1983 R. & D. obigations forFAA represent an increase over 1982 of.$46 million. This increase'will allow greater emphasis on engineering work'ori the 'nationalair traffic control system, and on emerging technology to improvecollision avoidance systems nd enhance enroute and terminal airtraffic control systems.

-I I.

163

. THE BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1983

The National Highway 71-affieSafity-Administration-wou1ci-obli-gate $59 million for motor vehicle research, traffic safety research-and demonstrations, and other statistical and analytical studiei.An increase is proposed in 1983 for continuing the National Acci-dent Samplings, system which piovides nationally representativeaccident and injury data, and for focusing analysis on major traffic

. accidents.The Vrba.n Mass Transportation Administration plans to'bbligate,

$44 million" to assist in the development of improved mass trans-portation- systems, equipment and procedures. Emphasis will beplaced on assisting existing proven transit systems. '

The Federal Highway Administration would obligate $4..1 millionto continue research programs in highway planning, detign, con-struction, and maintenance to insure an effective and efficient ,

higliway system. Research would .also be conducted in identifying,and correcting impediments to highway safety and on imProvingcommon carrier safety.

The Feikal Railroad Administration would obligate $20 millioht,O Continue its emphasis on safety research. A $16 million redub-

li tion in funding from the 1982 level woula eliminate nearly all-.nonsafety research.

The' Maritime AdministratiOn, would obligate $18 million to im-prove the productivity and "Competitive posture .of the-U.S. mail:time industries. InCreised funds are provided to sUpport-icebreak-_.ing vessels .iri the Arctic for R, & D. and increased ship reseaich.

The U.S. Coast. Guard irould obligate $15 million to supportres9rch to maintain and improve Searich ,and rescue systems, envi-ronmental protection, marine safety, and aids to navigation. The ,proposed 1983 figure represents a decrease of $3 million for R. & D,from the 1982 level.

The Research and Special Programs' Administration wOuld oblf-gate $8 Million to suPport emergency preparedness and mobiliza-tion efforts and to sUpport-TA hazardous materials'ana pipelinesafety regulatory Programs.

The ,Offwe of the Secretary woukr obligate $8 million for broad-. based policy researchon domestic and, international transportation

issues of importandd,to the Nation.< -

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY;- ""

- 164

"The Environmentsl Protection Agency (EPA) conducts researchand development in supt)ort. of.the Akency'S regulatory and en-forcement mission to protect human health and the environment.The A. & D. request for 1983 reflects a focusing-on the highestPriority research areas. These areas eniphasize -tfie following

.

1' '1

-

I.

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

Benefit and risk assessment in support of Agency regulatorydecisions and impact analysit activities;Scientific support and technology transfer activities to helpdevelop- and install cost-effective polhition control technol-ogies; andImproved scientific quality through peer review, quality as-

.. surance guidelines, and speciaily designed information sys-.

tem.%Total obligations for the conduct -of R. & D. are estimated -to

decrease from $317 million in 1982 to $23Q million in 1983. EPA's.actiyities by area are highlighted below. . .. ,

-The air research: program Would be reduced front, '1982 by $8Million to a level of $27 rhillioh in 1983. The research will evaluateand establish national ambient air quality stahdards; new source'performance standards, and emisaion standards for hazardous airpollutants and mobile-source pollutants. EPA research into healtheffects of air pollution will continue past efforts to assess actualhuman exposure. Research on the 'effects of diesel engine exhatistwill be reduced, reflecting attainhient of EPA's current informationgoals for 1982. .

The water qualitx-researe4 program expec ate $13 mil-lion in 1983, a decrease. of $15 million from the 1982 evel. In the'municipal wastewater 'program, activities that are re appropri-ately condhcted by the private engineering community, such asdesign engineering, are being eliminated. All extramural researchin the water quality program will be eliminated, shifting all futureactivities to in-house R. & D. labs. The engineering-ielated extra:mhral research of the industrial iiastewater prograth is being re-duced, due, to near completion of the effluent limitations effort.

The drinking water research program would decrease by $6 mil-lion to a level ,,of $15 million in 2983. The program will continue toevaluate data on the incidence and health effects of contaminants,evaluate alternate disinfectant techniques, provide a national qual-ity assurance program, and carry out research related to. the'prob-lems of small systems. Research on the nature .and movemeht ofcontamination in subsurface waters, will be expanded.

The hazardous wdste program Would obligate $18 million in 1983,decrease of $4 Million below the 1982 level. This research will

support the,development of methods and protocols for the regula-tory.program inVolving assessihg risks to human health and ensur-ing quality control. Research will continue On developing a betterunderstanding of the various hazardous waste control technologies.

The pesticide research prograM would obligate $3 million, .anincrease of $1 million over 1982. The research program supportsdevelopment of inpthods fOr measuring and assessing human expo-sure to pesticides and the ecological effects of pesticides, risk as-

.

V-1

165

. .46e,t

W.


sessments; and development of "improved methods for detectingchemical and biological pesticides.

The mcliation research pvgram, would deerease by $.5 million, to .a level of $0.4 million in 1983. These reductions occui. in .lowerpriority research areas, such as nonioiiizing radiation, which at*not -directly related to statutory mandates.

The toxic sutntance program would total $14 Million for. 1983, adecrease of $6 million. Research will support the development ofmore effective techniques, models and data bases to predict healtheffects of new chemicals. Development of methodologies and models*for defining exposure and risk will be continued. -

The energy program, which includes activities related to theimpact and regulation of fossil fuel combustion and synthetic fuels,is projected at a level of $36 milion in 1983, a decrease of $19million below 1982. Emphasis will continue to be placed on assess-ing the health and environmental impacts of synthetic fueli, evalu-ating control technology options, and providing the regions andStates with indirect technical expertise. The. 1983 funding includes$12 million to support a major government-wide effort to assess thesources and effects of acidrain.

Siiperfund Research in 1983 shows a reduction of $6 million, to alevel of $4 million: This reduction is a result of the fast start-uprequired to implement Superfund and the fact that much of1theinformation'needed for developing guidelines and protocols and fordeveloping the required cleanup and safety manuals will be com- '

pleted in l.982. Funds for this .program are derived from the Haz-ardous Substance Response Trust Fund, as opposed -to general rev-enues.

NUCLEAR REGULATORY cplpussIoN

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) performs research'incivil uses of nuclear materials and facilities consistent with publichealth and safety, environmental quality, atid national security. Amajor share of NRC's effort is devoted to research on the use ofnuclear energy to generate electric power. Its research objective isto provide safety and analytical methods for assuring the, quality ofNRC's licensing procedures and regulatory work.

NRC's obligations for the conduet of R. & D.-are expect-ed to decrease from $223 to $220 million. In 1983, key areas, suchas accident evaluation and mitigation and systems and reliabilityanalysis will be strengthened. Additionally, reactor safety .research,principally On-the Clinch River, Fast Breeder Reactor, will-be in-

- cred 1983 The Loss of Fluid Test-Facility experimental- pro-PAP lanned to be completed in 1982: 'Funding for loss-of-doolan cidents and .transfent research Will, therefore; be reduced

.More than offsettiVroposed increases..

V.

SPECIAL ANALYSIS K

AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Research and, development activities of the Agency for Interna-tional Development (AID) consist mainly of applied research tosolve specific problems associated with basic human needs develop;ment and social arid ecOnOinic research aimed . at improvingand host country understanding of the major obstacles tt suchdevelopment:

Programs in this area reflect the administration's recognition ofthe importance of R. & D. in addressing the 'development problemsfaced by the Third World.

Obligations of, AID for the cond ct & D. are estimated at$186 million in 1983, an increase of $26 milli over 982:-

Most of AID's 1983 R. &Z. funds will be dev three- criticalproblems: Food production, with an emphasis on affecting develop-ing country efforts to overcome the growing food crisis; population.growth, emphasizing methods of controlling increasing populationgrowth rates in the developing countries; and energy supply, em-phasizing Tenewable and nonconventional energy sources critiCalfor development to proceed. . .

VETERANS ADMINISTRATION-

The Veterans Administration (VA) conducts and administers.medical, rehabilitative, and health services research: In 1983 thisagency would obligate $.145 -millionan increase of- $8 million over1982, for the aoilduct of R. & D.

The VA intramural bioniedical research program is designed to ,

benefit patients through increased quality and effectiveness ofhealth care delivery. Piioritieslor 1983 include special research onalcoholism, geriatrics ana hypertension.

In rehabilitative research, the ,V4.- works to deVelop and 'test%prosthetic, ortholiedic, and adaptive equipment for iihp-roving the.:.care ,and rehabilitation of disabled veterans, including amputees,paraplegics and the blind.. The health services research program supports projects at VA .

health care facilities to improve- the delivery and accessibility ofHealth services to veterans. -The preventive health program begunlast year will. be continued in 1983.

FOUNDATION FOR EDUCATION ASSISTANCE

The proposed Foundation for Education Assistance will con-tinne to support a variety of R. & D. activities in 1983. Includedamong those activities will be basic and applied educational re-search; tHe conduct of surveys, evahltions and experiments in the'field of education;.the funding of developmental and dmpnstri onprojects; the akessment of the performance of children and adults

:

167

7.


in' reading, mathematics, communiCation and citizeliship:skills; thecollection; analyses and reporting- of statistics and other data yelat-ed to education; and-the dissemination of information and fmdings:-

.. The Foundation exRects, in '1983, -to obligate a total of $76-- 'million for the conduct of R. & D. -

- In addition to its-general yesearch and data gathering activities,the-Foundation will Carry out R. & D.-activities related.to-tl)e areas

. of vocational and adult education for the handigapped;. education...programs for persons with Ihnited English proficiency, and develbp---inetitaiiivities that provide technical support forihe dfsseminationaétivities of the Foundation.

OTHER AGENCY PROGRAMS

An additional 15 agencies (listed in table K-2, footnote 1) wouldobligate an estimated $272 million in 1983, foi the conduct.of R &D., a decrease of $7 million below the 1982 total. Obligations bythese agencies amount to less than 1% of all federallY fundedprograms in R. & D. The progiams of these.egenciet, Ike Chose ofother-agencies discussed above, are closely related to the agencies'missions:

, Among the-agenda in this category that expect to increase their.obligatiOns for R. & D. in 1983 are the Smithsonian Institution, theArmy Corps of Engineers, the- Arms Control and DisarmamentAgency, and the federal Emergency-iWanagement Agency. .

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Tablek.K-4 provides information on the long-term trends in Fed-eral funding for the conduct of R. & D.

168

t

SPECIAL ANALI''SIS K.

Table K-9. TRENDS IN CONDUCT OF R. & D.

(Ctiptorm ee taws of deflars,_

. - Y. Defense ,

,1.11 Om

1953.

1954

1955

1956

1957.

1958_

1959.

1960

1961, ,

1962 .1963...1964

1965

1966. ,

1967.

1968 .:

1969.

1970...

1971.-

1972..

1973

1974.

1975: ..

1976..

1977.. , ..

1978

1979

1980..1981

1982 (estimate)

1983 (estimate)

-

.

41 V

°

,.,

.

.q.

,

-.

' .',

_

0-

'

-,

.

..

'

. .,

.

V"

-

.

,

. .

2.8

2.52.2

2.5

3.3

3,8

5.6

6.1

7.0

7.2

7 8

7.8a7.5

L68.3

8.4

8.0

8.1

8.9

9.0

9.0

9.7

10.4

11.9

12.6

13.6

15.1

17.8

22.1

26.2

.3

.3

.4

.5

.6

.8

1.1

1.5

2.1

3.1

4.7

- .6.47.3

7.8

7.9

7.6

7.2

7.1

7.4

7.6

7.8

8.4

9.3

10.4

12.1

13.8

. 15.416.6

17.2

16,8

16.8

3.1

2.9

2.6

3.0

3.9

4.6

6.7

7.6

9J10.3

12.5

14.2

14.6

1015.9

- 15.6

15:3

15.5

16.5

16.8

17.4

19.0

20.8

24.0

26.4

29.0

31.7

35.0

38.8

41.0

kite* metarprelated I & D. protrams of the Departments of Defense and Commerce

\

169