Ecuador English

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

ECUADOR

byDr. Raul Vera


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The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not implythe expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, cityor area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The men-tion of specic companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented,does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others ofa similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarilyreect the views of FAO.

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FAO 2006


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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 5

Livestock and poultry 6

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 7

Topography 7

Soils 7

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 8

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 11

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 12

Coastal pastures 13

Andean pastures 13

Introduced pastures in the Andes 15

Pastures of the eastern region 15

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES 15

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 16

8. REFERENCES 17

9. CONTACTS 18

10. THE AUTHOR 19


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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5

1. INTRODUCTION

Ecuador, the smallest of the Andean countries, borders with Colombia to the N and NE, with Peru to the

S and SE, and with the Pacific Ocean to the West. It lies between 1 20 N and 4 58 S, and 75 10 and

81 10 West (see Figure 1). Its capital is Quito. Its surface area is 283 561 km (with small variationsaccording to different sources of information) not counting the disputed 174 565 km allocated to Per

according to the Ro de Janeiro Protocol (1942) to which Ecuador has not yet agreed.

Ecuadors population, of which 62% is urban, was estimated at 11 900 000 in 2000 by the Army

Geographic Institute (according to the World Factbook estimated population in July 2006 was

13 547 510 with a growth rate of 1.5%). The population is characterized by a high percentage of mixed

race (mestizos) and indigenous people: in fact, mestizos form 55% of the population, Amerindians 25%,

Caucasians 10% and blacks 10%. The majority live in the interandean central highlands (Sierra), and

include close to 700 ethnic groups, many of which do not speak Spanish but only the native Quechua.

They are largely farmers, and in many cases practise old agricultural traditions. In the eastern, Amazon

portion of the country and the coastal (Costa) areas, the indigenous population is smaller. The

distribution of the population is as follows: 50% along the coastal region (77 persons/km), 47% in theSierra (68 persons/ km) and 3% in the eastern (Oriente) area (3 persons/km).

Ecuador is predominantly agricultural (Ecuador, 2001), despite oil having become its main source

of revenue and industry having expanded substantially. The per capita gross national product ranged

between USD 1 200 and USD 1 600 in the last decade. Ecuadors human development index was 0.726

in 1999 (UNDP, 2001). Agriculture employs 32% of the workforce and provides 1317% of the gross

national product. Animal production contributes

approximately a third of this amount (SICA/

MAG, 2002). Agricultural imports over 1999

2001 ranged between USD 199 and 267 mil-

lion FOB, whereas exports amounted to USD

1 4621 968 million FOB (SICA/MAG, 2002).

Half of the agricultural exports are bananas andplantains; shrimps, coffee, cocoa, cut flowers and

fish make up the rest. The evolution of important

indicators of agricultural production in Ecuador

is shown in Table 1.

The area under cultivation is 3 100 000 ha,

nearly 9.3% of the countrys area. Permanent pas-

ture covers 18% of the country and forests nearly

43%; 30% is uninhabited mountains. In the high-

lands, subsistence agriculture and the production

of staples for the urban areas are predominant

(maize, wheat, barley, potatoes, pulses, and vari-ous vegetables). In the coastal lowlands, tropical

crops are mainly grown for export. Since the late

1940s bananas have been the main commercial

crop of this region. Large-scale production of

cocoa for export began in the 1870s. Production

of coffee for export began in the 1920s.

Ecuadors forests produced 8 700 000 m3 of

timber in 1986. Livestock, raised mainly in

the highland region, included 3 800 000 cattle,

2 100 000 sheep and 4 200 000 pigs in 1987.

Data on land use vary widely and were often

considered by analysts as unreliable or at best

an approximation of actual numbers. In the

mid-1980s, for example, estimates of cropland Figure 1. Location and map of Ecuador


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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile6

ranged from 1 600 000 to 2 500 000 ha

out of a total land area of 228 300 000 ha.

Different sources put the amount of

pasture at 4 400 000 or 4 800 000 ha.

Estimates for the total land area suitablefor agriculture showed an even wider

variation, from less than 50% to as high as

90%. Over half of the cultivated land was

in the Costa, about a third in the Sierra,

and the remainder dispersed throughout

the Oriente region. Nevertheless, the last

available census (2000), developed with

foreign aid, appears reliable.

The Costa, apart from the area near the Santa Elena Peninsula, has generally fertile land with a

climate conducive to agriculture. Altitude, rainfall and soil composition determine land use in the Sierra.

The intermontane basins near Quito and farther south near Cuenca and Loja offer the most productiveSierra lands, whereas the basins surrounding Latacunga and Riobamba have dry and porous soil and the

least fertile lands. Higher areas of the Sierra contain grasslands suitable only for grazing or cold-tolerant

crops, such as potatoes.

Land tenure patterns evolved from Spanish colonial feudal systems and were first implemented in the

Sierra where the Spanish encountered large native populations that gave rise to a predominance of small

plots and farms (minifundios). Large-scale agriculture developed later in the Costa. A land reform law,

enacted in 1964, outlawed systems inherited from colonial times and set up the Ecuadorian Institute of

Agrarian Reform and Settlement (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Reforma Agraria y Colonizacin IERAC) to

administer the law and to expropriate idle arable land for redistribution to farmers. The law was reviewed

in the early 1970s. Despite many political and financial difficulties, by 1984 over 700 000 ha had been

distributed to 79 000 peasants.

Although current land tenure in Ecuador is somewhat skewed, it is less so than in the rest of the LatinAmerican countries, as shown by a Gini coefficient of 0.43 for the 1990s. The 19992000 agricultural

census (SICA/MAG, 2002) reveals that out of 1 700 000 holdings, 67% were in the Sierra, 26% in the

Costa and the reminder in the Oriente. Overall, farms of under 5 ha represented 63% of all holdings,

but occupied only 6.3% of the agricultural land. Farms of 520, 2050 and 50100 ha were evenly

distributed in terms of agricultural land, occupying between 14 and 19% each. Farms over 200 ha were

0.78% of the total number and had 29% of the total land.

Livestock and poultry

Livestock raising represents an important part of agricultural output and has grown significantly in

the last 20 years. Livestock was produced primarily for domestic consumption and was one of the few

agricultural products found throughout the country. Although animal husbandry was widespread, it wasgenerally practised on small plots of land.

Ecuador produced a total of 2 M and 2.5 M tonnes of milk in 2000 and 2004 respectively (FAO data-

bases, 2006) and 170 620 and 212 000 tonnes of beef and veal. Both products grew in the 1900s at rates

of 4.1% and 4.5% per year respectively, whereas the stock of cattle grew at only 2.97% per year. On

the other hand, the stock of goats has remained nearly stagnant, while that of sheep grew 2.9% over the

same period. Milk equivalent imports are still substantial with 5 042 Mt in 2000 and 6 243 Mt in 2004,

although these have fallen from 11 650 in 1995 and a high of 53 158 in 1998 (presumably reflecting the

earthquake of 1997).

The Costa and Oriente regions produce mainly beef and dual purpose cattle with dairy cattle found

mostly in the Sierra. Cattle graze on Costa land otherwise unsuited for agriculture, such as the hilly

terrain in Manab Province, seasonally flooded river plains or semi-arid parts of the far south. Dairying

in the Sierra is carried on typically in fertile valleys, particularly between Riobamba and the Colombian

border. Beef cattle are relatively new to the Oriente, although large areas of land are suitable for grazing.

The beef industry in the Oriente suffered a serious setback in 1987 when an earthquake damaged roads

Table 1. Indices of agricultural production and landresources of Ecuador 19902000

1990 2000

Physical volume of agricultural production, index 100.3 146.6

Physical volume of agricultural crops, index 100.0 156.1Physical volume of livestock production, index 100.1 153.6

Per capita food production, index 100.2 142.7

Arable land, 1 000 ha 1 604 1 574

Permanent crops, 1 000 ha 1 321 1 427

Irrigated land, 1 000 ha 820 865

Bananas and plantains, 1 000 tonnes 4 120 6 953

Consumption of fertilizers, tonnes 67 218 160 400

(CEPAL, 2001)


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used to transport the beef. Ecuador had about 3 700 000 beef cattle in 1985, but by 2005 the number had

increased to almost 5.0 M (4 951 390 according to FAOSTAT).

The 1980s saw an improvement in stock with the introduction of European and Asian breeds. The

native Creole breed represented about half of all cattle, with the rest being crosses between Creole

and Holstein, Brown Swiss, or Jersey for dairy, and Creole and Santa Gertrudis or Charolais for beef.

The absence of veterinarians and medicines remained a problem, however, and diseases and parasites

plagued many herds.

Besides cattle, livestock include pigs, sheep, and some goats. For pigs, FAO data indicates 1.4 M in

2001, whereas the latest country survey (2000) records 1.53 M; the greatest concentration was in coastalareas. The FAOSTAT figure for 2004 was 1.77 M pigs and 1.95 M in 2005. Current stocks of ruminant

animals are shown in Table 2.

In early 2001, the stock of South American camelids was estimated (White, 2001) to include 1 700

vicunas (Vicugna vicugna), 10 000 llamas (Lama glama)and 4 600 alpacas (Lama pacos). The last two are

domesticated. Camelids are largely grazed on high altitude commons, including national parks and reserves.

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

TopographyEcuador is divided into three continental regions the Costa, Sierra and Oriente areas, plus one insular

region the Galpagos Islands (Ecuador, 2001). The Coastal region is located between the Pacific Ocean

and the Andes Mountains, and consists of lowlands and mountains. The lowlands are generally below

200 m, whereas the coastal mountains (Cordillera Costanera) do not exceed 1 000 m. The width of the

Costa ranges between 15 and 150 km.

The Sierra includes two major chains of the Andes Mountains that run NorthSouth, the Cordillera

Occidental (Western Chain) and Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Chain) respectively, and intermontane

basins in between. The Western Chain contains Ecuadors highest peak, 6 267 m Mount Chimborazo,

and the Eastern Mountains consists of the Andean piedmont and eastern lowlands. Several transverse

mountains cross the two chains, thus dividing the intermontane plateaus into ten basins. The main trans-

versal is the Nudo del Azuay, and divides the Sierra into two subregions the area of modern volcanismto the north and the area of ancient volcanism to the south. The former area consists of newer, higher

mountains than those in the ancient volcanism section, which with time have eroded to lower levels.

Conventionally, the area located above 3 500 m is identified as the Paramo.

The Oriente consists of two subregions: the Andean piedmont and the Eastern lowlands. The pied-

mont drops from a height of 3 353 m to the lowlands, which spread out at an altitude of 150 to 300 m.

Soils

The extremely variable topography of the country is associated with a complex mosaic of soils.

The coastal littoral, located between the Pacific Ocean and the western Andes, possesses an abundance

of hydromorphic soils particularly in the well-watered parts, which have moderate to low drainage

and moderate fertility. It contains soils derived from deposits of diverse origins influenced by volcanic

activity of the Andes, aeolian transport of volcanic ashes and alluvial deposits, all subjected to intense

weathering.

Table 2. Stock of ruminant animals, 19802005 (selected years)

Year

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Cattle (000) 3 005.4 3 730.4 4 359.4 4 995.0 4 486.0 4 657.0 4 486.0 4 657.0 4 794.3 4 951.4

Goats 256 835 286 710 310 590 295 000 279 000 272 560 205 276 230 000 240 000 250 000

Sheep (000) 1 096.8 1 080.3 1 419.9 1 692.0 2 195.9 2 249.0 2 380.7 2 390.0 2 880.0 2 550.0

(FAO database 2005, data for camelids not available)


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In the temperate Andean ecozone(see below under ecozones), soils vary somewhat depending upon

rainfall. It should be noted that classification of Andean soils is notoriously complex; details and equiva-

lencies between systems of classification are available (Quantin, 1986; FAO, 2001; FAO-CSIC, 2002).

The portion of the temperate area frequently classified as a low montane spiniferous steppe, with rainfallof less than 500 mm, includes the following soils (Len-Velarde and Izquierdo, 1993): (a) Durandept,

sandy loams, with a calcareous layer located above a duripan placed at a depth of 70 cm these are soils

that if irrigated support a variety of annual crops, lucerne, oats and Kikuyu grass; (b) Durustoll, generally

located on slopes, over fine ashes and also with an underlying duripan; (c) Eutrandept, loamy soils with

very fine ash, low water retention, pH 7; and lastly (d) Torripsamment, very sandy soils, with less than

1% organic matter and pH 8. Farms surveyed in this area by Ramrez et al. (1996) had soils with pH 5.2

to 6.7, acidity increasing with altitude, generally low in organic matter (OM), and always very low P

(< 4 ppm). When rainfall increases to 5001 000 mm, the zone is classified as low montane dry forest,

and includes very variable soils, most frequently derived from volcanic ashes. These are clayey loams,

black soils, that support productive stands of lucerne if irrigated. The low montane humid forest zone is

encountered in areas with 1 000 to 2 000 mm, and has similar soils to the previous one.

The cold temperate ecozone (see below) is found at high altitudes. Within it, the Paramo (or cold

high steppe) is the typical landscape, receiving 250500 mm rainfall. In general terms, Paramo soils

are of volcanic origin; these include soils derived from recent volcanic ashes, and those derived from

metamorphic and igneous rocks (Medina and Mena, 2001). Those of the northern and central Paramos

are generally Andisols, young, undifferentiated, high in organic matter, with high water retention capac-

ity, highly permeable and resistant to erosion. Nevertheless, once they lose these physical properties

as consequence of compaction, they begin to repel water. Soils of the southern Paramos are generally

Inceptisols, derived from metamorphic rocks, older than the previous one, less fertile but have less

capacity than the former to immobilize P.

Soils in farms surveyed by Ramrez et al. (1996) in the Paramos had pH 5.86.2, high OM (615%),

high K and trace amounts of available P. Soils in the interandean regions are highly eroded (de Noni,Viennot and Trujillo, 198990) and it has been estimated that 48% of the national territory has some

degree of erosion (Ecuador, 2001, see below).

Soils of the Amazon piedmont, on the eastern slope of the Andes, are mostly Inceptisols of low to

medium fertility (Hicks et al.,1990). Thus, farms surveyed by Ramrez et al. (1996) had soils with pH

55.8, frequently high OM (> 5%) particularly if associated with poor drainage, P < 3 ppm and moderate

to low K. In the lowland plains three main types of soils are recognized (Estrada et al., 1988): (a) alluvial

sandy soils in the flatter portions along the rivers, seasonally cultivated with a variety of crops; (b) black,

fertile volcanic soils, in the plains located N of the Napo River, and (c) red ultisols in broken hills,

characteristically acid and of low fertility.

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

The coastal area has a tropical humid climate (Ecuador, 2001). Temperatures for the region range

between 23 C in the south and 26 C in the north. Although seasonal changes in temperature are not

pronounced, the hottest period is during the rainy season, especially from February to April. Near

Guayaquil, the coolest months are August and September. Rainfall decreases north to south, with veg-

etation changing from tropical rainforest in the north to tropical savannas and desert in the south. These

phenomena are associated with the Peruvian (Humboldt) Current and periodic appearances of El Nio.

When the Peruvian Current is dominant, the amount of precipitation along the coast varies from north

to south, with levels ranging from 3 000 mm to 300 mm. Two rainy seasons in the northernmost part

of the coast become a single season (December through June) in the south. Near Esmeraldas, average

annual rainfall is 2 500 mm. The rainy season shortens farther south, lasting only from January to May

at Guayaquil. Very little rainfall occurs on the end of the Santa Elena Peninsula west of Guayaquil. Arid


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conditions prevail on the border with Peru south of the Gulf of Guayaquil. Separated from the effects

of ocean currents by the coastal mountains, the internal part of the coastal area has a hot and humid

climate. Temperatures can surpass 26 C, and the vegetation and cloud cover tend to retain and augment

the heat. Rain is constant during the winter months of December through May, with the heaviest rainfall

occurring in February and March.Temperatures in the Sierra do not vary greatly, with the hottest month averaging 16 C and the coolest

month 13 C at higher elevations. Diurnal temperatures vary markedly from cold mornings to hot afternoons.

The almost vertical sun and the rarefied air in the higher Sierra region allow the land to warm quickly during

the day and lose heat quickly at night. Mornings typically are bright and sunny, whereas afternoons often

are cloudy and rainy. In general, rainfall is highest on exposed locations at lower altitudes. Rain also can

vary on a local basis. The interandean region has a rainy season that extends from October to May, and the

driest months are June through September with maximums of 1 500 to 2 000 mm along the mountains, and

500 mm in some interior valleys. Sheltered valleys normally receive 500 mm/year, whereas annual rainfall

is 1 500 mm in Quito and can reach 2 500 mm on some slopes exposed to winds.

Climate in the Sierra is divided into levels based on altitude. The tropical level 400 to 1 800 m

has temperatures ranging from 20 C to 25 C and heavy precipitation. The subtropical level 1 800to 2 500 m has temperatures from 15 C to 20 C and moderate precipitation. The temperate level

2 500 to 3 200 m has a year-round temperature in the range of 10 C to 15 C and an annual rainfall of

1 000 mm. The temperate level experiences rainstorms, hailstorms and fog. The rainy (winter) season

lasts from January through June, and the dry season or summer from July through December. Most rain

falls in April. There is also a short rainy period in early October caused by moisture penetrating the

Sierra from the Oriente. Quito and most other populated areas in the Sierra are at this temperate level.

The cold level extends from the temperate zone to 4 650 m. Here, average temperatures are 3 C to 9 C,

and the precipitation often appears in the form of rain, hail and thick fog. Above 4 650 m is the frozen

level, where peaks are constantly capped with snow and ice, and temperatures range from below zero to

3 C. Precipitation frequently is in the form of snow, fog and rain.

The eastern lowlands have an equatorial climate. Rainfall is abundant, especially in the Andean pied-

mont, sometimes exceeding 5 000 mm/year. Temperatures average 25 C in the western parts of thisregion. The jungle-covered plains of the eastern lowlands register high levels of rainfall (> 2 500 mm)

and temperatures surpassing 28 C.

Figure 2. Ecozones of Ecuador


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Vegetation types are related to climatic

conditions, and in particular to rainfall.

Classification of vegetation types varies

between countries in the region and also

among authors, but a glossary is available(Huber and Riina, 1997). The following

types are identified (see Figure 2):

(1) tropical rainforest found in the wet-

test parts of the eastern lowlands,

northern parts of the coast and on

parts of the Andean piedmonts. The

rainforest here is as rich as that of the

Colombian rainforest. Its composi-

tion is influenced by altitude, and

at 1 0002 000 m it is mixed with

shrubs and ferns, whereas above2 000 m a cloud forest is commonly

encountered;

(2) along the drier portions of the

(southern) coast, a dry deciduous

forest predominates with

(3) a savannah further south, and scrubs

composed mostly ofMimosa sp. that alternate with more open grassy types;

(4) in the extreme southwestern part of the coast the savannah yields to desertic, xerophytic

vegetation;

(5) in the Andes, vegetation depends on the altitudinal level and evolves from dry forest to grass

Pramo (see Figure 3) or steppe as altitude increases, finally reaching the area of permanent

snow.Depending upon the altitude, soils and rainfall a variety of farming systems occur, exemplified in

a highly stylistic form in Figure 4, but generally speaking, milk was the most important commodity in

terms of value of production throughout the 1990s.

The hot coastal lowlands are used for plantains, cocoa, coffee, rice, cotton and sugar cane. Important

parts of the coastal Pacific shores and mangroves are dedicated to shrimp production. Some of the

previous crops extend into the lower floors of the Sierra, together with maize. Above 1 800 m, temperate

cereals, fruit and horticultural crops dominate, while extensive cattle, and mainly sheep and South

American camelids production are practised above 3 500 m.

Figure 3. Location of the Paramos of Ecuador

Figure 4. Cropping systems

in the high Andes[Source: Walker et al.(1994); Arce and

Paladines (1997)]


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4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Farming systems that include ruminants cover nearly half of the national territory (Thornton et al.,2002).

This estimate includes rainfed mixed systems (32% of the territory), rangeland-based systems (1011%),and irrigated mixed systems (8%). Production systems vary somewhat between agroecozones, but a

distinctive characteristic of Ecuador is the general predominance of dual-purpose systems over beef

and dairy production systems across most of the country. As in all other countries of tropical Latin

America, these systems utilize crossbred cattle (Bos indicus xBos taurus) resulting from miscellaneous,

uncontrolled, crosses between Zebu, Creole, Holstein and Brown Swiss.

Cows are generally milked by hand once daily with the calf on foot to allow milk let down. After

milking, the calf is allowed to suckle and remains with the cow after the morning milking until mid-

afternoon when calves are yarded and cows generally left on pastures. The amount of milk thus milked

seldom exceeds 5 kg/day over lactations that may extend anywhere between 150 and 350 days or more,

depending upon the financial needs of the farmer, the cows milk potential and the available forage

resources. It constitutes a very flexible system in that if temporarily milk cannot be carried to localmarkets or made into cheese, it is utilized by the calf to gain weight.

The dual-purpose system predominates in the coastal area, where it is estimated that 75% of the farms

practise it (Ramrez et al., 1996), whereas the rest have mostly cow-calf beef systems based on Bos

indicusbreeds. As expected, all cattle directly graze available pastures and may be supplemented with

cut-and-carry forage (elephant grass, sugar cane, etc.) during the drier part of the year. Farm-level data

(Ramrez et al., 1996) show that milk for sale (or for cheese making) is generally low (34 kg/cow/day).

Similarly, in beef systems weight gains of yearlings do not exceed 400 g/head/day.

Dual-purpose systems also occur in much of the Andean region, below 2 500 to 3 500 m. Yields per

cow are similarly low, age at first calving is generally in excess of 36 months, and calving intervals are

long (> 450 days). Milk in many of these systems is converted into cheese and the residues fed to pigs.

As altitude increases, sheep and guinea-pigs become part of the livestock raised by farmers, with guinea

pigs and poultry mainly destined for household consumption. However, in the most favoured, northernpart of the Andes, farming systems are generally mixed and more productive, including up to 7080%

of the area under pastures, and crops such as potatoes, cereals, maize and beans in decreasing order of

importance make up the difference, but the base is generally milk-potatoes, with a high proportion of

Holstein crossbreds and purebreds, It should be noted that the milk-potato system is characteristic also

of parts of the well watered Andes in Peru, Colombia and Venezuela, and detailed characterizations are

available (e.g. Proao and Paladines, 1998).

A summary of numerous on-farm research projects (Estrada, Paladines and Quiroz, 1997) indicates

that potato yields vary between 20 tonnes/ha in unfertilized stands, to 3035 tonnes/ha in well managed

and fertilized fields. Forage yields in sown pastures currently range between 4 and 10 tonnes DM/ha.

Nevertheless, these potential yields are severely constrained by a number of socio-economic factors. By

1998, the milk-potato system occupied 2 000 000 ha in the Sierra, including 67 000 ha under potatoesand 1 940 000 ha in pastures (CONDESAN, 2000), and contributed 5.5 kg/cow/day and 7.5 tonnes/ha

of potatoes, the latter mostly for household consumption.

The northern part of the Sierra (north of Quito, up to the Colombian border) is the most favoured

area in terms of soils and rainfall; historically it was relatively less modified by human intervention.

Important agricultural activities include the production of cereals, potatoes, garlic, onions, milk and

sheep, with milk increasing in importance towards the valleys, in competition with floriculture (Recharte

and Gearheard, 2001). South of Quito rainfall decreases in the Sierra. This area concentrates a large

number of indigenous communities that grow wheat, barley and potatoes at 3 2003 800 m, in close

association with a small number of cattle and sheep, whereas at higher altitudes they practise extensive

grazing of the Paramo vegetation (see Figure 3 and www.paramo.org\coppusetal-eser.doc). Ruminants

in these systems play, among others, an important role in the supply of manure for crops. (Recharte and

Gearheard, 2001). North of the Peruvian border, the Sierra is drier and soils more superficial; medium

to large ranches exist in the southern-most extreme, evolving to small to medium mixed systems, as

described above, in the northern direction.


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It was indicated earlier that the high Andes are largely inhabited by indigenous communities. On-farm

activities generally provide 4090% of household income, with milk accounting for 2070% of it,

depending on the specific community and location (Candill, Bremner and Vohman, 2001). Off-farm

employment is generally essential to the maintenance of households since they have been so highly sub-

divided (through successive generations) that many of them are marginally viable, particularly as thesecommunities undergo rapid transition to a market economy.

As altitude further increases, generally above 3 500 m, cattle are seldom raised, and sheep, South

American camelids and guinea pigs become relatively more important. In some areas though, fighting

bulls can be important in the larger holdings. Farming systems at these altitudes make intensive use of

the most favoured parts of the landscape to grow barley, potatoes and fava beans, whereas ruminants

and camelids are raised extensively in the Paramo rangelands. Vicunas (wild) are generally found above

4 300 m, mostly in nature reserves. Llamas are concentrated in the central portion of the Sierra, and

are used by indigenous communities as source of meat, leather, manure and for freight. Alpacas were

introduced from Chile and Peru in 1985. A large number of them are in a nature reserve, but private

producers are becoming common (White, 2001).

A peculiar characteristic of cattle raising systems in the Andes is the prevalence of sogueo, a formof tethering whereby individual cattle are tied with a long rope to pegs placed in the paddocks and are

moved daily or more frequently. This of course implies very intensive (and labour intensive) grazing

management since 27% of farms practise it. As expected, it is more common on smaller farms, and its

use decreases from 35% in the smaller sector to 6% in the larger farms (SICA/MAG, 2002).

In the piedmont of the Amazon basin, cattle are the mainstay of the rural economy. Ramrez et al.

(1996) estimated that 95% of household income is provided by cattle, with minor contributions from

sugar cane, banana, plantains and other crops. Depending upon the location, dual-purpose or beef

cattle may predominate. Cattle are grazed year round, with very little if any supplementation. Yields

are similar to those already mentioned and, in well-stocked farms, stocking rates range between 1 and

2 AU/ha. In the lowlands of the Amazon basin (< 450 m, > 3 000 mm rainfall) settlers farms average

4050 ha (Estrada et al., 1988), 515 of which may be pastures and 15 under coffee, and/or cocoa,

with the rest under forest. During the 1980s and early 1990s pastures were constituted by elephantgrass andBrachiaria decumbens, butBrachiaria humidicola was increasing rapidly in the late 1990s.

As elsewhere in much of the lowlands tropics, relative scarcity of cattle implies that stocking rates of

beef or dual-purpose animals seldom exceed 1 head/ha, although experimental data suggest that at least

Brachiaria humidicolashould be able to carry 2 head/ha.

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

According to census data (SICA/MAG, 2002) the agricultural land of Ecuador in 19992000 amountedto 12 400 000 ha, 27% of which was under sown pastures, 9.1% under native grasslands, 4.9 covered

by Paramos and 3% fallow. If all of these are considered as grazing resources, nearly half of the usable

land was available for grazing. Although the data reveal that there is trend for larger farms to have more

of the land covered by the above resources, even farms under 5 ha dedicate 32% of the land to grazing

and 24% to sown and native pastures. In farms over 200 ha, these percentages increase to 48% and 33%

respectively. The Sierra and Costa have 51 and 36% of Ecuadors cattle stock respectively, with the

reminder in the Oriente. Cattle are evenly distributed across farm sizes, oscillating very little between

12% of the stock in farms of 100200 ha to 19% in farms of 2050 ha; farms of less than 5 ha own 17%

of the cattle stock. The previous data show the extreme importance of livestock raising in Ecuador across

regions and farm sizes.

The area of sown, native and naturalized pastures of Ecuador has been variously estimated between

the 5 510 000 ha reported in SICA/MAG (2002) and FAO databases and the 6 500 000 ha reported by

some analysts (Hervas, 1985). These are distributed as follows: 3 070 000 ha in the coastal area (48%),

180 000 ha (3%) in the Amazon basin, 1 865 460 ha in the high Paramos (29%), 883 400 ha of naturalized


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pastures where Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu grass) is a very important contributor (14%), and

close to 400 000 ha of sown pastures, including lucerne (Medicago sativa) and other temperate forages.

Coastal pastures

Pasture development along the tropical, wet, coastal belt relies on sown tropical grasses, and to a muchlesser degree legume species, some of which have become endemic. Where soil fertility allows, grazed

pastures are based on star grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis), Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens) or Guinea

grass (Panicum maximum), while elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is used for cut-and-carry

systems, particularly in dual purpose systems. Legumes such as Centrosema pubescens, Stylosanthes

spp., Desmodium spp., Dolichos lablab, Neonotonia wightii and numerous others have been tried but

their contribution to sward composition is generally unimportant. Following the trend observed across

all of tropical Latin America, the last 15 years have witnessed the expansion of Brachiaria-based

pastures (Brachiaria decumbens, B. humidicola, B. brizantha) in the area. Extremely limited information

regarding the animal production potential of all of these pastures is available for Ecuador, but it can

confidently be estimated that their potential is similar to that observed in neighbouring countries,

meaning that carrying capacities for directly grazed pastures will range between 14 AU/ha, whereaselephant grass can supply forage for 712 AU/ha over limited periods of time. A potentially important

niche for one of the newest legumes,Arachis pintoi, is as a cover crop under plantains, cocoa and coffee,

as shown in numerous other tropical countries of the region.

Ramrez et al.(1996) describe a recent survey of pastures in a subregion of the coastal area, located

at 150260 m, latitudes between 0 11 S and 0 28 S, mean temperature of 25 C and rainfall of 1 560 to

2 000 mm. The area surveyed included 55 000 ha of sown pastures, 95% of which was Panicum maximum

and 5% Cynodon nlemfuensiswith a token presence of nativeDesmodium sp. and some broadleaf weeds

such as Sida acuta and others. Across 11 on-farm experimental sites, aboveground yields averaged

over three years were estimated at 15 400 kg DM/ha.year, with two-thirds being produced during the

wet season. This annual yield was nearly 50% less than that obtained under controlled, well managed

conditions in a nearby experimental research station. Clippings taken at 60-day intervals during the wet

season and 78 days in the dry season showed 10.4 and 7.2% crude protein, and 55 and 52.8% IVDMD,respectively.

Milk yields were recorded in a subsample of two farms that had dual-purpose systems. As is typical

of these systems elsewhere, milk yields averaged 3 kg/milking/cow/day/year using stocking rates of 1.5

1.8 cows/ha. The authors consider that stocking rates could be significantly increased if provision for

summer feeding was available, as farmers stock their pastures based on the predicted carrying capacity

during the dry season. Weight gains in beef production systems of seven farms averaged 0.35 kg/steer/

day, also highly typical values for tropical systems in the lowlands of Latin America. Similar comments

regarding efficiency of utilization of pastures apply as for dual-purpose systems.

The potential of these pastures under optimal conditions has been determined in controlled,

experiment station-run, grazing experiments. Ramrez et al. (1996) report that carrying capacities

on Panicum maximum alone, or with a mixture of legumes (most notably, Centrosema pubescens,contributing 40% of the botanical composition), were 4 and 2.5 steers/ha for the rainy season and 3.5

and 2 head/ha for the rainy season, respectively.

Andean pastures

Andean pastures are complex, their composition depending upon the altitude and climate of the site

considered, and they have been modified by human interventions. A recent classification of these pastures

recognizes two main types of ecozones, the temperate and the cold temperate zones, respectively (Len-

Velarde and Izquierdo, 1993), each of which includes a number of subtypes described below.

The Andean temperate ecozone

The first subtype corresponds to native and naturalized grasslands and shrublands located in dry

interandean plateaus and valleys, estimated to cover 0.45% of Ecuadors surface area. They are between

2 000 and 3 000 m, with mean temperatures of 1218 C and 250500 mm annual rainfall, including a

dry period of 35 months, extending from May to September. If irrigation is available, these areas can


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grow cereals, fruits and vegetables, as well as lucerne, forage oats and Kikuyu grass. The steeper slopes

are used for grazing goats and forestry.

At similar altitudes, but with rainfall ranging from 500 to 1 000 mm, the region includes a large

number of valleys that, although representing only 3% of the countrys area, are extremely important

from the point of view of population density, and agricultural and livestock activities. Here the mainforage resource is lucerne wherever irrigation is available, followed by Kikuyu grass and lupins (Lupinus

spp.) in a variable land-use mosaic that includes wheat, barley, beans, green beans and various other

vegetables.

In numerous other valleys of similar altitudes but with rainfall of over 1 000 mm, milk production

is based on Kikuyu grass, ryegrass, Melinis minutiflora andPanicum coloratum, frequently located in

mixed production systems that include potatoes, maize, and wheat.

Ramrez et al. (1996) described farm surveys carried out in an area corresponding to the drier

part of the temperate ecozone, with a 68 month dry season. The study area covered 87 000 ha at

latitudes 3 59 to 4 26 S, and between longitudes 79 18 to 79 37 W. Farms averaged 53 ha each,

with 31% of this area under pastures and 50% in fallows used for grazing and dominated byPaspalum

humboldteanum and Kikuyu grass under a sparse cover ofAcacia sp. andMimosa sp. trees. Furtherdetailed characterization of 13 farms located at 1 600 to 2 400 m within this area, and with slopes

ranging between 10 and 65%, was carried out. Five of the 13 farms had irrigation available. Native

or naturalized pastures were composed of grasses (88%, either P. humboldteanum and/or Kikuyu),

legumes (6%) and broadleaf weeds (6%). Pastures were used to graze dual-purpose cattle. Unirrigated

pastures yielded on average 2 548 kg /ha/year (range 5007 000), and yields were inversely related

to slope (r=-0.62, P


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Ramrez et al. (1996) reported studies aimed at characterizing native grasslands above 3 500 m,

receiving 5001 000 mm rainfall and on slopes > 12% where mean temperatures ranged between 3 and

12 C. Calamagrostis sp. dominated pastures (> 35% of the botanical composition) located at higher

altitudes within the region, whereas lower-lying areas were characterized by mixtures of Bromus sp.,

Holcus lanatus, Poa sp., Stipa ichu, Festuca pratensisand others.Areas with rainfall in excess of 1 000 mm (over 4% of Ecuador) are extremely humid, and wetlands

abound. The better drained areas, as well as the slopes, are dominated by the same species listed in the

previous case, but the livestock industry here is marginal.

Introduced pastures in the Andes

Artificial pastures in the well-watered high Andes of Ecuador vary between the naturalized Kikuyu stands

and sown pastures of species such as lucerne,Dactylis glomerata andLolium spp., frequently associated

with naturalized Trifolium repens.Lolium multiflorum stands are very common. The potential of these

pastures in the best parts of the Ecuadorian Andes is extremely high if well managed. Experimental

yields of 2030 tonnes DM/ha have been obtained, which could potentially yield 10 000 litres milk/ha/

year (Estrada, Paladines and Quiroz, 1997).

Pastures of the eastern region

The Amazon basin of Ecuador, to the east of the Andes chains, includes the piedmont region, and the

less populated lowlands. The latter are also of much less importance from the point of view of ruminant

production than the piedmont. More limited studies have been carried out in this ecozone than in the

previous two. Ramrez et al.(1996) summarized the results of farm surveys carried out over 213 000 ha

of piedmont, with rainfall in excess of 3 700 mm. The average area of 185 farms surveyed in the region

was 122 ha (range 50186 ha), and 75% of this area had been cleared of forest, with 90% of it converted

to pastures.Axonopus scopariuswas the main (83% of the cases) species, followed by small percentages

underBrachiaria decumbens, Echinochloa polystachia and others. Legumes contributed no more than

1% of the botanical composition. Average yields of these pastures were 13 tonnes DM/ha/year.

Pastures in the lowlands are far less common. Estrada et al.(1988) surveyed farms located in the areaat 450 m, averaging in excess of 3 000 mm rainfall, and with the driest month averaging 140 mm. Farms

had a mean of 46 ha each, including 411 ha under pastures. Elephant grass and Brachiaria decumbens

were the two main species, althoughBrachiaria humidicolawas expanding at the expense of the latter.

Scarcity of cattle probably explained why average stocking rates were 0.93 head/ha, while experimental

results suggest thatBrachiaria humidicolashould be able to support 2 head/ha.

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER

RESOURCES

Undoubtedly, the most difficult constraints are faced by pastures in the high Andes, particularly in the

drier parts of the mountain chain. In Ecuador indigenous communal coordination is considerable. Thus,

rural development initiatives can be effectively supported by these organizations, but a major difficulty

faced by them is the limited economic options available at these altitudes, an issue discussed at length by

Bebbington (1996) from the institutional point of view. As indicated above, the major limitation is one

of forage availability, closely followed by forage quality, in an environment where growth is severely

limited by low temperatures and rainfall, thus making the process of pasture restoration very slow.

Wherever strategic irrigation is available, these constraints can be overcome by resorting to strategic

supplementation of animals with sown pastures. Yields of lucerne and ryegrass-lucerne, as well as white

clover-based pastures, can be reasonably high and responses to N and P fertilization are also high.

Nevertheless, a higher level constraint in applying these solutions is the lack of enabling policies and

credit, and limited advisory services, as well as inaccessibility of many parts of the high Andes.


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It should be noted that native Andean grasslands, particularly in the Paramo, have been overgrazed

and overexploited for decades if not centuries. Given the severe climatic conditions alluded to above,

reversal of this situation, if feasible, is only possible over the long term and if adequate policies are

available. Policies must take into account valuing their biodiversity and the ecological services that they

offer. It should be noted that nine of 34 Latin American ecoregions rated as globally outstanding forbiological distinctiveness are grasslands (White et al.,2000), and that one of these is the North Andean

Paramo of Ecuador (shared with Colombia), as well as the Central Andean Paramo (shared with Peru).

These are challenges that remain to be faced by government bodies, a difficult proposition in view of the

more immediate preoccupation with the promotion of high-value export crops and other commodities

mostly produced in the lowlands. It would appear that trade-offs between immediate returns and long-

term benefits would have to be examined via simulation of alternative development scenarios, since

longer-term field research will only offer solutions over a much more extended period of time.

In the temperate areas of the Andes, where traditional temperate grasses and legumes (Lolium sp.,

lucerne, white clover, etc.) have been used for decades, continued introduction and testing of varieties

and species should provide a steady stream of improved materials. Better management practices,

including those referred to forage conservation, are probably required, but this is a process that is alreadyunder way to some extent and it probably explains the relatively rapid increase in dairy production.

Opportunities for improvement of pasture resources are, however, much more abundant and feasible

along the coastal area. Since this is the region that produces a substantial share of commodities for export

(e.g. banana, plantains, cocoa) as well as for local consumption (e.g. milk, beef), management expertise

and attitudes are already in place that should make improved pasture and animal management feasible

and relatively easy. To a large extent this is already happening as witnessed by the rapid expansion of the

dairy sector here as well as in intermediate altitudes and valleys of the Andean region. A relatively large

number of technical alternatives are available, both locally generated as well as coming from comparable

regions elsewhere in tropical Latin America. These include the introduction of persistent legumes, such

asArachis pintoi, and a more varied portfolio of grass species and varieties. Adoption of tropical forage

legumes is admittedly very slow, but in contrast, the more rapid adoption of some of these same legumes

as cover crops under cocoa, coffee and plantains may eventually spill over into pastures.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND

PERSONNEL

The national research institute of Ecuador is the Instituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones

Agropecuarias, INIAP. The institute operates seven research stations, in the three main ecozones,

namely the Costa, Sierra and Oriente. In addition the institute includes the national Department ofPlant Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (DENAREF, Departamento Nacional de Recursos

Fitogenticos y Biotecnologa). It operates under the aegis of INIAP (the Autonomous National Institute

for Agricultural Research) undertaking germplasm collection, ex situ conservation, research, training,

promotion and the provision of scientific and technical advice and information.

INIAP, as well as many other national research institutes in the region, has had a declining budget

since the mid 1980s, and funding is increasingly channelled through a foundation, FUNDAGRO

(Fundacin para el Desarrollo Agropecuario) that receives both public and private funds. In 1992 INIAP

became a decentralized, autonomous institute and it has its own foundation to secure funds.

FUNDACYT (Fondo de Desarrollo de la Ciencia y Tecnologia) is a government-financed fund to

support some aspects of research, in particular, development of human resources.

The coordination of the Andean grasslands network, Red de Pastizales Andinos, is based in Quito.

It has done a considerable amount of work with financial support from various sources, and presently

functions under the umbrella of the Consortium for Sustainable Development of the Andean Ecoregion,

CONDESAN, which in turn is hosted by the International Potato Center, CIP in Lima, Per.


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In addition to the above institutions, a large number of international institutes and universities have had

occasional projects in Ecuador, particularly in the Sierra, in cooperation with national and regional univer-

sities and NGOs. Many of these projects have coincided in the Carchi Province (North of Quito), where

a large amount of information has been, and is being, generated for the area of the humid high Andes.

8. REFERENCES

Arce, B. a nd O. Paladines (1997) Anlisis y opciones de desarrollo sostenible del ecosistema hmedo

altoandino de la Provincia del Carchi, Ecuador.

Bebbington, A. (1996) Organizations and intensifications: campesino federations, rural livelihoods and

agricultural technology in the Andes and Amazonia. World Development 24: 11611177

Candill, D., J. Bremner and E. Vohman (2001) Exploring Capacity for Integration. The University of

Michigan Population-Environment Fellows Program. Impact Assessment Project: Phase 2. Ann Arbor:

University of Michigan. www.sph.umich.edu/pfps/CEPAL(2001) Anuario estadistico de America Latina y el Caribe. Santiago: CEPAL.

CONDESAN (2000) Mejoramiento de la productividad y sostenibilidad de los sistemas de produccin

mixtos: cultivos-ganadera, en la ecoregin andina del Ecuador (Proyecto PROMSA). Ecu005/2000. www.

condesan.org/memoria/ECU0500.PDF

de Noni, G., M Viennot and G. Trujillo (198990) Measures de lrosion dans les Andes de lEquator. Cah.

ORSTOM, ser. Pedol., 25: 183196

Ecuador (2001) Comunicacin Nacional. Repblica del Ecuador. Convencin Marco de las Naciones

Unidas. Cambio Climtico. Quito: Comit Nacional sobre el Clima, Ministerio del Ambiente.

Estrada, R.D., C. Ser and H. Luzuriaga(1988) Sistemas de produccin agrosilvopastoriles en al selva baja

de la provincia del Napo, Ecuador. Cali: CIAT. 108 p.

Estrada, R.D., O. Paladines and R. Quiros (1997) Pobreza y degradacin de suelos en los Andes altos. La

experiencia de CONDESAN. VII Encuentro CONDESAN. http://www.rimisp.org/webpage.php?webid=167.

FAO(2001) Lecture Notes on the Major Soils of the World. World Soil Resources Report No. 94. Rome: FAO

FAO-CSIC (2002) FAO-CSIC Multilingual Soil Profile Database (SDBmPlus). Rome: FAO Land and

Water Development Division, http://leu.irnase.csic.es/microlei/microlei.htm (under Documentation)

and Sevilla: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiologia

de Sevilla, http://www.microleis.com

FAO Databases2006 (website http://apps.fao.org/)

Hervas, T. (1985) Praderas del Ecuador. Unpublished mimeo. 21 p.

Hicks, J.F., H.E. Daly, S.H. Davis and M. de L. de Freitas(1990) Ecuadors Amazon Region. Development

issues and options. World Bank Discussion Paper 75. Washington DC: The World Bank. 41 p.

Huber, O. and R. Riina, eds.(1997) Glosario Fitoecolgico de las Amricas. Vol. I Amrica del Sur: pases

hispanoparlantes. Caracas: UNESCO. 500 p.Len-Velarde, C. and F. Izquierdo(1993) Produccin y Utilizacin de los Pastizales de la Zona Altoandina.

Compendio. Quito: Red de Pastizales Andinos-REPAAN. 228p.

Medina, G. and V.P. Mena (2001) Los pramos de Ecuador. In Mena, V.P., G. Medina and R. Hofstede,

eds. Los Pramos del Ecuador. Particularideades, Problemas y Perspectivas. Proyecto Pramo. Quito.

Fundacin Ecuatoriana de Estudios Ecolgicos

Paladines, O. and C. Jcome(1999) Factores que determinan la produccin primaria de los pastizales en el

ecosistema hmedo altoandino de la Sierra, en especial de la Provincia del Carchi-Ecuador. Informe 1999.

ECU299. www.condesan.org/memoria/ECU0299.PDF

Proao, M. and O. Paladines (1998) Anlisis de los sistemas agropecuarios de los pequeos y medianos

productores de la cuenta del Ro El Angel. www.condesan.org/memoria/ECU0198.PDF

Quantin, P. (1986) Taxonomy of some chilean and ecuadorian volcanic ash soils. Cah. ORSTORM, sr.

Pdol. 22: 109111

Ramrez, P., F. Izquierdo and O. Paladines(1996) Produccin y Utilizacin de Pastizales en Cinco Zonas

Agroecolgicas del Ecuador. Quito: MAG-GTZ-REPAAN. 235 p.


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Recharte, J. and J. Gearheard (2001) Los pramos altamente diversos del Ecuador: ecologa poltica de

una ecoregin. In Mena, V.P., G. Medina and R. Hofstede, eds., Los Pramos del Ecuador. Particularidades,

Problemas y Perspectivas. Proyecto Pramo. Quito

SICA/MAG(2002) III Censo Agropecuario. http://www.sica.gov.ec/censo/

Thornton, P. K.et al.

(2002) Mapping Poverty and Livestock in the Developing World. Nairobi: ILRIUNDP(2001) Human Development Report 2001. New York: UNDP. 274 p.

Walker, T., C. Crissman, R. D. Estrada, H. Fano, O. Ortiz, C. Len-Velarde and R. Quiroz (1994)

Prospects for agricultural intensification in the Andean ecoregion. Ecoregional/2020 Vision Workshop.

Warrenton: IFPRI

White, R., S. Murray and M. Rohweder(2000) Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems. Grassland Ecosystems.

Washington DC: World Resources Institute. 69 p.

White, S. (2001) Los camlidos sudamericanos en los Pramos Ecuatorianos: presente, historia y futuro. In

Mena, V.P., G. Medina and R. Hofstede, eds., Los Pramos del Ecuador. Particularidades, Problemas y

Perspectivas. Proyecto Pramo. Quito

9. CONTACTS

INIAP, Instituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (=Autonomous National

Institute for Agricultural Research)

Casillas Postal 1717

1362 Quito, Ecuador

[email protected]

http://www.mag.gov.ec/docs/servicio2.htm

Forage specialist:

Victor Hugo Barrera MosqueraInstituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP)

Estacin Experimental Santa Catalina.

Panamericana Sur Km 14.

Casilla Postal 17-012600.

Quito, Ecuador

[email protected]

Germplasm collection and conservation:

Agr. Ral Castillo, PhD

INIAP, Instituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias

DENAREF,P.O. Box 17-01-340

Quito, Ecuador

Telephone:593 (2) 690 691

Fax:593 (2) 690 691 or 593 (2) 504 240

[email protected]

Coordinator of the Andean Network of Forage Evaluation:

Dr. Osvaldo Paladines

Red Pastizales Andinos (REPAAN)

Casilla 17-16-219

Quito, Ecuador

Tel: 220533/34; 277816

Fax: 507422

[email protected]


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FUNDAGRO

Moreno Bellido No. E6-168 & Av. Amazonas

Quito - Ecuador

Phone: (593) 250 7361 & 222 0533

Fax: (593) 250 7422P.O. Box: 16-17-219 CEQ, Quito, Ecuador

[email protected]

www.fundagro.org

FUNDACYT(Fondo de Desarrollo de la Ciencia y Tecnologia) http://www.fundacyt.org.ec/

10. THE AUTHOR

The author of this profile, Dr. Ral R. Vera, spent 16 years in Colombia as Senior Scientist, and later

as Leader of the former Tropical Pastures Programme, and Tropical Lowlands Programme of CIAT, the

International Centre for Tropical Agriculture located in Cali. He can be contacted at:

Ral R. Vera

2 Norte 443 dpto. 52

Via del Mar, CHILE 2534194

Fax (Chile) 56-2-552 9435

[email protected]

[The profile was prepared in December 2002/January 2003 and was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G.

Reynolds in January, 2003 and modified by S.G. Reynolds in May 2006.]

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