Economics and Sociology

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Monsieur Michael Piore

Economics and SociologyIn: Revue conomique. Volume 53, n2, 2002. pp. 291-300.

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Piore Michael. Economics and Sociology. In: Revue conomique. Volume 53, n2, 2002. pp. 291-300.

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Abstract

Economies and Sociology

This paper explores the potential of sociology to fill certain gaps in economic theory. It examines in

particular its capacity to explain: 1) the institutional supports required to make a competitive market

work; and, 2) the limits of the assumption of rational choice behavior. The dominant sociological

approach to problems of this kind is to postulate the existence of different social realms, but it does not

have a strong theory of how these realms corne into existence and how their boundaries corne to be

defined. Its failure to provide such a theory is particularly limiting because the salient characteristic of

the period in which we are living is fluidity of boundaries, the boundaries of the firm and the family no

less than the boundaries between the economie and social realms themselves. The paper concludes

with suggestions for how a theory of boundary formation could be built around a notion of

"interpretation" as a mode of human behavior distinct from rational choice but co-existing with it.

Rsum

Economie et sociologie

Cet article tudie les apports potentiels de la sociologie pour combler certaines lacunes de la thorie

conomique. Il examine en particulier sa capacit expliquer : 1) les supports institutionnels

ncessaires au fonctionnement d'une conomie de marchs concurrentiels ; et 2) les limites de

l'hypothse de rationali dans les comportements de choix. L'approche sociologique dominante de ce

type de problmes consiste postuler l'existence de sphres sociales diffrentes, mais elle ne dispose

pas d'une thorie solide de la faon dont ces sphres se constituent et dont se dfinissent leurs

frontires. Cette absence est d'autant plus dommageable qu'une caractristique frappante de la priode

actuelle est la fluidit des frontires, qu'il s'agisse des frontires entre l'entreprise et la vie prive ou

entre les sphres co-nomiques et sociales elles-mmes. En conclusion, l'article indique comment on

pourrait construire une thorie de la formation de ces frontires autour d'une notion d' interprtation ,

en tant que mode de comportement humain distinct du choix rationnel mais co-existant avec celui-ci.


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Economics and Sociology

Michael Piore

This paper explores the potential of sociology to fill certain gaps in economictheory It examines in particular its capacity to explain the institutional supportsrequired to make competitive market work and the limits of the assumption ofrational choice behavior The dominant sociological approach to problems of thiskind is to postulate the existence of different social realms but it does not havestrong theory of how these realms come into existence and how their boundariescome to be defined Its failure to provide such theory is particularly limiting because the salient characteristic of the period in which we are living is fluidity ofboundaries the boundaries of the firm and the family no less than the boundariesbetween the economic and social realms themselves The paper concludes withsuggestions for how theory of boundary formation could be built around notionof interpretation as mode of human behavior distinct from rational choice butco-existing with itECONOMIE ET SOCIOLOGIE

Cet article tudie les apports potentiels de la sociologie pour combler certaineslacunes de la thorie conomique Il examine en particulier sa capacit expliquerles supports institutionnels ncessaires au fonctionnement une conomie demarchs concurrentiels et les limites de hypothse de rationali dans les comportements de choix approche sociologique dominante de ce type de problmesconsiste postuler existence de sphres sociales diffrentes mais elle ne disposepas une thorie solide de la fa on dont ces sphres se constituent et dont sedfinissent leurs frontires Cette absence est autant plus dommageable unecaractristique frappante de la priode actuelle est la fluidit des frontires ilagisse des frontires entre entreprise et la vie prive ou entre les sphres conomiques et sociales elles-mmes En conclusion article indique comment onpourrait construire une thorie de la formation de ces frontires autour une notioninterprtation en tant que mode de comportement humain distinct du choixrationnel mais co-existant avec celui-ciClassification JEL:M2 B20 B40

Ibis paper explores some aspects of the relationship between economics andsociology That relationship is obviously very complex focus in particular onthe issues that are most important in my current research and which link to theconcerns of other members of the panelbrief introductory remark about where am coming from write from theperspective of an economist albeit one frequently mistaken for sociologist

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Economics 50 MemorialDrive Cambridge MA G2142297

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Revue conomiqueFor that reason it seems important to stress that have no formal training associologist nor have systematically read the literature of sociology or for thatmatter any other social science discipline Basically am scavenger in theother social sciences scavenging for material to correct an understanding of theworld that is still fundamentally sometimes think hopelessly shaped byeconomics did nonetheless once consider studying sociology What attractedme to economics instead was its offer of coherent theory and its policy orientation It tries to speak to problems of society and to do so in disciplined andreasoned way None of the other social sciences appeared to offer anything likethe coherence or relevance of economics For me this continues to be true Andthink it is fair to say that economics has become the starting point for socialinquiry not only for me but also increasingly for all of us Of course it makesthe stakes much higher and the errors much more costly or if you like the sinsmuch greater)

What Is EconomicsStandard economics is basically built around two stories One is story aboutindividual behavior fo r which we now use the short-hand term rational choiceThe other is story about the arms-length interaction of individuals competitive marketplace At their best the two stories interact and sustain each otherThis is the case for example in the theory of the firm where rational choice isimposed by the pressures of competitive market When the stories are separated they are good deal less compelling in the theory of consumer behavior

rational choice is an assumption At its most elegant however conventionaleconomics becomes story about the construction of society an elegant andsophisticated story in the sense that an economy is no mere aggregation ofindividuals the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

What Is Wrong with EconomicsStandard economics is subject of course to many criticisms My own par

ticular problems with it however are twofold First the behavior of the actorswhich it assumes is not consistent with the way in which they actually thinkabout the world in which they live and conceive of their own actions My senseof the gap between the two grows out of my own research which has focusedon interviews with economic actors Piore 1979 The gap between the assumptions of economics and the actual behavior of the actors is of course the subjectof an enormous methodological literature which argues that it is by no meansnecessary for them to coincide Friedman 1953 Machlup 1991 But the difference has always made me extremely uncomfortable especially in policyscience just have no confidence in prescribing for the ills of the world fromtheory in which cannot recognize the actors as know them and in whichthe actors cannot recognize themselves My second problem with standardeconomics is the story about the human endeavor which find impoverishing292

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Michael Pioreand ultimately morally suspect Again this is not basically scientific argumentbut it is important in policy science Hirschman 1992 Etzioni 1991 Sen1987)

How Might One Fix EconomicsThe basic stones which define contemporary economics are open or incomplete at senes of quite specific points These are the natural points of entry forthose seeking to refine or amend the discipline The story about how peopleinteract in the market is incomplete in the sense that it does not tell us what kindof institutional supports are required to make competitive market work in thefirst place The identification of those supports and where they might come fromis one obvious point of entry second point of entry from this perspective is the

identification of alternative institutional regimes that emerge in the absence ofmarket and the characterization of behavior under those regimesThe other approach to amending conventional economic theory focuses onthe model of individual behavior i.e. rational choice This model understandsbehavior as senes of purposive acts each of which is the outcome ofdeliberate calculation hi the calculation the individual makes sharp distinction between means or resources) goals or ends) and set of causalmodels which transform the former into the latter Acts of behavior are thesolution of the causal models which maximize the ends given the means Thisformulation leaves open the questions of from where come the ends the meansand the causal modelsThese are not questions to which all economists feel called upon to makeresponse Most of the work of the discipline proceeds within the standard framework But in my experience virtually all economists have in the back of theirminds some idea about how such response would be constructed In generalthe responses that economists contemplate are of two types On the one hand areanswers rooted in the biological nature of man socio-biology hedonic pricinghierarchy of need and the like Behavioral economics tends to fallinto this category as well The other roots the answers within social processesEconomists tend to be divided almost by temperament in terms of which of thetypes they find attractive definitely am of the type temperament as arethink most of the members of this panel When one looks for the answers insocial processes one turns to sociology

What Does Sociology Have to OfferWhen one does so what does one find Here mink the dominant approachof sociology has been to think of social activity as divided into different realmsand to develop an answer based on this notion of realms Most of these theoriespostulate different realms of behavior but they could as well be different sets of

constraints upon rational behavior or different realms of goals or differentrealms of the understandings which relate means to ends293



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Revue conomiqueThe most forceful and convincing development of theory of this kind is thatof Max Weber Weber 1958 In Ms view the emergence of modem capitalismwas dependent upon the carving out of domain of business activity separateand distinct from the household and the family and governed by the principlesof scientific rationality double-entry bookkeeping and adherence to long-term

contracts This idea is very different it should be noted from the idea thatrationality is imposed institutionally although suppose one interpretation ofthe shift from the Protestant Ethic in early capitalism to the Iron Cage in latecapitalism is that what starts out as an ideological distinction becomes institutionalized The notion of distinct realms of behavior appears again in ParsonsParsons 1964 and in Bell Bell 1976) and it appears again but in ratherdifferent form in Thevenot and cites Boltanski and Thevenot1987)If one takes the admittedly less than fully scientific approach of evaluatingsuch theories against the conceptions of the economic actors as they emerge in

open-ended interviews this notion of different models of behavior has an enormous appeal have recently been studying the impact of the opening to tradein Mexico on traditional industries and it is clear there that one of the greatestobstacles to adjustment in Mexico is the incomplete separation of the householdand the business firm The notion of different moralities governing the workplace is also helpful here it is easy to understand the degradation of laborstandards in terms of familial morality in workplace increasingly operatingin competitive environment where the familial morality cannot be sustainedbut where there is no other articulated alternative toward which to move Piore2000)similar approach is involved in filling in the specific elements th e meansthe ends and the causal relationships that are required to complete the rationalchoice models in any particular case But here the ethos of economics is at oddswith the ethos of sociology even if the two disciplines are not in conflict atpurely logical level Take identity for example concept which has become socentral to modem discourse that even economists among whom include myself have been drawn into attempting to make some sense out of it and we haveof course tried to do so in terms of rational choice Our models however tendeither to interpret identity as affecting the goals that an individual attempts toachieve Akeriof and Kranton 2000 or the means available to achieve themLazear 1999 In the second case it is choice variable i.e. an instrument In

principle there is third possibility identity might affect the way we understandthe operation of the world and hence the theories or causal models which weuse to translate means into ends hi sociology it would be natural also to thinkof identity as encompassing all three of these dimensions of the rational choiceproblem of giving us at once the means the ends and the understandings thatguide our behavior in the world It is as if people with different identities aredrawn from different social realms Piore 1995 This view of identity is notlogically inconsistent with rational choice as behavior model But the rationalchoice model loses all interest as way of predicting behavioral outcomes sinceoutcomes are now completely determined by identity and the process that generates it

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Michael PioreWhat Is Wrong with the Sociological Approach

The basic problem in understanding behavior in terms of distinct realms isthat the sociological theories that are built around such realms are not veryhelpful in explaining where the realms come from and how their boundariesevolve over time When began my research career in the doing theinterviews in large firms which later became the basis for my work on theinternal labor market the notion of well bounded realms with different norms ofbehavior was fundamental principle of both organizational theory and businesspractice The firm was governed internally by rules very different from those thatgoverned the external labor market each firm had its distinct culture evenparticular units of the firm operated as separate realm of behavior strikingcharacteristic of the new economy some ways the most striking characteristicis the way the boundaries that separated these different realms have brokendown again both organizational theory and in practice People no longerexpect to live out their work lives within single organizational entity The linesof authority within organizations have been blurred by matrix management byproject teams and by the reduction of in-process inventories all of which forceinteraction across organizational borders Similar organizational and administrative forms the push toward core competencies strategic alliances cross-company teams the Kan-Ban system have blurred the boundaries betweenorganizations Analytically we have tried to capture these changes in the idea ofthe network organization Boltanski and Chiapello 1999 Piore 1994 will notbelabor that point since it has been stressed by Luc Boltanski who is also on thispanel But would suggest that bis solution is essentially to identify new realmone in which the behavior of the actors or the parameters of the rational choiceproblem which they attempt to solve is distinct from that of other realmsnetwork is like firm in the sense that it is behavioral realm different from thatdefined by the borders of the firm and different as well from that defined by theborders of the market

The jump to networks in this sense however poses two problems One iswhether we actually are witnessing the emergence of new realm or simply areliving through transitional period in which borders are extremely fluid Thedifference is critical because if we think that what is going on is the former weneed dynamic theory one which tells us how new realms emerge and how theirborders shift over time So to say simply that the network is space like the firmbut with different set of behavioral parameters is not enough of theory to helpus understand the world in which we are living

Second at least in the United States the breakdown of the boundaries is notconfined to the business enterprise but is much more general phenomenon sogeneral in fact that one wonders whether the emphasis on networks in theliterature is the right way to understand what is happening To suggest themagnitude of these effects the enormous increase in female labor force participation has broken down both the old boundary between the household and thefirm and the construction in which the household was represented in the labormarket by dominant usually male wage earner In that old constructionconflicts between the social and the economic realm were resolved throughworkers salaries and negotiations about the social conditions of the workplaceand we made sharp distinction between economic and social policy In the new

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Revue conomiqueconstruction the workplace becomes an explicit domain in the politics of socialpolicy ranging from and minorities rights to family policy Identitygroups based on race ethnicity sex and sexual orientation compete for adherence the workplace with trade unions The way in which the categories ofissues raised in the workplace has expanded is underscored by the demand ofone black manager in such group want to be able to walk from my officeto the room without the white women that pass clutching their pocket-books. Even in Mexico where emphasis on the distinction betweenthe household and the business seems so insightful the policy problem is one ofhow to help Mexico adjust to an environment where the prevailing boundariesand distinct moral systems whose jurisdictions they demarcated are no longerviable Sociology can at best say what the alternative domains are likely to beit does not offer much in the way of advice as to how to move between them

Overcoming the Limits of Theory of Social Realms TowardTheory of InterpretationThe generality of this problem suggests to me that to make progress inunderstanding the world in which we seem to be living we need to have theoryof how the realms into which sociology wants to think the world dividesemerge in the first place and how their borders evolve over time Or if one wantsto focus more narrowly on networks as the dominant organizational form of ourtimes one needs theory of how the actors in the network interact with eachother how that internal interaction differs from the way they interact with those

outside and how the boundary between the inside and the outside emerges andshifts over time

Border ProcessesHow does one think about this problem Again one can identify several basicapproaches One that is very much in the spirit of standard economics is toextend the existing model of rational choice Much of the work on uncertainty

and in game theory is of this kind different but related activity is to see therealms of the economy as emerging out of the realms of politics or society butto see those realms too as governed by rational choice decision-making in otherwords to assimilate all behavior into economic behavior This is the thrust ofGary work Becker 1976 It may work for organizations that arewell-defined entities which emerge at moment of time It seems less suited toan understanding of organizations like networks which seem to evolve incontinuous way and whose borders are fluid third approach is to modify theterms of rational choice itself see bounded rationality as an endeavor of thiskindam attracted to fourth approach That approach is to preserve rational

choice as one mode of behavior but to postulate second mode different fromrational choice But in contrast to the behavioral differences generally postulated296



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Michael Piorein sociology this second mode of behavior is not associated with particularrealm Rather it occurs with rational choice in the same domains of humanexperience The same person might engage both types of behavior one alongside the other even at the very same time But the two modes of behavior arefundamentally different in kind If rational choice is basically analyticalproblem-solving the second mode of behavior can be termed interpretationhave used the term interpretation to describe the processes that contrast withrational behavior in nave way But also use it with deliberation to link thatbehavior process to variety of scholarly literatures some of which Boltanskialso cites in the paper he prepared for this symposium These literatures arelinked to sociology as Boltanski suggests more so perhaps than had hithertorecognized) but they have evolved at the fringes of the established social science disciplines in philosophy among the American pragmatists ethnographylinguistics and particularly important in my own thinking in hermeneuticsPalmer 1969)

What they suggest which is different from rational choice is that the humanendeavor is first and foremost about creating meaning about making sense outof the world and that that sense-making is social activity This need not beinconsistent with the narrower individualistic calculus upon which rationalchoice focuses Indeed one has to have made sense out of the world in order tochoose rationally But to return to one of the themes with which started outit seems to capture more of what see as great and noble in the humanendeavor What all of these literatures lack and what sociology and economicsprovide is larger social vision systematic view of how society itself mightarise and evolve out of behavior rooted in the process of interpretation Nor dothese literatures attempt to speak as economics attempts to speak to issues of

public policy Hence there is much to be looked fo r by harnessing them to thesetwo other disciplinesIn economics the closest thing to the understanding which might emerge inthis way is Henry notion of bounded rationality The debate about thechoice between bounded rationality and interpretive theory has already beenjoined in computer science Winograd and Rores 1987 In economics it isdebate yet to be had But that is the subject of another symposium and anotherpaperMy commitment to thinking in these terms grows out of series of casestudies we conducted at MIT on the process of new product development Piore

et al. 1994 The studies were motivated by the attempt to understand theemergent organizational structure to understand networks product is an organizational domain in economics it is around products that firms and industriesare defined The emergence of new products is very much phenomenon ofdomain creation Where products are created by combining elements of olderproducts as is the case for example of the cellular telephone which emergedout of the marriage of telephone and radio technologies the new productsinvolve border crossing and domain integration as well Product developmentturns out to have very much the same flavor as the process through which newidentities emerge and evolve over time process which have also been studying but initially at least fo r very different reasonsIn the product development work we relied heavily on interviews withpeople engaged in this process both in the universities and in business It is

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Revue conomiquethese which led me to believe that we should think about it as process that isorthogonal to rationality and needs to be understood in its own terms wouldmake the case for this approach very much in the terms in which began thisessay it better reflects the sense of what the actors are doing both theown sense as it emerges in the interviews and our sense in interpreting thoseinterviews The respondents are all clearly familiar with rational choice andmuch of what they are doing does fit this model relatively well But preciselybecause rational choice decisions are so prominent in the managerial discourseas it emerges in the interviews it is clear that something else is going on besideclassic rational choice Some of the actors see product development as differentand distinct from those aspects of business that lend themselves to rationalchoice decision-making and self-consciously operate in two modes Some business organizations create separate spaces within themselves insulated from thecompetitive pressures that compel rational choice sufficient number of actorstry to squeeze product development into the framework of rational choice so thatone can actually see in practice the limits of an approach that tried to stretch therational choice model to accommodate these other processes and imagine whatit would mean to stretch rational choice in social science theory

Space permits me only to give you the flavor of the difference between thetwo approaches In essence the difference revolves around two characteristicsFrst in interpretation the distinction between ends means and causal modelsis blurred and constantly shifting One moves back and forth between what inrational choice one is forced to divide into these three categories and in theprocess the meaning of each changesSecond interpretation is process that occurs in time and is dependent onhistory whereas rational choice involves the abstraction of problem from time

and solution that is independent of time and place Interpretation is critical toproduct development because product development is inherently dynamic Theconception of the product changes continuously over time The product that isactually produced is drawn out of this ongoing process Once drawn out theproduct is optimized in manner that can be characterized as rational choiceBut the process of development is ongoing and continuous so that if particularproduct were to be drawn out of it and optimized at later point it would bedifferent product That ongoing process involves continual interchange between the conception of the product which in optimization is the end) conception of the means available to produce it and an understanding of the wayin which means are transformed into ends The understanding of the componentsof the rational choice problem thus changes or evolves over time in way thatis best characterized as an evolution of meaning or to use word which seemsmore apt interpretation The way in which that evolution takes place is likeconversation if the means the ends and the process of transforming the one intothe other were each controlled by different person as might be the case incustom construction where there is client an architect and builder one couldthink of it as conversation among these three actors The process here seemsto resemble the process through which language evolves over time and themeaning attached to particular words gradually changes It is social in the waythat conversation is social and that language is the medium of human sociabilityIt has the characteristic that is in the spirit of economic theory in that the actorsremain distinct individuals and the outcome is the product of their interactionas it is in competitive marketplace But the process is sociological the sense298



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Michael Piorethat it is the outcome of the direct interaction of the individuals in social settingas opposed to the arms-length interaction through price signals The understanding of this process thus appears to imply rather different research agenda thanthat of the neo-institutionalists since theirs centers around an understanding thestructural preconditions for market It is however perhaps this process whichcreates the institutional constraints that become the framework in which themarket operates when indeed it does operate

In Sum

Conventional economics provides structured way of thinking about andunderstanding social processes There are limited but well defined set of pointsat which the theory itself is incomplete and open Economists divide as to whereoutside the discipline they look to complete the theory The basic divide isbetween those who look to biology and psychology and those who look to socialprocesses and sociology The most prominent sociological solution is one thatidentifies different realms of activity These realms may define the territory inwhich the rational choice model of economics is the socially sanctioned modeof behavior and the territories in which it is not) they may provide the meansends and causal models that people use to solve the rational choice problemwhich economists assume determines behavior they may provide the institutional supports required to make competitive marketplace

This sociological approach to completing the economists model poses thequestions of where these different realms come from in the first place how newrealms might emerge and how individuals cross borders between realms whensociety is composed of more than one This is general problem but it appearsparticularly acute in understanding contemporary socio-economic processes weseem to be leaving behind world in which different realms and their frontierswere well-defined and moving into one in which the frontiers are fluid and newrealms are emerging The need to understand the underlying processes thus nowseems much more important than the identification and characterization ofseries of distinct realms which has been one of the strengths of sociologicaltheoryOne way to understand that process is as an extension of rational choice Myown research on identity formation and product development leads me insteadto think about it as the product of completely different behavioral process Thatother behavioral process seems best characterized as an ongoing process ofinterpretation one which is like conversation or more precisely like theevolution of language Rational choice would then be viewed as somethingwhich happens by drawing out of the ongoing process of interpretation theparameters of choice the means the ends and causal models and freezing themat given moment of time The interpretative process continues in the background The analogy is to the way in which the dictionary and grammar book are

drawn out of the ongoing evolution of language and freeze it at moment intime although the language goes on evolving in use299



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Revue conomiqueREFERENCES

AKERLOP George and Rachel KRANTON 2000] Economics and Identity QuarterlyJournal of Economics Vol 115 3) 715-53BECKER Gary 1976] The Economic Approach to Human Behavior Chicago Universityof Chicago PressBELL Daniel 1976] The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism New York Basic BooksBOLTANSKI Luc and Eve CHIARELLO 1999] Le Nouvel Esprit du Capitalisme ParisGallimardBOLTANSKI Luc and Laurent TH VENOT 1987] Les conomies de la Grandeur ParisPresses Universitaires de FranceETZIONI Amitai 199l] Responsive Society Collected Essays on Guiding DeliberateSocial Change San Francisco Jossey-Bass PublishersFRIEDMAN Milton 1953] Essays Positive Economics Chicago University of ChicagoPressHIRSCHMAN Albert 1992] Rival Views of Market Society and Other Recent EssaysCambridge MA Harvard University PressLAZEAR Edward 1999] Culture and Language The Journal of Political EconomyVol 107 No Part Symposium on the Economic Analysis of Social Behavior inHonor of Gary Becker S95-S126MACHLUP Fritz 1991] Economic Semantics New Brunswick NJ Transaction PublishersPALMER Richard 1969] Hermeneutics Interpretation Theory in SchleiermacherDilthey Heidegger and Gadamer Evanston 111 Northwestern University PressPARSONS Talcott 1964] Essays in Sociological Theory New York Free Press of Glen-coePIORE Michael 1979] Qualitative Research Techniques in Economics AdministrativeScience Quarterly Vol 24 4) 560-569PIORE Michael 1994] Corporate Reform American Manufacturing and the Challenge to Economic Theory in Thomas Alien and Michael Scott Morton eds.Information Technology and the Corporation of the New York Oxford 43-60PIORE Micheal 1995] Beyond Individualism Cambridge MA Harvard University PressPIORE Michael 2000] Rethinking International Labor Standards mimeo Departmentof Economics MITPIORE Michael Richard LESTER Fred KOPMAN and Krnal LEK 1994] The Orga

nization of Product Developments Industrial and Corporate Change Vol 2)405-434SEN Amartya 1987] On Ethics and Economics Oxford New York BlackwellWEBER Max 1958] The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism New YorkScribnerWINOGRAD Terry and Fernando FLORES 1987] Understanding Computers and Cognition New Foundation fo r Design Reading MA Addison-Wesley

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