1

MAB-UNESCO Dení Rayn PhD

Status Report

Ecosystem integrity and community participation related to water

availability within and around Calakmul Biosphere Reserve

Prepared by Dení Rayn PhD1

2009

1Contact details: drayn@yahoo.com

2

Front cover photo: Panoramic view of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve from Structure II in Calakmul archeological

site (by Dení Rayn)

Table of contents

Abstract.................................................................................................................. .3

Intro………………………………………………………………………………..4

Study site…………………………………………………………………………..5

Vegetation…………………………………………………………………………7

Fauna………………………………………………………………………………10

Waterholes………………………………………………………………………...11

Socio-demographic and economic profile………………………………………12

Objectives………………………………………………………………………….13

Methods……………………………………………………………………………13

Results....…………………………………………………………………………...14

Conclusions and recommendations......................................................................35

Future work.............................................................................................................37

References…………………………………………………………………………38

Annexes……………………………………………………………………………39

3

ABSTRACT

Calakmul Region is part of the second largest area of tropical forests in North America, the

Maya Forest. It was decreed as a reserve in 1989 . In 1993 the reserve was included in the

international web of the programme "Man the Biosphere" of UNESCO. In Calakmul

permanent water holes tend to be located in bigger numbers surrounding settlements (ejidos).

As a result, individuals of species such as Tapir, White-lipped Peccary and Jaguar, must go

outside the limits of the reserve to get water. We collected data already available from the

reserve and academic institutions in order to be integrated; we monitored selected water holes

within and adjacent to Calakmul Biosphere Reserve and visited adjacent ejidos to interview

local people and to explore the possibility of community participation in proposals such as

voluntary reserves. In all communities visited favorable conditions were found for the

implementation of internal regulations that would allow to protect waterholes and fauna

within the ejidos.

4

Introduction

Due to the karstic nature of Yucatan´s peninsula, the soil gets saturated with water during

rain season forming water holes or “aguadas” in the lower regions. During dry season these

water holes are the main source of water to fauna (Aranda, 1990, Aranda,1994, Hernández-

Huerta et al 2000, Naranjo, 2001; García_Gil 2003). Permanent water holes tend to be

located in bigger numbers surrounding settlements (ejidos) (S. Calmé, pers. com). As a

result, individuals of species such as Tapir, White-lipped Peccary and Jaguar, must go

outside the limits of the reserve to get water (March 1994, Hernández-Huerta et al 2000,

Escalona-Segura et al 2002, García –Escalona 2003, García-Gil 2003, Martínez-Kú

2007).There are some studies on the relation between water holes and fauna (García-

Escalona, 2003; Mandujano and Gallina, 1995; Vaughan y Weiss, 1999, Martínez-Kú 2007).

Martínez_Kú (2007) data sustains that areas with water holes have more diversity of mid-size

mammals during dry season while there is no significant difference during rainy season. He

also reports that human activities in the waterhole area can have an impact on the habitat.

However, more information is necessary to understand how this works.

When planning the reserve’s boundaries, the location of villages and land use by local

inhabitants were not taken into account, in particular because the region was barely being

settled at the time the reserve was decreed (1989). Since then, the population grew from 3,000

to more than 25,000 people. The location of areas of special importance for biodiversity

conservation was not considered either. The poor design of the core areas (Galindo-Leal

1999) has resulted in the southern core area being located adjacent to several villages without

any buffer zone in between and as a consequence, it is very vulnerable to slash and burn

agriculture, as well as poaching and wildlife trafficking.

Forest cover declined in Calakmul region from 1974 to 2000 both within and outside the

reserve, with a peak in forest loss in the total interior and the external buffer from 1986 to

5

1990, improving considerably from 1990- 2000. The net change in forest cover from 1974-

2000 was -0.70 in the external buffer and -0.34 within the reserve. (Rayn-Villalba, 2006).

Study site

Calakmul is part of the second largest area of tropical forests in North America, the Maya

Forest. It is located in the 19o 12' 00" and 17o 48' 39" N and 90 29' and 89o 09' 39" W,

southeast of the state of Campeche bordered to the north by Hopelchén municipality, to the

west by Escárcega and Candelaria municipalities, to the south by Guatemala and Belice, and

to the east by the state of Quintana Roo. The altitude range is 260 to 360 above sea level.

According to Köppen, modified by García (1973), the climate is warm sub-humid (Aw), with

the mean annual temperature of 270 C and a low of 180 C. The average annual rainfall in the

area is 750 mm (Arriaga et al. 2000). Calakmul municipality extension is 13,839.11 Km2

representing 24.34% of Campeche State (Gobierno de estado de Campeche, 2000).

Calakmul

6

Figure 1. Location of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve

Figure 2. Polygon of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve: in red the core areas

Calakmul Biosphere Reserve is divided in two core areas and one buffer zone. One of the 2

core areas is in the southeast portion with 147.915 ha, the other core area is in the northern

portion of reserve and has 100.345 ha. In total core areas cover 248.260 ha. The rest is the

buffer zone with 474.924 ha.

The initiative to create the reserve in 1989 had as a goal to protect the area surrounding the

archaeological sites found in Calakmul. In 1993 the reserve was included in the international

web of the programme "Man the Biosphere" (MAB) of UNESCO.

7

Calakmul Reserve is part of the mesoamerican corridor where there is a flow of species from

the Yucatán Biotic Province, the Itsmo of Tehuantepec and the Guatemalan Petén.

There are around 86 mammal species in Calakmul of which 18 are included in the Norma

Oficial Mexicana de Ecología 059 (NOM-059-ECOL/1994), which determines species with

some degree of threat. Also five of the six species of felis in México live in Calakmul: jaguar

(Panthera onca), puma (Puma concolor), ocelote (Leopardus pardalis), tigrillo (Leopardus

wiedii) and leoncillo (Herpailurus yagouaroundi). More than 230 avian species have been

registered for the reserve, and between 3 y 5 million migratory birds come to spend the

winter every year.

Other important species of fauna that find refuge in Calakmul are: jabirú (Jabiru mycteria),

frogs Similisca cyanosticta, black vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), Eagles (Spizaetus ornatus),

tucans, parrots, six species of marsupials and 2 primates (alouatta palliata and Ateles

geoffroyi).

Futhermore, Calakmul is the only place in the American continent where the Canellaceae

family (flora) can be found.

Calakmul Reserve is a federal reserve; funding is provided by CONANP (Comisión Nacional

de Áreas Naturales Protegidas) and the Fondo Mexicano para la Conservación. Presently the

reserve has 19 people as staff: 1 Director, 1 vice Director, 1 General Coordinator , 2 special

technicians, 2 operative managers, 12 rangers. There are 3 annual programmes: the first

regarding preservation of landraised (or criollo) maize germoplasm and the other 2

promote sustainable activities and development of infrastructure in the communities.

Vegetation

According to Martínez and Galindo (2002) the ecosystems present in Calakmul include:

• Subtropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest

• Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

• Flooded grasslands and savannas

8

• Wetlands

• Riparian vegetation

• Secondary vegetation

Figure 3. Vegetation in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve

Change in vegetation in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve

In Rayn-Villalba (2006) it was found that although the loss of vegetation cover slowed down

after the reserve was decreed in 1989, the poor reserve design has facilitated significant

impacts on flora and fauna, including the increase in deforestation in core areas. This was

exacerbated by the lack of clear definition of the uses of each part of the reserve. Table 1

figure 3 a,b,c

9

Table 1. Change forest cover in Calkmul Biosphere Reserve and surrounding

area from 1974 to 2000.

Net change in forest cover (%)

Period

External buffer

Total Interior

Core areas

1974-1986

-0.74 -0.34 -0.28

1986-1990

-2.41 -2.37 -2.29

1990-2000

0.02 0.34 0.46

1974-2000

-0.7 -0.7 -0.31

a) 1974 b) 1986 c) 2000

Figure 4. Encroachment in Calakmul biosphere Reserve. The maps show Calakmul Biospehre

Reserve polygon (yellow) and core areas (blue).

10

It was also found that the loss in forest cover was lower in the centre of the reserve regardless

of whether it was part of a core area or not. Population and road density by 2000 were also

lower in the center. This supported the idea that isolation from the edge provides protection.

Fauna

There are 75 species of reptiles and 18 species of amphibians in the reserve, which represents

70 percent of the amphibians found in the Yucatan Peninsula. Thirty-five of the species of

reptiles and 5 species of amphibians are considered threatened, in danger, rare, or in need of

special protection according to the Official Registry of Mexican Ecology. 31 species of fish

have been identified, most prominent of which is the family Chichilidae, represented by eight

species. Up to the year 2000, inventories of butterflies had documented 380 species, although

the total number is estimated at 500 (Pozo et al. 2001).

Herpetofauna

There are 18 amphibian species reported in Calkmul area (Pozo de la Tijera, 1988), which

represents 75% of the species found in Yucatán Peninsula. All the species belong to the

Order Anura, with 6 families represented; Bufonidae with 2 species, Rhinophrynidae with

one, Hylidae with two, Leptodactylidae with two, Mycrohylidae with two, and Ranidae also

with two.

There are 59 reptile species reported (Calderón, 1999) representing almost 32% of the 182

species in Yucatán Peninsula. Three Orders are represented; Crocodilya with one species

(Crocodylus moreletii) from the Crocodylidae family; Testudines, with five species from the

Bataguridae, Kinosternidae and Emydidae families, and Squamata with two Suborders Sauria

and Serpentes and 13 families.

Thirty-five of the species of reptiles and 5 species of amphibians are considered threatened,

in danger, rare, or in need of special protection according to the NOM-ECOL-059-2001

Ornitofauna

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More than 350 avian species have been identified in Calakmul region, representing 62

families, 53% are whole year residents, 18% winter residents, 2% summer residents, 6%

transient, 2% altitudinal migrants, and 15% vagrants (Berlanga et al 2000; Semarnat, 1999).

Approximately one third of them are common to the Neotropical forests of Central and South

America; 9 species are endemic for Mesoamérica, 32 are threatened, including the king

vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), the hawk eagle (Spizaetus tyrannus), the ocellated turkey

(Agriocharis ocellata), and the royal duck (Cairina moschta), the latter being in danger of

extinction accoding to Nom-Ecol-59 (Instituto Nacional de Ecologia 1999).

Mastofauna.

There are 94 species of wild mammals registered in Calakmul, with 26 families and 9 orders

represented (Ceballos et al 2002, Cervantes et al, 1994; Semarnat, 1999, Ramírez et al,

1986). There are 47 species of Quiroptera, 15 species of Rodents and 16 species of

Carnivore. Felids are among the most notable, with five of the six species in Mexico present

in the reserve: the jaguar (Panthera onca), puma (Puma concolor), ocelot (Leopardus

pardalis), margay (Leopardus wiedii), and the jaguarondi (Herpaolurus yagouaroundi). Also

found in the region are six of the eight marsupials of Mexico, Marmosa canescens and

Didelphis marsupialis among them. Present as well in Calakmul are the howler monkey

(Alouatta pigra) and the spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) in danger of extinction and found

in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, and Belize. Other threatened species include the

anteater (Tamandua mexicana), the white-lipped peccary (Tajassu pecari), and the tapir

(Tapirus bairdii) (CONABIO 1998; Instituto Nacional de Ecologia 1999). Also present are

the Yucatán brown brocket deer (Mazama pandora), which is endemic to Mexico and the

white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).

Waterholes

The hydraulic system in Calakmul region has an important role in the distribution and

dynamics of flora and fauna populations. Water quality is poor due to excess in calcium

sulfates, so it is not drinkable for humans (Martínez-Kú 2007), so the main available source of

drinking water is rain stored in water holes (García-Gil, 2003). These water holes are swamp

like areas originated by erosion and sedimentation processes, together with a weather regime

in which precipitation and evaporation are in equilibrium. Vegetation consists mainly in

herbs and shrubs adapted to extreme conditions of flooding and drought, and keep humid

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conditions in dry months. In Calakmul due to meteorological factors, soil permeability and

land use, many water holes dry up completely (García-Gil, 2003). García-Gil, 2003 registered

1,353 water holes in Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, of which 485 are in the south section of

the reserve and 868 in the north. Puc Cabrera (2008) found that water holes are of great

important for avian assembles, especially during dry season. They provide refuge, feeding and

nesting sites; its depth is associated with avian species richness. Martínez_Kú (2007) data

sustains that areas with water holes have more diversity of mid-size mammals during dry

season.

However, water holes in the north section are smaller and shallower thus more prone to dry

up. This implies that species move to the south during dry months. Moreover, permanent

water holes tend to be located in bigger numbers surrounding settlements (ejidos) (S. Calmé,

pers. com). As a result, individuals of species such as Tapir, White-lipped Peccary (Martínez-

Kú 2007, Rafael Reyna, 2005) and Jaguar, must go outside the limits of the reserve to get

water (March 1994, Hernandez-Huerta et al 2000, Escalona-Segura et al 2002, García-Gil

2003).

Socio-demographic and economic profile

There are 84 ejidos (communal land) with an estimate population of 25 thousand inhabitants

in Calakmul municipality; 30 of these ejidos are adjacent to Calakmul Biosphere Reserve.

Communities are rural, Xpujil being the largest settlement with a population of 1,213

inhabitants. There are approximately 3,000 inhabitants living inside the polygon (Pérez-

Espinoza pers. Com). The main human activities are agriculture and cattle (87%), with only

13% of the activities related to tourism, transport, commerce and construction, INEGI 2002

The main access is the federal highway No. 186 from Escárcega to Chetumal (west-east);

which divides the northern core area and the buffer area. There is another road from

Hopelchén (north-south) to Xpujil. This road cuts through the southern core area, and there

are other minor roads to Zoh Laguna and the archeological site within Calakmul. Most ejidos

are connected by smaller paved and unpaved roads INEGI 2002

Infrastructure and services in Calakmul are inadequate, the water is scarce in the region and

during dry season (November-June) the situation is critical (Steadman 1997, Morales y

Magaña 2001).

13

Current threats:

• Forest fires

• Population growth

• Conflict between the reserve and the population

• Illegal hunting

• Agriculture (slash and burn) and cattle

• Highways and roads

• Tourist infrastructure

• Faulty design of the polygon

• Lack of synergy and coordination between institutions and civil associations

Objectives

• To assess ecosystem integrity in relation to water availability in Calakmul Biosphere

Reserve and adjacent ejidos.

• To create alternative proposals for water management in Calakmul region, with

emphasis on community participation (i.e. voluntary reserves within adjacent ejidos)

Methods

• Data already available was collected from governmental and academic institutions in

order to be integrated.

• Selected water holes within and adjacent to Calakmul Biosphere Reserve were

monitored (direct observation, measurements and photographs).

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• Visits to adjacent ejidos to interview local people to explore the possibility of

community participation in proposals such as voluntary reserves were carried out.

Interviews were based on a questionnaire.

Results

Precipitation

The region's basin is an important factor in precipitation trends, with summer conditions

diminishing precipitation in the region.. Summer rains are less than 60 mm during the

driest month, and the wind coming from the southeast finds the central plains resulting in

a perennial cloudiness on the west part of the Yucatán Peninsula. Due to the orography,

the hills would get more rain during summer and the rivers and streams will increase

thanks to the water sliding from the top. The percentage precipitation during winter is 5-

10 % (SEMARNAT, 1999). There are 3 climatological stations in the area:

Silvituc (Champotón),X-Bonil (Champotón) and Zoh-Laguna (Hopelchén). Annual media

calculated with data from the above stations for the years 1953 to 2007 is 1030.7 mm, for

wet season it is 700.8 mm and 85.3 for dry season. Graphs from the data available were

produced (Figures 6-8).

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Figure 5. Hidrology map with monitired waterholes and climatological stations.

Figure 6. Climatology 1961-2007 (mm of precipitation per month)

Figure 7. Time series (1958-2007) wet season (June-October)

53 545556 5758 596061 626364 6566 676869 707172 7374 757677 787980 8182 838485 868788 8990 919293 949596 9798 990001 020304 0506 07

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

J F M A M J J A S O N D

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

120.0

140.0

160.0

180.0

200.0

16

Figure 8 Time series (1958-2007) dry season (February-April)

Waterholes were monitored regarding measures and fauna present, results are

presented in the following tables (2 to 7) and graphs (figure 10,14, 17, 19, 23 and

25). Tracks of animals were recorded, selected photographs of the waterholes and

the tracks are presented in figures 9, 11,12, 13, 15,16, 18, 20,21,22,24.

Bonfil waterhole.

This waterhole is located in the Km 40 of the road that goes from the Highway

53545556575859606162636465666768697071727374757677787980818283848586878889909192939495969798990001020304050607

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

17

Chetumal- Escárcega to the archeological site within the Reserve.

Figure 9. Bonfil waterwhole in april 2010

Figure 10. Change in size per month in Bonfil waterhole

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

may

June

July

August

September

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

Bonfil Waterhole

months

area

18

Table 2. Measures of Bonfil waterhole per month and fauna present

Bonfil Waterhole

Geographic Location 16Q 209484 2012689 Alt 318 m

month/year Area (mt) Fauna observed Tracks

October/09 3506.07 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii

December/09

3324.75 Jabalí labios blancos )Tayassu pecari

Tapir Tapirus bairdii

January/2010

648 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii Jabali labios blancosTayassu pecari

February/2010

614.77 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii Jabali labios blancos Tayassu pecari Jaguar with offspring Panthera onca

March/2010

1194.05 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii

April/2010 1970.55 None Temazate Mazama americana Ocelote Leopardus pardalis

May/2010 1431.67 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii Temazate Mazama americana

June/2010

1519.37 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii

July/2010 1764.38 None Jaguar Panthera onca, Venado Cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus

August/2010

1767.3 None Temazate Mazama americana

September/2010

1808.1 None Temazate Mazama americana Jabalí de collar Tayassu tajacu

19

Aguada El Lechugal .

This waterhole is located in the Km 27 of the road that goes from the Highway

Chetumal- Escárcega to the archeological site within the Reserve.

Figure 11. El Lechugal waterhole in February 2010

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Figure 12. Odocoileus virginianus footprints in El Lechugal waterhole

Figure 13. Tayasu tajacu footprints in El Lechugal waterhole

21

Figure 14. Change in size per month in El Lechugal waterhole

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

may

June

July

August

September

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Km 27 El Lechugal Waterhole

months

area

22

Table 3. Measures of El Lechugal waterhole per month and fauna present

Km 27 /El Lechugal Waterhole

Geographic Location 16Q 0198064 2026855 ALT 223 m month/year Area

(mt) Fauna observed Tracks

October/09 804.3 Crocodylus moreletti Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus

December/09

755.74 Crocodylus moreletti

Jaguar Panthera onca

January/2010

648 Crocodylus moreletti Jabalí de collar Tayassu tajacu

Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus Jaguar Panthera onca

February/2010

614.77 Crocodylus moreletti Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus Jabalí de collar Tayassu tajacu Jaguar Panthera onca

March/2010 594.55 Crocodylus moreletti Tejón Nasua narica Jabalí de collar Tayassu tajacu

April/2010 341.91 Crocodylus moreletti Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus

Jabalí de collar Tayassu tajacu

May/2010 573.19 Crocodylus moreletti Pavo ocelado Meleagris ocellata

Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus

June/2010 608.93 Crocodylus moreletti Pavo ocelado Meleagris ocellata

July/2010 1536 Crocodylus moreletti Jabali Labios blancos Tayassu pecari

August/2010

448 Crocodylus moreletti Jabali Labios blancos Tayassu pecari Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus

September/2010

418.11 Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus Crocodylus moreletti Allouatta palliata

23

Ejido Emiliano Zapata.

It is partially located within the buffer zone of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve with

7650.00 ha. There are only ten households and vegetation is in good condition since

local people respect regulations. The main productive activities are cynegetic services

(legal hunting), Chilli production, honey production, cattle in small proportions.

People in Emiliano Zapata are originally from several estates: Veracruz, Tabasco,

Chiapas, Michoacán, Yucatán and Oaxaca. (Servicios y Beneficios Ambientales SC

de RL, SEYBA. 2009.)

Figure 15 . Emiliano Zapata waterhole in February 2010

24

Figure 16. Tayassu peccari footprints in Emiliano Zapata waterhole

Figure 17.Change in size per month in Emiliano Zapata waterhole

October

December

February

April

June

August

0

200

400

600

800

Emiliano Zapata Waterhole

months

area

25

Table 4. Measures of Emiliano Zapata waterhole per month and fauna present

Ejido Emiliano Zapata Waterhole

Geographic Location 16Q 0218890 2045640 Alt 103m month/year Area

(mt)

Fauna observed Tracks

October/09 713.28 None Jabalí de labios blancos Tayassu pecari

December/09 694.04 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii Jaguar Panthera onca

January/2010 376.7 Garza tigre Tigrisoma mexicanus

Tapir Tapirus bairdii Jaguar Panthera onca

February/2010 366.38 Garza tigre Tigrisoma mexicanus

Tapir Tapirus bairdii Jaguar Panthera onca

March/2010 354.79 Pavo Ocelado Meleagris ocellata Garza tigre Tigrisoma mexicanus

Tapir Tapirus bairdii Temazate Mazama americana

April/2010 317.98 Garza tigre Tigrisoma mexicanus

Tapir Tapirus bairdii Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus Jaguar Panthera onca

May/2010 243.11 Pavo ocelado Meleagris ocellata

Tapir Tapirus bairdii Temazate Mazama americana Jaguar Panthera onca

June/2010

351.59 Pavo ocelado Meleagris ocellata

Temazate Mazama americana

July/2010 337.9 Pavo ocelado Meleagris ocellata

Temazate Mazama americana

August/2010 350.24 Hocofaisán Crax rubra Temazate Mazama americana

September/2010 335.41 Hocofaisán Crax rubra Tapir Tapirus bairdii Temazate Mazama americana

26

Ejido Narciso Mendoza.

With 3, 958 ha, it is located in the kilometer 37 of the Xpujil to Arroyo Negro estatal

road. Its south west border is adjacent to one of the core areas of Calakmul Biosphere

Reserve.1,250 ha are designed as a community conservation area . Accordig to INEGI

(Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía) 2005, there are, 368 inhabitants (172 men

and 196 women).People came o live here from Campeche. It is one of the few ejidos

with electricity . The main productive activities are corn, chilli and honey production,

and cattle in small proportion(Villaseñor et al, 2009)

Figure 18. Narciso Mendoza waterhole in March 2010

27

Figure 19.Change in size per month in Narciso Mendoza waterhole

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

may

June

July

August

September

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Narciso Mendoza Waterhole

months

area

28

Table 5. Measures of Narciso Mendoza waterhole per month and fauna present

Ejido Narciso Mendoza Waterhole

Geographic Location 16Q 0238920 2017216 month/year

X (mt) side a

Fauna observed Tracks

October/09

No data

No data No data

December/09

1790.43

None Tapir Tapirus bairdii

January/2010

1782.46

Tapir Tapirus bairdii Tapir Tapirus bairdii

February/2010

176103

Tapir Tapirus bairdii Tapir Tapirus bairdii

March/2010

dry

None None

April/2010

dry

None None

May/2010

dry

None None

June/2010

dry

None None

July/2010 dry None

None

August /2010

dry None None

September/2010

dry None None

Ejido Cristobal Colon

With a surface of 14,681 km2 , this communiy is located 36 km. South from Xpujil.

Access is through the Chetumal- Escárcega highway. It is adyacent to the Calakmul

Biosphere Reserve, 3 km from one of the core areas, and is part of the Mesoamerican

Corridor. It limits with Narciso Mendoza. The main productive activities are corn, chilli

and honey production, and cattle in small proportion.

There are 300 inhabitants and vegetation is in good condition (Pérez Espinoza F. pers.

29

Com 2010). Funding members came from several estates like in most ejidos

around: Veracruz, Tabasco, Chiapas, Michoacán, Yucatán and Oaxaca

Figure 20. Cristobal Colón Waterhole in March 2010

30

Figure 21. Ocelote Leopardus pardalis footprints in Cristobal Colón waterhole

Figure 22. Procyon lotor fooprints in Cristóbal Colón waterhole

31

Figure 23.Change in size per month in Cristóbal Colón waterhole

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

may

June

July

August

September

0

2000

4000

6000

Cristobal Colon Waterhole

months

area

32

Table 6. Measures of Cristóbal Colón waterhole per month and fauna present

Ejido Cristóbal Colon Waterhole

Geographic Location 16Q 0239529 2015409 UTM NAD27 Alt 230m month/year Area (mt)

Fauna observed Tracks

October/09 4992.04 None None November No data December/09 4973.85 None Mapache Procyon lotor

Ocelote Leopardus pardalis Tlacuache 4 ojos Philander opossum

January/2010 No data

February/2010 4659.75 None Garza tigre Tigrisoma mexicanus Ardilla gris Sciurus aurogaster Mapache Procyon lotor Ocelote Leopardus pardalis Tlacuache 4 ojos Philander opossum

March/2010 41.68.16 Garza tigre Tigrisoma mexicanus Mapache Procyon lotor

Tlacuache 4 ojos Philander opossum Venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus Temazate Mazama americana

April/2010 39.10.77 None Tlacuache 4 ojos Philander opossum Mapache Procyon lotor Venado Cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus Temazate Mazama americana

May/2010 4175.7 None Mapache Procyon lotor

June/2010 4320.95 Perico Pecho sucio Aratinga nana*

Mapache Procyon lotor

July/2010 4150.96 None Tejón Nasua narica Mapache Procyon lotor Tuza Geomys bursarius

August/2010 4307.57 61.66

None M apache Procyon lotor Tuza Geomys bursarius Zorra Urocyon cinereoargenteus

September/2010 4164.42 Garza tigre Tigrisoma mexicanus

Mapache Procyon lotor

*special protection status

33

Ejido Eugenio Echeverría Castellot II

It is located 14 km. South of Xpujil. Acces is through the Escárcega – Chetumal highway.

It is part of the archeological corridor Xpujil-Calakmul and the Mesoamerican Corridor

and Calakmul municipality. It has 2603 ha, of which 850 ha are for conservation and 246

for environmental services. There are only 28 ejidatarios. Vegetation is in good

condition..The main productive activities are ecotourism, agroforestry, chilli and honey

production, cattle in small proportions. Most inhabitants are originally from otherl estates

such as: Chiapas, Campeche, Tabasco.

Figure 24. El Carrizal Waterhole in February 2010

34

Figure 25.Change in size per month in El Carrizal waterhole

October

December

February

April

June

August

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

El Carrizal Waterhole

months

area

35

Table 7. Measures of the waterhole per month and fauna present

El Carrizal Waterhole

Geographic Location 16Q 0197927 2026428 month/year Area (mt)

Fauna observed Tracks

October/09

No data

November No data

December/09

6834.16 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii Venado Cola Blanca Odocoileus virginianu

January/2010

6784.56 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii Venado Cola Blanca Odocoileus virginianu

February

6726.24 None Tapir Tapirus bairdii Venado Cola Blanca Odocoileus virginianus Puma concolor

March

2928.49 Pavo Ocelado Meleagris ocellata

Tejón Nasua narica Mapache Procyon lotor

April 25741.4 None Tejón Nasua narica Pavo Ocelado Meleagris ocellata Mapache Procyon lotor

May 2461.38 None Temazate Mazama americana

June 2568.23 Pavo ocelado Meleagris ocellata

Temazate Mazama americana

July 2906.79 Falco sparverius Temazate Mazama americana

August/2010 3063.32 Garza tigreTigrisoma mexicanus

Jabalí de collar Tayassu tajacu Temazate Mazama americana

September/2010 2958.12 None Pavo ocelado Meleagris ocellata Temazate Mazama americana

36

Conclusions and Recommendations

Waterholes located in adjacent ejidos have an important role for species protected by

Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. This study found, as March 1994, Hernández-Huerta et

al 2000, Escalona-Segura et al 2002, García –Escalona 2003, García-Gil 2003,

Martínez-Kú 2007 did before, that many species of fauna have to get out of the reserve

to find water to drink. Species found in the waterholes located within ejidos adjacent

to the reserve are the most vulnerable to variations in water level. There are species of

great importance such as Tapir, White-lipped Peccary and Jaguar, that wander outside

the reserve in search of water. The case of predators such as the Jaguar is specially

relevant since the probability of attacks to cattle and other farm animals increases,

which creates animosity towards such animals.

It is important to protect these species during the dry months when they need to have

access to alternate sources of water. We found that species use the waterholes in the

ejidos all year long and the same species show if the waterhole persist. In that respect

it is necessary to take protective measures and keep waterholes available to them. This

measures must facilitate the maintenance and improvement if possible of the quality of

the water and the ecosystem surrounding the waterhole, the protection of the fauna

from illegal hunters and poachers and the mitigation/management of possible predator

attacks. This measures must not be imposed by the Reserve but must come from the

inhabitants of the communities, although reserve staff should provide guidance and

cooperation.

In all ejidos that were visited favorable conditions were found for the implementation of

internal (ejidales) regulations that would allow to protect waterholes and fauna within

the ejido.

Suggested measures are as follow:

• Vigilance of the waterhole by locals (ejidatarios) to avoid illegal hunting and

poaching

37

• Keep the waterhole and its surroundings clean and free from trash, plastic, detergent,

oil, gasoline and all man made products

• Avoid logging and burning of nearby vegetation

• Regulation of fisheries if it applies

• Work with the appropriate authorities (CONANP, SAGARPA, SEMARNAP) to

improve cattle management and implement protective measures in case there is the

risk of a predator attack that endangers cattle and property (instead of killing the

predator themselves).

The last point is the most conflictive since protective measures are expensive and

authorities do not always respond promptly (Pérez Espinoza F. pers. Com 2010). ; people in the

ejidos feel they have the right to protect their property

Future Work

Mapping and monitoring of adjacent waterholes must continue and extend to all known

waterholes. It is also relevant to continue with the analysis of meteorological data; in

this way it would be possible to anticipate which waterholes would be particularly

important during droughts and to prevent situations such as predators attacks by

implementing protective measures on time.

The situation in all adjacent ejidos must be explored regarding its disposition to protect

waterholes within its limits and the species that approach it to drink and act

accordingly as mentioned in the previous section. If resistance towards this measures

is found it is suggested to start with environmental education programs that highlight

the importance and benefits of the waterhole for the ejido and its population and the

possible mitigation measures that can be taken in case of a predator attack to cattle and

other farm animals.

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ANNEXES Annexe 1. Fauna found in the waterholes

Genus Specie Waterholes

Allouatta palliata El Lechugal o Km 27

Aratinga nana Cristóbal Colón

Crocodylus moreletti El Lechugal o Km 27

Leopardus pardalis Cristóbal Colón

Mazama americana Bonfil, Emiliano Zapata, Cristóbal Colón, El Carrizal

Meleagris ocellata El Lechugal o Km 27, Emiliano Zapata, El Carrizal

Nasua narica El Lechugal, El Carrizal

Odocoileus virginianus Bonfil, El Lechugal, Emiliano Zapata, Cristóbal Colón, El Carrizal

Panthera onca Bonfil, El Lechugal, Emiliano Zapata

Philander opossum Cristóbal Colón

Procyon lotor Cristóbal Colon, El Carrizal

Puma concolor El Carrizal

Sciurus aurogaster Cristóbal Colón

Tapirus bairdii Bonfil, Emiliano Zapata, Narciso Mendoza, El Carrizal

Tayassu pecari Bonfil, El Lechugal, Emiliano Zapata

Tayassu tajacu El Lechugal, Bonfil

Tigrisoma mexicanus Emiliano Zapata, Cristóbal Colón

Annexe 2. Questionnaire

Semi-structured interview

Name of interviewer:

Place and date:

Name of interviewee:

Age:

Sex:

Where are you from? How long have you (or your ancestors) lived here?

Do you know the limits of Calakmul Biosphere Reserve?

How do people living within the region make use of the resources available?

How do people living outside the region make use of the resources available?

Do people use the timber? How and since when?

Do you use any other natural resource? How and since when?

Changes in species sighting and predator attacks (i.e. Jaguar)

What species of animals use to live in Calakmul?

When was the last time you or anyone else saw one? Which one?

Why do you think they disappeared?

What species of animals still live in Calakmul?

Have you seen them or any evidence of its presence (excretes burrows or footprints?

What animals are used and what for? (Hunting, food, medicine, sale, other)

Do you know where the animals are usually found? Do you know the places where there is more

abundance? (in the map)

Where do you and other people living in Calakmul get water?

Can you get water all year long?

What do you use water for?

Do you know where the main stream, rivers, and waterholes in the region are?

Do you know the names?

Do you know if people from outside uses the water?

Do you know if the distribution of stream, rivers or water holes has change?

If it has, why do you think it happened?

When is the rainy season? Has it changed? How and since when?

Why do you think it has changed?

Are there any places where the soil is washed down when it rains?

Where? (Map)

Do you remember if any of these events has affected the region in the last 10 years?

Draughts

Floodings

Mudslide

Hurricans

Has the climate changed in any way?

How and since when?

Why do you think it has changed?