ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk · Ecology and Evolution 2016; 1–44 | 1 Received: 22 April 2016 | Revised: 10 September 2016 | Accepted: 22 September 2016 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2579 ORIGINAL RESEARCH

| 5HUDSON et al.1DepartmentofLifeSciences,NaturalHistoryMuseum,London,UK2UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWorldConservationMonitoringCentre,Cambridge,UK3DepartmentofGenetics,EvolutionandEnvironment,CentreforBiodiversityandEnvironment,Research,UniversityCollegeLondon,London,UK4DepartmentofLifeSciences,ImperialCollegeLondon,Ascot,UK5ImperialCollegeLondon,SouthKensington,London,UK6DepartmentofZoology,CambridgeUniversity,Cambridge,UK7FrankfurtZoologicalSociety,AfricaRegionalOffice,Arusha,Tanzania8ScienceandSolutionsforaChangingPlanetDTPandtheDepartmentofLifeSciences,ImperialCollegeLondon,SouthKensington,London,UK9Centred’étudedelaforêt.,UniversitéLaval,Laval,QC,Canada10SchoolofLifeSciences,UniversityofSussex,Brighton,UK11SchoolofBiologicalandChemicalSciences,QueenMaryUniversityofLondon,London,UK12SchoolofBiologicalandEcologicalSciences,UniversityofStirling,Stirling,UK13SchoolofBiologicalSciences,RoyalHollowayUniversityofLondon,Egham,Surrey,UK14DepartmentofAnimalandPlantSciences,UniversityofSheffield,WesternBank,Sheffield,UK15SchoolofEnvironment,NaturalResourcesandGeography,BangorUniversity,Bangor,Gwynedd,UK16UniversityCollegeLondon,London,UK17SchoolofBiologicalSciences,Queen’sUniversityBelfast,Belfast,UK18InstituteofBiologicalandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofAberdeen,Aberdeen,UK19EvolutionaryEcologyGroup,UniversityofAntwerp,Antwerp,Belgium20NeesInstituteforPlantBiodiversity,UniversityofBonn,Bonn,Germany21WildlifeandRangeManagementDepartment,FacultyofRenewableNaturalResources(FRNR),CollegeofAgricultureandNaturalResources(CANR),KwameNkrumahUniversityofScienceandTechnology(KNUST),Kumasi,Ghana22SAVETHEFROGS!Ghana,Adum-Kumasi,Ghana23EscueladeBiología,UniversidaddeCostaRica,SanJosé,CostaRica24LaboratorioEcotono-CRUB,UniversidadNacionaldelComahueandINIBIOMA,RíoNegro,Argentina25DepartamentodeBotánica,FacultaddeFarmacia,UniversidaddeValencia,Burjassot,Valencia,Spain26MarineLaboratory,SillimanUniversity-AngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement,SillimanUniversity,DumagueteCity,Philippines27DepartmentofSoilandWaterConservation,CSIC-CentrodeEdafologíayBiologíaAplicadadelSegura,Murcia,Spain28INRA,UR0980SAD-Paysage,RennesCedex,France29INRA,UMR1201DYNAFOR,CastanetTolosanCedex,France30HUTAN–KinabatanganOrang-utanConservationProgramme,KotaKinabalu,Malaysia31BorneoFutures,KotaKinabalu,Malaysia32CSIROLand&WaterFlagship,Winnellie,NT,Australia33MuseodeZoología,FacultaddeCiencias,UniversidadNacionalAutónomadeMéxico,MéxicoD.F.,Mexico34ColeccióndeTejidos,InstitutodeInvestigacióndeRecursosBiológicosAlexandervonHumboldt,ValledelCauca,Colombia35BiologyDepartment,UniversidaddelValle,Cali,Colombia36InstitutodeInvestigacionesenEcosistemasySustentabilidad,UniversidadNacionalAutónomadeMéxico,Morelia,Mexico37CollegeofScience,Engineering&Health,RMITUniversity,Melbourne,Vic.,Australia38UCLDepartmentofGeography,UniversityCollegeLondon,London,UK39BiodiversityUnit,InstituteofBioscience,UniversitiPutraMalaysia,Serdang,Malaysia40FacultyofForestry,UniversitiPutraMalaysia,Serdang,Malaysia41DepartamentodeBiodiversidadyGenética,InstitutodeInvestigacionesBiológicasClementeEstable,Montevideo,Uruguay42Forest&NatureLab,DepartmentofForestandWaterManagement,GhentUniversity,Gontrode,Belgium43TerrestrialEcologyUnit,DepartmentofBiology,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium44UFRSciencedelaNature,UniversitéNaanguiAbrogoua,Abidjan,IvoryCoast45CentreSuissedeRecherchesScientifiquesenCôted’Ivoire,Abidjan,IvoryCoast46MTACentreforEcologicalResearch,Vácrátót,Hungary47UniversityofWashingtonTacoma,Tacoma,WA,USA48NorthernHardwoodsResearchInstitute,Edmundston,NB,Canada49LancasterEnvironmentCentre,LancasterUniversity,Lancaster,UK50MCT/MuseuParaenseEmílioGoeldi,Belém,Brazil

6 | HUDSON et al.51AgResearchLimited,InvermayAgriculturalCentre,PuddleAlley,Mosgiel,NewZealand52CentreforFunctionalEcology,DepartmentofLifeSciences,UniversityofCoimbra,Coimbra,Portugal53COT(TuscanOrnithologicalSociety),Livorno,Italy54SmithsonianTropicalResearchInstitute,Balboa,Ancon,PanamaCity,RepublicofPanama55Agroecology,DepartmentofCropSciences,Georg-AugustUniversity,Göttingen,Germany56Biosciences,SchoolofScience&Technology,NottinghamTrentUniversity,Clifton,Nottingham,UK57UniversityofBirmingham,Edgbaston,Birmingham,UK58SectionofConservationBiology,DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofBasel,Basel,Switzerland59DepartmentofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,AB,Canada60CIBIO/InBio,CentrodeInvestigaçãoemBiodiversidadeeRecursosGenéticos,UniversidadedoPorto,Vairão,Portugal61FacultyofSustainableAgriculture,UniversitiMalaysiaSabah,Sandakan,Malaysia62TheSwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,TheSwedishBiodiversityCentre,Uppsala,Sweden63InstituteforTropicalBiologyandConservation,UniversitiMalaysiaSabah,JalanUMS,KotaKinabalu,Malaysia64SchoolofGeosciences,UniversityofEdinburgh,Edinburgh,UK65DepartmentofZoology&EnvironmentalScience,GurukulaKangriUniversity,Haridwar,India66DurrellInstituteofConservationandEcology(DICE),SchoolofAnthropologyandConservation,UniversityofKent,Canterbury,UK67IwokramaInternationalCentreforRainforestConservationandDevelopment,Georgetown,Guyana68DepartmentofEcology-AnimalEcology,FacultyofBiology,Philipps-UniversitätMarburg,Marburg,Germany69ComplianceServicesInternational,PentlandsSciencePark,Penicuik,Edinburgh,UK70CentreforAgri-EnvironmentalResearch,SchoolofAgriculture,PolicyandDevelopment,UniversityofReading,Reading,UK71SchoolfortheTrainingofWildlifeSpecialistsGaroua,Garoua,Cameroon72DepartmentofForestry,FacultyofAgronomyandAgriculturalSciences,UniversityofDschang,Dschang,Cameroon73MaterNatura–InstitutodeEstudosAmbientais,Curitiba,Brazil74CBSFungalBiodiversityCentre(CBS-KNAW),Utrecht,TheNetherlands75SenckenbergBiodiversityandClimateResearchCentre(BiK-F),FrankfurtamMain,Germany76InstituteforEcology,Evolution&Diversity,GoetheUniversityFrankfurt,Biologicum,FrankfurtamMain,Germany77SchoolofLandandFood,UniversityofTasmania,SandyBay,Tas.,Australia78DepartamentodeCiênciasAgrárias,cE3c–CentreforEcology,EvolutionandEnvironmentalChanges/AzoreanBiodiversityGroupandUniversidadedosAçores,AngradoHeroísmo,Açores,Portugal79InstitutoNacionaldePesquisasdaAmazônia,Manaus,Brazil80EnvironmentandClimateChangeCanada,Science&TechnologyBranch,CarletonUniversity,Ottawa,ON,Canada81UnitéMixtedeRechercheContrôledesMaladiesAnimalesExotiquesetEmergentes,CentredeCoopérationInternationaleenRechercheAgronomiquepourleDéveloppement(CIRAD),Montpellier,France82UnitéMixtedeRecherche1309ContrôledesMaladiesAnimalesExotiquesetEmergentes,Institutnationaldelarechercheagronomique(INRA),Montpellier,France83DepartamentodeZoologia,InstitutodeBiociências,UniversidadedeSãoPaulo,SãoPaulo,Brazil84HumanEnvironmentSystemsCenter,BoiseStateUniversity,Boise,ID,USA85SchoolofScienceandtheEnvironment,ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity,Manchester,UK86UniversidadedeÉvora–ICAAM,Évora,Portugal87NaturalParksTechnicalOffice,DiputaciódeBarcelona,Barcelona,Spain88NaturalHistoryMuseumofBarcelona,Barcelona,Catalonia,Spain89SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,SouthernSwedishForestResearchCentre,Alnarp,Sweden90DepartmentofEntomology,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN,USA91DepartmentofNaturalResourceSciences,McGillUniversity,Ste-Ann-de-Bellevue,QC,Canada92Alterra,partofWageningenUniversityandResearch,RBWageningen,TheNetherlands93DepartamentodeCiênciasdaVida,CentrodeEcologiaFuncional,UniversidadedeCoimbra,Coimbra,Portugal94DepartamentodeBiologiaVegetal,InstitutodeBiologia,UniversidadeEstadualdeCampinas,Campinas,Brazil95DepartmentofBotany,SchoolofNaturalSciences,TrinityCollegeDublin,Dublin2,Ireland96InstituteforEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityKoblenz-Landau,Landau,Germany97DepartamentodeZoologia,InstitutodeBiociências,UniversidadedeSãoPaulo,SãoPaulo,Brazil98DepartamentodeBiología,GrupodeinvestigaciónenBiología,EcologíayManejodeHormigas,SeccióndeEntomología,UniversidaddelValle,Cali,Colombia

| 7HUDSON et al.99DepartmentofBiology,FederalUniversityofSantaMaria,CCNE,SantaMaria,Brazil100NicholasSchooloftheEnvironment,DukeUniversity,Durham,NC,USA101DepartmentofEcologyandAnimalBiology,FacultyofSciences,UniversityofVigo,Vigo,Spain102DepartmentofEntomology,UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,IL,USA103PrograminEcology,EvolutionandConservationBiology,UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,IL,USA104MuseudeZoologiadaUniversidadedeSãoPaulo,SãoPaulo,Brazil105DepartamentodeBiología(Botánica),FacultaddeCiencias,UniversidadAutonomadeMadrid,Madrid,Spain106FinnishMuseumofNaturalHistory,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland107ParksandCountryside,BracknellForestCouncil,Bracknell,UK108SoilBiodiversityGroup,LifeSciencesDepartment,NaturalHistoryMuseum,London,UK109MuseudeZoologiadaUniversidadedeSãoPaulo,SãoPaulo,Brazil110LaboratóriodeEcologiaAplicadaàConservação,UniversidadeEstadualdeSantaCruz,Ilhéus,Brazil111InstitutodeBiotecnologiayEcologiaAplicada(INBIOTECA),UniversidadVeracruzana,Xalapa,Mexico112CentroAgronómicoTropicaldeInvestigaciónyEnseñanza(CATIE),TropicalAgriculturalResearchandHigherEducationCenter,Turrialba,CostaRica113DepartmentofQuantitativeMethodsandInformationSystems,FacultyofAgronomy,UniversityofBuenosAires,BuenosAires,Argentina114AppliedEcologicalServices,Inc.,PriorLake,MN,USA115NormandieUniv,EA1293ECODIV-Rouen,SFRSCALE,UFRSciencesetTechniques,MontSaintAignanCedex,France116MC-Consult,Sorø,Denmark117InstituteofBiologicalandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofAberdeen,Aberdeen,UK118DepartmentofBiology,CESAM,UniversidadedeAveiro,Aveiro,Portugal119DipartimentodiBiologia,UniversitàdegliStudidiMilano,Milano,Italy120SustainabilityResearchInstitute,UniversityofEastLondon,London,UK121CentreofExcellenceforEnvironmentalDecisions,SchoolofPlantBiology,UniversityofWesternAustralia,Nedlands,WA,Australia122SchoolofVeterinaryandLifeSciences,MurdochUniversity,Murdoch,WA,Australia123GrupoEcologíadeArtrópodosyManejodePlagas,ElColegiodelaFronteraSur,Tapachula,Mexico124CSIROLandandWaterFlagship,Canberra,ACT,Australia125DipartimentodiBiologia,UniversitàdiNapoliFedericoII,Napoli,Italy126WildlifeConservationResearchUnit,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofOxford,Recanati-KaplanCentre,Tubney,UK127ProgramadePós-GraduaçãoemEcologia,UniversidadeFederaldeSantaCatarina,Florianópolis,Brazil128SustainabilityResearchInstitute,SchoolofEarthandEnvironment,UniversityofLeeds,Leeds,UK129BritishTrustforOrnithology,Stirling,UK130ThünenInstituteofBiodiversity,Braunschweig,Germany131ScarabResearchGroup,DepartmentofZoology&Entomology,UniversityofPretoria,Hatfield,SouthAfrica132DurrellWildlifeConservationTrust,Trinity,Jersey133CenterforInternationalForestryResearch,Bogor,Indonesia134KwataNGO,Cayenne,FrenchGuiana135CIRAD,UMRSystem,Montpellier,France136ICRAF,RegionalOfficeforLatinAmerica,Lima,Peru137UPS,INP,LaboratoireÉcologieFonctionnelleetEnvironnement,UniversitédeToulouse,Toulouse,France138CNRS–UMR5245,Ecolab,Toulouse,France139CNRS–UMR8172,ÉcologiedesForêtsdeGuyane,Kouroucedex,France140CNRS–UMR7206(retired)CNRS/MNHN,Paris,France141DepartmentofLandscapeEcology,InstituteofNaturalResourceConservation,KielUniversity,Kiel,Germany142DepartmentofBiology,NatureConservation,UniversityMarburg,Marburg,Germany143InstituteofIntegrativeBiology,ETHZürich,Zürich,Switzerland144PostGraduatePrograminWildlifeBiologyandConservation,NationalCentreforBiologicalSciences,Bangalore,India145WildlifeConservationSociety(IndiaProgram),CentreforWildlifeStudies,Bangalore,India146InstitutodeInvestigacionesAgropecuarias–INIA–CRI–Kampenaike,PuntaArenas,Chile147ProgramadeBiología,UniversidaddelAtlántico,Barranquilla,Colombia148AppliedEntomology,ETHZürich,Zürich,Switzerland149UnitforEnvironmentalSciencesandManagement,North-WestUniversity,Potchefstroom,SouthAfrica

8 | HUDSON et al.150DepartmentofEcosystemModelling,Büsgen-Institute,Georg-August-UniversityofGöttingen,Göttingen,Germany151INRA,UMR1213Herbivores,Saint-GenèsChampanelle,France152InstituteofZoology,ZoologicalSocietyofLondon,RegentsPark,London,UK153DepartmentofEcologyandEnvironmentalScience,UmeåUniversity,Umeå,Sweden154DepartmentofWildlife,FishandEnvironmentalStudies,SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,Umea,Sweden155CentreforBiologicalSciences,UniversityofSouthampton,Southampton,UK156MTA-ELTE-MTMEcologyResearchGroup,HungarianAcademyofSciences,c/oBiologicalInstitute,EötvösLórándUniversity,Budapest,Hungary157HungarianNaturalHistoryMuseum,Budapest,Hungary158InstituteforEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofKoblenz-Landau,Landau,Germany159DepartmentofConservationEcologyandEntomology,StellenboschUniversity,Matieland,SouthAfrica160CentreforInvasionBiology,StellenboschUniversity,Matieland,SouthAfrica161CE3C–CentreforEcology,EvolutionandEnvironmentalChanges,FaculdadedeCiências,UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisboa,Portugal162AssociaçãoMontePico,MonteCafé,MéZóchi,SãoToméandPríncipe163KewGardens,Wakehurst,Ardingly,HaywardsHeath,Sussex,UK164WildAsia,UpperPenthouse,WismaRKT,KualaLumpur,Malaysia165ConservationEcology,FacultyofBiology,Philipps-UniversitätMarburg,Marburg,Germany166InstituteofEntomology,BiologyCentreofAcademyofSciencesCzechRepublic,ČeskéBudějovice,CzechRepublic167InstituteforTropicalBiologyandConservation,UniversitiMalaysiaSabah,KotaKinabalu,Malaysia168DipartimentodiScienzeVeterinarie,UniversitàdiPisa,Pisa,Italy169SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,Alnarp,Sweden170DepartmentofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofQueensland,StLucia,Qld,Australia171QueenslandHerbarium(DSITIA),Toowong,Qld,Australia172SchoolofSustainability,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,AZ,USA173DepartmentofBiology,TrentUniversity,Peterborough,ON,Canada174Laboratoired’EcologieAlpine(LECA),UniversitéGrenobleAlpes,Grenoble,France175InstituteofBiologyBucharestofRomanianAcademy,Bucharest,Romania176UniversidadeFederaldePernambuco–UFPE,CidadeUniversitaria,Recife,Brazil177TarlaBitkileriMerkezAraştırmaEnstitüsü,Yenimahalle-Ankara,Turkey178SchoolofForestResourcesandEnvironmentalScience,MichiganTechnologicalUniversity,Houghton,MI,USA179DepartmentofAnimalEcologyandTropicalBiology,Biocenter,UniversityofWürzburg,Würzburg,Germany180DepartmentofPlantSciences,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA181DepartmentofSoilandCropSciences,ColoradoStateUniversity,FortCollins,CO,USA182IRD-UMR208PALOCIRD/MNHN,Paris,France183DepartmentofCommunityEcology,UFZ,HelmholtzCentreforEnvironmentalResearch,Halle,Germany184DepartmentofNaturalResourceSciences,ThompsonRiversUniversity,Kamloops,BC,Canada185InstituteforBiodiversityandEcosystemDynamics(IBED),UniversityofAmsterdam,GEAmsterdam,TheNetherlands186PanEco/YayasanEkosistemLestari,SumatranOrangutanConservationProgramme,Medan,Indonesia187ProgramadePósGraduaçãoemEcologia,UniversidadedeBrasília,Brasília,DistritoFederal,Brazil188IDEAConsultantsInc.,OkinawaBranchOffice,Naha,Japan189BiocentreGrindel,UniversityofHamburg,Hamburg,Germany190DepartamentodeZoología,FacultaddeCienciasNaturalesyOceanográficas,UniversidaddeConcepción,Concepción,Chile191DepartamentodePlanificaciónTerritorial,FacultaddeCienciasAmbientales,CentroEULA-Chile,UniversidaddeConcepción,Concepción,Chile192HopkirkInstitute,MasseyUniversity,PalmerstonNorth,NewZealand193SeedConsultingServices,Adelaide,SA,Australia194EnvironmentalFuturesResearchInstitute,GriffithUniversity,Brisbane,Qld,Australia195BarbaraHardyInstitute,UniversityofSouthAustralia,MawsonLakes,SA,Australia196JiangsuKeyLaboratoryforBioresourcesofSalineSoils,YanchengTeachersUniversity,Yancheng,China197Départementdessciencesbiologiques,Centred’étudesdelaforêtUniversitéduQuébecàMontréalSuccursaleCentre-ville,Montréal,QC,Canada198AgResearch,RuakuraResearchCentre,Hamilton,NewZealand199EcologiaAplicada/AppliedEcology,UniversidadeSagradoCoração(USC),Bauru,Brazil200DepartmentofEcologyandEvolutionaryBiology,UniversityofToronto,Toronto,ON,Canada

| 9HUDSON et al.201DIFAR,UniversityofGenova,Genova,Italy202TelAvivUniversity,TelAviv,Israel203WorldWildlifeFund,Inc.(WWF)Guianas,Paramaribo,Suriname204RubensteinSchoolofNaturalResources,UniversityofVermont,Burlington,VT,USA205AstronEnvironmentalServices,EastPerth,WA,Australia206DepartmentofEnvironmentandAgriculture,CurtinUniversity,Perth,WA,Australia207CentredeBiologiepourlaGestiondesPopulations(CBGP),INRA,IRD,CIRAD,SUPAGRO,Montferrier-sur-Lezcedex,France208DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofOxford,Oxford,UK209DepartmentofBiologicalSciences,MountHolyokeCollege,SouthHadley,MA,USA210ChinaInternationalEngineeringConsultingCorporation,HaidianDistrict,Beijing,China211CREAF,CerdanyoladelVallès,Catalonia,Spain212DepartamentodeCienciasAmbientalesyRecursosNaturalesRenovables,FacultaddeCienciasAgronómicas,UniversidaddeChile,LaPintana,Chile213GruposdeFauna,InstitutoamazónicodeinvestigacionescientíficasSinchi.,Bogotá,Colombia214Biodiversity,EvolutionandEcologyofPlants(BEE),BiocentreKleinFlottbekandBotanicalGarden,UniversityofHamburg,Hamburg,Germany215SchoolofBiologicalScience,UniversityofPlymouth,Plymouth,UK216FridayHarbor,WA,USA217InternationalUniversityofMalaya-Wales,JalanTunIsmail,KualaLumpur,Malaysia218DepartmentofWildlifeManagement,SokoineUniversityofAgriculture,Morogoro,Tanzania219TheXercesSocietyforInvertebrateConservation,Portland,OR,USA220Animal&EnvironmentResearchGroup,DepartmentofLifeSciences,AngliaRuskinUniversity,Cambridge,UK221WalterSisuluUniversity,Mthatha,Transkei,SouthAfrica222CentreforAfricanConservationEcology,NelsonMandelaMetropolitanUniversity,PortElizabeth,SouthAfrica223CollegeofNaturalSciences,BangorUniversity,Bangor,Gwynedd,UK224NaturalResourcesCanada,CanadianForestService,LaurentianForestryCentre,Québec,QC,Canada225DepartmentofArcticandMarineBiology,UniversityofTromsø,Tromsø,Norway226Panthera,NewYork,NY,USA227UniversidadNacionalExperimentaldeGuayana,PuertoOrdaz,Venezuela228RichardGilderGraduateSchool,AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory,NewYork,NY,USA229Agroscope,Zürich,Switzerland230CorporaciónSentidoNatural,Bogotá,Colombia231EarthandAtmosphericSciencesDepartment,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,AB,Canada232StateMuseumofNaturalHistoryKarlsruhe(SMNK),Biosciences,Karlsruhe,Germany233MuseumfürNaturkunde–LeibnizInstituteforEvolutionandBiodiversityScience,Berlin,Germany234UniversityofTechnologySydney,Sydney,NSW,Australia235UniversityofNewBrunswick,Fredericton,NB,Canada236DepartmentofEcology,FacultyofVeterinaryScience,SZIEUniversity,Budapest,Hungary237DepartmentofEcology,UniversityofDebrecen,Debrecen,Hungary238DepartmentofEcology,EnvironmentandPlantSciences,StockholmUniversity,Stockholm,Sweden239InstitutodeInvestigacionesyRecursosBiológicosAlexandervonHumboldt,Bogotá,Colombia240InstituteofNaturalandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofHyogo,Hyogo,Japan241HiroshimaUniversityLeading-program,Higashihiroshima,Kagamiyama,Japan242InstitutodeInvestigacionesenEcosistemasySustentabilidad,UniversidadNacionalAutónomadeMéxico,Morelia,MéxicoC.P.,Mexico243DepartmentofAnimalEcology,Justus-Liebig-University,Giessen,Germany244EscueladeBiologia,UniversidaddeCostaRica,SanPedro,CostaRica245BiodiversityandEnvironmentalSustainability,Rohini,India246DepartmentofEnvironmentalStudies,ShivajiCollege(UniversityofDelhi),NewDelhi,India247DepartmentofEcology,SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,Uppsala,Sweden248SchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversitiSainsMalaysia,Minden,Malaysia249YukonDepartmentofEnvironment,Whitehorse,YT,Canada250NatureConservationFoundation,Mysore,India251CologneBiocenter,ZoologicalInstitute,UniversityofCologne,Köln,Germany

10 | HUDSON et al.252DepartmentofEnvironmental&NaturalResourcesManagement,UniversityofPatras,Agrinio,Greece253CentreforTropicalEnvironmentalandSustainabilityScience(TESS)&CollegeofMarineandEnvironmentalSciences,JamesCookUniversity,Cairns,Qld,Australia254SchoolofScienceandTechnology,PacificAdventistUniversity,PortMoresby,PapuaNewGuinea255UnitforEnvironmentalSciencesandManagement,North-WestUniversity,Potchefstroom,SouthAfrica256DepartmentofSystematicandEvolutionaryBotany,UniversityofZürich,Zürich,Switzerland257DepartmentofEcologyandEvolutionaryBiologyandDepartmentofGeographyandPlanning,UniversityofToronto,Toronto,ON,Canada258TheWilderness&WildlifeConservationTrust,Colombo,SriLanka259SchoolofBiologicalSciences,PlymouthUniversity,Plymouth,UK260InstituteofEcologyandEvolution,UniversityofBern,Bern,Switzerland261SectionEnvironnement,DéveloppementdurableetTerritoire,DivisionEnvironnementetTerritoire,BundesamtfürStatistik,Neuchâtel,Switzerland262SchoolofForestSciences,UniversityofEasternFinland,Joensuu,Finland263InstituteofEcology,FB2,UniversityofBremen,Bremen,Germany264UniversitéPeleforoGonCoulibaly,Korhogo,IvoryCoast265Stationd’EcologiedeLamto,N’Douci,IvoryCoast266TheoreticalEvolutionaryEcologyGroup,DepartmentofAnimalEcologyandTropicalBiology,Biocenter,UniversityofWürzburg,Würzburg,Germany267WildlifeConservationSociety-India,NationalCentreforBiologicalSciences,Bangalore,India268NatureScienceInitiative,Dehradun,India269DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,Policy,andManagement,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA,USA270SchoolofBioSciences,UniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne,Vic.,Australia271SchoolofAgricultural,ForestandFoodSciencesHAFL,BernUniversityofAppliedSciences,Zollikofen,Switzerland272SwissFederalInstituteforForest,SnowandLandscapeResearchWSL,Birmensdorf,Switzerland273InstitutoNacionaldeTecnologíaAgropecuaria,EEABariloche,Bariloche,Argentina274DepartmentofBiology,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark,PA,USA275NationalAviary,AlleghenyCommonsWest,Pittsburgh,PA,USA276CentreforTropicalEnvironmentalandSustainabilitySciences,CollegeofMarineandEnvironmentalScience,JamesCookUniversity,Cairns,Qld,Australia277UniversitéPierre-et-Marie-Curie,Paris,France278InstituteofEcologyandEnvironmentalSciences,Paris,France279INRA,UR406AbeillesetEnvironnement,Avignon,France280DepartmentofBiology,SanFranciscoStateUniversity,SanFrancisco,CA,USA281Laboratoiredediagnosticenphytoprotection,Ministèredel’agriculture,despêcheriesetdel’alimentationduQuébec,VilledeQuébec,QC,Canada282ResearchUnitTerrestrialEcology,GhentUniversity,Ghent,Belgium283LaboratoriodeRecursosAgroforestales,CentroAustraldeInvestigacionesCientíficas(CADIC),ConsejoNacionaldeInvestigacionesCientíficasyTécnicas(CONICET),Ushuaia,Argentina284SchoolofBiosciences,UniversityofMelbourne,Parkville,Vic.,Australia285PurchaseCollege(StateUniversityofNewYork),Purchase,NY,USA286InstituteofAppliedEcology,ChineseAcademyofSciences,Shenyang,China287SchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofCanterbury,Christchurch,NewZealand288TheJamesHuttonInstitute,Aberdeen,UK289CollegeofResourcesandEnvironmentalSciences,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Beijing,China290CarsteCiênciaeMeioAmbiente,Floresta,BeloHorizonte,Brazil291TEHOLaboratory,InstitiuteofBiology,UniversityofAntioquia,Medellín,Colombia292InternationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchintheDryAreas(ICARDA),AmmanOffice,Amman,Jordan293AnimalandRangelandSciencesDepartment,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,OR,USA294DepartmentofAgroecology,FlakkebjergResearchCentre,AarhusUniversity,Slagelse,Denmark295DepartmentofAgroforestryTechnologyandScienceandGenetics,SchoolofAdvancedAgriculturalEngineering,CastillaLaManchaUniversity,Albacete,Spain296UnidadAcadémicadeTurismo,CoordinacióndeInvestigaciónyPosgrado,UniversidadAutónomadeNayarit,Tepic,Mexico297CentrodeInvestigacionesTropicales,UniversidadVeracruzana,Xalapa,Mexico298GraduateSchoolofAgriculturalScience,KobeUniversity,Kobe,Japan299DepartmentofEcology,UniversityofDebrecen,Debrecen,Hungary300CenterforConservationInnovation,SanJoseTagaytayCity,Philippines301BiologyDepartment,DeLaSalleUniversity,Manila,Philippines

| 11HUDSON et al.302TheNewZealandInstituteforPlant&FoodResearchLimited,Auckland,NewZealand303NationalMuseumsofKenya,Nairobi,Kenya304CenterforMacroecology,EvolutionandClimate,NaturalHistoryMuseumofDenmark,UniversityofCopenhagen,CopenhagenØ,Denmark305ReddeBiologíayConservacióndeVertebrados,InstitutodeEcologíaA.C.,Xalapa,Mexico306DepartmentofGeography,UniversityofBergen,Bergen,Norway307DepartmentofGeography,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison,Madison,WI,USA308SchoolofBiology,UniversityofLeeds,Leeds,WestYorkshire,UK309MarshallAgroecologyLtd,Barton,Winscombe,UK310UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,CiudadUniversitaria,Bogotá,Colombia311BasqueCentreforClimateChange–BC3,Bilbao,Spain312SchoolofBiologicalSciences,TheUniversityofQueensland,Brisbane,Qld,Australia313AssociateofArtsProgram,UniversityofDelaware–Wilmington,Wilmington,DE,USA314DepartmentofEntomologyandWildlifeEcology,UniversityofDelaware,Newark,DE,USA315DepartmentofEntomology,UniversityofCalifornia,Riverside,CA,USA316CentreforMinedLandRehabilitation,TheUniversityofQueensland,Brisbane,Qld,Australia317DepartamentodeBiogeografíayCambioGlobal,MuseoNacionaldeCienciasNaturales(CSIC),Madrid,Spain318EcologyandEvolutionaryBiology,UniversityofConnecticut,Storrs,CT,USA319MuseodeHistoriaNatural“VeraAllemanHaeghebaert”,UniversidadRicardoPalma,Lima33,Peru320CentroIberoamericanodelaBiodiversidad(CIBIO),UniversidaddeAlicante,Alicante,Spain321DepartmentofEcology,SwedishUniversityofAgriculturalSciences,GrimsöWildlifeResearchStation,Riddarhyttan,Sweden322RainforestAlliance,NewYork,NY,USA323DepartmentofNaturalResources,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY,USA324DepartmentofNaturalResources&EnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,IL,USA325UniversidadIndustrialdeSantander,Bucaramanga,Colombia326SchoolofPlantBiology,UniversityofWesternAustralia,Crawley,WA,Australia327Lab.Ecotono,INIBIOMA(UniversidadNacionaldelComahue-CONICET),Bariloche,Argentina328BotanyDepartment,NationalMuseumsofKenya,Nairobi,Kenya329DepartmentofWildlifeManagement,UniversityofEldoret,Eldoret,Kenya330DepartmentofBiologyandEcology,FacultyofSciences,UniversityofNoviSad,NoviSad,Serbia331SchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversitiSainsMalaysia,Penang,Malaysia332ElColegiodelaFronteraSur,EcologíaEvolutivayConservación,SanCristóbaldelasCasas,Mexico333NatureKenya,Nairobi,Kenya334WWF,Washington,DC,USA335IndependentResearchScholar,NewDelhi,India336AvianDiversityandBioacousticLab,DepartmentofZoology,GurukulaKangriUniversity,Haridwar,India337GraduateSchoolofBioagriculturalSciences,NagoyaUniversity,Nagoya,Japan338KeyLaboratoryofTropicalForestEcology,XishuangbannaTropicalBotanicalGarden,ChineseAcademyofSciences,Menglun,China339EnvironmentalFuturesResearchInstitute,andGriffithSchoolofEnvironment,GriffithUniversity,Nathan,Brisbane,Qld,Australia340CollegeofBioresourceScience,NihonUniversity,Fujisawa,Japan341ForestryandForestProductsResearchInstitute,Tsukuba,Japan342LaboratoriodeInvestigacionesenAbejas(DepartamentodeBiología),UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,Bogotá,Colombia343LaboratoriodeInformaciónGeográfica,ElColegiodelaFronteraSur(ECOSUR),SanCristóbaldelasCasas,Mexico344CMRPZ–I.E.PlazaBonita,SanAndrésdeSotavento(Córdoba),Colombia345BirdLifeInternational–AfricaPartnershipSecretariat,Nairobi,Kenya346OrnithologySection,NationalMuseumsofKenya,Nairobi,Kenya347DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofBritishColumbia,Vancouver,BC,Canada348InstitutdeSystématique,Évolution,Biodiversité,ISYEB–UMR7205–CNRS,MNHN,UPMC,EPHE,Muséumnationald’Histoirenaturelle,SorbonneUniversités,Paris,France349DepartmentofBiology/Biodiversity,LundUniversity,Lund,Sweden350DepartmentofBiosciences,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland351DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofHelsinki,Helsinki,Finland

12 | HUDSON et al.352SchoolofBiology,TheUniversityofNottingham,UniversityPark,Nottingham,UK353LaboratoriodeZoologíayEcologíaAcuática–LAZOEA,UniversidaddeLosAndes,Bogotá,Colombia354SchoolofForestry,UniversityofCanterbury,Christchurch,NewZealand355BIO-Diverse,Bonn,Germany356DepartmentofWildlife,FishandConservationBiology,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,Davis,CA,USA357IUCN-CentreforMediterraneanCooperation,Campanillas,Málaga,Spain358OxfordUniversityCentrefortheEnvironment,UniversityofOxford,Oxford,UK359NaturalResourcesandtheEnvironment,CSIR,Stellenbosch,SouthAfrica360PlantConservationUnit,BiologicalSciences,UniversityofCapeTown,Rondebosch,SouthAfrica361InternationalProgrammeOffice(IPO),ViceChancellor’sOffice,KwameNkrumahUniversityofScienceandTechnology(KNUST),Kumasi,Ghana362Naturschutz–PlanungundBeratung,Wiesendangen,Switzerland363DepartmentofWildlifeandRangeManagement,KwameNkrumahUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Kumasi,Ghana364ForestryResearchInstituteofGhana,Kumasi,Ghana365DepartmentofAnimal&EnvironmentalBiology,UniversityofBenin,BeninCity,Nigeria366DepartmentofGenetics,EvolutionandEnvironment,UniversityCollegeLondon,London,UK367TheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(RSPB),Sandy,Bedfordshire,UK368LaboratoriodeEcologíadelPaisaje,FacultaddeCienciasForestales,UniversidaddeConcepción,Concepción,Chile369IndianInstituteofScience,Bangalore,India370LaboratorioEcotono,CONICET–INIBIOMA,UniversidadNacionaldelComahue,Bariloche,Argentina371LaboratoriodeInvestigacionesenAbejas,LABUN,UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,BogotáD.C.,Colombia372LancasterEnvironmentCentre,LancasterUniversity,Lancaster,UK373UniversidadeFederaldoPará(UFPA),NúcleodeAltosEstudosAmazonicos(NAEA),Belém,Brazil374GermanCentreforIntegrativeBiodiversityResearch(iDiv),Halle-Jena-Leipzig,Leipzig,Germany375DepartmentofPlantBiologyandEcology,FacultyofScienceandTechnology,UniversityoftheBasqueCountry,Leioa,Spain376IKERBASQUE.BasqueFoundationforScience,Bilbao,Spain377InstitutodeDiversidadyEcologíaAnimal(IDEA,CONICET-UNC)andCentrodeZoologíaAplicada,FCEFyN,UniversidadNacionaldeCórdoba,Córdoba,Argentina378IRD,UMRAMAP,TAA51/PS2,Montpelliercedex05,France379FrenchInstituteofPondicherry,UMIFRE21CNRS-MAEE,Puducherry,India380SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofEastAnglia,Norwich,UK381NationalInstituteofAgriculturalTechnology(INTA),RíoGallegos,Argentina382NationalUniversityofSouthernPatagonia(UNPA),RíoGallegos,Argentina383NationalCommissionofScientistResearchandTechnology(CONICET),BuenosAires,Argentina384LaboratoryofBiogeography&Ecology,DepartmentofGeography,UniversityoftheAegean,Mytilene,Greece385DepartmentofAnimalEcologyandTropicalBiology,Biocenter,UniversityofWürzburg,Würzburg,Germany386UniversityofCambridge,Cambridge,UK387ConservationScienceGroup,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofCambridge,Cambridge,UK388SystematicsandEvolutionLaboratory,DepartmentofBiology,WesternKentuckyUniversity,BowlingGreen,KY,USA389DepartmentofNaturalResourceEcologyandManagement,IowaStateUniversity,Ames,IA,USA390FacultaddeRecursosNaturales,EscueladeCienciasAmbientales,LaboratoriodePlanificaciónTerritorial,UniversidadCatólicadeTemuco,Temuco,Chile391BiologíayConservacióndeVertebrados,InstitutodeEcologíaA.C.,ElHaya,Xalapa,Mexico392UniversitatAutònomadeBarcelona,CerdanyoladelVallès,Spain393LaboratoriodeEntomologíaEcológica,DepartamentodeBiología,FacultaddeCiencias,UniversidaddeLaSerena,LaSerena,Chile394AlbertineRiftProgram,WildlifeConservationSociety,Kampala,Uganda395IFEVA/CátedradeProducciónVegetal,DepartamentodeProducciónVegetal,FacultaddeAgronomía,UniversidaddeBuenosAires/CONICET.,BuenosAires,Argentina396DirectoradelProgramaConservacióndeBiodiversidadenBosquesSubtropicales,CátedradeDesarrolloSustentableyBiodiversidad,FacultaddeCienciasAgrarias,UniversidadNacionaldeJujuy,CIT-JujuyCONICET,FundaciònCEBio,SanSalvadordeJujuy,Argentina397DepartamentdeCiènciesAmbientals,UniversitatdeGirona,Girona,Spain398Entomology,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NY,USA399Botany,SchoolofNaturalSciences,TrinityCollegeDublin,Dublin2,Ireland

| 13HUDSON et al.400CenterforEnvironmentalSciencesandEngineering&DepartmentofEcologyandEvolutionaryBiology,UniversityofConnecticut,Storrs,CT,USA401MARETEC,InstitutoSuperiorTécnico,UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisbon,Portugal402CREA-ABP,Consiglioperlaricercainagricolturael’analisidell’economiaagraria,Centrodiricercaperl’agrobiologiaelapedologia,Firenze,Italy403EcosystemManagement,SchoolofEnvironmentandRuralScience,UniversityofNewEngland,Armidale,NSW,Australia404EscueladeBiología,UniversidadIndustrialdeSantander,Bucaramanga,Colombia405NationalCenterforEcologicalAnalysisandSynthesis,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara,SantaBarbara,CA,USA406DepartmentofBioscience,AarhusUniversity,AarhusC,Denmark407TheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds(RSPB),EdinburghPark,Edinburgh,UK408CenterforConservationandSustainableDevelopment,MissouriBotanicalGarden,SaintLouis,MO,USA409DepartamentodeBiologia,UniversidadeFederaldeSergipe,SãoCristóvão/Se,Brazil410LifeSciencesDepartment,UniversityofAlcala,AlcaládeHenares,Spain411EntomologyColletion,SystematicsandBiogeographyLaboratory,SchoolofBiology,IndustrialUniversityofSantander,Bucaramanga,Colombia412PercyFitzPatrickInstituteofAfricanOrnithology,DST/NRFCentreofExcellence,UniversityofCapeTown,Rondebosch,CapeTown,SouthAfrica413SchoolofAnimal,PlantandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityoftheWitwatersrand,Wits,SouthAfrica414CentrodeCiênciasBiológicasedaSaúde,UniversidadeFederaldeMatoGrossodoSul,CampoGrande,Brazil415DepartmentofBiologicalSciences,BrockUniversity,St.Catharines,ON,Canada416Edinburgh,UK417LuquilloLTER,InstituteforTropicalEcosystemStudies,CollegeofNaturalSciences,UniversityofPuertoRicoatRioPiedras,SanJuan,PR,USA418EscuelaNacionaldeEstudiosSuperiores,UniversidadNacionalAutónomadeMéxico,Morelia,Mexico419ScienceandConservationDivision,DepartmentofParksandWildlife,Manjimup,WA,Australia420PROPLAME-PRHIDEB-CONICET,DepartamentodeBiodiversidadyBiologíaExperimental,FacultaddeCienciasExactasyNaturales,UniversidaddeBuenosAires,CiudadUniversitaria,(CP1428EHA)CiudadAutónomadeBuenosAires,Argentina421ECTOekotoxikologieGmbH,FlörsheimamMain,Germany422LOEWEBiodiversityandClimateResearchCentreBiK-F,Frankfurt/Main,Germany423FacultaddeCienciasAmbientales,UniversidaddeCienciasAplicadasyAmbientalesU.D.C.A,Bogotá,Colombia424CatedrasCONACYT,CIIDIR,UnidadOaxaca,IPN,SantaCruzXoxocotlán,Mexico425UniversidaddeCienciasAplicadasyAmbientalesU.D.C.A.,Bogotá,Colombia426SchoolofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment,UniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,MI,USA427DepartmentofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofVirginia,Charlottesville,VA,USA428BlandyExperimentalFarm,Boyce,VA,USA429Départementdessciencesbiologiques(SB),UniversitéduQuébecàMontréal(UQÀM),Montréal,QC,Canada430FacultaddeCiencias,UniversidaddeChile,Santiago,Chile431SchoolofGeography,EarthandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofBirmingham,Birmingham,UK432InstituteofSilvicultureandForestProtection,UniversityofWestHungary,Sopron,Hungary433ReddeEcologíaFuncional,InstitutodeEcologíaA.C.CarreteraantiguaaCoatepec,ElHaya,Xalapa,Mexico434BiologyCentreCAS,InstituteofEntomology,CeskeBudejovice,CzechRepublic435FacultyofScience,UniversityofSouthBohemia,CeskeBudejovice,CzechRepublic436Bishop’sUniversity,Sherbrooke,QC,Canada437CSIRO,DuttonPark,Qld,Australia438NaturalisBiodiversityCenter,CRLeiden,TheNetherlands439InstituteforTropicalBiologyandConservation,UniversitiMalaysiaSabah,JalanUMS,KotaKinabalu,Malaysia440BiocentreKleinFlottbek&BotanicalGarden,UniversityofHamburg,Hamburg,Germany441CenterforDevelopmentResearch(ZEF),UniversityofBonn,Bonn,Germany442ChairforLandscapeManagement,UniversityofFreiburg,Freiburg,Germany443AgResearchLimited,LincolnResearchCentre,Christchurch,NewZealand444InstituteforEcology,EvolutionandDiversity,GoetheUniversityFrankfurt,FrankfurtamMain,Germany445BiologyandBiomedicalSciencesDivision,UniversityofBrighton,Brighton,UK446CharlesDarwinUniversity,Brinkin,NT,Australia447LawrenceUniversity,Appleton,WI,USA448SchoolofNaturalResourcesandExtension,UniversityofAlaskaFairbanks,Fairbanks,AK,USA449CenterforEcology,DevelopmentandResearch,Dehradun,India

14 | HUDSON et al.450SchoolofLifeSciences,UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Durban,SouthAfrica451DepartmentofEcologyandNaturalResourceManagement(INA),NorwegianUniversityofLifeSciences(NMBU),Ås,Norway452MuseumofNaturalScienceandDepartmentofBiologicalSciences,LouisianaStateUniversity,BatonRouge,LA,USA453BatonRouge,LA,USA454DepartmentofLifeSciences,Ben-GurionUniversityoftheNegev,Be’erSheva,Israel455TheYeruchamCenterofOrnithologyandEcology,Yerucham,Israel456InstitutodeCiênciasBiológicas,UniversidadeFederaldoPará,Belém,Brazil457OrganicResearchCentre,ElmFarm,Newbury,UK458UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,SouthSanFrancisco,CA,USA459UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,SedeMedellin,Medellin,Colombia460DepartmentofBiologicalSciences,NationalUniversityofSingapore,Singapore,Singapore461EcologíadeComunidadesÃridasySemiaridas(EComAS),DepartamentodeRecursos,FacultaddeCienciasExactasyNaturales,UNLPam.,Santarosa,LaPampa,Uruguay462GobiernoAutónomoDepartamentalSantaCruz,SantaCruzdelaSierra,Bolivia463UniversitéduQuébecàRimouski,CentreforNorthernResearch,CentreforForestStudies,Rimouski,QC,Canada464SchoolofEnvironmentalStudies,UniversityofVictoria,Victoria,BC,Canada465MuseudeCiènciesNaturalsdeGranollers,Granollers,Barcelona,Spain466SchoolofRenewableNaturalResources,LouisianaStateUniversityAgriculturalCenter,BatonRouge,LA,USA467BiologicalDynamicsofForestFragmentsProject,InstitutoNacionaldePesquisasdaAmazônia,Manaus,Brazil468DepartmentofNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentalManagement,UniversityofHawaii,Manoa,Honolulu,HI,USA469KeyLaboratoryofZoologicalSystematicsandEvolution,InstituteofZoology,ChineseAcademyofSciences,ChaoyangDistrict,Beijing,China470StateKeyLaboratoryofUrbanandRegionalEcology,ResearchCenterforEco-EnvironmentalSciences,ChineseAcademyofSciences,HaidianDistrict,Beijing,China471InstituteofZoology,UniversityofNaturalResourcesandLifeSciences,Vienna,Austria472DepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceandPolicy,DrakeUniversity,DesMoines,IA,USA473DepartmentofBiology,HongKongBaptistUniversity,KowloonTong,HongKongSAR,China474ZoologicalDivision,ResearchCenterForBiology,TheIndonesianInstituteofSciences,Cibinong,Bogor,Indonesia475SectionforEcoinformatics&Biodiversity,DepartmentofBioscience,AarhusUniversity,AarhusC,Denmark476DepartmentofZoology,InstituteofEcologyandEarthSciences,UniversityofTartu,Tartu,Estonia477SchoolofEcosystemandForestScience,FacultyofScience,TheUniversityofMelbourne,Richmond,Vic.,Australia478DepartmentofBiology,SaintLouisUniversity,St.Louis,MO,USA479MTA-DEBiodiversityandEcosystemServicesResearchGroup,Debrecen,Hungary480InsectEcologyGroup,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofCambridge,Cambridge,UK481CentreforIntegrativeEcology,SchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofCanterbury,Christchurch,NewZealand482InstitutoNeotropical:PesquisaeConservação,Curitiba,Brazil483DepartmentofEcologyandTerritory,SchoolofEnvironmentalandRuralStudies,PontificiaUniversidadJaveriana,Bogota,Colombia484NaturhistorischesMuseumBasel,LeiterBiowissenschaften,Basel,Switzerland485NERCCentreforEcology&Hydrology,BushEstate,Penicuik,Edinburgh,UK486InstitutodeBiologia,UniversidadeFederaldeUberlândia(UFU),Uberlândia,Brazil487InstituteofBiodiversityandEcosystemResearch,BulgarianAcademyofScience,Sofia,Bulgaria488DivisionForest,Nature,andLandscape,DepartmentofEarth&EnvironmentalSciences,KULeuven,Leuven,Belgium489MuseuNacionaldeHistóriaNaturaledaCiência,Borboletário–Depart.Zoologia,Lisboa,Portugal490DepartamentodeCienciasQuímico-Biológicas,UniversidaddelasAméricasPuebla,Cholula,Mexico491DepartamentodeGestiónAgraria,UniversidaddeSantiagodeChile,Santiago,Chile492DenHaag,TheNetherlands493RoyalMuseumforCentralAfrica–JointExperimentalMolecularUnit,Tervuren,Belgium494VietnamNationalMuseumofNature,VietnamAcademyofScienceandTechnology,CauGiay,Hanoi,Vietnam495BotanyDepartment,UniversityofOtago,Dunedin,NewZealand496SchoolforResourceandEnvironmentalStudies,FacultyofManagement,DalhousieUniversity,Halifax,NS,Canada497KeyLaboratoryofProtectionandDevelopmentUtilizationofTropicalCropGermplasmResource,MinistryofEducation,CollegeofHorticultureandLandscapeAgriculture,HainanUniversity,Haikou,China

| 15HUDSON et al.498CollegeofLifeSciences,ZhejiangUniversity,Hangzhou,China499DepartmentofBiology,JohnCarrollUniversity,UniversityHeights,OH,USA500TheEnvironmentInstituteandSchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences,TheUniversityofAdelaide,Adelaide,SA,Australia501EnvironmentalFuturesResearchInstitute,GriffithUniversity,Brisbane,Qld,Australia502DepartmentofEnvironmentalandNaturalResources,PresbyterianUniversityCollege,AkropongAkuapem,Ghana503SchoolofNaturalSciencesandPsychology,LiverpoolJohnMooresUniversity,Liverpool,UK504CenterforEnvironmentalSciences&Engineering,UniversityofConnecticut,Storrs,CT,USA505DepartmentofEcology&EvolutionaryBiology,UniversityofConnecticut,Storrs,CT,USA506InstituteforBiodiversityandEcosystemDynamics(IBED),UniversityofAmsterdam,GEAmsterdam,TheNetherlands507NERCCentreforEcology&Hydrology,CrowmarshGifford,Wallingford,UK508InstituteofBiodiversityScience,SchoolofLifeSciences,FudanUniversity,Shanghai,China509InternationalInstituteofTropicalForestry,USDAForestService,SabanaFieldResearchStation,Luquillo,PR,USA510TsukubaUniversity,Ibaraki,Japan511SchoolofBiologicalSciences,UniversityofEastAnglia,NorwichResearchPark,Norwich,UK512StateKeyLaboratoryofGeneticResourcesandEvolution,KunmingInstituteofZoology,ChineseAcademyofSciences,Kunming,China513A.N.SevertsovInstituteofEcologyandEvolution,Moscow,Russia514IntegratedEnvironmentalConsultantsNamibia(IECN),Windhoek,Namibia515GuangdongEntomologicalInstitute/SouthChinaInstituteofEndangeredAnimals,Guangzhou,China516ComputationalEcologyandEnvironmentalScience,MicrosoftResearch,Cambridge,UK

CorrespondenceLawrenceN.Hudson,DepartmentofLifeSciences,NaturalHistoryMuseum,London,UK.Email:[email protected]

Funding informationU.K.NaturalEnvironmentResearchCouncil,Grant/AwardNumber:NE/J011193/2andNE/L002515/1;UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramWorldConservationMonitoringCentre;BiotechnologyandBiologicalSciencesResearchCouncil,Grant/AwardNumber:BB/F017324/1;HansRausingPhDScholarship;COLCIENCIAS(DepartamentoAdministrativodeCiencia,TecnologíaeInnovacióndeColombia)

AbstractThePREDICTSproject—ProjectingResponsesofEcologicalDiversityInChangingTerrestrial Systems (www.predicts.org.uk)—has collated frompublished studies alarge, reasonably representative database of comparable samples of biodiversityfrommultiplesitesthatdifferinthenatureorintensityofhumanimpactsrelatingtolanduse.Wehaveusedthisevidencebasetodevelopglobalandregionalstatisticalmodels of how local biodiversity responds to thesemeasures.We describe andmakefreelyavailablethis2016releaseofthedatabase,containingmorethan3.2million records sampled at over 26,000 locations and representing over 47,000species.Weoutlinehowthedatabasecanhelpinansweringarangeofquestionsinecologyandconservationbiology.Toourknowledge,thisisthelargestandmostgeographicallyandtaxonomicallyrepresentativedatabaseofspatialcomparisonsofbiodiversity that has been collated to date; it will be useful to researchers andinternational efforts wishing to model and understand the global status ofbiodiversity.

K E Y W O R D S

datasharing,globalbiodiversitymodeling,globalchange,habitatdestruction,landuse

1 | INTRODUCTION

Many indicators are available for tracking the state of biodiversitythroughtime, forexample, inorder toassessprogress towardgoalssuchas theConventiononBiologicalDiversity’s2010targetor thenewerAichiBiodiversityTargets(Pereiraetal.,2013;Tittensoretal.,2014).Mostof theavailable indicatorsare taxonomicallyorecolog-ically narrow in scope, andmany are based on the global status ofspecies(e.g.,Butchartetal.,2010;Tittensoretal.,2014),becauseof

thefinalityofextinction.However,usingamorerepresentativesetoftaxaandconsideringlocalbiodiversityoffersseveraladvantages.First,averageresponsesofspeciestohumanimpactstypicallyvaryamonghigher taxa and ecological guilds (Lawton etal., 1998; McKinney,1997;Newboldetal.,2014;WWFInternational,2014),meaningthatindicatorsneedtobebroadlybasedandasrepresentativeaspossible,iftheyaretobeusedasproxiesforbiodiversityasawhole.Second,thetaxaforwhichmostdataontrendsareavailable(typically,char-ismaticgroups suchasbirdsorbutterflies) arenotalways themost

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important for thecontinuedfunctioningofecosystemsanddeliveryof ecosystem services (Norris, 2012). Third, although many of theultimatedriversbehindbiodiversitylossareglobal,themostimport-antpressuremechanismsusuallyactmuchmorelocally(Brook,Ellis,Perring, Mackay, & Blomqvist, 2013). Fourth, most ecosystem ser-vicesandtheirunderpinningprocessesaremediatedby local ratherthan global biodiversity (Cardinale etal., 2012; Grime, 1998): It islocal ratherthanglobal functionaldiversity, forexample, thatdeter-mineshowecosystemsfunctioninagivensetofconditions(Steffenetal., 2015). Finally, presence/absenceandespecially abundanceofspeciesatasiterespondmorerapidlytodisturbancethanextentofgeographic distribution or global/national extinction risk (Balmford,Green,&Jenkins,2003;Collenetal.,2009;Hull,Darroch,&Erwin,2015),so localchangesare likelytobedetectedbefore largeglobalchangesorextinction.

Forthesereasons,thereisaneedtomodeltheresponseoflocalbiodiversity to human pressures and, thus, to estimate biodiversitychangesatlocalscales,butacrossawidespatialdomain(ideallyglob-ally)andforawiderangeoftaxa.Wethereforeneedcomparablehigh-qualitydataonlocalbiodiversityatdifferentlevelsofhumanpressure,frommanydifferenttaxaandregions.Atpresent,spatialcomparisonsofhowbiodiversityrespondstovariationinpressuresprovidetheonlyfeasiblewaytocollatealarge,globallyrepresentativeevidencebaseandtomodelresponsestohumanimpacts.Althoughlargetemporaldatasetsareavailable (e.g.,Butchartetal.,2004;Collenetal.,2009;Dornelasetal.,2014;Vellendetal.,2013),theymaynotbesufficientlyrepresentativeofanthropogenicpressures for the trends theyshowtobetakenatfacevalue(Gonzalezetal.,2016).Furthermore,intheabsence of contemporaneous site-specific information about pres-sures, it isnotstraightforwardtousethesedata tomodelhowbio-diversityrespondstopressuresortoprojectchangesintothefuture(butseeViscontietal.,2015).Spatiallyextensivefielddataofsuitablequalityand resolutionaretime-consumingandexpensive tocollect.Themostconvenientandreadilyavailablesourceofsuitablebiodiver-sitydataisthepublishedliterature:Thousandsofpublishedpapersarebasedondatasetsthatwouldbeofvaluetoglobalmodelingefforts.However,ithasbeenrareforsuchpaperstopublishdatainfull,evenas supporting information, meaning that many potentially valuabledatasetsare“darkdata” (Hamptonetal.,2013),effectivelyatriskofbeinglosttoscienceiftheyhavenotbeenlostalready.

Since 2012, the PREDICTS project has been collating data onlocalbiodiversityatdifferentlevelsofhumanpressurefrompublishedpapers, where necessary contacting those papers’ correspondingauthors to request the underlying biodiversity data, species’ identi-ties,andprecisesamplinglocations.Wehaveenhancedthecollateddatabyscoringsitecharacteristicsrelatingtohumanpressuressuchas the predominant land use and how intensively the land is usedbyhumans.Wealsoused the geographical coordinatesof the sitestomatch them to a number of published spatially explicit datasets.Thedatabasehasalreadybeenusedtoconductglobal(e.g.,Newboldetal.,2015;Newbold,Hudson,Arnell,etal.,2016),regional(DePalmaetal.,2016)andnational (Echeverría-Londoñoetal.,2016)analysesoftheresponsesoflocalbiodiversitytolanduseandrelatedhuman

pressures.ThedatabasewasfirstdescribedbyHudsonetal. (2014)whopublishedaninterimversion(March2014)ofthesite-levelmeta-dataalongwithadetaileddescriptionofhowthedatabasehasbeencollatedandvalidated.Sincethattime,thedatabasehasnearlydou-bledinsize.Here,wedescribethestatusofthedatabaseandmakeavailablethefullspecies-leveldatathemselves(notjustthesitemeta-data previously released) to facilitate other research, especially intohuman impactsonecological assemblages.Wealso include sugges-tionsforhowthedatabasecanbeused.

2 | METHODS

Wesoughtdatasetsdescribingtheabundanceoroccurrenceofspe-cies,orthediversityofecologicalassemblagesofspeciesatmultiplesitesindifferentlandusesoratdifferentlevelsofotherhumanpres-sures(e.g.,differinglevelsofland-useintensity).Datawereprimarilycollatedthroughsubprojectsonparticularregions,landuses,ortaxa.Wealsomadegeneralrequestsfordataatconferencesandthroughpublishedarticles(Hudson,Newbold,etal.,2013;Hudsonetal.,2014;Newbold etal., 2012). Through the course of the project, searcheswereincreasinglytargetedtowardunder-orunrepresentedregions,biomes,ortaxa,inordertomitigatebiasedcoverageintheliterature.

Tobe included in thedatabase, datawere required tomeet thefollowingcriteria:(1)thedatasetwaspartofapublishedwork,orthesamplingmethodswerepublished; (2) the samesamplingprocedurewascarriedoutateachsitewithineachstudy(samplingeffortwasper-mittedtovarysolongasitwasrecordedforeachsite);and(3)wecouldacquirethegeographicalcoordinatesofeachsampledsite.Wheretheauthoroftheoriginalpublicationwasunabletosupplythegeographi-calcoordinates,sitesweregeoreferencedfrommapsinthepublication(Hudsonetal.,2014).Sites’ landuse—primaryvegetation,secondaryvegetation(dividedaccordingtostageofrecoveryintomature,inter-mediate and young; or indeterminate where information on stagewasunavailable),plantationforest,cropland,pastureandurban—and,withineachland-useclass,intensity—minimal,lightandintense—wereclassifiedfromthedescriptiongiveninthesourcepublicationorinfor-mationsubsequentlyprovidedbydatacontributors(seeHudsonetal.,2014forfulldetails).Theseland-usecategorieswerechosentobeascompatible as possiblewith those used in the harmonized land-usescenariosfor1500–2100(Hurttetal.,2011)inordertofacilitatespa-tialandtemporalprojectionsofmodeledland-useeffectsonbiodiver-sity (e.g.,Newboldetal.,2015).Forsomesites, landuseand/oruseintensitycouldnotbeestablished,soweregivenmissingvalues.

Thedatawerearrangedinahierarchicalstructure.Thedatafromanindividualpublishedwork,typicallyapublishedpaper,constituteda“DataSource.”WheredifferentsamplingmethodswereusedwithinaDataSource,forexample,becausedifferenttaxonomicgroupswerecollected,andthedataweremadeavailableseparately,thedataweredivided intoseparate “Studies.”Data fromagivenDataSourcewerealsosplitintomultipleStudiesiftheycoveredlargegeographicareas(e.g.,severalcountries),toreducetheeffectofbiogeographicdiffer-enceswithinStudies.EachStudycontainedasetofsampled“Sites”

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and“Taxa”;ateachSiteasetof“Measurements”(typicallytheabun-danceoroccurrenceofasetoftaxa)weretaken.Theprovideddata-baseextractscontain,foreachSite,therawmeasurementvalues,thesamplingeffortsand,whererelevant,theeffort-correctedabundancevalues(correctedacrossSiteswithinaStudybydividingtheabundancemeasurementbysamplingeffort,assumingthatsampledabundancesincreaselinearlywithsamplingeffort,afterfirstrescalingeffortvalueswithin each Study to amaximumvalue of one).Themeasurementswerenotcorrected fordifferentdetectability (Haywardetal.,2015;MacKenzieetal.,2002).

Itisimportanttonotethatthedatainthedatabaseareoftennotexactly the same as those used in the source papers. Numbers ofsitesmaydifferbecausedatasetsprovidedmayhavebeenpartialorincludedextrasites,orbecausewehaveaggregatedordisaggregateddatadifferently.Likewise,numbersoftaxamaydifferbecauseofcura-tionorbecausemoredatawereprovidedthanhadbeenusedinthesourcepaper.BecauseourfocuswastomakethesedataasusefulaspossibleforPREDICTSanalyses,ratherthantoactasarepositoryfordatasetsfrompreviouspublications,itwilloftennotbepossibletousethesedatatoreplicatetheanalysespresentedinthesourcepapers.

Wewerelimitedbytherateatwhichwecouldprocessnewdatabecausesomanydatasetswerecontributed.Thisledtothedevelop-mentofabacklog,whichwehadtoclearbytheendofthefirstphaseoffundingforPREDICTS.Duringthisstageoftheproject,inordertopro-cessallthedatasetsinhandwithinthetimeavailable,wefocusedour

effortsonthefieldsshowntobemostimportantinourmodelstothatpoint(DePalmaetal.,2015;Newboldetal.,2014,2015).Asaresult,DataSourcesprocessedsinceearly2015oftenlackdataforsomefields,includingcoordinateprecisionandmaximum linearextent;detailsofthepotentiallyaffectedfieldsarelistedinSupportingInformation.

Teammemberswere trained in how to score datasets received,usingwrittendefinitionsanddescriptionsoffieldsandterms,aswellaspracticedatasets.Alldataunderwentbasicvalidationcheckstoensurevaluesentered ineachfieldwereappropriate (Hudsonetal.,2014).Geographicalcoordinateswerevisuallyinspectedonamapafterentryinto the database, and our software automatically detected coordi-nates fallingoutsideof theexpected country (e.g., because latitudeandlongitudevalueswereaccidentallyswapped).Forthecalculationofbiodiversitymetricssuchasspeciesrichness,weacceptedtheiden-tificationsofspeciesprovidedbytheauthorsofthesourcepublica-tions;theseweredeterminedatthetimeoftheoriginalresearch,andsowillnotreflectsubsequenttaxonomicchangesorre-identifications.We alsomatched taxonomic names to the Catalogue of Life 2013checklist (COL;Roskovetal.,2013),allowingustovalidatemanyofthe names, assess taxonomic coverage and relatemeasurements tospecies-leveldatasetssuchas thosedescribingecological traits.WemakeavailableboththeoriginalspeciesclassificationsandthosefromCOL(fieldnamesaregiveninSupportingInformation).Wereviewedandcorrectedanumberofpotentialerrorcases,suchasnameswith-outamatchingCOLrecord,andnamesforwhichthehighertaxonomic

F IGURE 1 Samplinglocations.Mapcolorsindicatebiomes,takenfromtheTerrestrialEcoregionsoftheWorlddataset(TheNatureConservancy,2009),showninageographic(WGS84)projection.Circleradiiareproportionaltolog10ofthenumberofsamplesatthatSite.Allcircleshavethesamedegreeofpartialtransparency.SitesaddedtothedatabasesinceHudsonetal.(2014)areshowninpink

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rankofthematchingCOLrecordwasunexpected(e.g.,aCOLrecordforatrueflywithinaStudythatexaminedbirds).Manymorevalidationcheckswereapplied;acompletedescriptionisinHudsonetal.(2014).

3 | RESULTS

3.1 | Geographical coverage

ThisreleaseofthePREDICTSdatabasecontains3,250,404records,from26,114sampledSites(Figure1),collatedfrom480DataSources

and666Studies.Thedatarepresentalloftheworld’s14terrestrialbiomes, in approximate proportion to their contribution to globaltotal primary productivity (Figure2). The sampled Sites span 94of the world’s countries (including all 17 megadiverse countries;Mittermeier, Gil, &Mittermeier, 1997), 281 of the 814 terrestrialecoregions(TheNatureConservancy2009)and32ofConservationInternational’s 35 biodiversity hotspots (Myers, Mittermeier,Mittermeier,daFonseca,&Kent,2000;circlesonFigure3).Althoughthedatabasefocusesonlanduse,italsoincludesdatafromregionsthathavesofarseenrelativelylittleland-usechange,suchassome

F IGURE 2 Coverageofbiomes.ThepercentageofStudies(aandb),Sites(candd),andsamples(eandf)againstpercentagesofterrestrialNPP(NetPrimaryProductivity,computedasinHudsonetal.,2014;a,c,ande)andterrestrialarea(b,d,andf).BiomecodesandcolorsareasinFigure1

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highbiodiversitywildernessareas(Mittermeieretal.,2003;squaresonFigure3).

3.2 | Taxonomic coverage

Records in the PREDICTS database represent 47,044 species (seeHudsonetal.,2014forhowspeciesnumbersareestimatedinthefaceofimprecisetaxonnames),whichisover2%ofthenumberthoughttohavebeen formallydescribed (Chapman,2009)—29,737animals,15,545plants,1,759fungi,andthreeprotists.Thetaxonomicdistri-butionoftaxainthedatabaseisinroughproportiontothenumbersofdescribedspeciesinmajortaxonomicgroupsofanimalsandplants(Figure4),andthedatarepresentmorethan1%asmanyspeciesashave been described in the following groups: Amphibia, Arachnida,Archaeognatha, Ascomycota, Aves, Basidiomycota, Bryophyta,Chilopoda,Coleoptera,Collembola,Dermaptera,Diptera,Embioptera,Ferns and allies, Glomeromycota, Gymnosperms, Hemiptera,Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Magnoliophyta, Mammalia,Mantodea, Mecoptera, Neuroptera, Odonata, Onychophora,Orthoptera,Reptilia,SymphylaandZoraptera(Figure4).Vertebrates—and especially birds—are overrepresented owing to biases in thepublished literature (Figure4), but less so than inmany other datacompilations (e.g., over half of the records currently in the GlobalBiodiversity Information Facility [GBIF] are of birds; www.gbif.org,accessedinApril2016).MostStudiesinthePREDICTSdatabasesam-pled at leastmultiple families, if notmultipleorders, classes, phyla,

orevenkingdoms(Figure5).However,someStudiessampledonlyasinglefamily,genus,orevenspecies(Figure5).

3.3 | Temporal coverage

Wefocusedprimarilyondatasampledsince2000becausemostgloballayersdescribinghumanpressurearecollectedafterthisyearand,inparticular,tofacilitateuseofcontemporaneousModerate-resolutionImaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) remotely sensed data (Justiceetal.,1998;Tucketal.,2014)inmodeling.However,infillingcertaintaxonomicandgeographicgaps,wealsocollatedsomedatathatweresampledbefore2000(Figure6).Dataaresparseafter2012becauseofthenaturaltimelagsbetweendatacollectioninthefield,publica-tionandthenassimilationintothePREDICTSdatabase(Figure6).

3.4 | Data access and structure

This 2016 release of the database—the complete dataset and alsosite-level summaries—is available on the data portal of theNaturalHistory Museum, London (doi: 10.5519/0066354) as comma-separatedvariable(CSV)filesandasRDSfiles,thelatterforusewiththe R statistical modeling language (R Core Team 2015; RDS filesweregeneratedusingR3.3.1).Acompletedescriptionofthecolumnsin the extracts, along with a visualization of the database schema,isgiven inSupporting Information.Thispapermakesall thedata inthisversionofthedatabasefreelyavailabletoanyonewishingtouse

F IGURE 3 NumbersofSitesagainsttheareasofbiodiversityhotspotsandofhighbiodiversitywildernessareas(HBWAs).HotspotsareshownbycirclesandHBWAsbysquares;symbolsarecoloredbythepredominantbiogeographicrealminwhichtheyfall.Hotspotsare1CaliforniaFloristicProvince,2MadreanPine-OakWoodlands,3AtlanticForest,4CaribbeanIslands,5Cerrado,6ChileanWinterRainfallandValdivianForests,7Mesoamerica,8TropicalAndes,9Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena,10Irano-Anatolian,11Japan,12MediterraneanBasin,13MountainsofCentralAsia,14MountainsofSouthwestChina,15CapeFloristicRegion,16CoastalForestsofEasternAfrica,17EasternAfromontane,18GuineanForestsofWestAfrica,19MadagascarandtheIndianOceanIslands,20Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany,21SucculentKaroo,22Himalaya,23Indo-Burma,24Philippines,25Sundaland,26WesternGhatsandSriLanka,27EastMelanesianIslands,28ForestsofEastAustralia,29NewZealand,30SouthwestAustralia,31Wallacea,32Polynesia-MicronesiaandHBWAsare33Amazonia,34CongoForests,35NewGuinea,36NorthAmericanDeserts.UnrepresentedarethehotspotsCaucasus,HornofAfrica,NewCaledoniaandtheHBWAMiombo-MopaneWoodlandsandSavannas

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themforanypurpose.Thetermsofthelicenserequirethatanyonepublishingresearchbasedonthesedatashouldcitethispaperand/ortheoriginalsourcesofthedataused,asappropriate.Thedatasetat doi: 10.5519/0066354 contains bibliographic information for allDataSourcesinbothCSVandBibTeXformats.

4 | DISCUSSION

ThePREDICTSdatabaseisdesignedtobeabletoaddressarangeofquestionsabouthowlanduseandrelatedpressureshaveinfluencedtheoccurrenceandabundanceofspeciesandthediversityofecologi-calassemblages.Thehighlystructurednatureofthedata,withcom-parablesurveyshavingbeencarriedoutateachSitewithinaStudy,waschosentofacilitatesuchmodeling.Table1identifiesarangeoflong-standing general questions forwhich thePREDICTSdatamaybeuseful,referencingearlypapersaddressingquestionsofeachtype.Italsooutlinesthestepsrequiredtotackleeachkindofquestion,inconjunctionwithotherinformationabouttheSitesandspecieswherenecessary,andreferstopapersthathaveperformedso.

Changesinattitudesto—andtheincreasingeaseof—datasharinghavecontributedtorapidgrowthinopencompilationsofstructuredbiodiversitydataandrelatedpressuredatatargetedtowardparticular

kindsofresearchquestion.Examplesofdatatypesfeatured insuchcompilations includepopulationtimeseries (e.g., Inchausti&Halley,2001),assemblagetimeseries(e.g.,Dornelasetal.,2014),assemblageinventories (e.g.,Thibault, Supp,Giffin,White,&Ernest, 2011), andspeciestraits(e.g.,Madinetal.,2016).Otherprojectshavecollatedorarecollatinglargecompilationsofstructuredbiodiversitydata,suchasBIOFRAG(Pfeiferetal.,2014;habitatfragmentation),BIOTIME(TheBioTIMEResearchGroup,2016;detailedtime-seriesdata,stillbeingcompiled)andGLOBIO3 (Alkemadeetal.,2009;pristineversusdis-turbedhabitats,notpubliclyavailable).

The largest open compilation of biodiversity data is the GlobalBiodiversity Information Facility (GBIF; www.gbif.org), which aggre-gatesmostlyunstructuredspeciesoccurrencedata.TheunstructurednatureofmostGBIFdatalimitstherangeofquestionstowhichtheycaneasilybeput,althoughtheyareincreasinglyusedinmodelingspe-cies distributions (e.g., Pineda & Lobo, 2008) and habitat suitability(e.g.,Ficetola,Rondinini,Bonardi,Baisero,&Padoa-Schioppa,2015).AsofApril2016,GBIFholdsover560milliongeoreferencedoccurrencerecordsofaround1.5millionspecies,althoughcoverageistaxonom-icallyuneven(e.g.,mostrecordsareofbirds)andpatchyevenamongthebest-recordedgroups(Meyer,Kreft,Guralnick,&Jetz,2015).

Databases of species traits continue to be collated and pub-lished, and many of them are relevant to taxa in the PREDICTS

F IGURE 4 Taxonomiccoverage.Thenumbersofspeciesinourdatabaseagainstthenumbersofdescribedspecieswithineachof59highertaxa,asestimatedbyChapman(2009),onlogarithmicaxes.Vertebratesareshowninred,arthropodsinpink,otheranimalsingray,plantsingreen,andfungiinblue.Thedashed,solid,anddottedlinesindicate10,1,and0.1%representation,respectively.Groupswithjustasinglespeciesrepresented(DipluraandZoraptera)arenotshown

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| 21HUDSON et al.

F IGURE 5 NumberofStudiesbylowestcommontaxonomicgroup.BarsshowthenumberofStudieswithineachlowestcommontaxon(so,oneStudyexaminedthespeciesSwietenia macrophylla,threeStudiesexaminedthespeciesBombus pascuorum,tenStudiesexaminedmultiplespecieswithinthegenusBombus,andsoon).ColorsareasinFigure4.Numbersontherightaretheprimaryreferencesfromwhichdataweretaken:1Bassetetal.(2008),2Buscardoetal.(2008),3ChristensenandHeilmann-Clausen(2009),4Domínguez,Bahamonde,andMuñoz-Escobar(2012),5López-Quintero,Straatsma,Franco-Molano,andBoekhout(2012),6Nöskeetal.(2008),7Norton,Espie,Murray,andMurray(2006),8Peri,Lencinas,MartínezPastur,Wardell-Johnson,andLasagno(2013),9RobinsonandWilliams(2011),10Barrattetal.(2005),11Bonham,Mesibov,andBashford(2002),12Boutin,Martin,andBaril(2009),13Carpenteretal.(2012),14GaigherandSamways(2010),15Geetal.(2012),16Hayward(2009),17Leighton-Goodall,Brown,Hammond,andEggleton(2012),18Muchaneetal.(2012),19Ngaietal.(2008),20Richardson,Richardson,andSoto-Adames(2005),21Schon,Mackay,Minor,Yeates,andHedley(2008),22Schon,Mackay,Yeates,andMinor(2010),23Schon,Mackay,andMinor(2011),24Smith(2006),25Smith,Potts,Woodcock,andEggleton(2008),26Smith,Potts,andEggleton(2008),27Toddetal.(2011),28Vasconcelosetal.(2009),29Walker,Wilson,Norbury,Monks,andTanentzap(2014),30Baeten,Velghe,etal.(2010),31Bakayoko,Martin,Chatelain,Traore,andGautier(2011),32CenterforInternationalForestryResearch(CIFOR)(2013a),33CenterforInternationalForestryResearch(CIFOR)(2013b),34Dumontetal.(2009),35Firincioglu,Seefeldt,Sahin,andVural(2009),36Haarmeyer,Schmiedel,Dengler,andBosing(2010),37Joubert,Esler,andPrivett(2009),38Norfolk,Eichhorn,andGilbert(2013),39Page,Qureshi,Rawat,andKushalappa(2010),40Proença,Pereira,Guilherme,andVicente(2010),41Sheiletal.(2002),42Wang,Lencinas,RossFriedman,Wang,andQiu(2011),43AlignierandDeconchat(2013),44Baeten,Hermy,VanDaele,andVerheyen(2010),45Barlow,Gardner,etal.(2007),46Barricoetal.(2012),47Bauretal.(2006),48Berryetal.(2010),49Boutin,Baril,andMartin(2008),50Bouyeretal.(2007),51Brearley(2011),52Brunetetal.(2011),53Calviño-Cancela,Rubido-Bará,andvanEtten(2012),54Castro,Lehsten,Lavorel,andFreitas(2010),55deLima,Dallimer,Atkinson,andBarlow(2013),56Devineau,Fournier,andNignan(2009),57Fensham,Dwyer,Eyre,Fairfax,andWang(2012),58FernandezandSimonetti(2013),59Fredriksson,Danielsen,andSwenson(2007),60Gendreau-Berthiaume,Kneeshaw,andHarvey(2012),61Golodets,Kigel,andSternberg(2010),62Grass,Berens,Peter,andFarwig(2013),63Gutierrezetal.(2009),64HeldenandLeather(2004),65Hernández,Delgado,Meier,andDuran(2012),66Hietz(2005),67HigueraandWolf(2010),68HylanderandNemomissa(2009),69Ishida,Hattori,andTakeda(2005),70Kati,Zografou,Tzirkalli,Chitos,andWillemse(2012),71Katovai,Burley,andMayfield(2012),72Kessleretal.(2005),73Kessleretal.(2009),74KolbandDiekmann(2004),75Krauss,Klein,Steffan-Dewenter,andTscharntke(2004),76Kraussetal.(2010),77KumarandShahabuddin(2005),78LetcherandChazdon(2009),79Louhaichi,Salkini,andPetersen(2009),80Lucas-Borjaetal.(2011),81Måren(2011),82Måren,Bhattarai,andChaudhary(2013),83Marin-Spiotta,Ostertag,andSilver(2007),84Mayfield,Ackerly,andDaily(2006),85McNamara,Erskine,Lamb,Chantalangsy,andBoyle(2012),86Milderetal.(2010),87O’Connor(2005),88ParitsisandAizen(2008),89Phalan,Onial,Balmford,andGreen(2011),90Pincheira-Ulbrich,Rau,andSmith-Ramirez(2012),91Poggio,Chaneton,andGhersa(2013),92PowerandStout(2011),93Power,Kelly,andStout(2012),94Rameshetal.(2010),95Romero-Duque,Jaramillo,andPerez-Jimenez(2007),96Schmitt,Senbeta,Denich,Preisinger,andBoehmer(2010),97Shannonetal.(2008),98Siebert(2011),99Vassilev,Pedashenko,Nikolov,Apostolova,andDengler(2011),100Williams,Sheahan,andGormally(2009),101Yamauraetal.(2012),102Alcala,Alcala,andDolino(2004),103BicknellandPeres(2010),104CentroAgronómicoTropicaldeInvestigaciónyEnseñanza(CATIE)(2010);Deheuvels,Avelino,Somarriba,andMalézieux(2012),Deheuvelsetal.(2014);Rousseau,Deheuvels,RodriguezArias,andSomarriba(2012),105Craigetal.(2009),

Number of Studies0 20 40 60 80

Swietenia macrophyl laPteropus tonganusPanthera pardus

Oryctolagus cuniculusOdocoi leus vi rginianus

Maerua subcordataLophophorus impejanus

Dipteryx olei feraCol letes f loral is

Clethrionomys gapperiBombus terrestrisPongo pygmaeus

Bombus pascuorumLiolaemusAenictusDorylus

CephalophusAnogeissus

BombusVespertilionidaeStrabomantidae

StaphylinidaeSoricidae

SciomyzidaePhyllostomidae

PhasianidaeMuridae

LumbricidaeGeometridae

DrosophilidaeCurculionidae

CulicidaeColubridae

PoaceaeNymphalidae

ArecaceaeCarabidae

ScarabaeidaeApidae

FormicidaeStrigiformes

RodentiaPrimatesOpiliones

DiprotodontiaIsopoda

PasseriformesOrthoptera

DipteraCollembolaSquamata

IsopteraHemiptera

SarcoptiformesAraneae

ChiropteraAnura

ColeopteraLepidoptera

HymenopteraReptilia

ClitellataAgaricomycetes

MagnoliopsidaGlomeromycetes

AmphibiaLecanoromycetes

ArachnidaGastropoda

MammaliaInsecta

AvesAscomycota

NematodaBryophyta

ArthropodaChordata

TracheophytaPlantae

AnimaliaMultiple kingdoms

Kingdom (43)

Phylum (145)

Class (158)

Order (180)

Family (95)

Genus (18)

Species (18)

480479237478477476446475474120473470−472468−469467466464−465462−463461452−46045145044944810044744644513444443442441440438−43973,136,435−437432−434293,425−431412−42445,404−41128,124,384−403383382381380379377−378375−37634,45,70,37445,372−373356,370−371209,244,366−369362−36564,359−36123,356−358305,347−35545,337−346323−33613,73,88,305−32247,70,76,86,177,285−30473,101,125,267−28426626526479,263261−262188,260259255−25847,247−25458,209,228−24650,62,92,125,212−22729,40,55,73,86,88−89,101,113,115,120,124,149−211147−14822,144−14668,139−14313,125−138102−1245,8,12,29,32−33,41,43−10113,30−4210−291−9

(Continues)

22 | HUDSON et al.

106Craigetal.(2012),107Craig,Grigg,Hobbs,andHardy(2014),108Craig,Stokes,StJ.Hardy,andHobbs(2015),109deThoisyetal.(2010),110Endoetal.(2010),111Garden,McAlpine,andPossingham(2010),112Kurz,Nowakowski,Tingley,Donnelly,andWilcove(2014),113KuttandWoinarski(2007),114Kutt,Vanderduys,andO’Reagain(2012),115Lehoucketal.(2009),116Macip-RíosandMuñoz-Alonso(2008),117McCarthy,McCarthy,Fuller,andMcCarthy(2010),118Parry,Barlow,andPeres(2009),119PeresandNascimento(2006),120St-Laurent,Ferron,Hins,andGagnon(2007),121Sung,Karraker,andHau(2012),122Urbina-Cardona,Olivares-Perez,andReynoso(2006),123WoinarskiandAsh(2002),124Woinarskietal.(2009),125Billeteretal.(2008);LeFéonetal.(2010),126Borgesetal.(2006),127Cabra-García,Bermúdez-Rivas,Osorio,andChacón(2012),128Hanley(2011),129Lachatetal.(2006),130Cardosoetal.(2009);Meijer,Whittaker,andBorges(2011),131Nakamura,Proctor,andCatterall(2003),132Norfolk,Abdel-Dayem,andGilbert(2012),133Poveda,Martinez,Kersch-Becker,Bonilla,andTscharntke(2012),134Rousseau,Fonte,Tellez,vanderHoek,andLavelle(2013),135TurnerandFoster(2009),136Uehara-Pradoetal.(2009),137Waite(2012);Waite,Closs,VanHeezik,Berry,andDickinson(2012),138Woodcocketal.(2007),139Albertos,Lara,Garilleti,andMazimpaka(2005),140Draper,Lara,Albertos,Garilleti,andMazimpaka(2006),141Giordanoetal.(2004),142HylanderandWeibull(2012),143Medinaetal.(2010),144HuandCao(2008),145Wu,Fu,Chen,andChen(2002),146Zhang,Li,andLiang(2010),147Giordanietal.(2010),148Giordani(2012),149Aben,Dorenbosch,Herzog,Smolders,andVanDerVelde(2008),150Arbeláez-Cortés,Rodríguez-Correa,andRestrepo-Chica(2011),151Aumann(2001),152Azharetal.(2013),153Azmanetal.(2011),154AzpirozandBlake(2009),155Báldi,Batáry,andErdos(2005),156Barlow,Mestre,Gardner,andPeres(2007),157Bóçon(2010),158Borges(2007),159Brandtetal.(2013),160Cerezo,Conde,andPoggio(2011),161ChapmanandReich(2007),162Cockle,Leonard,andBodrati(2005),163Dallimer,Parnell,Bicknell,andMelo(2012),164Dawsonetal.(2011),165DuresandCumming(2010),166Edenius,Mikusinski,andBergh(2011),167Farwig,Sajita,andBoehning-Gaese(2008),168Flaspohleretal.(2010),169Gomes,Oostra,Nijman,Cleef,andKappelle(2008);Oostra,Gomes,andNijman(2008),170Hassanetal.(2013),171ImsandHenden(2012),172Lantschner,Rusch,andPeyrou(2008),173LaskyandKeitt(2010),174Latta,Tinoco,Astudillo,andGraham(2011),175Mallarietal.(2011),176Doulton,Marsh,Newman,Bird,andBell(2007),177Marsh,Lewis,Said,andEwers(2010),178Miranda,Politi,andRivera(2010),179Moreno-Mateosetal.(2011),180Munyekenye,Mwangi,andGichuki(2008),181Naidoo(2004),182NaithaniandBhatt(2012),183Naoe,Sakai,andMasaki(2012),184Ndang’ang’a,Njoroge,andGithiru(2013),185Neuschulz,Botzat,andFarwig(2011),186O’DeaandWhittaker(2007),187OwiunjiandPlumptre(1998),188Pearman(2002),189Politi,HunterJr.andRivera(2012),190PonsandWendenburg(2005),191Ranganathan,Chan,andDaily(2007),192Ranganathan,Daniels,Chandran,Ehrlich,andDaily(2008),193Reid,Harris,andZahawi(2012),194Rey-Benayas,Galvan,andCarrascal(2010),195ReynoldsandSymes(2013),196Rosselli(2011),197Sam,Koane,Jeppy,andNovotny(2014),198Santana,Porto,Gordinho,Reino,andBeja(2012),199ShahabuddinandKumar(2006,2007),200Sheldon,Styring,andHosner(2010),201Sodhietal.(2010),202Soh,Sodhi,andLim(2006),203Sosa,Benz,Galea,andPoggioHerrero(2010),204Stouffer,Johnson,Bierregaard,Richard,andLovejoy(2011),205Suarez-RubioandThomlinson(2009),206VergaraandSimonetti(2004),207Verhulst,Báldi,andKleijn(2004),208Waite,Closs,vanHeezik,andDickinson(2013),209Wang,Bao,Yu,Xu,andDing(2010),210Wunderle,Henriques,andWillig(2006),211Li,Zou,Zhang,andSheldon(2013),212Batesetal.(2011),213Blake,Westbury,Woodcock,Sutton,andPotts(2011),214Blanche,Ludwig,andCunningham(2006),215Clearyetal.(2004),216Farwigetal.(2009),217FranzénandNilsson(2008),218Kohler,Verhulst,vanKlink,andKleijn(2008),219Litchwark(2013),220Meyer,Gaebele,andSteffan-Dewenter(2007),221Jauker,Krauss,Jauker,andSteffan-Dewenter(2013);Meyer,Jauker,andSteffan-Dewenter(2009),222Mudri-Stojnic,Andric,Jozan,andVujic(2012),223Quintero,Morales,andAizen(2010),224Rader,Bartomeus,Tylianakis,andLaliberte(2014),225Schüepp,Herrmann,Herzog,andSchmidt-Entling(2011),226Summerville(2011),227VergaraandBadano(2009),228Bernard,Fjeldsa,andMohamed(2009),229Cáceres,Nápoli,Casella,andHannibal(2010),230Cassano,Barlow,andPardini(2014),231Danquah,Oppong,andNutsuakor(2012),232Garmendia,Arroyo-Rodrigu

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ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk · Ecology and Evolution 2016; 1–44 | 1 Received: 22 April 2016 | Revised: 10 September 2016 | Accepted: 22 September 2016 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2579 ORIGINAL RESEARCH