The details on India and world economic and human geography MALUKA IAS | TH

Economic and Human Geography MALUKA IAS

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INTRODUCTION: Economic geography, the study of the geography of economic activities, developed from a focus on commercial activities and the exploitation of resources for economic gain. The focus of the field includes sectors of economic activity and numerous specialties. The central concerns of economic geography include understanding the capitalist world economy and, at the local, regional, national, and global scales, several other topics: firms in all sectors, uneven economic development and restructuring, and work and workers. While these topics overlap with other subtopics, economic geography retains a central, umbrella-like role with respect to all aspects of the geographical dimensions of economic activity. It has grown to encompass social, cultural, political, and institutional influences that affect the geography of economic activities. HUMAN GEOGRAPHY (NATURE AND SCOPE) “Human geography is the synthetic study of relationship between human societies and earth’s surface”. In the early stages of their interaction with their natural environment humans were greatly influenced by it. They adapted to the dictates of Nature. This is so because the level of technology was very low and the stage of human social development was also primitive. This type of interaction between primitive human society and strong forces of nature was termed as environmental determinism. The imprints of human activities are created everywhere; health resorts on highlands, huge urban sprawls, fields, orchards and pastures in plains and rolling hills, ports on the coasts, oceanic routes on the oceanic surface and satellites in the space. The earlier scholars termed this as Possibilism.

1. THE WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND GROWTH

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

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Geographical Factors: • Availability of water: It is the most important factor for life. So, people prefer to live

in areas where fresh water is easily available • Landforms: People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. This is because such

areas are favorable for the production of crops and to build roads and industries. • Climate: An extreme climate such as very hot or cold deserts is uncomfortable for

human habitation. Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation attract more people. Areas with very heavy rainfall or extreme and harsh climates have low population. Mediterranean regions were inhabited from early periods in history due to their pleasant climate.

• Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. Therefore, areas which have fertile loamy soils have more people living on them as these can support intensive agriculture.

Economic Factors:

• Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities generate employment. So, skilled and semi–skilled workers move to these areas and make them densely populated. Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa is one such good example.

• Urbanization: Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better means of transport and communication. Good civic amenities and the attraction of city life draw people to the cities. It leads to rural to urban migration and cities grow in size. Mega cities of the world continue to attract large number of migrants every year.

• Industrialization: Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people. These include not just factory workers but also transport operators, shopkeepers, bank employees, doctors, teachers and other service providers. The Kobe-Osaka region of Japan is thickly populated because of the presence of a number of industries.

Social and Cultural Factors:

• Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural significance. • In the same way – people tend to move away from places where there is social and

political unrest. Science and Technology helped Population Growth? • The steam engine replaced human and animal energy and also provided mechanized

energy of water and wind. • This increased agricultural and industrial production. • Inoculation against epidemics and other communicable diseases, improvement in

medical facilities and sanitation contributed to a rapid decline in death rates throughout the world

PATTERNS OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD DENSITY OF POPULATION

• The ratio between the numbers of people to the size of land. • This ratio is the density of population. • It is usually measured in persons per sq km.

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POPULATION GROWTH • The population growth or population change refers to the change in number of

inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time. • This change may be positive as well as negative. • It can be expressed either in terms of absolute numbers or in terms of percentage. • Population change in an area is an important indicator of economic development,

social upliftment and historical and cultural background of the region. Natural Growth of Population- • This is the population increased by difference between births and deaths in a particular region

between two points of time. • Natural Growth = Births – Deaths Actual Growth of Population- This = Births – Deaths + In

Migration – Out Migration Components of Population Change

• There are three components of population change – births, deaths and migration.

1. The crude birth rate (CBR) is expressed as number of live births in a year per thousand of population. It is calculated as:

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1. Crude Death Rate (CDR) is a simple method of measuring mortality of any area.

§ CDR is expressed in terms of number of deaths in a particular year per thousand of population in a particular region Migration.

§ When people move from one place to another, the place they move from is called the Place of Origin and the place they move to is called the Place of Destination.

§ Migration may be interpreted as a spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between population and resources.

§ Migration may be permanent, temporary or seasonal. § It may take place from rural to rural areas, rural to urban areas, urban to urban

areas and urban to rural areas.

• Immigration: Migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants. • Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place are called Emigrants.

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• People migrate for a better economic and social life. There are two sets of factors that influence migration.

• The Push factors make the place of origin seem less attractive for reasons like unemployment, poor living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters, epidemics and socio- economic backwardness.

• The Pull factors make the place of destination seem more attractive than the place of origin for reasons like better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and property and pleasant climate

TRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTH SPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION CHANGE IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGE

• A small increase in population is desirable in a growing economy. • Depletion of resources is the most serious problem. • Population decline indicates that resources that had supported a population earlier are

now insufficient to maintain the population. • The deadly HIV/AIDS epidemics in Africa and some parts of the Commonwealth of

Independent States (CIS) and Asia have pushed up death rates and reduced average life expectancy.

• This has slowed down population growth .

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION The theory tells us that population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and low deaths as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society. These changes occur in stages which are collectively known as the demographic cycle. Three-staged model of Demographic Transition Theory-

1. The first stage: • Has high fertility and high mortality because people reproduce more to

compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food supply. • The population growth is slow and most of the people are engaged in

agriculture where large families are an asset. • Life expectancy is low; people are mostly illiterate and have low levels of

technology. Two hundred years ago all the countries of the world were in this stage.

2. Second stage: • Fertility remains high in the beginning of but it declines with time. This is‘2

accompanied by reduced mortality rate. • Improvements in sanitation and health conditions lead to decline in mortality. Because

of this gap the net addition to population is high. 3. Last stage:

o Both fertility and mortality decline considerably. o The population is either stable or grows slowly. o The population becomes urbanised, literate and has high technical know- how and

deliberately controls the family size.

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POPULATION CONTROL MEASURES • Family planning is the spacing or preventing the birth of children. • Access to family planning services is a significant factor in limiting population growth

and improving women‘s health. • Propaganda, free availability of contraceptives and tax disincentives for large families

are some of the measures which can help population control. • Thomas Malthus in his theory (1793) stated that the number of people would increase

faster than the food supply. • Any further increase would result in a population crash caused by famine, disease and

war. • The preventive checks are better than the physical checks. For the sustainability of our

resources.

POPULATION COMPOSITION RURAL URBAN COMPOSITION • In general terms rural areas are those where people are engaged in primary activities

and urban areas are those when majority of the working population is engaged in non-primary activities.

• In countries like India, female participation in farming activity in rural area is fairly high.

• Shortage of housing, high cost of living, paucity of job opportunities and lack of security in cities, discourage women to migrate from rural to urban areas. Occupational Structure .

• Agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining are classified as primary activities manufacturing as secondary, transport, communication and other services as tertiary jobs related to research and developing ideas as quaternary activities.

• The proportion of working population engaged in these four sectors is a good indicator of the levels of economic development of a nation.

• This is because only a developed economy with industries and infrastructure can accommodate more workers in the secondary, tertiary and quaternary sector

SEX COMPOSITION- Natural Advantage v/s Social Disadvantage:

• Females have a biological advantage over males as they tend to be more resilient than males yet this advantage is cancelled out by the social disadvantages and discriminations that they face.

• The world population reflects a sex ratio of 102 males per 100 females. • The highest sex ratio in the world has been recorded in Latvia where there are 85 males

per 100 females. • In contrast, in Qatar there are 311 males per 100 females. Age Structure :

• Age structure represents the number of people of different age groups.

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• Like- age group of 15- 59 indicates a large working population Age-Sex Pyramid. • The age-sex structure of a population refers to the number of females and males in

different age groups. A population pyramid is used to show the age-sex structure of the population.

1. Expanding Populations: • The age-sex triangular shaped pyramid with a wide base and is typical of less developed

countries. • These have larger populations in lower age groups due to high birth rates. Eg.

Bangladesh and Mexico.

• 2. Constant Population:

• Australia‘s age-sex pyramid is bell shaped and tapered towards the top. • This shows birth and death rates are almost equal leading to a near constant

population.

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3. Declining Populations: • The Japan pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered top showing low birth and death

rates. • The population growth in developed countries is usually zero or negative Literacy. • Proportion of literate population of a country in an indicator of its socio-economic

development as it reveals the standard of living, social status of females, availability of educational facilities and policies of government.

• Level of economic development is both a cause and consequence of literacy.

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• In India – literacy rate denotes the percentage of population above 7 years of age, who is able to read, write and have the ability to do arithmetic calculations with understanding.

• 2.HUMAN DEVELOPMENT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT-

• Both refer to changes over a period of time. • The difference is that growth is quantitative and value neutral. It may have a positive

or a negative sign. • Development means a qualitative change which is always value positive. • Development occurs when there is a positive change in quality. • A man of vision and compassion, Pakistani economist Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq created the

Human Development Index in 1990. • According to him, development is all about enlarging people‘s choices in order to lead

long, healthy lives with dignity. • The United Nations Development Programme has used his concept of human

development to publish the Human Development Report annually since 1990. • Nobel Laureate Prof Amartya Sen saw an increase in freedom (or decrease in

unfreedom) as the main objective of development. • Interestingly, increasing freedoms is also one of the most effective ways of bringing

about development. • His work explores the role of social and political institutions and processes in

increasing freedom .

THE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT • Equity refers to making equal access to opportunities available to everybody. The

opportunities available to people must be equal irrespective of their gender, race, income and in the Indian case, caste.

• Sustainability means continuity in the availability of opportunities. • To have sustainable human development, each generation must have the same

opportunities. All environmental, financial and human resources must be used keeping in mind the future.

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• Productivity here means human labour productivity or productivity in terms of human work.

• Such productivity must be constantly enriched by building capabilities in people. • Ultimately, it is people who are the real wealth of nations. Therefore, efforts to increase

their knowledge, or provide better health facilities ultimately lead to better work efficiency.

• Empowerment means to have the power to make choices. Such power comes from increasing freedom .

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MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT • The human development index (HDI) ranks the countries based on their

performance in the key areas of health, education and access to resources. • Each of these dimensions is given a weightage of 1/3. • These rankings are based on a score between 0 to 1. The closer a score is to one, the

greater is the level of human development and viva-versa. • Health indicator- life expectancy at birth. A higher life expectancy means that

people have a greater chance of living longer and healthier lives. • Education indicator- The adult literacy rate and the gross enrolment ratio

represent access to knowledge. • The number of adults who are able to read and write and the number of children

enrolled in schools show how easy or difficult it is to access knowledge in a particular country.

• Access to resources is measured in terms of purchasing power. • The human development index measures attainments in human development. it is

not the most reliable measure. • This is because it does not say anything about the distribution. • The human poverty index is related to the human development index. This index

measures the shortfall in human development. It is a non-income measure. • The probability of not surviving till the age of 40, the adult illiteracy rate, the number

of people who do not have access to clean water, and the number of small children

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who are underweight are all taken into account to show the shortfall in human development in any region.

• Often the human poverty index is more revealing than the human development index. • The Human Development index and the Human Poverty index are two important

indices to measure human development used by the UNDP.

3.INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS Economic activities are broadly grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities.

PRIMARY ACTIVITIES

• Primary activities are directly dependent on environment as these refer to utilisation of earth‘s resources such as land, water, vegetation, building materials and minerals.

• It, thus includes, hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying.

• People engaged in primary activities are called red- collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work .

HUNTING AND GATHERING

• Gathering is practiced in regions with harsh climatic conditions. • It often involves primitive societies, who extract, both plants and animals to satisfy

their needs for food, shelter and clothing. • This type of activity requires a small amount of capital investment and operates at very

low level of technology. • The yield per person is very low and little or no surplus is produced.

PASTORALISM

• At some stage in history, with the realization that hunting is an unsustainable activity, human beings might have thought of domestication of animals.

• Depending on the geographical factors, and technological development, animal rearing today is practiced either at the subsistence or at the commercial level.

NOMADIC HERDING • Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity, in which

the herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport. • They move from one place to another along with their livestock, depending on the

amount and quality of pastures and water.

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• The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during summers and again from mountain pastures to plain areas during winters is known as transhumance

• The number of pastoral nomads has been decreasing and the areas operated by them • shrinking.

This is due to : (a) Imposition of political boundaries; (b) New settlement plans by different countries COMMERCIAL LIVESTOCK REARING

• Unlike nomadic herding, commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital intensive.

• Commercial livestock ranching is essentially associated with western cultures and is practised on permanent ranches.

• These ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing.

• When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel. • The number of animals in a pasture is kept according to the carrying capacity of the

pasture. This is a specialised activity in which only one type of animal is reared. • Rearing of animals in ranching is organised on a scientific basis. • The main emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health

care of the animals.

AGRICULTURE

Based on methods of farming, different types of crops are grown and livestock raised. The following are the main agricultural systems. 1. Subsistence Agriculture Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown. It can be grouped in two categories

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2. Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and central America and south east Asia.

• The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. • also called slash and burn agriculture

3.Intensive Subsistence Agriculture- • This type of agriculture is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon

Asia. , there are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture. Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation:

• This type of agriculture is characterised by dominance of the rice crop. • Land holdings are very small due to the high density of population. Farmers work

with the help of family labour leading to intensive use of land. • Use of machinery is limited and most of the agricultural operations are done by

manual labour. • Farm yard manure is used to maintain the fertility of the soil. • In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit area is high but per labour productivity

is low. • Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy. • Most of the characteristics of this type of agriculture are similar to those dominated

by wet paddy except that irrigation is often used. 4. Plantation Agriculture

• Introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics. • Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm,

sugarcane, bananas and pineapples. • The characteristic features of this type of farming are large estates or plantations, large

capital investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and a good system of transportation which links the estates to the factories and markets for the export of the products.

• The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in west Africa. • The British set up large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber plantations in

Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies. 5.Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation • Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the

mid- latitudes. • Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are also

grown. • The size of the farm is very large, therefore entire operations of cultivation from

ploughing to harvesting are mechanised. • There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.

6. Mixed Farming: • Moderate in size and usually the crops associated with it are wheat, barley, oats, rye,

maize, fodder and root crops. • Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming. • Crop rotation and intercropping play an important role in maintaining soil fertility. • Equal emphasis is laid on crop cultivation and animal husbandry.

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• Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main income along with crops. • Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and

building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.

7. Dairy Farming • Most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals. • highly capital intensive . • Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milching machines add to the

cost of dairy farming. • Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services. • highly labour intensive. • There are three main regions of commercial dairy farming. • The largest is North Western Europe the second is Canada and the third belt includes

South Eastern Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

MEDITERRANEAN AGRICULTURE: • Highly specialized commercial agriculture. • It is practiced in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean sea in Europe

and in north Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California, central Chile, south western parts of South Africa and south and south western parts of Australia.

• Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region. • Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high

quality grapes in various countries of this region. • The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. • This region also produces olives and figs. • The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as

fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when there is great demand in European and North American markets.

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MARKET GARDENING AND HORTICULTURE • Specialise in the cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables, fruits and flowers,

solely for the urban markets. • Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links with the

urban centre where high income group of consumers is located. • It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV

seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder regions. • This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of

north west Europe, north eastern United States of America and the Mediterranean regions.

• The regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only, the farming is known as truck farming.

• The distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight, hence the name truck farming.

• a modern development in the industrial regions of Western Europe and North America is factory farming. Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed on manufactured feedstuff and carefully supervised against diseases.

• This requires heavy capital investment in terms of building, machinery for various operations, veterinary services and heating and lighting.

CO-OPERATIVE FARMING

• A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming.

• Individual farms remain intact and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative. • Co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in

many western European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc.

• In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is a member of a co-operative.

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COLLECTIVE FARMING • Based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour.

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• Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.

• The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. • However, they were allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order to meet

their daily requirements. • Yearly targets were set by the government and the produce was also sold to the state

at fixed prices. • Produce in excess of the fixed amount was distributed among the members or sold in

the market. • The farmers had to pay taxes on the farm produces, hired machinery etc. • Members were paid according to the nature of the work allotted to them by the farm

management.

MINING • The actual development of mining began with the industrial revolution and its

importance is continuously increasing. • Factors Affecting Mining Activity:

1. Physical factors include the size, grade and the mode of occurrence of the deposits. 2. Economic factors such as the demand for the mineral, technology available and used, capital to develop infrastructure and the labour and transport costs.

• Methods of Mining Depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of the ore, mining is of two types: • The surface mining also known as open-cast mining is the easiest and the cheapest

way of mining minerals that occur close to the surface. o Overhead costs such as safety precautions and equipment is relatively low in

this method. o The output is both large and rapid.

• Underground mining method (shaft method): Used When the ore lies deep below the surface . • In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk, from where underground galleries

radiate to reach the minerals. • Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface through these passages. • It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation system for

safety and efficient movement of people and material. • This method is risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods and caving in lead to fatal

accidents.

4.SECONDARY ACTIVITIES Concerned with manufacturing, processing and construction (infrastructure) industries

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN LARGE SCALE MANUFACTURING: 1.SPECIALISATION OF SKILLS/METHODS OF PRODUCTION:

• Under the craft method factories produce only a few pieces which are made-to-

order. So the costs are high. • On the other hand, mass production involves production of large quantities of

standardised parts by each worker performing only one task repeatedly.

2.MECHANISATION : • Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which accomplish tasks. • Automation (without aid of human thinking during the manufacturing process) is the

advanced stage of mechanisation. • Automatic factories with feedback and closed- loop computer control systems where

machines are developed to think‘, have sprung up all over the world.

3. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION: Technological innovations through research and development strategy are an important aspect of modern manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combating pollution. Why do Large-scale Industries choose different locations?

• Industries maximise profits by reducing costs. Therefore, industries should be located at points where the production costs are minimum.

Some of the factors influencing industrial locations are as under: 1. Access to Market 2. Access to Raw Material 3. Access to Labour Supply 4. Access to Sources of Energy 5. Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities

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6. Communication is also an important need for industries for the exchange and management of information. 7. Government Policy 8. Access to Agglomeration Economies/ Links between Industries Foot Loose Industries

• Can be located in a wide variety of places. • They are not dependent on any specific raw material, weight losing or otherwise. • They largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere. • They produce in small quantity and also employ a small labour force. • These are generally not polluting industries. • The important factor in their location is accessibility by road network.

MANUFACTURING

• Manufacturing involves a full array of production from handicrafts to moulding iron and steel and stamping out plastic toys to assembling delicate computer components or space vehicles.

• In each of these processes, the common characteristics are the application of power, mass production of identical products and specialized Labour in factory settings for the production of standardized commodities.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND STRATIFICATION (i) A complex machine technology (ii) Extreme specialization and division of labour for producing more goods with less effort, and low costs (iii) Vast capital (iv) Large organisations (v) Executive bureaucracy. Uneven Geographic Distribution Major Concentrations of modern manufacturing have flourished in a few numbers of places. These cover less than 10 per cent of the world‘s land area. These nations have become the centres of economic and political power. Classification of Manufacturing Industries Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/raw materials, output/products and ownership

1. Industries based on Size The amount of capital invested, number of workers employed and volume of production determine the size of industry.

HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES OR COTTAGE MANUFACTURING • It is the smallest manufacturing unit. • The artisans use local raw materials and simple tools to produce everyday goods in

their homes with the help of their family members or part- time labour. • Finished products may be for consumption in the same household or, for sale in local

(village) markets, or, for barter. • Capital and transportation do not wield much influence as this type of manufacturing

has low commercial significance and most of the tools are devised locally.

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SMALL SCALE MANUFACTURING • Distinguished from household industries by its production techniques and place of

manufacture (a workshop outside the home/cottage of the producer). • This type of manufacturing uses local raw material, simple power-driven machines and • semi-skilled labour. • It provides employment and raises local purchasing power. • Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia and Brazil, etc. have developed labour

-intensive small scale manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population.

LARGE SCALE MANUFACTURING • Large scale manufacturing involves a large market, various raw materials, enormous

energy, specialised workers, advanced technology, assembly-line mass production and large capital. This kind of manufacturing developed in the last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north-

• eastern U.S.A. and Europe. • Now it has diffused to almost all over the world. On the basis of the system of large

scale manufacturing, the world’s major industrial regions may be grouped under two broad types, namely.

• Traditional large-scale industrial regions which are thickly clustered in a few more developed countries.

• High-technology large scale industrial regions which have diffused to less developed countries.

INDUSTRIES BASED ON INPUTS/RAW MATERIALS

(a) Agro based Industries : • Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the

farm into finished products for rural and urban markets. Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.

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• Agri-business is commercial farming on an industrial scale often financed by business whose main interests lie outside agriculture, for example, large corporations in tea plantation business.

• Agri-business farms are mechanised, large in size, highly structured, reliant on chemicals, and may be described as agro-factories

(b) Mineral based Industries: • These industries use minerals as a raw material. • Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals which contain ferrous (iron), such

as iron and steel industries but some use non-ferrous metallic minerals, such as aluminium, copper and jewellery industries.

• Many industries use non-metallic minerals such as cement and pottery industries. (c ) Chemical based Industries:

• Such industries use natural chemical minerals, mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in Petro- chemical industry. Salts sulphur and potash industries also use natural minerals.

• Chemical industries are also based on raw materials obtained from wood and coal. • Synthetic fibre, plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical based industries.

(d) Forest based Raw Material using Industries: • For furniture industry, wood, bamboo and grass for paper industry, lac for lac

industries come from forests. (e) Animal based Industries:

• Leather for leather industry and wool for woollen textiles are obtained from animals. • Besides, ivory is also obtained from elephant‘s tusks.

INDUSTRIES BASED ON OUTPUT/PRODUCT • The industry whose products are used to make other goods by using them as raw

materials are basic industries. • The consumer goods industries produced goods which are consumed by

consumers directly. • For example, industries producing breads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries,

paper for writing, televisions, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic industries.

INDUSTRIES BASED ON OWNERSHIP • Public Sector Industries are owned and managed by governments. • Private Sector Industries are owned by individual investors. • These are managed by private organisations. • Joint Sector Industries are managed by joint stock companies or sometimes the private

and public sectors together establish and manage the industries. Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions:

• These are based on heavy industry, often located near coal-fields and engaged in metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacture or textile production.

• These industries are now known as smoke stack industries. Traditional industrial regions can be recognised by:

• High proportion of employment in manufacturing industry.

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• High-density housing, often of inferior type, and poor services. Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, waste heaps, and so on.

• Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict land areas caused by closure of factories because of a worldwide fall in demand.

Iron and Steel Industry: • The iron and steel industry forms the base of all other industries and, therefore, it is

called a basic industry. • It is basic because it provides raw material for other industries such as machine tools

used for further production. • It may also be called a heavy industry because it uses large quantities of bulky raw

materials and its products are also heavy. • Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and

limestone. • The molten iron is cooled and moulded to form pig iron which is used for converting

into steel by adding strengthening materials like manganese. • The large integrated steel industry is traditionally located close to the sources of raw

materials – iron ore, coal, manganese and limestone – or at places where these could be easily brought, e.g. near ports.

• The Ruhr Coal-field, Germany: o This has been one of the major industrial regions of Europe for a long time. o Coal and iron and steel formed the basis of the economy, but as the demand for

coal declined, the industry started shrinking. o Even after the iron ore was exhausted, the industry remained, using imported

ore brought by waterways to the Ruhr. o The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 per cent of Germany’s total steel

production. • But in mini steel mills access to markets is more important than inputs. These are less

expensive to build and operate and can be located near markets because of the abundance of scrap metal, which is the main input.

Distribution: • The industry is one of the most complex and capital-intensive industries and is

concentrated in the advanced countries of North America, Europe and Asia. It has now become the ―rust bowlǁ of U.S.A. Cotton Textile Industry.

• Cotton textile industry has three sub-sectors handloom, power loom and mill sectors. Handloom sector is labour-intensive and provides employment to semi-skilled workers.

• It requires small capital investment. • This sector involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics. • The power loom sector introduces machines and becomes less labour intensive and

the volume of production increases. • Mill sector is highly capital intensive and produces fine clothes in bulk. • Cotton textile manufacturing requires good quality cotton as raw material. • India, China, U.S.A, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt produce more than half of the world

raw cotton.

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• The U.K, NW European countries and Japan also produce cotton textile made from imported yarn. Europe alone accounts for nearly half of the world‘s cotton imports.

• The industry has to face very stiff competition with synthetic fibres hence it has now shown a declining trend in many countries.

Concept of High Technology Industry :

• High technology, or simply high-tech, is the latest generation of manufacturing activities.

• It is best understood as the application of intensive research and development (R and D) efforts leading to the manufacture of products of an advanced scientific and engineering character.

• Professional (white collar) workers make up a large share of the total workforce. • These highly skilled specialists greatly outnumber the actual production (blue collar)

workers. • Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design (CAD) and manufacturing,

electronic controls of smelting and refining processes, and the constant development of new chemical and pharmaceutical products are notable examples of a high-tech industry.

5.TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES • Involve the commercial output of services rather than the production of tangible goods. • They are not directly involved in the processing of physical raw materials. • Common examples are the work of a plumber, electrician, technician, launderer,

barber, shopkeeper, driver, cashier, teacher, doctor, lawyer and publisher etc. • The main difference between secondary activities and tertiary activities is that the

expertise provided by services relies more heavily on specialised skills, experience and knowledge of the workers rather than on the production techniques, machinery and factory processes.

• TYPES OF TERTIARY ACTIVITIES: 1. Trade and commerce:

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• The towns and cities where all these works take place are known us trading centres or collection and distribution points.

• Trading centres may be divided into rural and urban marketing centres. • Rural marketing centres cater to nearby settlements. • These are quasi-urban centres. • They serve as trading centres of the most rudimentary type. Here personal and

professional services are not well-developed. • Periodic markets in rural areas are found where there are no regular markets and

local periodic markets are organised at different temporal intervals. • These may be weekly, bi- weekly markets from where people from the surrounding

areas meet their temporally accumulated demand. • Urban marketing centres have more widely specialised urban services. • They provide ordinary goods and services as well as many of the specialised goods

and services required by people . 2. Retail Trading:

• This is the business activity concerned with the sale of goods directly to the consumers.

• Most of the retail trading takes place in fixed establishments or stores solely devoted to selling.

• Street peddling, handcarts, trucks, door-todoor, mail-order, telephone, automatic vending machines and internet are examples of non- store retail trading.

3. Wholesale Trading: Wholesale trading constitutes bulk business through numerous intermediary merchants and supply houses and not through retail stores. Some large stores including chain stores are able to buy directly from the manufacturers. However, most retail stores procure supplies from an intermediary source. Wholesalers often extend credit to retail stores to such an extent that the retailer operates very largely on the wholesaler‘s capital. 4.Transport :

• Transport is a service or facility by which people, materials and manufactured goods are physically carried from one location to another.

• At every stage in this complex system, the value of the material is significantly enhanced by transportation.

• Isochrones lines are drawn on a map to join places equal in terms of the time taken to reach them.

FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPORT :

• Demand for transport is influenced by the size of population. The larger the population size, the greater is the demand for transport.

• Routes depend on: location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centres and raw materials, pattern of trade between them, nature of the landscape between them, type of climate, and funds available for overcoming obstacles along the length of the route.

5.Communication:

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• Communication services involve the transmission of words and messages, facts and ideas.

6.Telecommunications:

• The use of telecommunications is linked to the development of modern technology. It has revolutionised communications because of the speed with which messages are sent. The time reduced is from weeks to minutes.

• Radio and television also help to relay news, pictures, and telephone calls to vast audiences around the world and hence they are termed as mass media.

• They are vital for advertising and entertainment. • Newspapers are able to cover events in all corners of the world. • Satellite communication relays information of the earth and from space. • The internet has truly revolutionised the global communication syste.

7. Services:

• Services occur at many different levels. • Some are geared to industry, some to people, and some to both industry and people,

e.g. the transport systems. • Services are provided to individual consumers who can afford to pay for them. • For example, the gardener, the launderers and the barber do primarily physical labour.

Teacher, lawyers, physicians, musicians and others perform mental labour PEOPLE ENGAGED IN TERTIARY ACTIVITIES:

• Today most people are service workers. Services are provided in all societies. • But in more developed countries a higher percentage of workers is employed in

providing services as compared to less developed countries. • The trend in employment in this sector has been increasing while it has remained

unchanged or decreasing in the primary and secondary activities. SOME SELECTED EXAMPLES: Tourism :

• Tourism is travel undertaken for purposes of recreation rather than business. • It has become the world single largest tertiary activity in total registered jobs (250

million) and total revenue (40 per cent of the total GDP). • Tourism fosters the growth of infrastructure industries, retail trading, and craft

industries (souvenirs). Tourist Regions:

• The warmer places around the Mediterranean Coast and the West Coast of India are some of the popular tourist destinations in the world.

• Others include winter sports regions, found mainly in mountainous areas, and various scenic landscapes and national parks, which are scattered.

• Historic towns also attract tourists, because of the monument, heritage sites and cultural activities.

Factors Affecting Tourism:

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• Demand- Since the last century, the demand for holidays has increased rapidly. • Improvements in the standard of living and increased leisure time, permit many more

people to go on holidays for leisure. Transport:

• The opening-up of tourist areas has been aided by improvement in transport facilities. • Travel is easier by car, with better road systems. • More significant in recent years has been the expansion in air transport.

Tourist Attractions: 1. Climate 2. Landscape 3. History and Art 4. Culture and Economy Medical Services for Overseas Patients in India:

• About 55,000 patients from U.S.A. visited India in 2005 for treatment. • This is still a small number compared with the millions of surgeries performed each

year in the U.S. healthcare system. • India has emerged as the leading country of medical tourism in the world. • World class hospitals located in metropolitan cities cater to patients all over the world.

Medical tourism brings abundant benefits to developing countries like India, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia.

• Beyond medical tourism, is the trend of outsourcing of medical tests and data interpretation.

• Hospitals in India, Switzerland and Australia have been performing certain medical services – ranging from reading radiology images, to interpreting Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs) and ultrasound tests.

• When medical treatment is combined with international tourism activity, it lends itself to what is commonly known as medical tourism.

Quaternary activities:

• It involves some of the following: the collection, production and dissemination of information or even the production of information.

• Quaternary activities centre around research, development and may be seen as an advanced form of services involving specialised knowledge and technical skills.

Quinary sector:

• The highest level of decision makers or policy makers performs quinary activities. • These are subtly different from the knowledge based industries that the quinary sector

in general deals with. • Quinary activities are services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and

interpretation of new and existing ideas; data interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies.

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• Often referred to as gold collar‘ professions, they represent another subdivision of the tertiary sector representing special and highly paid skills of senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc.

THE DIGITAL DIVIDE • Opportunities emerging from the Information and Communication Technology based

development is unevenly distributed across the globe. There are wide ranging economic, political and social differences among countries.

• How quickly countries can provide ICT access and benefits to its citizens are the deciding factor.

• While developed countries in general have surged forward, the developing countries have lagged behind and this is known as the digital divide.

• Similarly digital divides exist within countries. • For example, in a large country like India or Russia, it is inevitable that certain areas

like metropolitan centres possess better connectivity and access to the digital world versus peripheral rural areas.

6. INTERNATIONAL TRADE • Barter system, where direct exchange of goods took place. • Every January after the harvest season Jon Beel Mela takes place in Jagiroad, 35 km

away from Guwahati and it is possibly the only fair In India, where barter system is still alive.

• A big market is organised during this fair and people from various tribes and communities exchange their products.

HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE: • The Silk Route is an early example of long distance trade connecting Rome to China – • along the 6,000 km route. • The traders transported Chinese silk, Roman wool and precious metals and many other

high value commodities from intermediate points in India, Persia and Central Asia. • Fifteenth century onwards, the European colonialism began and along with trade of

exotic commodities, a new form of trade emerged which was called slave trade. • The Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured African natives and forcefully • transported them to the newly discovered Americas for their labour in the plantations. • After the Industrial Revolution the demand for raw materials like grains, meat, wool

also expanded, but their monetary value declined in relation to the manufactured goods.

• The industrialized nations imported primary products as raw materials and exported the value added finished products back to the non-industrialized nations.

• In the later half of the nineteenth century, regions producing primary goods were no more important, and industrial nations became each other‘s principle customers.

• During the World Wars I and II, countries imposed trade taxes and quantitative restrictions for the first time.

• During the post- war period, organisations like General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (which later became the World Trade Organisation), helped in reducing tariff.

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WHY DOES INTERNATIONAL TRADE EXIST?

Þ International trade is the result of specialization in production. Þ International trade is based on the principle of comparative advantage,

complementarity and Þ transferability of goods and services and in principle, should be mutually beneficial

to the trading partners.

BASIS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE:

1. Difference in national resources: The world‘s national resources are unevenly distributed because of differences in their physical make up i.e. geology, relief soil and climate. a) Geological structure: It determines the mineral resource base and topographical differences ensure diversity of crops and animals raised. b) Mineral resources: They are unevenly distributed the world over. The availability of mineral resources provides the basis for industrial development.

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c) Climate: It influences the type of flora and fauna that can survive in a given region. It also ensures diversity in the range of various products, e.g. wool production can take place in cold regions, bananas, rubber and cocoa can grow in tropical regions.

2. Population factors:

• The size, distribution and diversity of people between countries affect the type and volume of goods traded.

• Cultural factors: Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures which are valued the world over, e.g. China produces the finest porcelains and brocades.

• Size of population: Densely populated countries have large volume of internal trade but little external trade because most of the agricultural and industrial production is consumed in the local markets.

3. Stage of economic development. 4. Extent of foreign investment 5. Transport Important Aspects of International Trade 1. Volume of Trade:

• The actual tonnage of goods traded makes up the volume. • However, services traded cannot be measured in tonnage. • Therefore, the total value of goods and services traded is considered to be the volume

of trade. 2. Composition of Trade:

• Agricultural products, fuels and mining products, fuels, manufactures, iron and steel, chemicals, office and telecom equipment, automotive products, textiles and clothing are major merchandise which are traded over the world.

3. Direction of Trade Balance of Trade

• Balance of trade records the volume of goods and services imported as well as exported by a country to other countries.

• If the value of imports is more than the value of a country‘s exports, the country has negative or un-favourable balance of trade.

• If the value of exports is more than the value of imports, then the country has a positive or favourable balance of trade.

TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

1. Bilateral trade: Bilateral trade is done by two countries with each other. They enter into agreement to trade specified commodities amongst them. 2. Multi-lateral trade: As the term suggests multi-lateral trade is conducted with many trading countries. The same country can trade with a number of other countries. The country may also grant the status of the ―Most Favoured Nationǁ (MFN) on some of the trading partners.

CASE FOR FREE TRADE:

• The act of opening up economies for trading is known as free trade or trade liberalisation.

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• This is done by bringing down trade barriers like tariffs. • Trade liberalisation allows goods and services from everywhere to compete with

domestic products and services. • Free trade should not only let rich countries enter the markets, but allow the developed

countries to keep their own markets protected from foreign products. • Countries also need to be cautious about dumped goods; as along with free trade

dumped goods of cheaper prices can harm the domestic producers . • The practice of selling a commodity in two countries at a price that differs for reasons

not related to costs is called dumping.

CONCERNS RELATED TO INTERNATIONAL TRADE: • International trade can prove to be detrimental to nations of it leads to dependence on

other countries, uneven levels of development, exploitation, and commercial rivalry leading to wars.

• Global trade affects many aspects of life; it can impact everything from the environment to health and well-being of the people around the world.

• As countries compete to trade more, production and the use of natural resources spiral up, resources get used up faster than they can be replenished.

• As a result, marine life is also depleting fast, forests are being cut down and river basins sold off to private drinking water companies.

• Multi- national corporations trading in oil, gas mining, pharmaceuticals and agri-business keep expanding their operations at all costs creating more pollution – their mode of work does not follow the norms of sustainable development.

• If organisations are geared only towards profit making, and environmental and health concerns are not addressed, then it could lead to serious implications in the future

Regional Trade Blocs: Regional Trade Blocs have come up in order to encourage trade between countries with geographical proximity, similarity and complementarities in trading items and to curb restrictions on trade of the developing world. Today, 120 regional trade blocs generate 52 per cent of the world trade.

GATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE 1. Ports:

• The chief gateways of the world of international trade are the harbors and ports. • The ports provide facilities of docking, loading, unloading and the storage facilities for

cargo. In order to provide these facilities, the port authorities make arrangements for maintaining navigable channels, arranging tugs and barges, and providing labour and managerial services.

• The importance of a port is judged by the size of cargo and the number of ships handled.

• The quantity of cargo handled by a port is an indicator of the level of development of its hinterland.

TYPES OF PORT

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A. Types of port according to cargo handled

1. Industrial Ports: These ports specialize in bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil, chemicals and similar materials.

WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION: • In 1948, to liberalise the world from high customs tariffs and various other types of

restrictions, General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was formed by some countries.

• GATT was transformed into the World Trade Organisation from 1st January 1995. • WTO is the only international organization dealing with the global rules of trade

between nations. It sets the rules for the global trading system and resolves disputes between its member nations.

• WTO also covers trade in services, such as telecommunication and banking, and others issues such as intellectual rights.

• Many developed countries have not fully opened their markets to products from developing countries.

• It is also argued that issues of health, worker‘s rights, child labour and environment are ignored.

• WTO Headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland. • 149 countries were members of WTO as on December 2005 . • India has been one of the founder member of WTO

2. Commercial Ports:

• These ports handle general cargo-packaged products and manufactured goods.

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• These ports also handle passenger traffic 3. Comprehensive Ports:

• Such ports handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes Most of the world‘s great ports are classified as comprehensive ports.

B. Types of port on the basis of location: Inland Ports:

• These ports are located away from the sea coast. • They are linked to the sea through a river or a canal. Such ports are accessible

to flat bottom ships or barges. • For example, Manchester is linked with a canal and Kolkata is located on the

river Hoogli, a branch of the river Ganga. Out Ports:

• These are deep water ports built away from the actual ports. • These serve the parent ports by receiving those ships which are unable to approach

them due to their large size. • Classic combination, for example, is Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece.

C. Port on the basis of specialized functions: 1. Oil Ports: These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports and some are refinery ports. 2. Ports of Call: These are the ports which originally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships used to anchor for refuelling, watering and taking food items. Later on, they developed into commercial ports. Aden, Honolulu and Singapore are good examples. 3. Packet Station: These are also known as ferry ports. These packet stations are exclusively concerned with the transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies covering short distances, 4. Entrepot Ports: These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export. Singapore is an entrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic region. 5. Naval Ports: These are ports which have only strategic importance. These ports serve warships and have repair workshops for them. Kochi and Karwar are examples of such ports in India.

7. HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 1. A human settlement is defined as a place inhabited more or less permanently. 2. The census of India, 1991 defines urban settlements as― a) All places which have municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee and have a minimum population of 5000 persons, b) at least 75 per cent of male workers are engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and c) a density of population of at least 400 persons per square kilometres are urban TYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTS 1. Compact or Nucleated settlements-

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• Large numbers of houses are built very close to each other. • Such settlements develop along river valleys and in fertile plains. • Communities are closely knit and share common occupations.

2. Dispersed Settlements- • Houses are spaced far apart and often interspersed with fields. • A cultural feature such as a place of worship or a market, binds the settlement together.

3. Rural Settlements: • Rural settlements are most closely and directly related to land. • They are dominated by primary activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry,

fishing etc. FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOCATION OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS ARE: 1. Water Supply 2. Land 3. Upland 4. Building Material 5. Defence 6. Planned Settlements RURAL SETTLEMENTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ON THE BASIS OF A NUMBER OF CRITERIA: 1. On the basis of setting: The main types are plain villages, plateau villages, coastal villages, forest villages and desert villages. 2. On the basis of functions: There may be farming villages, fishermen villages, lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc. 3. On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements: These may be a number of geometrical forms and shapes such as Linear, rectangular, circular star like, T-shaped village, double village, cross-shaped village etc.

(a) Linear pattern: In such settlements houses are located along a road, railway line, and river, canal edge of a valley or along a levee.

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(b) Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of rural settlements are found in plain areas or wide inter montane valleys. The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles. (c) Circular pattern: Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is planned in such a way that the central part remains open and is used for keeping the animals to protect them from wild animals. (d) Star like pattern: Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the houses built along the roads. (e) T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform m settlements: T –shaped settlements develop at tri-junctions of the roads ( ) while –shaped settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on the third one and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses extend in all the four direction. (f) Double village: These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a ferry. URBAN SETTLEMENTS 1. Population Size:

• It is an important criteria used by most countries to define urban areas. • The lower limit of the population size for a settlement to be designated as urban 5,000

in India and 30,000 in Japan. • Density of 400 persons per sq km and share of non-agricultural workers are taken into

consideration in India. 2. Occupational Structure:

• In some countries, such as India, the major economic activities in addition to the size of the population in designating a settlement as urban are also taken as a criterion.

• In India a settlement is called urban, if more than 75 per cent of its economically productive population is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits.

3. Administration : • The administrative setup is a criterion for classifying a settlement as urban in some

countries. • For example, in India, a settlement of any size is classified as urban, if it has a

municipality, CANTONMENT BOARD OR NOTIFIED AREA COUNCIL. Functions of Urban towns 1. Administrative Towns: National capitals, which house the administrative offices of central governments, such as New Delhi, Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington D.C., and London etc. are called administrative Town. 2. Trading and Commercial Towns: Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipeg and Kansas city; banking and financial centres like Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inland centres like Manchester and St Louis; and transport nodes such as, Lahore, Baghdad and Agra have been important

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trading centres. 3. Cultural Towns: Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. are considered cultural towns. These urban centres are of great religious importance CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THE BASIS OF FORMS :

• An urban settlement may be linear, square, star or crescent shaped. • In fact, the form of the settlement, architecture and style of buildings and other

structures are an outcome of its historical and cultural traditions. TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS

1. Town: • The concept of town can best be understood with reference to village‘.

Population size is not the only criterion. • Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always be clear - cut,

but specific functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.

2. City : • A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local or

regional rivals. • In the words of Lewis Mumford, ― the city is in fact the physical form of the

highest and most complex type of associative life. • Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic

functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional administrative offices.

• When the population crosses the one million mark it is designated as a million city.

3. Conurbation: • The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a

large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities.

• Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples. 4. This Greek word meaning :

• great city, was popularized by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies super- metropolitan region extending as union of conurbations.

• The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis

5. Million City: • A million city is a city with one million or more inhabitants. The first urban

settlement to reacha population of one million was the city of London by around A.D. 1810. By 1982, approximately 175 cities in the world had crossed the one million population mark.

What is a Healthy City?

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• World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests that, among other things, a healthy city‘ must have:

• A ‘Clean and Safe’ environment. • Meets the Basic Needs of All its inhabitants. • Involves the Community in local government. • Provides easily accessible Health service. • Problems of Human Settlements in Developing Countries 1. Economic Problems:

• The decreasing employment opportunities in the rural as well as smaller urban areas of the developing countries consistently push the population to the urban areas.

• The enormous migrant population generates a pool of un- skilled and semi-skilled labour force, which is already saturated in urban areas.

2. Socio-cultural Problems: • Cities in the developing countries suffer from several social ills. Insufficient financial

resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure catering to the basic needs of the huge population.

• The available educational and health facilities remain beyond the reach of the urban poor.

• Health indices also, present a gloomy picture in cities of developing countries. • Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates. Male selective

migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities. 3. Environmental Problems:

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP) HAS OUTLINED THESE PRIORITIES AS PART OF ITS URBAN STRATEGY‘. 1. Increasing Shelter for the urban poor. 2. Provision of basic urban services such as Education‘, Primary Health care‘, Clean Water and Sanitation‘. 3. Improving women‘s access to Basic Services and government facilities. 4. Upgrading Energy use and alternative Transport systems. 5. Reducing Air Pollution‘.

8. MIGRATION TYPES, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES Migration-

• Migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881. • Data were recorded on the basis of place of birth. • First major modification was introduced in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional

components viz; place of birth i.e. village or town and duration of residence (if born elsewhere).

• Further in 1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of enumeration were incorporated.

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• Information on reasons for migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive Censuses.

• Causes of Migration- 1. Push factor, these cause people to leave their place of residence or origin:

[ People migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care, education, etc.

[ natural disasters such as, flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake 2. Pull factors, which attract the people from different places

[ The rural migrants to urban areas are the better opportunities, availability of regular work and relatively higher wages.

[ Better opportunities for education, better health facilities and sources of entertainment, etc.

THE FIRST WAVE OF MIGRANTS- [ During colonial period (British period)--- indentured labourers were sent to Mauritius,

Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana), Fiji and South Africa by British from--- Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; to ---- Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Surinam by French and Dutch and by Portuguese from ---- Goa, Daman and Diu to Angola, Mozambique to work as plantation workers.

[ All such migrations were covered under the time-bound contract known as GIRMIT Act (Indian Emigration Act).

THE SECOND WAVE OF MIGRANTS: [ professionals, artisans, traders and factory workers, in search of economic

opportunities to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and African countries, etc. and the trend still continues.

[ There was a steady out flow of India’s semi-skilled and skilled labour in the wake of the oil boom in West Asia in the 1970s.

[ There was also some outflow of entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, businessmen to Western Countries.

THIRD WAVE, OF MIGRANT [ Professionals like doctors, engineers (1960s onwards), software engineers,

management consultants, financial experts, media persons (1980s onwards), and others migrated to countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany, etc.

[ After liberalization, in the 90s education and knowledge–based Indian emigration has made Indian Diaspora one of the most powerful diaspora as in the world.

[ In all these countries, Indian diaspora has been playing an important role in the development of the respective countries.

I. place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life- time migrant);

II. Place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence).

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STREAMS OF MIGRATION-

1. INTERNAL MIGRATION (WITHIN THE COUNTRY)- a) rural to rural (R-R); b) rural to urban (R-U); c) urban to urban (U-U); and d) Urban to rural (U-R).

[ The stream was dominated by female migrants. [ Most of these were migrants related to marriage men predominate the rural to

urban stream of inter-state migration due to economic reasons

2. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION (OUT OF THE COUNTRY AND INTO THE COUNTRY FROM OTHER COUNTRIES)

[ Than 5 million people have migrated to India from other countries. [ Bangladesh (3.0 million) followed by Pakistan (0.9 million) and Nepal (0.5

million)

3. MAHARASHTRA OCCUPIED FIRST PLACE IN THE LIST WITH 2.3 MILLION NET IN-MIGRANTS (INTERSTATE), FOLLOWED BY DELHI, GUJARAT AND HARYANA. 4. ON THE OTHER HAND, UTTAR PRADESH (-2.6 MILLION) AND BIHAR (-1.7 MILLION) WERE THE STATES, which had the largest number of net out-migrants from the state . CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION- 1. Economic Consequences-

• A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants. • Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign

exchange. • Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and

Orissa to the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution strategy for agricultural development.

• Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra. 2. Demographic Consequences:

• Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities.

• Age, sex and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure.

3. Social Consequences: • Migrants act as agents of social change. • The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girl’s education, etc. get

diffused from urban to rural areas through them.

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• Intermixing of people from diverse cultures. • It has positive contribution such as evolution of composite culture and breaking

through the narrow considerations and widens up the mental horizon of the people at large.

• But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonymity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals.

• Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.

4. Environmental Consequences: • Put pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure in the urban areas. • This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and formation of slums

shanty colonies. • Apart from this, due to over –exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the

acute problem of depletion of ground water, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.

5. Others: • Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly

or indirectly. • In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra

physical as well mental pressure on the women. • Migration of „women‟ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy

and role in the economy but also increases their vulnerability. • If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of the source

region, the loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost.

• The market for advanced skills has become truly a global market and the most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, the existing underdevelopment in the source region gets reinforced.

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•

9.HUMAN DEVELOPMENT : • First Human Development Report--- by United Nations development Program

(UNDP) in --- 1990 Since then, this organization has been bringing out World Human Development Report--- every year .

• This report define human development, make amendments and changes its indicators

and ranks all the countries Human Development in India. • HDI-Scale (0-1) 1 is good and 0 is bad .

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• Lack of sensitivity to the historical factors like colonization, imperialism and neo-imperialism, socio-cultural factors like human rights violation, social discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender and caste, social problems like crimes, terrorism, and war and political factors like nature of the state, forms of the government (democracy or dictatorship) level of empowerment are some factors that are very crucial in determining the nature of human development.

• The Planning Commission of India also prepared the Human Development Report for India.

INDICATORS OF A HEALTHY LIFE:

• Life free from illness and ailment and living a reasonably long life span are indicative of a healthy life.

• Availability of pre and post natal health care facilities in order to reduce infant mortality and post-delivery deaths among mothers, old age health care, adequate nutrition and safety of individual are some important measures of a healthy and reasonably long life.

• India has done reasonably well in some of the health indicators like decline in death rate from 25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 8.1 per thousand in 1999 and infant mortality from 148 per thousand to 70 during the same period.

• Increase in life expectancy at birth from 37.1 years to 62.3 years for males and 36.2 to 65.3 years for females from 1951 to 1999.

• Decrease in birth rate from 40.8 to 26.1 during the same years, but it still is much higher than many developed countries.

• India has recorded declining female sex ratio. Population, Environment and Development.

• The UNDP in its Human Development Report 1993 this report recognized greater constructive role of „Civil Societies‟ in bringing about peace and human development.

• The civil society should work for building up opinion for reduction in the military expenditure, de- mobilization of armed forces, transition from defence to production of basic goods and services and particularly disarmament and reduction in the nuclear warheads by the developed countries.

• Neo-Malthusians, environmentalists and radical ecologists believe that for a happy and peaceful social life proper balance between population and resources is a necessary

• condition. • It is not the availability of resources that is as important as their social distribution.

INDICATORS OF ECONOMIC ATTAINMENTS

• Rich resource base and access to these resources by all, particularly the poor, down trodden and the marginalized is the key to productivity, well-being and human development.

• Gross National Product (GNP) and its per capita availability are taken as measures to assess the resource base/ endowment of any country: a) consumption and expenditure rate b) population living below the poverty line c) Employment rate

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INDICATORS OF SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT: “Development is freedom”

• Freedom from hunger, poverty, servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy and any other forms of domination is the key to human development.

• Freedom in real sense of the term is possible only with the empowerment and participation of the people in the exercise of their capabilities and choices in the society

• Literacy is the beginning of access to such a world of knowledge and freedom. • Indian culture and civilization have been very sensitive to the issues of population,

resource and development for a long time. • The ancient scriptures were essentially concerned about the balance and harmony

among the elements of nature. • Mahatma Gandhi in the recent times advocated the reinforcement of the harmony and

balance between the two. • In his opinion, austerity for individual, trusteeship of social wealth and non-violence

are the key to attain higher goals in the life of an individual as well as that of a nation. • His views were also re-echoed in the Club of Rome Report “Limits to Growth” (1972),

Schumacher’s book “Small is Beautiful” (1974), Brundtland Commission’s Report “Our Common Future” (1987) and finally in the “Agenda-21 Report of the Rio Conference” (1993).

10. HUMAN SETTLEMENTS: Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings live.

TYPES OF RURAL SETTLEMENT : Factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in India. These include:

I. Physical features – nature of terrain, altitude, climate and availability of water II. Cultural and ethnic factors – social structure, caste and religion

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III. Security factors -defence against thefts and robberies. Four types: a) Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated, b) Semi-clustered or fragmented, c) Hamleted, and d) Dispersed or isolated

1. CLUSTERED SETTLEMENTS • The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built up area of houses. • In this type of village the general living area is distinct and separated from the

surrounding farms, barns and pastures. • The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognizable pattern

or geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc. • Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the north- eastern

states. • Sometimes, people live in compact village for security or defence reasons, such as in

the Bundelkhand region of central India and in Nagaland. • In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum

utilisation of available water resources.

2. SEMI-CLUSTERED SETTLEMENTS • Result from tendency of clustering in a restricted area of dispersed settlement. • One or more sections of the village society choose or is forced to live a little away from

the main cluster or village. • The land-owning and dominant community occupies the central part of the main

village, whereas people of lower strata of society and menial workers settle on the outer flanks of the village.

• Location- Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.

3. HAMLETED SETTLEMENTS • Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several units physically separated from each

other bearing a common name. • These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in various parts of

the country. • This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors. • Location- middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the

Himalayas.

4. DISPERSED SETTLEMENTS • Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in India appears in the form of isolated huts

or hamlets of few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills with farms or pasture on the slopes.

• Extreme dispersion of settlement is often caused by extremely fragmented nature of the terrain and land resource base of habitable areas.

• Examples- Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala Urban Settlements.

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EVOLUTION OF TOWNS IN INDIA – • At the time of Indus valley civilisation, towns like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were in

existence. • The following period has witnessed evolution of towns-

o It continued with periodic ups and downs until the arrival of Europeans in India in the eighteenth century.

o On the basis of their evolution in different periods, Indian towns may be classified as- A. Ancient towns B. Medieval towns, and C. Modern towns

1. ANCIENT TOWNS • There are number of towns in India having historical background spanning over 2000

years. • Most of them developed as religious and cultural centres. • Varanasi is one of the important towns among these. • Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other examples of ancient

towns in the country.

2. MEDIEVAL TOWNS • About 100 of the existing towns have their roots in the medieval period. • Most of them developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms. • These are fort towns which came up on the ruins of ancient towns. • Important among them are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra and Nagpur

3. MODERN TOWNS • The British and other Europeans have developed a number of towns in India. • Starting their foothold on coastal locations, they first developed some trading ports

such as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. • The British later consolidated their hold around three principal nodes – Mumbai

(Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) – and built them in the British style.

URBANIZATION IN INDIA :

• The level of urbanization is measured in terms of percentage of urban population to total population.

• The level of urbanization in India in 2001 was 28 per cent . • Enlargement of urban centres and emergence of new towns have played a significant

role in the growth of urban population and urbanization in the country. • Growth rate of urbanization has slowed down during last two decades. • The basic differences between rural and urban settlements are as follows:

[ The rural settlements derive their life support or basic economic needs from land based primary economic activities, whereas, urban settlements, depend on processing of raw materials and manufacturing of finished goods on the one hand and a variety of services on the other.

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[ Cities act as nodes of economic growth; provide goods and services not only to urban dwellers but also to the people of the rural settlements in their hinterlands in return for food and raw materials.

[ This functional relationship between the urban and rural settlements takes place through transport and communication network.

• Rural and urban settlements differ in terms of social relationship, attitude and outlook. • Rural people are less mobile and therefore, social relations among them are intimate. • In urban areas, on the other hand, way of life is complex and fast, and social relations

are formal.

•

CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THE BASIS OF POPULATION SIZE : • Census of India classifies urban centres into six classes Urban centre with population

of more than one lakh is called a city or class I town. • Cities accommodating population size between one to five million are called

metropolitan cities and more than five million are mega cities. • Majority of metropolitan and mega cities are urban agglomerations. • An urban agglomeration may consist of any one of the following three

combinations: I. a town and its adjoining urban outgrowths, II. two or more contiguous towns with or without their

outgrowths, and III. a city and one or more adjoining towns with their

outgrowths together forming a contiguous spread

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•

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS: • On the basis of dominant or specialized functions, Indian cities and towns can be

broadly classified as follows: 1. Administrative towns and cities - Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur Chennai, etc. 2. Industrial towns - Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc. 3. Transport Cities - They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc. 4. Commercial towns - Towns and cities specializing in trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples. 5. Mining towns - These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc. 6. Garrisson Cantonment towns- These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur, etc. 7. Educational towns- Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, and Allahabad etc. 8. Religious and cultural towns- Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar and Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.

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9. Tourist towns - Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udhagamandalam(Ooty), Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.

11. LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE LAND USE CATEGORIES 1. Forests: area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as forest. The latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth. The land revenue records are consistent with the latter definition. 2. Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc. are included in this category. 3. Barren and Waste lands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology. 4. Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type land is owned by the village „ Panchayat or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under „Common Property Resources‟. 5. Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves(Not included is Net sown Area) : The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is privately owned. 6. Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices. 7. Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year. Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural processes. 8. Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more than a year but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it would be categorised as culturable wasteland. 9. Net Area Sown: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as net sown area. LAND-USE CHANGES IN INDIA:

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Three types of changes that an economy undergoes, which affect land-use. 1. The size of the economy 2. The composition of the economy 3. Though the contribution of the agricultural activities reduces over time, the pressure on land for agricultural activities does not decline. The reasons for continued pressure on agricultural land are: a. In developing countries, the share of population dependent on agriculture usually declines much more slowly compared to the decline in the sector’s share in GDP. b. The number of people that the agricultural sector has to feed is increasing day by day.

• The rate of increase is the highest in case of area under non-agricultural uses. • This is due to the changing structure of Indian economy. • The area under non-agricultural uses is increasing at the expense of wastelands and

agricultural land. • The increase in the share under forest, as explained before, can be accounted for by

increase in the demarcated area under forest rather than an actual increase in the forest cover in the country.

• The increase in the current fallow cannot be explained from information pertaining to only two points.

• The trend of current fallow fluctuates a great deal over years, depending on the variability of rainfall and cropping cycles.

• The wastelands and culturable wastelands have witnessed decline over time due to the pressure on land increased, both from the agricultural and non- agricultural sectors.

• The decline in net area sown is a recent phenomenon that started in the late nineties, before which it was registering a slow increase.

• There are indications that most of the decline has occurred due to the increases in area under non- agricultural use.

• The decline in land under pastures and grazing lands can be explained by pressure from agricultural land.

• Illegal encroachment due to expansion of cultivation on common pasture lands is largely responsible for this decline Agricultural Land Use in India.

(i) Lack of access to land is directly correlated with incidence of poverty in rural areas. (ii) Quality of land has a direct bearing on the productivity of agriculture, which is not

true for other activities. (iii) In rural areas, aside from its value as a productive factor, land ownership has a

social value and serves as a security for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies, and also adds to the social Status.

(iv) The total stock of agricultural land resources (i.e. total cultivable land can be arrived at by adding up net sown area, all fallow lands and culturable wasteland.

• The scope for bringing in additional land under net sown area in India is limited. • There is, thus, an urgent need to evolve and adopt land-saving technologies. • Such technologies can be classified under two heads – those which raise the yield of

any particular crop per unit area of land and those which increase the total output per unit area of land from all crops grown over one agricultural year by increasing land-use intensity.

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• The advantage of the latter kind of technology is that along with increasing output from limited land, it also increases the demand for labour significantly.

• For a land scarce but labor abundant country like India, a high cropping intensity is desirable not only for fuller utilization of land resource, but also for reducing unemployment in the rural economy.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA:

STRATEGY OF DEVELOPMENT: • During partition about one-third of the irrigated land in undivided India went to

Pakistan. This reduced the proportion of irrigated area in Independent. • After Independence, the immediate goal of the Government was to increase food-

grains production by § switching over from cash crops to food crops; § intensification of cropping over already cultivated land; and § increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under

plough. • Agricultural production stagnated during late1950s. • To overcome this problem, Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and

Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched. • New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding

varieties (HYVs) were available for cultivation by mid- 1960s. • India took advantage of this and introduced package technology comprising HYVs,

along with chemical fertilizers in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.

• Assured supply of soil moisture through irrigation was a basic pre-requisite for the success of this new agricultural technology.

• This strategy of agricultural development paid dividends instantly and increased the food grains production at very fast rate. This spurt of agricultural growth came to be known as “Green Revolution‟.

• But green revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only. • This led to regional disparities in agricultural development in the country till the

seventies, after which the technology spread to the Eastern and Central parts of the country.

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• The Planning Commission of India initiated agro-climatic planning in 1988 to induce regionally balanced agricultural development in the country.

• It also emphasized the need for diversification of agriculture and harnessing of resources for development of dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and aquaculture.

• Initiation of the policy of liberalization and free market economy in 1990s is likely to influence the course of development of Indian agriculture.

• Lack of development of rural infrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies and price support, and impediments in availing of the rural credits may lead to inter-regional and inter - personal disparities in rural areas.

GROWTH OF AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT AND TECHNOLOGY

• India ranks first in the production of pulses, tea, jute, cattle and milk. It is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and vegetables.

• Expansion of irrigation has played a very crucial role in enhancing agricultural output in the country.

• It provided basis for introduction of modern agricultural technology such as high yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and farm machinery.

• The net irrigated area in the country has increased from 20.85 to 54.66 million ha over the period 1950-51 to 2000-01.

• Consumption of chemical fertilizers in India was 91 kg which was equal to its average consumption in the world (90 kg).

• But in the irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana the consumption of chemical fertilizers per unit area is three to four times higher than that of the national average.

• Since the high yielding varieties are highly susceptible to pests and diseases, the use of pesticides has increased significantly since 1960s.

PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE 1. Dependence on Erratic Monsoon:

• Irrigation covers only about 33 per cent of the cultivated area in India. • Poor performance of south-west Monsoon also adversely affects the supply of canal

water for irrigation. • Even the areas receiving high annual rainfall experience considerable fluctuations. • This makes them vulnerable to both droughts and floods. • Drought is a common phenomenon in the low rainfall areas which may also

experience occasional floods. 2. Low productivity :

• The yield of the crops in the country is low in comparison to the international level. • Per hectare output of most of the crops such as rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in

India is much lower than that of U.S.A., Russia and Japan. • Because of the very high pressure on the land resources, the labour productivity in

Indian agriculture is also very low in comparison to international level. • The vast rainfed areas of the country, particularly drylands which mostly grow

coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds have very low yields. 3. Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness 4. Lack of Land Reforms

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• Indian peasantry had been exploited for a long time as there had been unequal distribution of land.

• Among the three revenue systems operational during British period i.e. Mahalwari, Ryotwari and Zamindari, the last one was most exploitative for the peasants.

• Lack of implementation of land reforms has resulted in continuation of iniquitous distribution of cultivable land which is detrimental to agricultural development.

6. Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings : • More than 60 per cent of the ownership holdings have a size smaller than one (ha). • Average size of land holding is shrinking further under increasing population

pressure. • The land holdings are mostly fragmented. • There are some states where consolidation of holding has not been carried out even

once. • The small size fragmented landholdings are uneconomic.

7. Lack of Commercialization : • A large number of farmers produce crops for self-consumption. • Most of the small and marginal farmers grow food-grains, which are meant for

their own family consumption. • Modernization and commercialization of agriculture have however, taken place

in the irrigated areas. 8. Vast Under-employment:

• There is a massive under-employment in the agricultural sector in India, particularly in the un-irrigated tracts.

• There is a seasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8 months. • Even in the cropping season work is not available throughout, as agricultural

operations are not labor intensive. 8. Degradation of Cultivable Land:

• One of the serious problems that arises out of faulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural development is degradation of land resources.

• This is serious because it may lead to depletion of soil fertility. • The situation is particularly alarming in irrigated areas. • A large tract of agricultural land has lost its fertility due to alkalization and

salinization of soils and water-logging. • Excessive use of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides has led to their

concentration in toxic amounts in the soil profile. • Leguminous crops have been displaced from the cropping pattern in the irrigated

areas and duration of fallow has substantially reduced owing to multiple cropping. • This has obliterated the process of natural fertilization such as nitrogen fixation. • Rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropics also experience degradation of

several types like soil erosion by water and wind erosion which are often induced by human activities.

CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA TYPES OF FARMING

• On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated and rainfed (Barani).

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• The objective of protective irrigation is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil moisture deficiency which often means that irrigation acts as a supplementary source of water over and above the rainfall.

• Productive irrigation is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the cropping season to achieve high productivity.

• In such irrigation the water input per unit area of cultivated land is higher than protective irrigation.

• Rainfed farming is further classified on the basis of adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season into dry land and wetland farming.

• In India, the Common Property Resources according to its ownership can broadly be classified under two broad heads – private land and common property resources (CPRs) .

• CPRs provide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households along with other minor forest products like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinal plants, etc.

• CPRs also are important for women as most of the fodder and fuel collection is done by them in rural areas.

• CPRs can be defined as community’s natural resource, where every member has the right of access and usage with specified obligations, without anybody having property rights over them.

• Community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies and other public spaces where a group larger than a household or family unit exercises rights of use and carries responsibility of management are examples of CPRs.

• Dry land farming is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.

• These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops) and practice various measures of soil moisture conservation and rain water harvesting.

• In wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy season.

• Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards. • These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane and

practise aquaculture in the fresh water bodies. FOOD GRAINS

• The importance of food-grains in Indian agricultural economy may be gauged from the fact these crops occupy about two-third of total cropped area in the country.

• On the basis of the structure of grain the food-grains are classified as cereals and pulses.

1. CEREALS: • The cereals occupy about 54 per cent of total cropped area in India. • The country produces about 11 per cent cereals of the world and ranks third in

production after China and U.S.A. • India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and

coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc.

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RICE :

•

o Rice is a staple food for the overwhelming majority of population in India. o Though, it is considered to be a crop of tropical humid areas. o These are successfully grown from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from

humid areas in eastern India to dry but irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. and northern Rajasthan.

o In southern states and West Bengal the climatic conditions allow the cultivation of two or three crops of rice in an agricultural year.

o In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called „ aus‟, „aman‟ and „boro‟.

o But in Himalayas and north-western parts of the country, it is grown as a kharif crop during southwest Monsoon season.

o India contributes 22 per cent of rice production in the world and ranks second after China.

o About one-fourth of the total cropped area in the country is under rice cultivation.

o West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu were five leading rice producing states in the country in 2002-03.

o They yield level of rice is high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Kerala.

o Punjab and Haryana are not traditional rice growing areas. o Rice cultivation in the irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana was introduced

in 1970s following the Green Revolution. o Genetically improved varieties of seed, relatively high usage of fertilisers and

pesticides and lower levels of susceptibility of the crop to pests due to dry climatic conditions are responsible for higher yield of rice in this region.

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o The yield of this crop is very low in rainfed areas of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa.

WHEAT:

o Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in India after rice. o India produces about 12 per cent of total wheat production of world. o It is primarily a crop of temperate zone. o Hence, its cultivation in India is done during winter i.e. Rabi season. o About 85 per cent of total area under this crop is concentrated in north and

central regions of the country i.e. Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to 2,700 m altitude.

o Being a rabi crop, it is mostly grown under irrigated conditions. o But it is a rain fed crop in Himalayan highlands and parts of Malwa plateau in

Madhya Pradesh. o About 14 per cent of the total cropped area in the country is under wheat

cultivation. o Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh are five

leading wheat producing states. o The yield level of wheat is very high (above 4,000 K.G. per ha) in Punjab and

Haryana whereas, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar have moderate yields.

JOWAR : o The coarse cereals together occupy about 16.50 per cent of total cropped area

in the country. o Among these, jowar or sorghum alone accounts for about 5.3 per cent of total

cropped area.

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o It is main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India. o Maharashtra alone produces more than half of the total jowar production of the

country. o Other leading producer states of jowar are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and

Andhra Pradesh. o It is sown in both kharif and Rabi seasons in southern states. o But it is a kharif crop in northern India where it is mostly grown as a fodder

crop.

BAJRA : o Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditions in north- western and western

parts of the country. o It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region. o It is cultivated alone as well as part of mixed cropping. o Leading producers of bajra are the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar

Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana. o Being a rainfed crop, the yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan and

fluctuates a lot from year to year. o Yield of this crop has increased during recent years in Haryana and Gujarat due

to introduction of drought resistant varieties and expansion of irrigation under it.

MAIZE : o Maize is a food as well as fodder crop grown under semi-arid climatic

conditions and over inferior soils. o This crop occupies only about 3.6 per cent of total cropped area. o Maize cultivation is not concentrated in any specific region. o It is sown all over India except eastern and north-eastern regions. o The leading producers of maize are the states of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. o Yield level of maize is higher than other coarse cereals. It is high in southern

states and declines towards central parts.

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PULSES: o Pulses are rich sources of proteins. o These are legume crops which increase the natural fertility of soils through

nitrogen fixation. o India is a leading producer of pulses and accounts for about 1/5th of the total

production of pulses in the world. o The cultivation of pulses in the country is largely concentrated in the drylands

of Deccan and central plateaus and north- western parts of the country. o Pulses occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped area in the country. o Being the rainfed crops of drylands, the yields of pulses are low and fluctuate

from year to year. o Gram and tur are the main pulses cultivated in India.

GRAM: o Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas. o It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated during Rabi season in central, western and

north- western parts of the country. o Just one or two light showers or irrigations are required to grow this crop

successfully. o It has been displaced from the cropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab

and northern Rajasthan following the green revolution.

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o Main producers- Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan.

o The yield of this crop continues to be low and fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated areas.

TUR (ARHAR): o It is also known as red gram or pigeon pea. o It is cultivated over marginal lands and under rainfed conditions in the dry

areas of central and southern states of the country. o Maharashtra- 1/3rd production. o Per hectare output of this crop is very low and its performance is inconsistent.

OILSEEDS: o Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, Soyabean and sunflower are the main

oilseed crops grown in India :

1. GROUNDNUT: § India- 17% production. § It is largely a rainfed kharif crop of drylands. § But in southern India, it is cultivated during rabi season as well. § Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra. § Yield of groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil Nadu where it is

partly irrigated. § But its yield is low in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

2. RAPESEED AND MUSTARD: • Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, sarson, toria and taramira. • These are subtropical crops cultivated during Rabi season in north-western and

central parts of India. • These are frost sensitive crops and their yields fluctuate from year to year. • But with the expansion of irrigation and improvement in seed technology, their

yields have improved and stabilized to some extent. • About two-third of the cultivated area under these crops is irrigated. Rajasthan-

1/3rd , Others- Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. • Yields of these crops are comparatively high in Haryana and Rajasthan.

3. OTHER OILSEEDS: • Soyabean and sunflower are other important oilseeds grown in India. • Soyabean is mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. • It is a minor crop in northern parts of the country where its yield is high due to

irrigation. FIBRE CROPS:

o These crops provide us fibre for preparing cloth, bags, sacks and a number of other items.

o Cotton and jute are two main fibre crops grown in India.

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COTTON : o Tropical crop grown in kharif season in semi- arid areas of the country. o India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as long staple (American)

cotton called ‘narma’ in north-western parts of the country. o Cotton requires clear sky during flowering stage. o India ranks fourth in the world in the production of cotton after China, U.S.A.

and Pakistan. o Cotton growing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana and northern Rajasthan in

north- west, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west and plateaus of in south. o Leading producers of this crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,

Punjab and Haryana. o Per hectare output of cotton is high under irrigated conditions in north-western

region of the country. o Its yield is very low in Maharashtra where it is grown under rainfed conditions.

JUTE : o Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks and decorative items. o It is a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining eastern parts of the country. o India lost large jute growing areas to East Pakistan (Bangladesh) during

partition. o At present, India produces about three-fifth of jute production of the world. o West Bengal accounts for about three-fourth of the production in the country. o Bihar and Assam are other jute growing areas Other Crops

Sugarcane, tea and coffee are other important crops grown in India.

SUGARCANE : • Sugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. • Under rainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humid and humid climates. • But it is largely an irrigated crop in India. • India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil. • Uttar Pradesh produces about two-fifth of sugarcane of the country. • Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are other leading producers

of this crop where yield level of sugarcane is high. • Its yield is low in northern India.

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•

TEA: • Tea is a plantation crop used as beverage. Black tea leaves are fermented whereas green

tea leaves are unfermented. • Tea leaves have rich content of caffeine and tannin. • It is an indigenous crop of hills in northern China. • It is grown over undulating topography of hilly areas and well- drained soils in humid

and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics. • In India, tea plantation started in 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which still is

a major tea growing area in the country. • Later on, its plantation was introduced in the sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal

(Darjiling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts). • Tea is also cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri and Cardamom hills in Western

Ghats. • India’s share in the international market of tea has declined substantially. • At present, it ranks third among tea exporting countries in the world after Sri Lanka

and China. • Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area and contributes more

than half of total production of tea in the country. • West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the other leading producers of tea.

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COFFEE: • Coffee is a tropical plantation crop. • Its seeds are roasted, ground and are used for preparing a beverage. • There are three varieties of coffee Arabica, Robusta and liberica. • India mostly grows superior quality coffee, Arabica, which is in great demand in

International market. • India produces only about 4.3 per cent coffee of the world and ranks sixth after

Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia and Mexico. • Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and

Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone accounts for more than two- third of total production of coffee in the country.

13. WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water resources and about 16 per cent of world’s population.

1. SURFACE WATER RESOURCES • There are four major sources of surface water. • These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks. • In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km

each. • The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km. • Water flow in a river depends on size of its catchment area or river basin and rainfall

within its catchment area. • Much of the annual water flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna,

and the Kaveri has been harnessed, but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins.

2. GROUNDWATER RESOURCES • The level of groundwater utilization is relatively high in the river basins lying in north-

western region and parts of south India. • The groundwater utilization is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,

and Tamil Nadu.

3. LAGOONS AND BACKWATERS • India has a vast coastline and the coast is very indented in some states. Due to this, a

number of lagoons and lakes have formed. • The States like Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal have vast surface water resources in

these lagoons and lakes. • Although, water is generally brackish in this water -bodies, it is used for fishing and

irrigating certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut. WATER DEMAND AND UTILIZATION :

• India’s water demand at present is dominated by irrigational needs.

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• Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and ground water utilization, it accounts for 89 per cent of the surface water and 92 per cent of the groundwater utilization.

• While the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilization and 5 per cent of the ground-water.

• The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilization as compared to groundwater.

DEMAND OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION :

• In agriculture, water is mainly used for irrigation. • Irrigation is needed because of Spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the country.

The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. • Water need of certain crops also makes irrigation necessary. • Water requirement of rice, sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which can be met only

through irrigation. • Provision of irrigation makes multiple cropping possible. • It has also been found that irrigated lands have higher agricultural productivity than

un-irrigated land. • The high yielding varieties of crops need regular moisture supply, which is made

possible only by a developed irrigation systems. • In fact, this is why that green revolution strategy of agriculture development in the

country has largely been successful in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. • In Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh more than 85 per cent of their net

sown area is under irrigation. • Of the total net irrigated area 76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryana are

irrigated through wells and tube wells. • This shows that these states utilize large proportion of their ground water potential

which has resulted in ground water depletion in these states. EMERGING WATER PROBLEMS

• The per capita availability of water is dwindling day by day due to increase in population.

• The available water resources are also getting polluted with industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents, and this, in turn, is further limiting the availability of usable water resources.

DETERIORATION OF WATER QUALITY: • Water quality refers to purity of water, or water without unwanted foreign substances. • Water gets polluted by foreign matters such as micro- organisms, chemicals, industrial

and other wastes. • The Ganga and the Yamuna are the two highly polluted rivers in the country Water

Conservation and Management water availability from sea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinization, is considered negligible, India has to take quick steps and make effective policies and laws, and adopt effective measures for its conservation.

• Besides developing water saving technologies and methods, attempts are also to be made to prevent the pollution.

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• There is need to encourage watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse, and conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.

RECYCLE AND REUSE OF WATER: • Another way through which we can improve fresh water availability is by recycle and

reuse. • Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed waste-water would be an attractive

option for industries for cooling and fire fighting to reduce their water cost. Watershed Management:

• Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources.

• It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks recharge wells, etc.

• However, in broad sense watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources – natural (like land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.

• Watershed management aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand and society on the other.

• The success of watershed development largely depends upon community participation .

• Haryali is a watershed development project sponsored by the Central Government which aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.

• The Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation. • Neeru- Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani

Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up constructions of various water-harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, dug out ponds (Johad), check dams, etc. through people’s participation.

Rain water Harvesting:

• Rain water harvesting is a method to capture and store rainwater for various uses. It is also used to recharge groundwater aquifers.

• It is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop of water by guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and wells.

• Rainwater harvesting increases water availability, checks the declining ground water table, improves the quality of groundwater through dilution of contaminants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge aquifers.

HIGHLIGHTS OF INDIA’S NATIONAL WATER POLICY, 2002 : • The National Water Policy 2002 stipulates water allocation priorities broadly in the

following order: drinking water; irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses.

• The policy stipulates progressive new approaches to water management. • Key features include:

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• Irrigation and multi-purpose projects should invariably include drinking water component, wherever there is no alternative source of drinking water.

• Providing drinking water to all human beings and animals should be the first priority. • Measures should be taken to limit and regulate the exploitation of groundwater. • Both surface and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality. A phased

programme should be undertaken for improving water quality. • The efficiency of utilization in all the diverse uses of water should be improved. • Awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered. • Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation,

incentives and disincentives.

PREVENTION OF WATER POLLUTION : • The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution

Control Boards has been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations.

• The data obtained from these stations show that organic and bacterial contamination continues to be the main source of pollution in rivers.

• The Yamuna River is the most polluted river in the country between Delhi and Etawah. • Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals,

fluoride and nitrates at different parts of the country. • The legislative provisions such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act

1974, and Environment Protection Act 1986 have not been implemented effectively. • The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to reduce pollution has also made marginal impacts. • There is a strong need to generate public awareness about importance of water and

impacts of water pollution. 14. MINERALS TYPES OF MINERAL RESOURCES

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• On the basis of chemical and physical properties, minerals may be grouped under two main categories of metallics and non-metallics.

• Metallic minerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore, copper, gold produce metal and are included in this category.

• Metallic minerals are further divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals. • All those minerals which have iron content are ferrous such as iron ore itself and those

which do not have iron content are non-ferrous such as copper, bauxite, etc. • Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as

mineral fuels which are derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum.

• Other types of non-metallic minerals are inorganic in origin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.

AGENCIES INVOLVED IN THE EXPLORATION OF MINERALS

• In India, systematic surveying, prospecting and exploration for minerals is undertaken by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC), Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd. (MECL), National Mineral Development Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), National Aluminum Company Ltd. (NALCO) and the Departments of Mining and Geology in various states.

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN INDIA:

• Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks.

• Over 97 per cent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari.

• Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-shore region in the Arabian Sea.

• New reserves have been located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins. • Most of the major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and

Kanpur.

•

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MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES : • A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical

and physical properties. • Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India. • belts are : 1. The North-Eastern Plateau Region .

o This belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Orissa Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh.

o It has variety of minerals viz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite etc. 2. The South-Western Plateau Region :

• This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.

• This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite. • It also contains high grade iron ore, manganese and limestone. • This belt packs in coal deposits except Neyveli lignite. • This belt does not have as diversified mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt. • Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, bauxite clay. • Goa has iron ore deposits.

1. The North-Western Region : • This belt extends along Aravalli in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat and minerals are

associated with Dharwar system of rocks. • Copper, zinc has been major minerals. • Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble. • Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are also extensive. • Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for cement industry. • Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits .

FERROUS MINERAL: • Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese, chromite, etc., provide a strong

base for the development of metallurgical industries.

•

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IRON ORE: • India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. • The two main types of ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite. It

has great demand in international market due to its superior quality. • The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields in the north-eastern

plateau region of the country which adds to their advantage. • Location- Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh and

Tamil Nadu. • In Orissa, iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and

Jhar. • The important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj),

Kiruburu (Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). • Similar hill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest iron ore mines and most of

the iron and steel plants are located around them. • Goa has also emerged as an important producer of iron ore.

MANGANESE : • Important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for

manufacturing ferro alloys. • Manganese deposits are found in almost all geological formations; however, it

is mainly associated with Dharwar system. • States- Orissa, Karnataka . • The disadvantage of Maharashtra mines is that they are located far from steel

plants. NON-FERROUS MINERALS: India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic minerals except bauxite.

BAUXITE : • Bauxite is the ore which is used in manufacturing of aluminium. • Bauxite is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with laterite rocks

occurring extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal tracts of the country.

• Orissa happens to be the largest producer of Bauxite. • Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers. • The other two areas which have been increasing their production are Bolangir

and Koraput. • The patlands of Jharkhand in Lohardaga have rich deposits. • Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are other major

producers.

2. COPPER: • Copper is an indispensable metal in the electrical industry for making wires, electric

motors, transformers and generators. • It is alloy able, malleable and ductile. • It is also mixed with gold to provide strength to jewellery.

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• The Copper deposits mainly occur in Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.

NON-METALLIC MINERALS: • Mica is the important one. • The other minerals extracted for local consumption are limestone, dolomite and

phosphate.

MICA: • Mica is mainly used in the electrical and electronic industries. It can be split

into very thin sheets which are tough and flexible. • Mica in India is produced in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan

followed by Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. • In Jharkhand high quality mica is obtained in a belt extending over a distance

of about 150 km, in length and about 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau. In Andhra Pradesh, Nellore district produces the best quality mica.

• In Rajasthan mica belt extends for about 320 kms from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.

• Mica deposits also occur in Mysore and Hasan districts of Karnataka, Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu, Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal.

ENERGY RESOURCES • Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as fossil fuels), nuclear

energy minerals, are the conventional sources of energy.

1.COAL : • One of the important minerals which is mainly used in the generation of thermal power

and smelting of iron ore. • Coal occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely Gondwana and

tertiary deposits. • About 80 per cent of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous type and is of non-

coking grade. • The most important Gondwana coal fields of India are located in Damodar Valley. �

They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and the important coal fields in this region are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Girdih, and Karanpura.

• Jharia is the largest coal field followed by Raniganj. • Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. • Besides, the brown coal or lignite occurs in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu,

Pondicherry, Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir.

2.PETROLEUM : • Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in

chemical composition, colour and specific gravity. • Essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways

and aircraft.

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• Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries such as fertiliser, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.

• Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period. • Oil exploration and production was systematically taken up after the Oil and Natural

Gas Commission was set up in 1956. • In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran are important oil producing areas. The

major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba . • Oil and natural gas have been found in exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and

Kaveri basin on the east coast. � There are two types of refineries in India: (a) field based and (Digboi) � (b) market based (Barauni)

3. NATURAL GAS • The Gas Authority of India Limited was set up in 1984 as a public sector undertaking

to transport and market natural gas. • It is obtained along with oil in all the oil fields but exclusive reserves have been located

along the eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES: Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydro- geothermal and biomass.

1. NUCLEAR ENERGY RESOURCES: • Used for the generation of nuclear energy are uranium (Dharwar rocks) and thorium. • Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several locations along the

Singbhum Copper belt. • It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district

of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.

• Thorium is mainly obtained from monazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along the coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

• World’s richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam districts of Kerala, near Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta in Orissa.

• Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948, progress could be made only after the establishment of the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967.

• The important nuclear power projects are Tarapur (Maharashtra) Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat)

2. SOLAR ENERGY : • Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be converted into energy, known as solar

energy. • The two effective processes considered to be very effective to tap solar energy are

photovoltaics and solar thermal technology. • Solar thermal technology has some relative advantages over all other non-

renewable energy sources.

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• It is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy to construct. • Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than coal or oil based plants and 10 per

cent more effective than nuclear plants. • It is generally used more in appliances like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc. • The western part of India has greater potential for the development of solar energy

in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

1. WIND ENERGY: • Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source of energy. • The kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is converted into electrical energy. • The permanent wind systems such the trade winds, westerlies and seasonal wind

like monsoon have been used as source of energy. • Besides these, local winds, land and sea breezes can also be used to produce

electricity. • India has an ambitious programme to install 250 wind-driven turbines with a

total capacity of 45 megawatts, spread over 12 suitable locations, specially in coastal areas.

• In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourable conditions for wind energy exist.

• Wind power plant at Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the largest in Asia. • Other- Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu.

2. TIDAL AND WAVE ENERGY: • Ocean currents are the store-house of infinite energy. • Large tidal waves are known to occur along the west coast of India.

3. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY : • When the magma from the interior of earth, comes out on the surface, tremendous

heat is released. • This heat energy can successfully be tapped and converted to electrical energy. • Apart from this, the hot water that gushes out through the gyser wells is also used

in the generation of thermal energy. • It is popularly known as geothermal energy. • Location- Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.

4. BIO-ENERGY : • Refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural

residues, municipal, industrial and other wastes. • It can be converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking. • It will also process the waste and garbage and produce energy. • This will improve economic life of rural areas in developing countries, reduce

environmental pollution, enhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuel wood. • One such project converting municipal waste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.

CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES:

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• The alternative energy sources like solar power, wind, wave, geothermal energy are inexhaustible resource.

• These should be developed to replace the exhaustible resources. • In case of metallic minerals, use of scrap metals will enable recycling of metals. • Use of scrap is especially significant in metals like copper, lead and zinc in which

India’s reserves are meager. • Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption. • Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve

may be used for a longer period. 15. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES: Types of Industries- 1. On the basis of ownership, industries are categorized as: A. Public sector, B. Private sector, and C. Joint and cooperative sector, 2. Industries are also classified on the basis of the use of their products such as: I. Basic goods industries, II. Capital goods industries III.Intermediate goods industries, and IV. Consumer goods industries 3. on the basis of raw materials used by them:

1. agriculture- based industries, 2. forest-based industries, 3. mineral-based industries, and 4. Industrially processed raw material- based industries.

4. Based on the nature of the manufactured products- (1) Metallurgical Industries, (2) Mechanical Engineering Industries, (3) Chemical and Allied Industries, (4) Textile Industries, (5) Food Processing Industries, (6) Electricity Generation, (7) Electronics and (8) Communication 16. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION :

LAND TRANSPORT

ROAD TRANSPORT: • Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to strengthen and consolidate his

empire from the Indus Valley to the Sonar Valley in Bengal. • This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road during the British period,

connecting Calcutta and Peshawar. • At present, it extends from Amritsar to Kolkata. It is bifurcated into 2 segments

.

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• National Highway (NH)-1 from Delhi to Amritsar, and • NH- 2 from Delhi to Kolkata 20 year road plan (1961) was introduced to

improve the conditions of roads in India. • For the purpose of construction and maintenance, roads are classified as

National Highways (NH), State Highways(SH), Major District Roads and Rural Roads National Highways.

• These roads are meant for inter-state transport and movement of defence men and material in strategic areas.

• The National Highways constitute only two per cent of the total road length but carry 40 per cent of the road traffic.

THE NATIONAL HIGHWAYS AUTHORITY OF INDIA (NHAI) WAS OPERATIONALISING IN 1995:

• It is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport. • It is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance and operation of

National Highways.

GOLDEN QUADRILATERAL- • India’s four big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai- Kolkata. North-South and

East-West Corridors-North-South corridor aims at connecting Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including Kochchi-Salem Spur) with 4,076 km long road.

• The East-West Corridor has been planned to connect Silchar in Assam with the port town of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3, 640 km of road length.

2.RAIL TRANSPORT : • One of the longest in the world. • Facilitates the movement of both freight and passengers and contributes to the growth

of economy. • Mahatma Gandhi said, the Indian railways “brought people of diverse cultures

together to contribute to India’s freedom struggle.” • Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, when a line was constructed from Bombay to

Thane covering a distance of 34 km. • Thus, in India, the railway system has been divided into sixteen zones.

Other Roads: BORDER ROADS AND INTERNATIONAL HIGHWAYS

• The Border Road Organisation (BRO) was established in May 1960 for accelerating economic development and strengthening defence preparedness through rapid and coordinated improvement of strategically important roads along the northern and north- eastern boundary of the country.

• It is a premier multifaceted construction agency. • It has constructed roads in high altitude mountainous terrain joining Chandigarh with

Manali (Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh). • This road runs at an average altitude of 4,270 metres above the mean sea level. • This organization has completed over 40,450 km of roads by March 2005.

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• The BRO also undertakes snow clearance in high altitude areas. • The international highways are meant to promote the harmonious relationship with

the neighbouring countries by providing effective links with India. WATER TRANSPORT:

• The water transport is of two types–(a) inland waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways.

INLAND WATERWAYS: • Faced tough competition from road and railway transport. • Moreover, diversion of river water for irrigation purposes made them non navigable

in large parts of their courses. • It comprises rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. • Inland Waterways Authority was set up in 1986. • backwaters (Kadal) of Kerala , Apart from providing cheap means of transport, they

are also attracting large number of tourists in Kerala. • The famous Nehru Trophy Boat Race (VALLAMKALI) is also held in the backwaters.

• OIL AND GAS PIPELINES:

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• Pipelines are the most convenient and efficient mode of transporting liquids and gases over long distances.

• Even solids can also be transported by pipelines after converting them into slurry. • Oil India Limited (OIL) under the administrative set up of the Ministry of Petroleum

and Natural Gas is engaged in the exploration, production and transportation of crude oil and natural gas. It was incorporated in 1959 as a company.

• Asia’s first cross country pipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km was constructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar.

• It was further extended up to Kanpur in 1966. • Another extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the western region of

India of which Ankleshwar -Koyali, Mumbai High- Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur- Jagdishpur (HVJ) are most important.

• Recently, a 1256 km long pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with Mathura (U.P.) has been constructed.

• It supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura.

• OCEANIC ROUTES:

• India’s coastline- 7,517 km.

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• Approximately 95 per cent of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70 per cent by value moves through ocean routes.

• Apart from international trade, these are also used for the purpose of transportation between the islands and the rest of the country.

AIR TRANSPORTATION:

• It has reduced distances by minimising the travel time. • It is very essential for a vast country like India, where distances are large and the

terrain and climatic conditions are diverse. • Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced

over a little distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini.

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AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA : • The air transport in India is managed by two corporations, Air India and Indian

Airlines after nationalisation.

AIR INDIA: • Air India provides International Air Services for both passengers and cargo traffic. • It connects all the continents of the world through its services. • About 52 per cent of the total air traffic was handled only at Mumbai and Delhi

airports. • Pawan Hans is the helicopter service operating in hilly areas and is widely used by

tourists in north-eastern sector. • Pawan Hans Limited mainly provides helicopter services to petroleum sector and for

tourism. COMMUNICATION NETWORKS:

• Invention of post- office, telegraph, printing press, telephone, satellite, etc has made the communication much faster and easier.

• Development in the field of science and technology has significantly contributed in bringing about revolution in the field of communication.

• On the basis of scale and quality, the mode of communication can be divided into following categories-

PERSONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM: • Among the entire personal communication system internet is the most effective and

advanced one. • It is widely used in urban areas. • It enables the user to establish direct contact through e-mail to get access to the world

of knowledge and information. • It is increasingly used for e-commerce and carrying out money transactions. • The internet is like a huge central warehouse of data, with detailed information on

various items. • The network through internet and e-mail provides an efficient access to information at

a comparatively low cost.

MASS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM : 1. Radio :

• Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay. • Government took this opportunity and brought this popular mode of

communication under its control in 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System.

• It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Akashvani in 1957. • All India Radio broadcasts a variety of programmes related to information,

education and entertainment.

OPEN SKY POLICY

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• To help the Indian exporters and make their export more competitive, the government had introduced an Open Sky Policy for cargo in April 1992.

• Under this policy, foreign airlines or association of exporters can bring any freighters to the country.

TELEVISION (T.V.) : • Initially, the T.V. services were limited only to the National Capital where it

began in 1959. • After 1972, several other centres became operational. • In 1976, TV was delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got a separate

identity as Doordarshan (DD). • After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became operational, Common

National Programmes (CNP) was started for the entire network and its services were extended to the backward and remote rural areas.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION : • Satellites are mode of communication in themselves as well as they regulate the

use of other means of communication. • However, use of satellite in getting a continuous and synoptic view of larger

area has made satellite communication very vital for the country due to the economic and strategic reasons.

• Satellite images can be used for the weather forecast, monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance of border areas, etc.

• On the basis of configuration and purposes, satellite system in India can be grouped into two: 1. Indian National Satellite System (INSAT): The INSAT, which was established in 1983,is a multi- purpose satellite system for telecommunication, meteorological observation and for various other data and programmes. 2. Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS): The IRS satellite system became operational with the launching of IRS-IA in March 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia. These satellites collect data in several spectral bands and transmit them to the ground stations for various uses.

THE NATIONAL REMOTE SENSING AGENCY (NRSA) • at Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition of data and its processing. • These are very useful in the management of natural resources.

17. GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE ON SELECTED ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION • Environmental pollution results from „the release of substances and energy from waste

products of human activities. • They are classified on the basis of medium through which pollutants are transported

and diffused. • Pollution can be classified into

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[ Air pollution, [ Water pollution, [ Land pollution and [ Noise pollution

Urban Waste Disposal :

• Environmental pollution by solid wastes has now got significance because of enormous growth in the quantity of wastes generated from various sources.

• These discarded materials are also termed as refuse, garbage and rubbish, etc. and are disposed of from two sources-

§ Household or domestic establishments, and § Industrial or commercial establishments.

• The household wastes is disposed off either on public lands or on private contractors‟ sites, whereas the solid wastes of industrial units are collected and disposed off through public (municipal) facilities at low lying public grounds (landfill areas).

• Solid wastes cause health hazard through creation of obnoxious smell , and harbouring of flies and rodents, which act as carriers of diseases like typhoid, diphtheria, diarrhoea, malaria and cholera, etc .

• Urban waste disposal is a serious problem in India. • In metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc.

PROBLEMS OF SLUMS:

• The concept “Urban or Urban Centre” is defined in settlement geography to differentiate it from the “Rural slums”, jhuggi-jhopari” clusters and colonies of shanty structures.

• These are inhabited by those people who were forced to migrate from the rural areas to these urban centres in search of livelihood but could not afford proper housing due to high rent and high costs of land.

• Slums are residential areas of the least choice, dilapidated houses, poor hygienic conditions, poor ventilation, lack of basic amenities like drinking water, light and toilet facilities, etc.

• These areas are overcrowded having narrow street pattern prone to serious hazards from fire.

• Most of the slum population works in low paid, high risk-prone, unorganized sectors of the urban economy.

• Consequently, they are the undernourished, prone to different types of diseases and illness and can ill afford to give proper education to their children.

• Result- drug abuse, alcoholism, crime, vandalism, escapism, apathy and ultimately social exclusion.

• Land Degradation : o The pressure on agricultural land increases not only due to the limited

availability but also by deterioration of quality of agricultural land. o Soil erosion, water-logging, salinization and alkalinisation of land lead to land

degradation. o Land is degraded and productivity declines. o There are two processes that induce landdegradation. o These are natural and created by human beings.

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• National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) has classified wastelands by using remote sensing techniques and it is possible to categorize these wastelands according to the processes that have created them.

• There are a few types of wastelands such as gullied /ravenous land, desertic or coastal sands, barren rocky areas, steep sloping land, and glacial areas, which are primarily caused by natural agents.

• There are other types of degraded lands such as waterlogged and marshy areas, land affected by salinity and alkalinity and land with or without scrub, which have largely been caused by natural as well as human factors.

•