Ecological Climate Zones

APPENDIX A

159

Köppen group and types Ecoregion equivalents

A Tropical and humid climates Humid tropical domain (400)Tropical wet (Ar) Rainforest division (420)Tropical wet–dry (Aw) Savanna division (410)

B Dry climates Dry domain (300)Tropical/subtropical semiarid (BSh) Tropical/subtropical steppe division (310)Tropical/subtropical arid (BWh) Tropical/subtropical desert division (320)Temperate semiarid (BSk) Temperate steppe division (330)Temperate arid (BWk) Temperate desert division (340)

C Subtropical climates Humid temperate domain (200)Subtropical dry summer (Cs) Mediterranean division (260)Humid subtropical (Cf) Subtropical division (230)

Prairie division (250)a

D Temperate climatesTemperate oceanic (Do) Marine division (240)Temperate continental, warm summer (Dca) Hot continental division (220)Temperate continental, cool summer (Dcb) Prairie division (250)a

Warm continental division (210)Prairie division (250)a

E Boreal climates Polar domain (100)Subarctic (E) Subarctic division (130)

F Polar climatesTundra (Ft) Tundra division (120)Ice Cap (Fi) Icecap division (110)

Definitions and Boundaries of the Köppen–Trewartha SystemAr All months above 18°C and no dry seasonAw Same as Ar, but with 2 months dry in winterBSh Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation, and all months above 0°CBWh One-half the precipitation of BSh, and all months above 0°CBSk Same as BSh, but with at least 1 month below 0°CBWk Same as BWh, but with at least 1 month below 0°CCs 8 months 10°C, coldest month below 18°C, and summer dryCf Same as Cs, but no dry season

Do 4–7 months above 10°C, coldest month above 0°CDca 4–7 months above 10°C, coldest month below 0°C, and warmest month above 22°CDcb Same as Dca, but warmest month below 22°CE Up to 3 months above 10°CFt All months below 10°CFi All months below 0°C

A/C boundary � equatorial limits of frost; in marine locations, the isotherm of 18°C for coolest monthC/D boundary � 8 months 10°CD/E boundary � 4 months 10°CE/F boundary � 10°C for warmest monthB/A, B/C, B/D, B/E boundary � potential evaporation equals precipitation.aKöppen did not recognize the Prairie as a distinct climatic type. The ecoregion classification system rep-resents it at the arid sides of the Cf, Dca, and Dcb types, following Borchert (1950).Source: Based on the Köppen (1931) system of classification, as modified by Trewartha (1968).

160 Appendix A. Ecological Climate Zones

Climate Diagrams

APPENDIX B

161

Climate diagrams of representative climate stations (based on Wal-ter and Lieth 1960–1967, Walter et al 1975).

162

163

164

Climate Diagrams 165

Resource Guide

APPENDIX C

167

This list is for information purposes only. Inclusion does not implyendorsement, nor is criticism implied of similar resources not

mentioned.Organizations, periodicals, and other materials on sustainable design

and ecoregions briefly mentioned in the text are listed below. Booksand journal articles are listed separately in the Selected Bibliography.

Ecoregions of the World. 1998. In: Microsoft® Encarta® Virtual GlobeCD-ROM. 1998 ed. Redmond, WA: Microsoft.

Rheingold, H. 1994. The Millennium Whole Earth Catalog. San Fran-cisco: Harper. 384 pp. This catalog is an evaluation and access tool.Their reviewers introduce books, magazines, tools, software, video-tapes and audiotapes, organizations, services, and ideas. There arenumerous listings on sustainability. The listings are continually re-vised and updated by users and staff. The latest news and access ispublished in the bimonthly magazine Whole Earth.

World ecoregions, types of natural landscapes. 2000. In: Hudson J.C;and Espenshade E.B. (eds.). Goodes World Atlas, 20th edn. Chicago:Rand McNally: 28–29. Scale � 1:77,000,000.

Peck, B. 2000. Guide to North American Meteorites [map]. Scale �1:5,000,000. meteoritemaps.com. Meteorites finds are plotted on amap showing ecoregion boundaries. Even though meteorites fall ran-domly across the globe, they are subjected to terrestrial forces thatvary greatly with ecoregion. Thus, meteorite finds are not evenlydistributed.

Peterson FlashGuides™ Series 1996: Backyard Birds by Roger ToryPeterson, edited with text by Kevin J. Cook; Butterflies by Paul Opler

and Amy Bartlett Wright; Trees by George A. Tetrides, OliviaPetrides, and Janet Wehr. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Organizedaccording to the U.S. Forest Service’s ecoregion for the United Statesand Canada.

Federal Information SourcesUSDA Forest ServiceEcoregion Studies Program at the Inventory & Monitoring Institute2150 Centre Avenue, Bldg.AFort Collins, CO 80526(970) 295-5740Guidance and resources for ecoregional-based planning and design.

Nonprofit and Other OrganizationsCenter for Maximum Potential Building Systems86604 F.M. 969Austin, TX 78724(512) 928-4786“Max’s Pot” has long been a leader in alternative building systems andmaterials research, the use of local materials, and advanced energy andwastewater system for buildings.

International Institute for Bau-Biologies™ & Ecology, Inc.P.O. Box 387Clearwater, FL 33757(813) 461-4371Offers information on “healthy homes,” including home-study courses,consulting, seminars, lectures, and design.

Land Institute, The2440 East Waterwell RoadSalina, KS 67401(913) 823-5376Wes Jackson and colleagues perform innovative research intended tocreate a sustainable prairie agriculture based on native perennialspecies.

168 Appendix C. Resource Guide

Nature Conservancy, The4245 North Fairfax DriveSuite 100Arlington, VA 22203(703) 841-5300http://www.tnc.orgThe mission of The Nature Conservancy is to preserve the plants, an-imals, and natural communities that represent the diversity of life onEarth by protecting the lands and waters they need to survive. Theywork to accomplish this mission through ecoregion-based conserva-tion. Their journal Nature Conservancy is published bimonthly.

Planet Drum FoundationP.O. Box 3121San Francisco, CA 94131(415) 285-6556http://www.planetdrum.orgPlanet Drum was founded in 1973 to provide an effective grassrootsapproach to ecology that emphasizes sustainability, community self-determination, and regional self-reliance. In association with commu-nity activists and ecologists, Planet Drum developed the concept ofbioregion: a distinct area with coherent and interconnected plant andanimal communities, and natural systems, often defined by a water-shed. Activities include publishing, lectures, seminars, workshops, andnetworking.

Rocky Mountain Institute1739 Snowmass Creek RoadSnowmass, CO 81654(303) 927-3128Conducts research and outreach programs to foster the efficient andsustainable use of resources.

Wildlands Project, The1955 W. Grant RoadSuite 145Tucson, AZ 85745(520) 884-0875http://www.twp.orgThis project is working on a long-term biodiversity and wilderness re-covery plan for North America. The quarterly journal Wild Earth is thepublishing wing of the project.

Nonprofit and Other Organizations 169

PeriodicalsAmerican Bungalow123 S. Baldwin AvenueSierra Madre, CA 91025(626) 355-1651Published four times a year. Features include articles on rehabbing ahistoric bungalow, mission furniture, bungalow gardening, Art andCrafts collectibles, and plans for new construction. Book reviews.

Natural HomeP.O. Box 552Mt. Morris, IL 61054(800) 340-5846Published bimonthly by Interweave Press, this magazine publishes ar-ticles on earth-inspired living, including sustainable interior design,building, landscaping, and cooking. A list of native plant experts foreach ecoregion is listed in the March/April 2001 issue on p. 76.

Places, A Forum of Environmental DesignP.O. Box 1897Lawrence, KS 66044(800) 627-0629Published three times a year. A forum in which designers, public of-ficials, scholars and citizens can discuss issues vital to environmentaldesign, with particular emphasis on public spaces in the service of theshared ideals of society.

Plateau JournalMuseum of Northern Arizona3101 N. Fort Valley RoadFlagstaff, AZ 86001(520) 774-5211, ext. 273A semiannual magazine dedicated to the land and peoples of the Col-orado Plateau ecoregion.

Wild EarthP.O. Box 455 Richmond, VT 05477(802) 434-4077Published quarterly by The Wildlands Project. Publishes articles thatmeld conservation biology and wilderness activism. Book reviews.

170 Appendix C. Resource Guide

Whole EarthP.O. Box 3000Denville, NJ 07834(888) 732-6739Published quarterly. This is the magazine of the Whole Earth Catalog.Publishes reviews of tools, ideas, and practices. As the name suggests,its scope encompasses the whole Earth. Book reviews.

Wildflower4981 Highway 7 EastUnit 12A, Suite 228Markham, Ontario, Canada L3R 1N1Published quarterly by the Canadian Wildflower Society, this black-and-white magazine carries informative profiles of native plants.

Wild GardenUnfortunately, this magazine ceased publication in 2000. The premierissue of 1998 contains a native plant resources section with the fol-lowing information: Wild Gardens You Can Visit, Resources for NativePlants and Seeds, Organizations & Associations, Native Landscape Ar-chitects and Designers, Resources in Print.

Landscape and Urban Planning: An International Journal of LandscapeEcology, Landscape Planning, and Landscape DesignElsevier Science633 Avenue of the AmericasNew York, NY 10010(212) 633-3730

On the InternetUSDA Sustainable Agriculture Networkhttp://www.sare.orgInformation about the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Educationprogram of the Department of Agriculture.

USDA Forest Service, Ecoregion Studies Program at the Inventory &Monitoring Institutehttp://www.fs.fed.us/institute/ecolinkGuidance and resources for ecoregional-based planning and design.Download ecoregion maps.

On the Internet 171

USDA Forest Service, Sustainability Home Page of Northeastern Areahttp://www.na.fs.fed.us/sustainabilityLoads of information on sustainability assessments, forest resourceplanning, and ecological information and planning.

The National Park Service, Sustainable Information Directoryhttp://www.nps.gov/sustainA clearinghouse for resources on sustainability.

Sierra Club Critical Ecoregions Programhttp://www.sierraclub.org/ecoregionsMap and information about 21 critical ecoregions in North America.

Sierra Club Sprawl Pagehttp://www.sierraclub.org/sprawlAccess reports and activist resources on sprawl, smart growth, trans-portation, and livable communities

World Wildlife Fund Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Worldhttp://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworldInformation and images for land-based ecoregions on the planet.

USDA UVB (ultraviolet–B) Radiation Monitoring Programhttp://uvb.nrel.colostate.edu/UVB/uvb_climate_network.htmlClimatological sites located on ecoregion map of the United States.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory Net Primary Productivity (NPP) Data-basehttp://www-eosdis.ornl.gov/NPP/html_docs/na_npp_site.htmlDatabase sites located on ecoregion map of North America and globe.

Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands (CEMML)http://www.cemml.colostate.edu/bailey_ecoregion.htmApplications of Bailey’s ecoregions to military lands.

National Geographic Societyhttp://www.nationalgeographic.orgIn conjuction with their July 2001 issue National Geographic lets youvirturally explore a smart growth suburb that depicts new urbanistideas for fighting sprawl: mixed-use zoning, pedestrian-friendly streets,transit, town centers.

Colorado Sustainability Projecthttp://www.sustainablecolorado.orgColorado’s sustainable development information clearinghouse.

172 Appendix C. Resource Guide

Congress for New Urbanismhttp://www.cnu.orgLearn about the philosophy behind New Urbanism.

American Farmland Trusthttp://www.farmland.orgLearn about efforts around the nation to preserve farmland and pro-mote environmentally responsible farming practices.

Ecoregional Planning—The Nature Conservancyhttp://www.consci.org/ERP/EcoregionalPlanning.cfmInformation on ecoregional planning and several links to various re-sources and maps such as ecoregional plans status.

Center of Excellence for Sustainable Developmenthttp://www.sustainable.doe.govA project of the U.S. Department of Energy. A plethora of informationon green buildings, green development, land-use planning, ecologicallandscape planning, transportation, sprawl, smart growth, top websiteson sustainable community development, and breaking news.

VideosConsidering All Things: Healthy, Productive EcosystemsThis 19-min video explores the concept of ecosystem scale from themicroscopic to the global. We travel from the forest soil to the forestcanopy and beyond, finally circling the globe to join in an importantwildlife conservation project. More information on this 1996 programcan be obtained from USDA Forest Service, Office of Communications,P.O. Box 96090, Washington, DC 20090, (202) 205-1760.

Subdivide and Conquer: A Modern WesternExamines the causes of sprawl and its effect on our communities andthe environment and suggests remedies along with examples of soundpublic policy and good land-use planning. Available from BullfrogFilms, P.O. Box 149, Oley, PA 19547, (800) 543-3764.

Videos 173

Common and Scientific Names

APPENDIX D

175

PlantsAspen, quaking Populus tremuloidesBeech Fagus spp.Birch, paper Betula papyriferaBirdsfoot trefoil Lotus corniculatusBluegrass Poa pratensisBuffalo grass Buchloe dactyloidesCactus, jumping cholla Opuntia fulgidaCactus, prickly pear Opuntia phaeacanthaCactus, saguaro Cereus giganteusCattail, common Typha latifoliaCedar, northern white Thuja occidentalisChokecherry, western Prunus virginiana subsp. MelanocarpaCottonwood Populus deltoidsCreosote bush Larrea tridentataCypress Taxodium distichumDogwood, mountain Cornus nuttalliEucalyptus Eucalyptus spp.Fir, balsam Abies balsameaFir, Douglas Pseudotsuga menziesiiFir, white Abies concolorGrama, blue Bouteloua gracilisHackberry Celtis occidentalisHickory Carya ovataIronwood Ostrya virginianaIronwood, desert Olneya tesotaJuniper, Rocky Mountain Juniperus scopulorum

Juniper, Sierra Juniperus occidentalisMagnolia, southern Magnolia grandifloraMagnolia, sweet bay Magnolia virginianaMahogany Swietenia mahogamiMaple, big tooth Acer saccharum susp. GrandidentatumMaple, Rocky Mountain Acer glabrumMaple, sugar Acer saccharumMesquite Prosopis spp.Oak, bur Quercus macrocarpaOak, California black Quercus celloggiiOak, California scrub Quercus dumosaOak, Gambel’s Quercus gambeliiOak, interior live Quercus wislizeniiOak, red Quercus rubraOcotillo Fouquieria splendensOlive, Russian Elaeagnus angustifoliaPalo verde, bule Cercidium floridumPine, jack Pinus banksianaPine, ponderosa Pinus ponderosaPine, white Pinus strobusPlum, pigeon Coccoloba diversifoliaRedwood Sequoia sempervirensSagebrush Artemisia spp.Saltbush Atriplex corrugataSourwood Oxydendrum arboreumSpruce, black Pinus marianaSpruce, Norway Picea abiesSpruce, white Picea glaucaSycamore, Arizona Platanus wrightiiTamarisk Tamarix ramosissimaThistle Cirsium spp.Tupelo Nyssa aquaticaTwinberry Myrcianthes fragansYew, western Taxus brevifolia

AnimalsBat Numerous genera and speciesBear, grizzly Ursus horribilisBison, American Bison bisonCoyote Canis latransElk, American Cervus canadensisGoose, Canada Branta canadensis

176 Appendix D. Common and Scientific Names

Hawk, Swainson’s Buteo swainsoniHog sucker, northern Hypentelium nigricansJackrabbit Lepus spp.Lion, mountain (puma) Felix concolorLocust (grasshopper) Numerous genera and speciesPhainopepla Phainopepla nitensPigeon, passenger Ectopistes migratoriusPrairie dog Cynomys spp.Pronghorn (antelope) Antilocapra AmericanaPupfish, Devil’s Hole Cyprinodon diabolisRobin, American Turdus migratoriusSalmon OncorynchusSheep, bighorn Ovis canadensisThrasher, brown Toxostoma rufumWaxwing, bohemian Bombycilla garrulusWolf, gray Canis lupus

Animals 177

Conversion Factors

APPENDIX E

179

For readers who wish to convert measurements from the metric sys-tem of units to the inch–pound–Fahrenheit system, the conversion

factors are as follows.

Multiply By To obtain

Millimeters 0.039 InchesCentimeters 0.394 InchesMeters 3.281 FeetKilometers 0.621 MilesSquare meters 10.764 Square feetSquare kilometers 0.386 Square milesHectares 2.471 AcresCelsius 1.8 � 32 FahrenheitHectare-meters 8.107 Acre-feet

Glossary of Terms asUsed in This Book

GLOSSARY

181

Alfisol soil order consisting of soils of humid and subhumid climates,with high base status and argillic horizon.

Anadromous fisheries migrating from saltwater to spawn in fresh-water, such as salmon.

Aquifer a body of rock that conducts groundwater in usable amounts.

Arcade covered walkway at the edge of a building.

Arid dry, with limited vegetation, rainfall less than about 250 mm(10 in.) and great excess of evaporation over precipitation.

Aridisol soil order consisting of soils of dry climates, with or with-out argillic horizons, and with accumulations of carbonates or solu-ble salts.

Arroyo in southwest United States, steep-sided dry valley, usuallyinset in alluvium.

Aspect see Exposure.

Base level a hypothetical level below which a stream cannot erodeits valley, and thus the lowest level for denudation processes.

Basin see Watershed.

Biodiversity variety of life and its processes, including the variety ingenes, species, ecosystems, and the ecological processes that con-nect everything in ecosystems.

Biogeographical region one of eight continent-sized or subcontinent-sized areas of the biosphere, each representing of evolutionary coreareas of related fauna (animals) and flora (plants); for example, theNeotropical of Wallace (1876).

Biogeoclimatic used in association with classification of ecosystemsand expressed as types of vegetation, climate and site characteris-

tics. (The combination of biological, geological, and climatic factorsaffecting distribution patterns.)

Biome a geographical region which is classified on the basis of thedominant or major type of vegetation and the main climate; for ex-ample, the temperate biome is the geographical area with a temper-ate climate and forests composed of mixed deciduous tree species.

Bioregion geographical expanse which corresponds to the distribu-tion of one or more groups of living beings, usually animals; for ex-ample, the Carolinian bioregion is characterized by the tulip tree,the raccoon, and so on.

Biosphere that area where the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydros-phere function together to form the context within which life exists.

Biotic living; referring to Earth’s living system of organisms.

Biotic (area) see Bioregion.

Boreal forest see Tayga.

Broad-leafed with leaves other than linear in outline; as opposed toneedle-leafed or grasslike (graminoid).

Brown forest soil (also called gray-brown podzolic) acid soils withdark brown surface layers, rich in humus, grading through lightercolored soil layers to limy parent material; develops under decidu-ous forest.

Caliche layer chiefly of calcium carbonate at or near ground surface;attributable to deposition by evaporation of groundwater; character-istic of arid and semiarid regions.

Catena see Toposequence.

Channelization the modification of river channels for the purpose offlood control, land drainage, navigation, and the reduction or pre-vention of erosion.

Chernozem fertile, black or dark brown soil under prairie or grass-land with lime layer at some depth between 0.6 and 1.5 m (2 and 5 ft).

Chestnut-brown short-grass soil in subhumid to semiarid climate withdark brown layer at top, which is thinner and browner than in cher-nozem soils, that grades downward to a layer of lime accumulation.

Cistern a large receptacle for storing water; especially, a tank in whichrainwater is collected for use.

Clear-cutting removal of virtually all the trees, large or small, in astand in one cutting operation.

Climate generalized statement of the prevailing weather conditionsat a given place, based on statistics of a long period of record.

182 Glossary

Climatic climax vegetation relatively stable vegetation that is in equi-librium with the climate and soils of the site.

Climatic regime seasonality of temperature and moisture.

Climax relatively stable state of the vegetation.

Commercial forest land an area that is capable of growing trees anaverage rate of 20 ft3/acre (4.4 m3/hectare) per year, and not reservedfor other purposes (e.g., park).

Compensation factor environmental conditions (e.g., high ground-water table) that allow the same species to be present in two differ-ent regions, but for different reasons.

Coniferous trees bearing cones and commonly having needle-shapedleaves usually retained during the year; adapted to moisture defi-ciency due to frozen ground or soils that are not moisture-retentive.

Crustal plate segment of the Earth’s crust (brittle outermost rocklayer) moving as a unit, in contact with adjacent plates along plateboundaries.

Cultivar strain, variety, or race of plant which originated and is main-tained under cultivation.

Cumulative effect effect on the environment that results from the in-cremental impact of proposed action when added to other past, pres-ent, and reasonably foreseeable future actions.

Deciduous woody plants, or pertaining to woody plants, that season-ally lose all of their leaves and become temporarily bare-stemmed.

Desert supporting vegetation of plants so widely spaced, or sparse,that enough of the substratum shows through to give the dominanttone to the landscape.

Desert soil shallow, gray soils containing little humus and excessiveamounts of calcium carbonate at depths less than 30 cm.

Desertification degradation of the plant cover and soil as a result ofoveruse, especially during periods of drought.

Dry steppe with 6–7 arid months in each year.

Earth flow a type of mass movement in which incoherent slope ma-terial becomes saturated with water and flows at moderate to veryrapid speeds.

Ecogeographic of or referring to the geographic dimensions of ecology.

Ecological design design that minimizes environmentally destructiveimpacts by integrating itself with living processes.

Ecological land classification an integrated approach in which landis divided into ecosystem units of various scales, or sizes.

Glossary 183

Ecological landtype (see also site) the lowest level of ecosystem iden-tification and classification.

Ecoregion (also called ecosystem region) a large area of similar cli-mate where similar ecosystems occur on similar sites (those havingthe same landform, slope, parent material, and drainage character-istics); for example, beach ridges throughout the Subarctic ecoregionusually support a dense growth of black spruce or jack pine.

Ecosystem an area of any size with an association of physical and bi-ological components so organized that a change in any one compo-nent will bring about a change in the other components and in theoperation of the whole system.

Ecosystem geography the study of how and why ecosystems are dis-tributed.

Ecosystem management use of an ecological approach that blends so-cial, physical, economic, and biological needs and values to ensureproductive, healthy ecosystems.

Ecotone transition zone between two communities.Ecotype species with wide geographic range that develop locally

adapted populations having different limits of tolerance to environ-mental factors.

Edaphic resulting from the character of the soil and surface.Elevation height of a point above sea level.Elevational zonation (also called altitudinal or vertical zonation)

arrangement of climatic zones and associated soil and vegetation atdifferent elevations on mountainsides.

Esker narrow, often sinuous embankment of coarse gravel and boul-ders deposited in the bed of a meltwater stream enclosed in a tun-nel within stagnant ice of an ice sheet.

Estuarine associated with an estuary (i.e., a deep water tidal habitatand its adjacent tidal wetlands, which are usually semienclosed byland but have open, partly obstructed, or sporadic access to the openocean, and in which ocean water is at least occasionally diluted fromfreshwater runoff from the land).

Evapotranspiration the total water loss from land by the combinedprocesses of evaporation and transpiration.

Exotic river stream that flows across a region of dry climate and de-rives its discharge from adjacent uplands where a water surplus exists.

Exposure the direction in which a slope faces. This has effects on theclimate of the slope, in terms of total insolation received, exposureto rain-bearing winds, amount and duration of frost and snow cover,and so on.

184 Glossary

Floodplain that part of a valley floor over which a river spreads dur-ing seasonal or short-term floods.

Forb broad-leaved herb, as distinguished from the grasses.

Forest open or closed vegetation with the principal layer consistingof trees averaging more the 5 m (16 ft) in height.

Forest–steppe intermingling of steppe and groves or strips of trees.

Forest–tundra intermingling of tundra and groves or strips of trees.

Formation a world vegetation type dominated throughout by plantsof the same life-form.

Formative process a set of actions and changes that occur in the land-scape as a result of geomorphic, climatic, biotic, and cultural activ-ities.

Fuel break a wide strip cleared through forest or brush land to in-hibit the spread of fire.

Geomorphic of or pertaining to the form of the Earth’s surface.

Germplasm the substance of the germ cells by which hereditary char-acteristics are believed to be transmitted.

Global warming the theory that the Earth’s atmosphere is graduallywarming due to the buildup of certain gasses, including carbon diox-ide and methane, which are released by human activities. The in-creased levels of these gases cause added heat energy from the Earthto be absorbed by the atmosphere instead of being lost to space.

Gray-brown podzolic soil acid soil under broad-leaf deciduous for-est; has thin, organic layer over grayish brown, leached layer; layerof deposition is darker brown.

Great soil group one of several families of soils having common fea-tures mostly attributable to the climatic and vegetation regimes.

Green design a sustainable approach to design that incorporates suchenvironmental issues as follows: efficient and appropriate use ofland, energy, water, and other resources; protection of significanthabitats, endangered species, archaeological treasures, and culturalresources; and integration of work, habitat, and agriculture. It sup-ports human and natural communities while remaining economi-cally viable.

Greenhouse effect accumulation of heat in the lower atmospherethrough the absorption of long-wave radiation from Earth’s surface.

Groundwater table the upper surface of a zone of saturation exceptwhere that surface is formed by an impermeable body.

Habitat particular kind of environment in which a species or com-munity lives.

Histosol soil order consisting of soils that are organic.

Glossary 185

Home range area over which an animal ranges throughout the year.

Homestead tree deciduous trees planted on southwest corners ofbuildings on the semiarid High Plains that provide microclimatecomfort for the building interior.

Hydrologic culture a civilization based on the control and distribu-tion of water for irrigation, navigation, and human consumption.

Hydrologic cycle the unending transfer of water from the oceans tothe land (via the atmosphere), and vice versa (via rivers).

Igneous rock a type of rock formed by the solidification of magma,either within the Earth’s crust (intrusive rock) or at the surface (ex-trusive or volcanic rock).

Inceptisol soil order consisting of soils with weakly differentiatedhorizons showing alteration of parent materials.

Indigenous (species) a species which is native to a particular region;endemic.

Intermittent stream streams which flow only part of the time, as af-ter a rainstorm, during wet weather, or during only part of the year.

Invertebrate any animal without backbone, or spinal column; theclassification includes all animals except fishes, amphibians, rep-tiles, birds, and mammals.

Kame hill that originated as mass of sand and gravel deposited againstglacial ice by glacial meltwater.

Karstification related to the formation of karst (i.e., landscape or to-pography dominated by surface features of limestone solution andunderlain by a limestone cavern system).

Land pertaining to the terrestrial part of the earth, as distinguishedfrom sea and air.

Land capability level of use an area can tolerate without sustainingpermanent damage.

Land evaluation the assessment of the suitability of land for use inagriculture, forestry, engineering, hydrology, regional planning,recreation, and so on.

Landform see Physiography.

Landform relief the difference in elevation between the ridge and ad-joining valley.

Landscape see Landscape mosaic.

Landscape ecosystem see Landscape mosaic.

Landscape mosaic as defined for use in this book: a geographic groupof the smallest, or local, ecosystems (sites).

186 Glossary

Landslide a type of mass movement in which the material displacedretains its coherence as a single body as it moves over a clearly de-fined plane of sliding.

Latisol reddish, infertile tropical soil in which silica has been leachedout, leaving a kaolinitic clay with a high content of iron and alu-minum hydroxides.

Legume any of a large group of plants of the pea family, character-ized by true pods enclosing seeds; because of their ability to storeup nitrates, legumes are often plowed under to fertilize the soil.

Lichen combinations of algae and fungi living together symbiotically;typically form tough, leathery coatings or crusts attached to rocksand tree trunks.

Lithology the physical character of a rock.

Lithosequence the spatial pattern of ecosystems resulting from thechange in the character of the underlying rocks.

Macroclimate climate that lies just beyond the local modifying ir-regularities of landform and vegetation.

Magma mobile, high-temperature molten rock, usually of silicatemineral composition and with dissolved gases.

Mass movement downslope, unit movement of a portion of the land’ssurface (i.e., a single landslide).

Meadow closed herbaceous vegetation, commonly in stands of ratherlimited extent, or at least not usually applied to extensive grasslands.

Microclimate climate at or near the ground surface, such as withinthe vegetation and soil layer.

Mixed forest forest with both needle-leafed and broad-leafed trees.

Model a simplified verbal, graphic, or mathematical description usedto help understand a complex object.

Mollisol soil order consisting of soils with a thick, dark-colored, sur-face-soil horizon, containing substantial amounts of organic matter(humus) and high-base status.

Monoculture the raising of only one crop or product without usingthe land for other purposes.

Moraine accumulation of rock debris deposited by a glacier.

Neotropical migratory bird a bird that breeds, at least to some extent,in North America and spends the nonbreeding season in Mexico,Central America, the Caribbean, and/or South America.

Nival related to the tops of high mountains with perpetual snowpackand ice.

Glossary 187

Old-growth forest forest that has not been cut or disturbed by humansfor hundreds of years.

Oligotrophic clear-water lake, containing little plankton, often deepand cold and with little thermal stratification, harboring rather poorflora and fauna.

Open woodland (also called steppe forest and woodland–savanna)open forest with lower layers also open, having the trees or tufts ofvegetation discrete but averaging less than their diameter apart.

Oxisol soil order consisting of soils that are mixtures principally ofkaolin, hydrates oxides, and quartz.

Passive solar systems that collect, move, and store heat using natu-ral heat-transfer mechanisms such as conduction and air-convectioncurrents.

Pattern-based design based on an understanding the patterns of a re-gion in terms of process and then applying these patterns to selectsuitable land-use locations.

Pediment gently sloping, rock-floored land surface found at the baseof the mountain mass or cliff in an arid region.

Perennial stream stream that flows throughout the year and fromsource to mouth.

Physiognomy (of vegetation) the outward, superficial appearance ofvegetation, without necessary reference to structure or function, evenless composition; for example, forest of Douglas fir, of Sitka spruce,of white spruce, of red fir, all have a similar physiognomy.

Physiography landform (including surface geometry and underlyinggeologic material).

Physiographic region area of similar geologic structure and topo-graphic relief that has had a unified geomorphic history; for exam-ple, the Great Plains of Fenneman (1928).

Plant formation one or more plant communities exhibiting a definitestructure and physiognomy; a structural or physiognomic unit ofvegetation; for example, a deciduous broad-leaf forest.

Pleistocene geological epoch from about 2 million to 10,000 yearsago, characterized by recurring glaciers; the Ice Age.

Podzol soil order consisting of acid soil in which surface soil isstrongly leached of bases and clays.

Potential natural vegetation vegetation that would exist if naturewere allowed to take its course without human interference.

Prairie consisting of tall grasses, mostly exceeding 1 m (3.28 ft) inheight, comprising the dominant herbs, with subdominant forbs(broad-leafed herbs).

188 Glossary

Prescribed burn planned use of fire in wild-land management in theUnited States.

Rainforest a dense forest, comprising tall trees, growing in areas ofvery high rainfall.

Red-yellow podzol (also called yellow forest soil) acid soil underbroad-leaf deciduous or needleleaf evergreen forest developed in ar-eas of humid subtropical climate.

Region see Ecoregion.

Regional ecology the ecological relationships that prevail over a re-gion.

Regionalism Art movement in which painters take their subjects andthemes from their native surroundings.

Resiliency the ability of an ecosystem to maintain the desired con-dition of diversity, integrity, and ecological processes following dis-turbance.

Riparian related to or living on the bank of a river or lake; for ex-ample, cottonwood forest.

Roadology the science or study of roads or journeys and, by exten-sion, the study of how they are used, where they lead, and the land-scapes of small towns, tourist courts, diners, and roadhouses.

Savanna closed grass or other predominantly herbaceous vegetationwith scattered or widely spaced woody plants usually includingsome low trees.

Scale level of spatial resolution perceived or considered.

Sclerophyll or sclerophyllous refers to plants with predominantlyhard stiff leaves that are usually evergreen.

Selva the tropical rainforest.

Semiarid dry, with a shortage of moisture for much of the year, butnot so dry as an arid area.

Semidesert (also called half-desert) area of xerophytic shrubby veg-etation with a poorly developed herbaceous lower layer (e.g., sage-brush).

Semievergreen forest (also called a monsoon forest) where many, al-though not all, of the trees lose their leaves; adaptation to a dry sea-son in the tropics.

Sense of place the collection of meanings, feelings, beliefs, symbols,values, and feelings that individuals or groups associate with a par-ticular locality.

Shrub a woody plant less than 5 m high.

Sierozem soil see Desert soil.

Glossary 189

Silviculture generally, the science and art of cultivating and manag-ing forest crops based on a knowledge of silvics.

Site the smallest, or local, ecosystem

Slope stability ability of a slope to resist failure by landsliding.

Soil orders those 11 soil classes forming the highest category in theclassification of soils.

Soil slip (also call debris slide) a form of mass movement involvingthe downslope movement of weathered material above the bedrock.

Spatial having to do with space or area; place-to-place distribution.

Species a group of organisms of the same kind which reproduceamong themselves but are usually reproductively isolated from othergroups of organisms.

Spectral signature characteristic distribution of wavelengths re-flected by a substance; can be used to distinguish different types ofvegetation, soils, and land use.

Spodosol soil order consisting of soils that have accumulations ofamorphous materials in subsurface horizons; soils of the boreal for-est.

Steppe (also called short-grass prairie) open herbaceous vegetation,less than 1 m high, with the tufts or plants discrete yet sufficientlyclose together to dominate the landscape.

Succession the replacement of one community of plants and animalsby another.

Sustainable design the process of prescribing compatible land usesand buildings based on the limits of a place, locally as well as re-gionally.

Sustainability ability of an ecosystem to maintain ecologicalprocesses and functions, biological diversity, and productivity overtime.

Taxonomy the grouping of objects into classes based on similarity ofcharacteristics.

Tayga (also spelled taiga) a swampy, parklike savanna with needle-leaved (usually evergreen) low trees or shrubs; the northern cir-cumpolar boreal forest.

Tectonic activity process of bending (folding) and breaking (fault-ing) of crustal mountains, concentrated on or near plate boundaries.

Temperate climates of mid-latitudes (from 30° to 60° latitude) withboth a summer and winter.

Tidal barrage man-made barrier in a estuary that allows the incom-ing tide to flow through the barrier; the outgoing tide is held behind

190 Glossary

the barrier forming a lake that is released through a power-generat-ing station.

Topoclimate climate of very small space; influenced by topography.

Topography the description of the surface features of a place; a mapwhich shows these features is know as a topographical map.

Toposequence a change of a community with topography.

Tundra slow-growing, low-formation, mainly closed vegetation ofdwarf shrubs, graminoids, and cryptograms, beyond the subpolar oralpine tree line.

Tundra soil cold, poorly drained, thin layers of sandy clay and rawhumus; without distinctive soil profiles.

Ultisol soil order consisting of soils with horizons of clay accumula-tion and low base supply.

Vernacular architecture suggesting something countrified, home-made, traditional; as used in connection with architecture, it indi-cates the traditional rural or small-town dwelling, the dwelling ofthe farmer or craftsman or wage earner.

Watershed area drained by a river or stream and its tributaries.

Weed from the human perspective, a plant out of place.

Wetland a biological community in an area of wet ground; areas ofmarsh, peatlands or water whether permanent or temporary, withwater which is static or flowing, fresh or brackish.

Woodland cover of trees whose crowns do not mesh, with the resultthat branches extend to the ground.

Xeriscape landscaping design for conserving water that uses drought-resistant or drought-tolerant plants.

zone all areas in which the zonal soils have the potential of sup-porting the same climatic climax plant association.

Glossary 191

193

Notes1Terms in bold are defined in the Glossary.2First coined by the Canadian forest researcher Orie Loucks in 1962. See his “A forest clas-

sification for the Maritime Provinces, In Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Sci-ence 25 (Pt. 2): 85–167 (1962) with separate map at 1 in. equals 19 miles.

3The Barbed Wire Museum in La Crosse, Kansas displays over 500 varieties of barbed wire.4Soil Taxonomy soil orders (USDA Soil Survey Staff 1975); described in the Glossary.5Zones of latitude may be described as follows: from the equator to 30° are low latitudes;

from 30° to 60° are the middle latitudes; from 60° to the poles are the high latitudes.6Other methods of mapping zones at the global scale are those of Thornthwaite (1933),

Holdridge (1947), and Walter and Box (1976). All methods appear to work better in someareas than in others and to have gained their own adherents. I chose the Köppen systemas the basis for ecoregion delineation because it has become the international standardfor geographical purposes.

7As quoted in Wells (1994, p. 5).8Nancy Selover, Department of Geography, Arizona State University, telephone conversa-

tion, 27 August 2001.9As quoted in Soule and Piper (1992).

10Gordon Warrington, soil scientist, U.S. Forest Service (now retired), personal communica-tion.

11James Omernik, research geographer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, personal com-munication.

12Robert L. Thayer, professor of landscape architecture, University of California, Davis, un-dated class handout.

13Xeriscape is a registered trademark held by the National Xeriscape Council.

14Cook, K. 1997. Twice the beauty: Make your garden a haven for animals and birds. Gar-dening How-To Jan./Feb. 1997: 56–57. Gardening How-To is the official publication ofthe National Home Gardening Club, Minnetonka, MN.

15Regarded by colleagues as one of two or three most influential geologists in the Survey,Dave Love is the subject of John McPhee’s Rising from the Plains (New York: Farrar,Straus, and Giroux, 1986).

16For more information on this problem see Debano, L.F. 1981. Water Repellent Soils: A State-of-the-Art. General Technical Report PSW-46. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Southwest Forestand Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service.

17For more information about this problem, please refer to Knopf (1986).18William Elliot, Engineering Technology Project, Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA

Forest Service, Moscow, Idaho, telephone conversation, 2 October 2001.19TAC/Centre Directors Working Group. 1993. The Ecoregional Approach to Research in the

CGIAR. TAC Secretariat, FAO, Rome. Gryseels G.; Kassam A. 1994. Characterization andImplementation of the CGIAR Ecoregional Concept. Paper prepared for the IFPRI [Inter-national Food Policy Research Institute] Ecoregional/2020 Vision Workshop held in Air-lie Conference Centre, Virginia, November 7–9, 1994.

20Sharma, M.; Brown, L.; Qureshi, A.; Garcia, M. 1996. Ecoregional Mapping Helps PinpointAreas Prone to Malnutrition. IFPRI Report 18 (2). World Bank, Washington, DC.

21Singh, A.; Ramachandran, B.; Fosnight, G; et al. n.d. Biodiversity-rich Ecoregions in AfricaNeed Protection. Information for Decision Making Series. U.S. Geological Survey, EROSData Center, Sioux Falls, SD.

22Barham, E. 1997. What’s in a name: Eco-labelling in the global food system. Paper pre-sented at the Joint Meeting of the Agriculture, Food, and Human Values Society and theAssociation for the Study of Food and Society, held in Madison, Wisconsin, June 5–8,1997.

23.Starbucks. 2000. Commitment to origins: Starbucks involvement in coffee-origin countries.Seattle, WA: Starbucks.

24As far as I know, the priorities have not changed. However, I found a reference to an un-published paper by A.F. McCalla of The World Bank, dated 1991, with the intriguing ti-tle “Ecoregional Basis for International Research Investment.” Also, an abstract of a pa-per by Roger Sayre and Xiaojun Li of The Nature Conservancy titled “An EcoregionalConservation Strategy for Latin America and the Caribbean,” given at the 1997 ESRI (En-vironment Systems Research Institute) User Conference, is pertinent to the current situ-ation. They state “. . . The World Bank and the United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID) have emphasized the delineation of ecoregions . . . , and an as-signment of biodiversity importance values to these ecoregions. The World Bank andUSAID are now using these ecoregion priorities assessments to help determine projectplacements and conservation allocations.”

194 Notes

Selected Bibliography

195

Aberley, D. (ed.). 1994. Futures by Design: The Ecological Practice of Ecolog-ical Planning. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers.

Albert, D.A. 1995. Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Michigan, Minnesota,and Wisconsin: A Working Map and Classification. General Technical Re-port NC-178. St. Paul, MN: North Central Forest Experiment Station. Withseparate map, scale � 1 : 2,000,000.

Aldrich, J.W.; James, F.C. 1991. Ecogeographic variation in the AmericanRobin. The Auk 108:230–249.

Alexander, C.; Ishikawa, S.; Silverstein, M., et al. 1977. A Pattern Language.New York: Oxford University Press.

Allen, T.F.H.; Hoekstra, T.W. 1992. Toward a Unified Ecology. New York: Columbia University Press.

Anon. 1993. Studying climate-controlled “ecoregions” to understand forests.Forest Perspectives 3(3): 4.

Atwood, W.W. 1940. The Physiographic Provinces of North America. Boston:Ginn. With separate map of “Landforms of the United States” by Erwin Raiszat 1 in. equals 75 miles.

Bailey, R.G. 1971. Landslide Hazards Related to Land Use Planning in TetonNational Forest, Northwest Wyoming. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, In-termountain Region. With separate map at one-half in. equal 1 mile.

Bailey, R.G. 1974. Land-capability Classification of the Lake Tahoe Basin, Cal-ifornia–Nevada: A Guide for Planning. South Lake Tahoe, CA: USDA For-est Service in cooperation with the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency. Withseparate map at three-quarter in. equal 1 mile.

Bailey, R.G. 1976. Ecoregions of the United States. Ogden, UT: IntermountainRegion, USDA Forest Service. Map, scale � 1 : 7,500,000.

Bailey, R.G. 1983. Delineation of ecosystem regions. Environmental Manage-ment 7:365–373.

Bailey, R.G. 1984. Testing an ecosystem regionalization. Journal of Environ-mental Management 19:239–248.

Bailey, R.G. 1985. The factor of scale in ecosystem mapping. EnvironmentalManagement 9:271–276.

Bailey, R.G. 1987. Suggested hierarchy of criteria for multi-scale ecosystemmapping. Landscape and Urban Planning 14:313–319.

Bailey, R.G. 1988a. Ecogeographic Analysis: A Guide to the Ecological Divi-sion of Land for Resource Management. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Ser-vice. Misc. Publ. 1465.

Bailey, R.G. 1988b. Problems with using overlay mapping for planning andtheir implications for geographic information systems. Environmental Man-agement 12:11–17.

Bailey, R.G. 1989. Ecoregions of the Continents—Scale 1 : 30,000,000 [map ofland-masses of the world, published as a] supplement in Environmental Con-servation 16(4), and accompanying Explanatory Supplement to Ecoregionsof the Continents (pp. 307–309).

Bailey, R.G. 1991. Design of ecological networks for monitoring global change.Environmental Conservation 18:173–175.

Bailey, R.G. 1995. Description of the Ecoregions of the United States. 2nd ed.rev. and expanded. Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. Misc. Publ. No.1391 (rev.). With separate map, scale � 1 : 7,500,000.

Bailey, R.G. 1996. Ecosystem Geography. New York: Springer-Verlag.Bailey, R.G. 1998a. Ecoregions: the Ecosystem Geography of the Oceans and

Continents. New York: Springer-Verlag.Bailey, R.G. 1998b. Ecoregions Map of North America: Explanatory Note. Wash-

ington, DC: USDA Forest Service. Misc. Publ. 1548. With separate map,scale � 1 : 15,000,000. In cooperation with The Nature Conservancy and theU.S. Geological Survey.

Bailey, R.G.; Hogg, H.C. 1986. A world ecoregions map for resource reporting.Environmental Conservation 13:195–202.

Bailey, R.G.; Rice, R.M. 1969. Soil slippage: an indicator of slope instabilityon chaparral watersheds of southern California. Professional Geographer21:172–177.

Bailey, R.G.; Avers, P.E.; King, T.; McNab, W.H. (compilers and eds.). 1994.Ecoregions and Subregions of the United States. Washington, DC: USDAForest Service. Map, scale � 1 : 7,500,000; with supplementary table of mapunit descriptions, compiled and edited by W.H. McNab and R.G. Bailey.

Bailey, R.W. 1941. Climate and settlement of the arid region. In G. Hambidge(ed.). Climate and Man, 1941 Yearbook of Agriculture. Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Agriculture, pp. 188–196.

Barnes, B.V. 1984. Forest ecosystem classification and mapping inBaden–Wurttenberg, Germany. In J.G. Bockheim (ed.). Proceedings of theSymposum Forest Land Classification: Experience, Problems, Perspectives.NCR-102 North Central Forest Soils Conference, Society of AmericanForesters, USDA Forest Service and USDA Soil Conservation Service, Madi-son, WI, pp. 49–65.

Barnes, B.V.; Pregitzer, K.S.; Spies, T.A.; Spooner, V.H. 1982. Ecological for-est site classification. Journal of Forestry 80:493–498.

Barnes, B.V.; Zak, D.R.; Denton, S.R.; Spurr, S.H. 1998. Forest Ecology, 4th ed.New York: John Wiley & Sons.

196 Selected Bibliography

Barnett, D.L. with Browning, W.D. [illustrations by J.L. Uncapher] 1995. APrimer on Sustainable Building. Snowmass, CO: Rocky Mountain Institute.

Bennett, C.F. 1975. Man and Earth’s Ecosystems. New York: John Wiley &Sons.

Berghaus, H. 1845. Physikalischer Atlas. Gotha, Germany: [publisher un-known]. Vol. 1.

Bhat G.; Bergstrom, J.; Bowker, J.M.; Cordell, H.K. 1998. An ecoregional ap-proach to the economic valuation of land and water based recreation in theUnited States. Environmental Management 22:69–77.

Borchert, J.F. 1950. The climate of the central North American grassland. An-nals Association of American Geographers. 40:1–39.

Bormann, F.H; Balmori, D.; Geballe, G.T. 1993. Redesigning the AmericanLawn: A Search for Environmental Harmony. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-versity Press.

Bouma, J., et al. (eds.). 1995. Eco-regional Approaches for Sustainable LandUse and Food Production. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers in co-operation with International Potato Center.

Bowers, J.E. 1988. A Sense of Place: The Life and Work of Forrest Shreve. Tuc-son, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

Bowman, I. 1916. The Andes of Southern Peru: Geographical ReconnaissanceAlong the Seventy-third Meridian. New York: American Geographical Soci-ety by Henry Holt and Co.

Brand, S. 1994. How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built. NewYork: Viking Press.

Branson, F.A.; Shown, L.M. 1989. Contrasts of Vegetation, Soils, Microclimates,and Geomorphic Processes Between North- and South-facing Slopes onGreen Mountain Near Denver, Colorado. Report 89-4094. Denver: U.S. Geo-logical Survey Water Resources Investigations.

Brewer, I. 1999. The Conceptual Development and Use of Ecoregion Classifi-cation. Master’s thesis. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University.

Breymeyer, A.I. 1981. Monitoring of the functioning of ecosystems. Environ-mental Monitoring and Assessment 1:175–183.

Brown, J.F.; Loveland, T.R.; Merchant, J.W.; Reed, B.C.; Ohlen, D.O. 1993. Us-ing mulitsource data in global land-cover characterization: Concepts, re-quirement, and methods. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing59:977–987.

Brown, J.H. 1995. Macroecology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Bryson, B. 1990. The Lost Continent: Travels in Small Town America. New

York: HarperCollins.Bunnett. R.B. 1968. Physical Geography in Diagrams. New York: Frederick A.

Praeger.Burger, D. 1976. The concept of ecosystem region in forest site classification.

In Proceedings, International Union of Forest Research Organizations(IUFRO). XVI World Congress, Division I: 20 June–2 July 1976; Oslo, Nor-way. Oslo: IUFRO; pp. 213–218.

Burger, D. 1986. Physiography as an integral part of forest ecosystems. In Y.Hanxi, W. Zhan, J.N.R. Jeffers, and P.A. Ward (eds.). Proceedings, Interna-tional Symposium on Temperate Forest Ecosystem Management and Envi-

Selected Bibliography 197

ronmental Protection. Antu, Jilin Province, China. Cumbria, United King-dom: Institute of Terrestrial Ecology.

Busch, A. 1999. Geography of Home: Writing on Where We Live. New York:Princeton Architectural Press.

Byers, B. 1991. Ecoregions, state sovereignty and conflict. Bulletin of PeaceProposals 22(1):65–76.

Campbell, R.H. 1975. Soil Slips, Debris Flows, and Rainstorms in the SantaMonica Mountains and Vicinity, Southern California. U.S. Geological Sur-vey Professional Paper 851.

Christopherson, R.W. 2000. Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geogra-phy. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Cleland, D.T.; Avers, P.E.; McNab, W.H.; Jensen, M.E.; Bailey, R.G.; King, T.;Russell, W.E.. 1997. National hierarchical framework of ecological units. InM.S. Boyce and A. Haney (eds.). Ecosystem Management: Applications forSustainable Forest and Wildlife Resources. New Haven, CT: Yale UniversityPress, pp. 181–200.

Clements, F. 1916. Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vege-tation. Publication 242. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Clements, F.; Shelford, V.E. 1939. Bioecology. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Commission for Environmental Cooperation. 1997. Ecological Regions of North

America: Towards a Common Perspective. Quebec, Canada: Commission forEnvironmental Cooperation.

Common, R. 1966. Slope failure and morphogenetic regions. In G.H. Dury (ed.).Essays in Geomorphology. New York: American Elsevier, pp. 53–82.

Corbel, J. 1964. L’erosion terrestre etude quantitative (methods-technques-resultats). Annales de Geographie 73:385–412.

Corn, W.M. 1983. Grant Wood: The Regionalist Vision. New Haven, CT: YaleUniversity Press.

Cowardin, L.M.; Carter, V.; Golet, F.C.; LaRoe, E.T. 1979. Classification of Wet-lands and Deep-Water Habitats of the United States. Report No. FWS/OBS-79/31. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Cox, J. 1991. Landscaping with Nature: Using Nature’s Design to Plan YourYard. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

Crowley, J. 1967. Biogeography. Canadian Geographer 11:312–326.Daniels, S. 1995. The Wild Lawn Handbook: Alternatives to the Traditional

Front Lawn. New York: Macmillan.Dansereau. P. 1957. Biogeography—An Ecological Perspective. New York:

Ronald Press. Dasmann, R.F. 1973. A System for Defining and Classifying Natural Regions

for Purposes of Conservation. Morges, Switzerland: International Union forConservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). IUCN Occasional Pa-per No. 8.

Daubenmire. R. 1968. Plant Communities: A Text Book on Plant Synecology.New York: Harper & Row.

Davis, M. 1998. Ecology of Fear: Los Angeles and the Imagination of Disaster.New York: Vintage Books.

Davis, N.D. 1994. Following the mapmaker. American Forests. May/June:23–25, 58–59.

198 Selected Bibliography

DeLano, P.; Johnson, C. 1993. Kansas: Off the Beaten Path, 2nd ed. Old Say-brook, CT: Globe Pequot Press.

Denniston, D. 1995. High Priorities: Conserving Mountain Ecosystems and Cul-tures. Worldwatch Paper 123. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.

Dice, L.R. 1943. The Biotic Provinces of North America. Ann Arbor: Univer-sity of Michigan Press.

Doe, W.W.; Shaw, R.B.; Bailey, R.G.; Jones, D.S.; Macia, T.E. 2000. U.S. Armytraining and testing lands: An ecoregional framework for assessment. In E.J.Palka and F.A. Galgano (eds.). The Scope of Military Geography: Across theSpectrum from Peacetime to War. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 373–392.

Dokuchaev, V.V. 1899. On the theory of natural zones. Sochineniya Vol. 6.Moscow: Academy of Science of the USSR, reprinted 1951.

Dranstad, W.E.; Olson, J.D.; Forman, R.T.T. 1996. Landscape Ecology Princi-ples in Landscape Architecture and Land-use Planning. Washington, DC: Is-land Press.

Ecoregions Working Group. 1989. Ecoclimatic Regions of Canada, First Ap-proximation. Ecological Land Classification Series No. 23. Ottawa: Envi-ronment Canada. With separate map, scale � 1 : 7,500,000.

Elder, J. 1994. The big picture: Sierra Club Critical Ecoregions Program. SierraMar./April: 52–57.

Fenneman, N.M. 1928. Physiographic divisions of the United States. AnnalsAssociation of American Geographers 18:261–353.

Fisk, P. 1983. Bioregions and Biotechnologies: A New Planning Tool for Sta-ble State Economic Development. Austin, TX: Center for Maximum Poten-tial Building Systems.

Foreign Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2000. GlobalEcological Zoning for the Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Rome: ForeignAgricultural Organization of the United Nations, Forestry Department.

Forman, R.T.T. 1995. Land Mosaic: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Foster, C.H.W. 1997. Bioregionalism revisited. Renewable Resources Journal15(3):6–10.

Fournier, F. 1960. Climat et Erosion. Paris: Presses Universite France.Francis, M.; Reimann, A.; Nascimbene, Y. [illustrator]. 1999. The California

Landscape Garden: Ecology, Culture and Design. Berkeley: University of Cal-ifornia Press.

Franklin, J.F. 1993. Preserving biodiversity: Species, ecosystems, or land-scapes? Ecological Applications 3:202–205.

Gallant, A.L.; Binnian, E.F.; Omernik, J.M.; Shasby, M.B. 1995. Ecoregions ofAlaska. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1567. Washington, DC:U.S. Government Printing Office. With separate map, scale � 1 : 5,000,000.

Gersmehl, P.; Napton, D.; Luther, J. 1982. The spatial transferability of resourceinterpretations. In T.B. Braun (ed.). Proceedings, National In-place ResourceInventories Workshop. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters, pp. 402–405.

Glausiusz, J. 1997. The ecology of language. Discover Aug: 30.Goudey, C.B.; Smith, D.W. (compilers and editors). 1994. Ecological Units of

California: Subsections. San Francisco, CA: USDA Forest Service California

Selected Bibliography 199

Region. Map, scale = 1 : 1,000,000. In cooperation with the Natural ResourcesConservation Service.

Goudie, A.; Viles, H. 1997. The Earth Transformed: An Introduction to Hu-man Impacts on the Environment. Oxford: Blackwell.

Günther, M. 1955. Untersuchingen über das Ertragsvermögen der Haupt-holzarten in Bereich verschiedener des württembergischen Neckarlandes.Mitt. Vereins f. Forstl. Standortsk. u. Forstpflz. 4:5–31.

Hack, J.T.; Goodlet, J.C. 1960. Geomorphology and Forest Ecology of a Moun-tain Region in the Central Appalachians. U.S. Geological Survey Profes-sional Paper 347. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey.

Hammond, E.H. 1954. Small-scale continental landform maps. Annals Asso-ciation of American Geographers. 44:33–42.

Hart, J.F. 1998. The Rural Landscape. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins Univer-sity Press.

Herbertson, A.J. 1905. The major natural regions: An essay in systematic ge-ography. Geography Journal 25:300–312.

Hills, G.A. 1952. The Classification and Evaluation of Site for Forestry. Re-search Report 24. Toronto: Ontario Department of Lands and Forest.

Hills, G.A. 1960. Comparison of forest ecosystems (vegetation and soil) in dif-ferent climatic zones. Silva Fennica 105:33–39.

Hills, G.A. 1961. The Ecological Basis for Land-use Planning. Research ReportNo. 46. Toronto: Ontario Department of Lands and Forests

Holdridge, L.R. 1947. Determination of world plant formations from simpleclimatic data. Science 105:367–368.

Host, G.E.; Pregitzer, K.S.; Ramm, C.W.; Hart, J.B.; Cleland, D.T. 1987. Land-form-mediated differences in successional pathways among upland forestecosystems in northwestern Lower Michigan. Forest Science 33:445–457.

Hough, M. 1990. Out of Place: Restoring Identity to the Regional Landscape.New Haven: Yale University Press.

Hough, M. 1994. Design with city nature. In R.H. Platt, R.A. Rountree, and P.C.Muich (eds.). The Ecological City: Perserving and Restoring Urban Biodi-versity. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, pp. 40–48.

Huang, S.; Price, D; Titus, S.J. 2000. Development of ecoregion-based height-diameter models for white spruce in boreal forests. Forest Ecology and Man-agement 129:125–141.

Hudson, J.C. 1985. Plains Country Towns. Minneapolis: University of Min-nesota Press.

Huggett, R.J. 1995. Geoecology: An Evolutionary Approach. London: Routledge.Hughes, R.M. 1997. Use of ecoregions in biological monitoring. In S.L. Loeb

and A. Spacie (ed.). Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Systems. Boca Raton,FL: Lewis Publishers, pp. 125–151.

Hunsaker, C.T., et al. 1990. Assessing ecological risk on a regional scale. En-vironmental Management 14:325–332.

Hunt, C.B. 1974. Natural Regions of the United States and Canada. San Fran-cisco, CA: W.H. Freeman.

Illies, J. 1974. Introduction to Zoogeography [transl. from German by W.D.Williams]. London: Macmillan.

Isachenko, A.G. 1973. Principles of Landscape Science and Physical–

200 Selected Bibliography

Geographical Regionalization [transl. from Russian by R.J. Zatorski] J.S.Massey (ed.). Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press.

Jackson, J.B. 1984. Discovering the Vernacular Landscape. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press.

Jackson, J.B. 1994. A Sense of Place, a Sense of Time. New Haven, CT: YaleUniversity Press.

Jackson, W. 1994. Becoming Native to This Place. Lexington: University ofKentucky Press.

James, P.E. 1952. Toward a further understanding of the regional concept. An-nals Association of American Geographers 42:195–222.

James, P.E. 1959. A Geography of Man, 2d ed. Boston: Ginn.Johnson, N.C. [and others] (eds.). 1999. Ecological Stewardship: A Common

Reference for Ecosystem Management: 3 volume set. Oxford: Elsevier Sci-ence.

Keys, J.E.; Carpenter, C.A.; Hooks, S.L.; Koeneg, F.G.; McNab, W.H.; Russell,W.E.; Smith, M.L. 1995. Ecological Units of the Eastern United States, FirstApproximation. Technical Publication R8-TP21. Atlanta, GA: USDA ForestService. Map, scale � 1 : 3,500,000.

Kiser, M.; Kennedy, J. 1997. Ecoregion analysis—Looking at bat houses in theirenvironment. The Bat House Researcher 5(1):6–7.

Klijn, F.; Udo de Haes, H.A. 1994. A hierarchical approach to ecosystems andits implications for ecological land classification. Landscape Ecology9:89–104.

Klijn, F.; DeWaal, R.W.; Oude Voshaar, J.H. 1995. Ecoregions and ecodistricts:Ecological regionalization for the Netherlands Environmental policy. Envi-ronmental Management 19:797–813.

Klopatek, J.M. et al. 1979. The Need for Regional Ecology. Environmental Sci-ences Division Publication No. 1318. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge NationalLaboratory.

Knight, R.L.; Landres, P.B. (eds.). 1998. Stewardship Across Boundaries. Wash-ington, DC: Island Press.

Knopf, F.L. 1986. Changing landscapes and the composition of the eastern Col-orado avifauna. Wildlife Society Bulletin 14(2):132–142.

Köppen, W. 1931. Grundriss der Klimakunde. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Küchler, A.W. 1964. Potential Natural Vegetation of the Conterminous United

States. Special Publication 36. New York: American Geographical Society.With separate map, scale � 1 : 3,168,000.

Kunstler, J.H. 1993. The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of Amer-ica’s Man-made Landscape. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Kunstler, J.H. 1996. Home from Nowhere: Remaking our Everday World for the21st Century. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Lawrence, R.G. 2000. The godparents of green. Natural Home May/June: 44–51.Leser, H.; Nagel, P. 1998. Landscape diversity—A holistic approach. In W.

Barthloff and M. Wininger (eds.). Biodiversity. A Challenge for Development,Research and Policy. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 129–143.

Logan, T.L. 1985. An ecoregion-continuum approach to global vegetation bio-mass estimation. In Proceedings, Tenth W.T. Pecora Memorial Remote Sens-ing Symposium. Falls Church, VA: American Society of Photogrammetryand Remote Sensing, pp. 483–493.

Selected Bibliography 201

Loomis, J.; Echohawk, J.C. 1999. Using GIS to identify under-representedecosystems in the National Wilderness Preservation System in the USA. En-vironmental Conservation 26:53–58.

Luccarelli, M. 1995. Lewis Mumford and the Ecological Region: The Politicsof Planning. New York: Guilford Press.

Lyle, J.T. 1994. Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development. New York:John Wiley & Sons.

Lyle, J.T. 1999. Design for Human Ecosystems: Landscape, Land Use, and Nat-ural Resources. Washington, DC: Island Press. (Originally published in 1985by Van Nostrand Reinhold.)

Lynch, K. 1976. Managing the Sense of a Region. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.MacArthur, R.H. 1972. Geographical Ecology: Patterns in the Distribution of

Species. New York: Harper & Row.Mackinnon, A; Meidinger, D.; Klinka, K. 1992. Use of biogeoclimatic ecosys-

tem classification system in British Columbia. Forestry Chronicle 68:100–120.

Major, J. 1951. A functional, factorial approach to plant ecology. Ecology 32:392–412.

Marr, J.W. 1961. Ecosystems of the East Slope of the Front Range in Colorado.Boulder: University of Colorado Press.

Marsh, W.M. 1998. Landscape Planning: Environmental Applications, 3rd ed.New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Maser, C.; Sedell, J.R. 1994. From the Forest to the Sea: The Ecology of Woodin Streams, Rivers, Estuaries, and Oceans. Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucia Press.

Mason, R.J.; Mattson, M.T. 1990. Atlas of United States Environmental Issues.New York: Macmillan.

Mather, J.R.; Sdasyuk, G.V. (eds.). 1991. Global Change: Geographical Ap-proaches. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

Matthews, A. 1992. Where the Buffalo Roam. New York: Grove Press.McGinnis, M.V. (ed.). 1999. Bioregionalism. New York: Routledge.McHarg, I. 1969. Design with Nature. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press.McHarg, I. 1997. Natural factors in planning. Journal of Soil and Water Con-

servation 52(1):13–17.McHarg, I.L.; Steiner, F.R. (eds.). 1998. To Heal the Earth: Selected Writings

of Ian L. McHarg. Washington, DC: Island Press.McHarg, I.; Sutton, J. 1975. Ecological planning for the Texas Coastal Plain.

Landscape Architecture 65(1):78–89.McNab, W.H. 1990. Predicting forest type in Bent Creek Experimental Forest

from topographic variables. In S.J. Coleman and D.G. Neary (eds.). Pro-ceeding of the Sixth Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference.General Technical Report SE-70. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, South-eastern Forest Experiment Station.

McNab, W.H.; Avers, P.E. 1994. Ecological Subregions of the United States:Section Descriptions. Administrative Publ. WO-WSA-5. Washington, DC:USDA Forest Service.

McMahon, G.; Gregonis, S.M.; Waltman, S.W.; et al. 2001. Developing a spa-tial framework of common ecological regions for the conterminous UnitedStates. Environmental Management 28:293–316.

Merriam, C.H. 1898. Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States. Bulletin

202 Selected Bibliography

Division Biological Survey 10. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agri-culture, pp. 1–79.

Mittermeier, R.A.; Myers, N.; Mittermeier, C.G. 2000. Hotspots: Earth’s Bio-logically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Chicago: Uni-versity of Chicago Press.

Milanova, E.V.; Kushlin, A.V. (eds.). 1993. World Map of Present-day Land-scapes: An Explanatory Note. Moscow: Moscow State University. With sep-arate map, scale � 1 : 15,000,000.

Miller, K.R. 1996. Balancing the Scales: Guidelines for Increasing Biodiver-sity’s Chances Through Bioregional Management. Washington, DC: WorldResources Institute.

Minnich, R.A. 1988. The Biogeography of Fire in the San Bernardino Moun-tains of California: A Historical Study. University of California Publicationsin Geography Vol. 28. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Mollison, B., with Renay Mia Slay.1994. Introduction to Permaculture, 2nd ed.Tyalgum, Australia: Tagari Publications.

Moon, William Least Heat [William Trogdon] 1982. Blue Highways: A Journeyinto America. Boston: Little, Brown.

National Park Service, U.S. Department of Interior. 1993. Guiding Principlesof Sustainable Design. Denver, CO: National Park Service, Denver ServiceCenter.

National Resources Committee. 1935. Regional Factors in National Planningand Development. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Nature Conservancy, The. 1997. Designing a Geography of Hope: Guidelinesfor Ecoregion-based Conservation in The Nature Conservancy. Arlington,VA: The Nature Conservancy.

Nesser, J.A.; Ford, G.L.; Maynard, C.L.; Page-Dumroese, D.S. 1997. EcologicalUnits of the Northern Region: Subsection. General Technical Report INT-GTR-369. Ogden, UT: Intermountain Research Station.

Newell, W.L. 1978. Understanding Natural Systems—A Perspective for Land-use Planning in Appalachian Kentucky. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin1438. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey.

Noss, R. 1983. A regional approach to maintain diversity. BioScience33:700–706.

Noss, R. 1999/2000. A reserve design for the Kalamath–Siskiyou ecoregion.Wild Earth 9(4):71–76.

O’Brien, R.A. 1996. Forest Resources of Northern Utah Ecoregions. ResourceBulletin INT-RB-87. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service Intermountain Re-search Station.

Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saun-ders.

Odum, E.P. 1977. The emergence of ecology as a new integrative discipline.Science 195:1289–1293.

Odum, E.P. 1992. Great ideas in ecology for the 1990s. Bioscience 42:524–545.Olgyay, V. 1963. Design with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural

Regionalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Olsen, D.M.; Dinerstein, E. 1998. The Global 200: A representative approach

to conserving the Earth’s most biologically valuable ecoregions. Conserva-tion Biology 12:502–515.

Selected Bibliography 203

Omernik, J.M. 1987. Map supplement: Ecoregions of the conterminous UnitedStates. Annals Association of American Geographers 77:118–125. Scale �1 : 7,500,000.

Omernik, J.M.; Bailey, R.G. 1997. Distinguishing between watersheds andecoregions. Journal American Water Resources Association 33:1–15.

Opie, J. 1993. Ogallala: Water for a Dry Land. Lincoln: University of NebraskaPress.

Opie, J. 1998. Nature’s Nation: An Environmental History of the United States.Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Orme, A.T.; Bailey, R.G. 1971. Vegetation and channel geometry in MonroeCanyon, southern California. Yearbook of the Association Pacific Coast Ge-ographers 33:65–82.

Orr, D.L. 1992. Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to a Post-modern World. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Passarge, S. 1929. Die Landschaftsgurtel der Erde, Natur und Kultur. Breslau:Ferdinand Hirt.

Peet, R.K. 1988. Forests of the Rocky Mountains. In M.G. Barbour and W.D.Billings (eds.). North American Terrestrial Vegetation. Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press, pp. 63–102.

Pflieger, W.L. 1971. A Distributional Study of Missouri Fishes. University ofKansas: Museum of Natural History Publication 20:225–570.

Phillips, J. 1995. Natural by Design: Beauty and Balance in Southwest Gar-dens. Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press.

Pollan, M. 1991. Second Nature: A Gardener’s Education. New York: AtlanticMonthly Press.

Popper, D.; Popper, F. 1987. The Great Plains: From dust to dust. Planning53(12):12–18.

Pringle, C.M. 1997. Exploring how disturbance is transmitted upstream: Go-ing against the flow. Journal of the North American Benthological Society16:425–438.

Pyne, S.J. 1991. Burning Bush: A Fire History of Australia. New York: Holt.Quigley, T.M., et al. 1998. Using an ecoregion assessment for integrated pol-

icy analysis. Journal of Forestry 96(10):33–38.Radbruch-Hall, D.H.; Colton, R.B.; Davies, W.E.; et al. 1982. Landslide Overview

Map of the Conterminous United States. U.S. Geological Survey ProfessionalPaper 1183. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey. With separate map,scale � 1 : 7,500,000.

Reiniger, C. 1997. Bioregional planning and ecosystem protection. In G.F.Thompson and F. Steiner (eds.). Ecological Design and Planning. New York:John Wiley & Sons, pp. 185–200.

Reisner, M. 1986. Cadillac Desert: The American West and its DisappearingWater. New York: Viking Penguin.

Retzer, J.L. 1965, Significance of stream systems and topography in managingmountain lands. In C.T. Youngberg (ed.). Forest-soil Relationships in NorthAmerica. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, pp. 399–411.

Ricketts, T.A., et al. 1999. Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America: A Conser-vation Assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Riebsame, W. 1991. Sustainability of the Great Plains in an uncertain climate.Great Plains Research 1:133–151.

204 Selected Bibliography

Robertson, J.K.; Wilson, J.W. 1985. Design of the National Trends Network forMonitoring the Chemistry of Atmospheric Precipitation. U.S. Geological Cir-cular 964. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey.

Roca, R.; Adkins, L.; Wurschy, M.C.; Skerl, K.L. 1996. Wings from Afar: AnEcoregional Approach to Conservation of Neotropical Migratory Birds inSouth America. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservance.

Rosgen, D. [illustration by Silvey, H.L.]. 1996. Applied River Morphology.Pagosa Springs, CO: Wildland Hydrology.

Rowe, J.S. 1979. Revised working paper on methodology/philosophy of eco-logical land classification in Canada. In C.D.A. Rubec (ed.). Applications ofEcological (Biophysical) Land Classification in Canada. Ecological LandClassification Series No. 7. Ottawa: Environment Canada. pp. 23–30.

Rowe, J.S. 1980. The common denominator in land classification in Canada:An ecological approach to mapping. Forestry Chronicle 56:19–20.

Rowe, J.S.; Sheard, J.W. 1981. Ecological land classification: A survey approach.Environmental Management 5:451–464.

Rudis, V.A. 1998. Regional forest resource assessment in an ecological frame-work: The Southern United States. Natural Areas Journal 18:319–332.

Rudis, V.A. 1999. Ecological Subregion Codes by County, Coterminous UnitedStates. General Technical Report SRS-36. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Ser-vice, Southern Research Station.

Sacks, J.D.; Mellinger, A.D.; Gallup, J.L. 2001. The geography of poverty andwealth. Scientific American. 284(3):70–75.

Sanders, R.A.; Rowntree, R.A. 1983. Classification of American MetropolitanAreas by Ecoregion and Potential Natural Vegetation. Research Paper NE-516. Broomall, PA: USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experi-ment Station.

Schmithusen, J. 1976. Atlas zur Biogeographie. Mannheim: BibliographischesInstitut.

Schmitz-Gunther, T. (ed.). 1999. Living Spaces: Sustainable Building and De-sign [English adaptation by Loren E. Abraham and Thomas A. Fisher].Cologne, Germany: Konemann Verlagsgesellschaft.

Schneider, D.M; Godschalk, D.R.; Axler, N. 1978. The Carrying Capacity Conceptas a Planning Tool. Report No. 338. Chicago: American Planning Association.

Schubert, G.H.; Pitcher, J.A. 1973. A Provisional Tree Seed-zone and Cone-crop Rating System for Arizona and New Mexico. USDA Forest Service Re-search Paper RM-105. Ft. Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Forest and RangeExperiment Station.

Schultz, J. 1995. The Ecozones of the World: The Ecological Divisions of theGeosphere (transl. from German by I. And D. Jordan). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Shirazi, M.A. 1984. Land classification used to select abandoned hazardouswaste study sites. Environmental Management 8:281–286.

Shreve, F. 1942. The desert vegetation of North America. Botanical Review8:195–246.

Smith, R.L.; Smith, T.M. 2001. Ecology and Field Biology, 6th ed. San Fran-cisco: Benjamin Cummings.

Snyder, G. 1996. A Place in Space: Ethics, Aesthetics, and Watersheds. Wash-ington, DC: Counterpoint Press.

Selected Bibliography 205

Soule, J.D.; Piper, J.K. 1992. Farming in Nature’s Legacy: An Ecological Ap-proach to Argiculture. Washington, DC: Island Press, pp. 133–134.

Soule, M.E.; Terborgh, J. (eds.). 1999. Continental Conservation: ScientificFoundations of Regional Reserve Networks. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Spellerberg, I.F.; Sawyer, J.W.D. 1999. An Introduction to Applied Biogeogra-phy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Stegner, W. 1992. Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell andthe Second Opening of the West. New York: Penguin Books.

Stein, B.A. 1996. Putting nature on the map. Nature Conservancy Jan./Feb.:24–27.

Stein, B.A.; Kutner, L.S.; Adams, J.S. (eds.). 2000. Precious Heritage: The Sta-tus of Biodiversity in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.A joint project of The Nature Conservancy and the Association for Biodi-versity Information.

Steiner, F. 1991. The Living Landscape: An Ecological Approach to LandscapePlanning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Steiner, J.J.; Poklemba, C.J. 1994. Lotus corniculatus classification by seed glob-ulin polypeptides and relationship to accession pedigrees and geographicorigin. Crop Science 34:255–264.

Stern, J. and M. 1992. Roadfood. New York: HarperCollins.Stilgoe, J.R. 1983. Metropolitan Corridor: Railroads and the American Scene.

New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Stolzenburg, W. [illustrations by Michael McNelly] 1998. When nature draws

the map. Nature Conservancy Jan./Feb.: 12–23.Stoms, D. M.. et al. 1998. Gap analysis of the vegetation of the intermountain

semi-desert ecoregion. The Great Basin Naturalist 58:199–216.Stuller, J. 1995. Climate is often a matter of inches and a little water. Smith-

sonian 26(9):103–110.Susanka, S. 1998. The Not So Big House: A Blueprint for the Way We Really

Live. Newtown, CT: Taunton Press.Swanson, F.J., et al. 1987. Mass failures and other processes of sediment pro-

duction in Pacific Northwest landscapes. In Streamside Management,Forestry and Fisheries Interaction, Proceedings of College of Forest Re-sources Symposium. Seattle: University of Washington, pp. 9–38.

Swanson, F.J.; Franklin, J.F.; Sedell, J.R. 1990. Landscape patterns, disturbance,and management in the Pacific Northwest, USA. In I.S. Zonneveld and R.T.Forman, (eds.). Changing Landscapes: An Ecological Perspective. New York:Springer-Verlag.

Swanson, F.J.; Kratz, T.K.; Caine, N.; Woodmansee, R.G. 1988. Landform ef-fects on ecosystem patterns and processes. Bioscience 38:92–98.

Swanston, D. 1971. Judging impact and damage of timber harvesting to forestsoils in mountainous regions of western North America. In Maintaining Pro-ductivity of Soils. Proceedings of the 62d Western Forestry Conference; 30November 1971; Portland, OR. Portland, OR: Western Forestry and Conser-vation Association, pp. 14–20.

Tansley, A.G. 1935. The use and misuse of vegetation terms and concepts.Ecology 16:284–307.

Thayer, R.L. 1994. Gray World, Green Heart: Technology, Nature, and the Sus-tainable Landscape. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

206 Selected Bibliography

Thomas, K.A.; Davis, F.W. 1996. Applications of GAP analysis data in the Mo-jave Desert of California. In J.M. Scott, T.H. Tear, and F.W. Davis (eds.). GapAnalysis: A Landscape Approach to Biodiversity Planning. Bethesda, MD:American Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, pp. 209–219.

Thomashow, M. 1995. Ecological Identity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Thompson, G.F.; Steiner, F. (eds.). 1997. Ecological Design and Planning. New

York: John Wiley & Sons.Thornthwaite, C.W. 1933. The climates of the Earth. Geographical Review

23:433–440. With separate map at 1 : 77,000,000.Thornthwaite, C.W. 1954. Topoclimatology. In Proceeding of the Toronto Me-

teorological Conference Toronto: Royal Meteorological Society, pp. 227–232.Toffler, A. 1970. Future Shock. New York: Random House.Tosta, N. 1994. Bio-eco-geo-regions. Geo Info Systems 4(3):26–28.Trewartha, G.T. 1968. An Introduction to Climate, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-

Hill.Trewartha, G.T.; Robinson, A.H.; Hammond, E.H. 1967. Physical Elements of

Geography, 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.Tricart, J.; Cailleux, A. 1972. Introduction to Climatic Geomorphology [transl.

from French by C.J. Kiewiet de Jonge]. New York: St. Martin’s Press.Tricart, J.; Kiewiet de Jonge, C. 1992. Ecogeography and Rural Management.

Essex, UK: Longman.Tufte, E.R. 1990. Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.Turner, M.G.; Gardner, R.H.; O’Neill, R.V. 2001. Landscape Ecology in Theory

and Practice: Pattern and Process. New York: Springer-Verlag.Udvardy, M.D.F. 1975. A Classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the

World. Occasional Paper No. 18. Morges, Switzerland: International Unionfor Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

USDA Forest Service. 1977. Silvicultural Activities and Non-point PollutionAbatement: A Cost-effectiveness Analysis Procedure. Report No. EPA-600/8-77-018. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. In cooper-ation with Environmental Research Laboratory, Athens, GA.

USDA Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System for Making andInterpreting Soils Surveys. Agricultural Handbook 436. Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Agriculture.

U.S. General Accounting Office. 1994. Ecosystem Management: Additional Ac-tions Needed to Adequately Test a Promising Approach. Report No.GAO/RCED-94-111. Washington, DC: U.S General Accounting Office.

U.S. Geological Survey 1979. Accounting Units of the National Water DataNetwork. Washington, DC. Map, scale � 1 : 7,500,000.

U.S. National Arboretum, Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agri-culture. 1965. Plant Hardiness Zone Map Misc. Publ. No. 814. Washington,DC: USDA Argicultural Service. In cooperation with the American Horti-cultural Society. Scale � 1 : 7,500,000.

Vale, T.R. 1982. Plants and People: Vegetation Change in North America.Washington, DC: Association of American Geographers.

Van der Ryn, S.; Cowan, S. 1996. Ecological Design. Washington, DC: IslandPress.

Wallace, A.R. 1876. The Geographic Distribution of Animals. New York:Harper.

Selected Bibliography 207

Walter, H.; Box, E. 1976. Global classification of natural terrestrial ecosystems.Vegetatio 32:75–81.

Walter, H. 1985. Vegetation of the Earth and Ecological Systems of the Geo-biosphere, 3rd rev. and enlarged ed. [transl. from German by Owen Muise].Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Walter, H.; Harnickell, E.; Mueller-Dombois, D. 1975. Climate-diagram Mapsof the Individual Continents and the Ecological Climatic Regions of theEarth. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Walter, H.; Lieth, H. 1960–1967. Klimdiagramm Weltatlas. Jena, Germany: G. Fischer Verlag.

Wann, D. 1994. Biologic: Designing with Nature to Protect the Environment.Boulder, CO: Johnson Books.

Webb, W.P. 1931. The Great Plains. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell.Weinstein, G. 1999. Xeriscape Handbook: A How-to Guide to Natural,

Resource-wise Gardening. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing.Wells, M. 1994. Infrastructures: Life Support for the Nation’s Circulatory Sys-

tems. Brewster, MA: Underground Art Gallery.Williams, D.R.; Stewart, S.I. 1998. Sense of place: an elusive concept that is

finding a home in ecosystem management. Journal of Forestry 96(5):18–23.Wilson, E.O.1998. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. New York: Knopf.Wilson, J.E. 1999. Terroir: The Role of Geology, Climate and Culture in the

Making of French Wines. Berkeley: University of California Press.Wilson, L. 1968. Morphogenetic classification. In R.W. Fairbridge, (ed.). The

Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. New York: Reinhold, pp. 717–731.Woodward, J. 2000. Waterstained Landscapes: Seeing and Shaping Regionally

Distinctive Places. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Young, G.L., et al. 1983. Determining the regional context for landscape plan-

ning. Landscape Planning 10:269–296.Zwinger, A. 2000. Human law/natural law: Whose world is this anyway?

Plateau Journal 4(1):6–19.

208 Selected Bibliography

Index

209

Aboriginal people, 60Acid deposition, 148Acid rain, 131Acoma (pueblo), 61Administrative boundary, 29Adobe homes, 60, 61, 157Africa, 60Aggradation, 11, 12Agricultural landscape, 88Agricultural production, 144, 145,

148, 150, 151Agroecosystems, 88, 150Air conditioner, 61, 134Air conditioning, 60Air deposition, 150Air inversions, 85Air pollution, 2, 85Air temperature, ambient, 108Alabama, 54Alarm system, 64Alaska, 137Albert, D.A., 136Albuquerque, 61Alfisol, defined, 181Allen, T.F.H., 25Alluvial deposits, 81Altitudinal zonation, 155American Bungalow, 170American Farmland Trust, 173

Anadromous fisheries, 2, 181Anasazi village, 29Animals, common and scientific

names, 176–177Appalachian Mountains, 57, 149Appalachian Plateau, Pennsylvania,

64Aquatic systems, 104Aquifer, 28

defined, 181underground, 72

Arcades, defined, 181Architectural salvage stores, 69Architecture

indigenous domestic, 60Swiss Alpine, 70vernacular, 69, 70, 191

Argentina, 24, 59Arid

defined, 181lands, 150

Aridisols, 46, 181Arizona, 30Arizona State University, 70Army installations, 146, 147Arroyos, defined, 181Aspect. See ExposureAtlas of U.S. Environmental Issues

(Mason), 134

Austin, Texas, 59Australia, 70Avers, P.E., 136Azonal site types, 53

Bailey, R.G., 21, 38, 41, 46, 47, 72,103, 136, 139

Bailey-Forest Service classification,133, 134

Bandelier National Monument, 95Barbed wire, 9Barham, Elizabeth, 148Base level

artificial, 11defined, 181

Basin. See WatershedBat house design, 143Bat Conservation International, 143Bedrock, 52, 82Bennett, C.F., 14Benton, Thomas Hart, 4Berg, Peter, 86Berthoud, Colorado, 68Big horn sheep, 7Biodiversity

defined, 181ecological processes and, 93–97maintaining, 90–92mapping project, 91topography and, 77–78

Biogeoclimatic, defined, 181, 182Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem

Classification System, 130Biogeographic provinces, 36, 91Biogeographical region, 181Biologic (Wann), 1Biomes

defined, 36, 182ecoregion concept and, 38

Bioregion, defined, 182Biosphere

defined, 182tropical rainforest and, 86

Biota, 36, 102Biotic areas, 34, 182Bird migration, 24Birds, 45Bird Watcher’s Digest, 134Bison, American, 89

Black belts, 53Blue grama, 110Bluegrass lawns, 110, 111Blue Highway (Moon), 66Blue Ridge Mountains, 40Boreal forest. See TaygaBoulder Dam, 14Boulders, 80Bowman, Isaiah, 26Bradley, General Omar, 65Brand, Stewart, 68Brewer, Isaac, 18, 133British Columbia, 92Broadleaf forest, 48, 182Brown forest soil, 182Brush fires, 122–123Buffalo Commons, 127Buffalo grass, 110, 111Bungalow, 62Bureau of Land Management, 2Busch, Akiko, 63, 64, 68

Cadillac Desert (Reisner), 14Café, 66Cailleux, A., 38Caliche, 60, 182California, 30, 77, 78, 136California bungalow, 61California Coast Ranges, 53California gold rush, 7California Landscape Garden, The

(Francis), 31, 112Canada geese, 141Canadian forest formation, 25Cascade Range, 89Cascade region, 92Catena. See ToposequenceCattail, 85Cattle grazing, 96Cave roofs, 61Center for Environmental

Management of Military Lands(CEMML), 146, 172

Center for Potential BuildingSystems (Max’ Pot), 59, 168

Center of Excellence for SustainableDevelopment, 173

Central America, 44

210 Index

Centro Internacional deMejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo(CIMMYT), 145

Cerro Grande fire, 95Channelization

defined, 182of stream banks, 96

Chaparral species, 21, 122, 124Chernozem soil, 182Cherokees, 6Chestnut-brown soil, 182Chimney, 70Christian Science Monitor, 68Cistern catchment systems, 60, 182Cities

landscaping issues and, 107–108microclimate and, 86

Clear-cutting, 28, 89, 182Cleland, D.T., 136Clements, Frederick, 36, 37Cliff dwellings, 60Climate

biodiversity and, 77–78continental, 42, 43defined, 182desert, 71diagrams, 162–165landforms affected by, 40landscape and, 155Mediterranean, 95mountain, 44semiarid, 27shift in, 127, 140–141slopes and, 55soil and, 105steppe, 40subarctic, 50subtypes, 48, 49topography and, 54–55tropical, 33, 34, 40

Climatic classification, 48Climatic climax vegetation, 183Climatic geomorphology, 125Climatic regime, 40, 183Climatic regions, 33, 155Climatic zones, 44, 45Climax

climatic, 55defined, 37, 183

edaphic, 37vegetation, 37

Clotheslines, 63Coastal Plain, 84Coastal regions, 150Coast Range Mountains, 77Cobble, 81Cold-air drainage, 53Colluvial soil, 124Colorado Plateau, 29, 40, 46, 51, 52Colorado River, 13Colorado Springs, Colorado, 40Colorado Sustainability Project, 172Columbia River basin, 13Commercial forest land, 183Commission for Environmental

Cooperation, 142Compensation factor

defined, 183vegetation and, 55

CONDESAN program, 145Congress for New Urbanism, 173Coniferous forest, 183Conifers, 99Conservation Biology Institute,

137Considering All Things: Healthy,

Productive Ecosystems, 173Consultant Group on International

Agricultural Research (CGIAR),144, 145

Continental climate, 42, 43Conversion factors, 179Cook, Kevin, 114Core reserve, 91Cottage development, 68Cottonwoods, 28Courtyard house, 70, 76Cowan, Stuart, 1, 26, 59, 84, 88, 90,

92Cox, Jeff, 108Craftsman-style houses, 62Cross-drain (X-DRAIN) modeling

software, 137, 138Crowley, John, 47Crown fires, 93Crustal plates, 43, 119, 183Cultivars, 146, 183Cumulative effects, 9, 23, 183

Index 211

Dambase level and, 11construction, 13, 28

Daniels, Stevie, 108Dasmann, Raymond, 36Databases, 138Davis, F.W., 91Davis, Mike, 30, 121Debris, 11

fill, 76flow, 115, 116, 117, 124, 125slide, 190

Deciduous trees, 107, 108, 183Degradation, 12Deltas, 51Deposition, 80, 148Description of the Ecoregions of the

United States (Bailey), 108Desert

climate, 71defined, 183level of aridity in, 48soil, 183

Desertification, 128, 183Desert Vegetation of North America,

The (Shreve), 150Design with Nature (McHarg), 32Devil’s Hole pupfish, 140, 141Dice, L.R., 36Discount outlets, 63Disease, 2Disneyland, California, 68Divisions (ecoregion), 48, 49Dixon, Maynard, 4Dokuchaev, V.V., 38Domain (ecoregion)

dry, 46humid temperate, 162–163, 165polar, 162

Drainagecold-air, 53swales, 82, 83system, 82, 84

Drought, 48, 127Drought-tolerant grasses, 110, 111Dry domain, 46, 164Dry steppe, 78, 183Ducks, 97Dust Bowl, 127

Earth flow, 183Eastern Andes, 26Echohawk, J.C., 92Ecogeographic, defined, 183Ecogeographic Analysis: A Guide to

the Ecological Division of Landfor Resource Management, 136

Ecological climate zonesarrangement of, 44Köppen group and types for,

159–160Ecological crises, 156Ecological design. See also

Ecoregionsdefined, 183history of, 60–74New Urbanism and, 74–76overview of, 59–60principle for, 25–28spatial patterns and, 26, 153understanding patterns in, 76–86

Ecological Design (Van der Ryn), 1, 59Ecological geography, 39Ecological land classification, 2, 136,

183Ecological landtypes

defined, 184mapping and, 101

Ecological processes, 93–97Ecology and Field Biology (Smith),

134Ecology of Fear (Davis), 30, 121Ecoregion maps. See also Mapping

current applications in, 135–146future applications in, 146–151overview of, 133–135

Ecoregionsappropriate native trees for,

108–109classification, 135climatic regions and, 33, 155defined, 184differentiation process and, 40–47diversity in, 56ecoregional mapping and, 47–50environmental conditions for, 49Internet sources, 171–173maintaining functional integrity

in, 86, 88–90

212 Index

metropolitan areas and, 107–108natural cycles analysis and, 40organizations, 168–169vs. other land divisions, 34–38patterns within, 50–57periodicals, 170–171publications, 167–168subdivisions of, 33transferring data among different,

128–131videos, 173watershed and, 103–104

Ecoregions Working Group, 142Ecosystem management

ecoregions’ functions for, 100–101overview of, 99terrestrial and aquatic systems of

landscape and, 101–104Ecosystem Management

Coordination, 135Ecosystems. See also Ecological

designanalogous regional-scale, 128–131boundaries issues, 28–31components of, 3defined, 184flood control and, 85geography, 184hierarchy of, 35holistic studies for, 16–19landscape, 10local, 33, 53–54, 90, 99–100management, 184monitoring sites for studying,

105–107open nature of, 21–23patterns, 41productivity, 105–106reasons for recognizing, 2regional approach in, 15–16scale-linking perspective of, 23–25sustainable design and, 4–6whole, 2

Ecotones, 23, 184Ecotype species, 130, 184Ecozone, 38Edaphic

climaxes, 37defined, 184

Elevationdefined, 184precipitation affected by, 44

Elevational belts, 44, 45, 78Elevational zonation

defined, 184mountain and, 50

Elevation-topographic gradient, 78Engineering principles, 82Environment, technology and, 31–32Environmental problems

brush fires, 122–123changing climates, 127–128flash floods, 119–121landslides, 115–118soil slips, 124–125timber harvesting, 117–118

Environmental Protection Agency(EPA), 142

Erosion, 76, 77, 88Esker, defined, 184Estuarine

defined, 184invertebrates, 28

Eucalyptus trees, 95Evapotranspiration, 112, 184Everglades National Park, 29Exotic rivers, 27, 184Exposure, 51, 76, 184

Farmers, 88Farming, 151Farmland, 9Fast-food joints, 66Fauna. See BiotaFenneman, N.M., 35Fertilizer, 112Fires

brush, 122–123forest, 40, 93–95management, 29

Fisheries, 101Fish ponds, 114Fisk, Pliny, 59Flint Hills, Kansas, 96Flood(ing)

control, 85, 96, 97flash, 119–121forests and, 27

Index 213

Flood(ing) (Contd.)landslides and, 117protection, 82

Floodplain, 6, 28, 91, 185Florida, 53FLUXNET database, 138Food production

label-of-origin system for, 149landscaping and, 113

Forbs, 55, 185Ford Motor Company, 65, 70Foreign Agricultural Organization

(FAO), 143Forest

broadleaf, 48, 182coniferous, 183defined, 185fires, 40, 93–95mixed, 187monsoon, 189old-growth, 90, 188riparian, 27, 54, 56semievergreen, 189tupelo, 54

Forest Ecology (Barnes), 134Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA)

surveys, 138Forest Resource Assessment 2000,

143Forest-steppe, defined, 185Forest-tundra, defined, 185Formation, defined, 185Formative processes, 28

defined, 185ecoregions and, 46–47

Fort Collins, Colorado, 9, 63Francis, Mark, 31, 32, 112Franklin, J.F., 91Free trade, 148Freeways, 86Front Range of Colorado, 78Fuel breaks, 124, 185Future Shock (Toffler), 60

Gap analysis project, 91–92Garage, 63Gardens

attracting wildlife in, 114–115home, 113

sun orientation for, 114Xeriscape demonstration, 112

Gated communities, 63Genetic processes, 46Geographic information systems

(GIS), 18, 57, 132Geography, 65Geography of Home (Busch), 63Geography of Man, The, (James), 150Geography of Nowhere, The

(Kunstler), 64Geologic processes, 81Geomorphic processes, 40, 81, 119,

120, 125, 185Germination, 88Germplasm

collections, 146, 147defined, 185

GIS. See Geographic informationsystems (GIS)

Glacial erratic, 81Global Biodiversity Assessment, 145Global environment, 106–107Global warming, 128, 185Goode’s World Atlas, 134Goodlet, J.C., 51Goudey, C.B., 136Grand Canyon ecoregion, 137Grapevines, 113Grasses, drought-tolerant, 110, 111Grassland, 9, 23, 59Gravel, 81Gray-brown podzolic soil, 185Grazing, 90, 96Great American Desert, 9Great Basin, 140Great Depression, 69, 127Great Plains, 9, 36, 78, 80, 102Great soil group, 185Great Wave off Kanagawa, The, 15Green design, 64, 185Greenhouse effect, 128, 185Grizzly bear, 92Groundwater table, 54, 76, 96, 185Gulf-Atlantic Coastal Plain, 82Gullies, 10

Habitatsdefined, 185

214 Index

landform features and, 25Hack, J.T., 51Half-desert, defined, 189Halophytes, 54Hammond, E.H., 51Hart, J.F., 66Herbertson, A.J., 38Herbivores, 29High Plains, 55Hills, G.A., 51Histosol, defined, 185Hoekstra, T.W., 25Hogg, H.C., 47Hokusai, Katsushika, 15Holmes, Henry, 4Home garden, 113Home range, 92, 186Homestead tree, 107, 186Host, G.E., 51Hough, Michael, 30, 70, 85House, 84How Buildings Learn (Brand), 68Huggett, R.J., 46Human development, matching, 156Humid temperate domain, 162–163,

165Hydraulic culture, 14, 186Hydraulic cycle, 186Hydrologic analysis, 99Hydrologic cycle, 40

Igneous rock, 35, 186Impervious-surfaces, 73, 148Inceptisol, defined, 186Indian subcontinent, 70Indigenous species, 186Infrastructures (Wells), 70Intermittent stream, 96, 186International Food Policy Research

Institute (IFPRI), 145International Institute for Applied

Systems Analysis’ (IIASA)Sustainable Boreal ForestResources Project, 138

International Institute of TropicalAgriculture (IITA), 145

International Monetary Fund, 150International Plant Genetic

Resources Institute (IPGRI), 147

International Potato Center, 145International Seeds, Inc., 128International Service for National

Agricultural Research (ISNAR),144

Intrazonal site types, 53–54Invertebrate, defined, 186Irrigation, 30, 96, 110Isachenko, A.G., 38

Jackson, John Brinckerhoff, 4, 60, 66,69

Jackson, Wes, 88

Kame, defined, 186Kansas, 82Karstification, 50, 186Katabatic winds, 85Keys, J.E., 136Kissimmee River, 97Klamath-Siskiyou ecoregion, 137Knight, R.L., 29Köppen, Wladimir, 48Köppen’s climatic classification, 48,

49Kunstler, James, 65Kushlin, A.V., 49

Lake Tahoe, 54, 153, 154, 155Lake Tahoe Regional Planning

Agency, 72, 74Land

arid, 150capability, 73, 186commercial forest, 183coverage allowances, 74defined, 186divisions, 34–38evaluation, 186management, 15–16, 91

Landformsaffected by climates, 40defined, 188impact on ecosystems, 50–51impact on vegetation, 25, 78, 149relief, 94, 186site regions and, 55, 57

Land Institute, The, 88, 168Landres, P.B., 29

Index 215

Landscapebelts, 38climate and, 155design, regional, 112ecological boundary issues and,

28–29ecological diversity of, 37ecosystem, 10, 36ecosystem-behavior relationship

and, 105–106irrigation, 30management-created, 89matching human development

and, 156–157restoration and, 107–115terrestrial and aquatic systems of,

101–104vernacular, 70zone, 38

Landscape and Urban Planning: AnInternational Journal ofLandscape Ecology, LandscapePlanning, and LandscapeDesign, 171

Landscape Ecology Principles inLandscape Architecture andLand-Use Planning (Dranstad),92

Landscape mosaic, 22climate zone and, 50defined, 186structure of, 34subdivisions of, 33

Landscaping with Nature (Cox), 108,134

Landslide(s), 77defined, 187impact on environment, 115–118

Laredo Demonstration Blueprintfarm, 59

Latisol, defined, 187Latitudes, 41, 42Latosolic soils, 33, 34Laurentian Mixed Forest, 3, 118Lava, 43, 81Lawns, 66Lawrence, Robyn Griggs, 69Lee slopes, 52Legumes, 88, 187

Lichen, 54, 187Life zones, 38Lighting fixtures, 69Lithology, 52, 187Lithosequence, defined, 187Logging methods, 77, 117Long-Term Ecological Research

(LTER) sites, 106–107, 139, 147Loomis, J., 92Los Angeles, 13, 30Lost Continent, The (Bryson), 65Love, J. David, 117Lyle, John, 82

Macroclimate, 25defined, 187ecosystem patterns and, 41, 47–48

Macroecosystems. See EcoregionsMagma, 43, 187Malnutrition, 145Mammals, 92Management policy, 101Man and Biosphere program, 91, 150Mapping

biodiversity, 91ecological landtypes and, 101ecoregional, 46–50soil, 80vegetation, 91, 131–132, 143

Maritime Andes, 26Marr, John, 80Marsh, William, 128Mass movement, 120, 187Max’s Pot, 59McHarg, Ian, 17, 32, 82, 84McMahon, G., 136McMansionization, 68McNab, W.H., 136Meadow, 16, 23, 187Mediterranean climate, 95Mediterranean regions, 77–78Megadroughts, 30Merriam, C. Hart, 38Mesoecosystem. See Landscape

mosaicMeteorites, 135Metric system, conversion from, 179Mexico City, 44Michigan Economic Land Survey, 26

216 Index

Microclimatecities and, 86defined, 187forests and, 23vegetation and, 25

Middle East, 70Middleton Hills, 75, 76Milanova, E.V., 49Minnesota, 136Mississippi, 6, 54Mississippi floods of 1993, 85Mississippi River basin, 102Missouri, 136Mixed forest, defined, 187Model, defined, 187Moisture, soil, 52, 57, 78, 80Mojave Desert, 70, 91, 111Mollisol, 46, 187Monocultures, 9, 187Monsoon forest, 189Montane belts, 45Moon, William Least Heat, 66Moraine

defined, 187landscape, 51

Mormon Trail, 4, 6Morphoclimatic zones, 38Morphogenetic regions, 125–127Mountain

climates, 44elevational zonation and, 50range, 34, 76

National Aeronautic and SpaceAdministration (NASA), 146

National Director of LandManagement Planning, 135

National Fire Plan, 95National Geographic Society, 143, 172National Grasslands, 127National Hierarchical Framework of

Ecological Units, 136National Park Service, 2, 142, 172National Resources Inventory (NRI),

138National Science Foundation, 139National Trends Network, 142National Wilderness Preservation

System, 92

National Wildlife Federation, 111Native people, 103Native plants, 78, 107, 108, 148Natural by Design (Phillips), 112Natural Home magazine, 60, 69, 170Natural Resources Information

System (NRIS), 138Nature Conservancy, The, 141, 169Navajo rug, 69Neighborhoods, 68Neotropical migrant bird, 24, 187Nesser, J.A., 136Net primary productivity (NPP), 138Nettle, Daniel, 104New Mexico, 157New Urbanism, 221Nival, 44, 187North America, 8Northern Hemisphere, 53, 86Northern hog sucker, 102, 103Northern Rockies Ecosystem

Protection Act, 92North-facing slopes, 53, 76, 149Norway spruce, 100Noss, R., 137Not So Big House, The (Susanka), 67

Oak Ridge National Laboratory NetPrimary Productivity (NPP)Database, 172

Oasis, 30, 31O’Brien, R.A., 138Odum, E.P., 22, 24, 99Ogallala Aquifer, 96O’ Keeffe, Georgia, 4Old-growth forest, 90, 188Old-House Journal, 69Old Town Fort Collins, 68, 69Oligotrophic lake, 188Omernik, J.M., 103, 142Open woodland, defined, 188Oregon, 89, 137Orme, A.T., 21Ottawa National Forest, 118Out of Place, 30Oxisol, defined, 188Ozark Uplands, 103

Pacific flyway, 24Parking lots, 65, 81

Index 217

Passarge, S., 38Passenger pigeon, 6Passive solar, 60, 188Pastures, 88Pattern-based design, 112, 188Pediment, defined, 188Perennial stream, 96, 188Pergola, 113Permaculture methods, 113Pesticides, 111, 112Phillips, Judith, 112Physiognomy, defined, 188Physiographic regions, 34, 188Piedmont, 84Pinyon-juniper woodland, 46Planet Drum Foundation, 86, 169Planned communities, 63, 68Plant(s)

common and scientific names,175–176

community, 71, 80distribution, 54formation, 47–48, 188irrigation and, 111soil moisture and, 78, 80succession and, 90

Plant Hardiness Zone Map, 38Plateau Journal, 170Plate tectonics, 42Pleistocene, 50

defined, 188glaciers, 140

Plumbing fixtures, 69Podzol, defined, 188Polar domain, 162Pollan, Michael, 112Ponderosa pine forest, 78Porches, 63Potential natural vegetation, 188Potholes, 96Powell, Major John Wesley, 26Prairie

agriculture, 88defined, 188grasslands, 59

Prairie Parkland ecoregion, 4Prairie Pothole region, 96Precipitation

buffalo grass and, 110

ecoregions and, 48elevation impact on, 44

Precolonial fire regimes, 93, 94Prescribed burn, 95, 189Primer on Sustainable Building

(Barnett), 64Pringle, C., 12Pronghorns, 7Province (ecoregion), 48, 50Pyne, Stephen, 78

Quigley, T.M., 137

Railroads, 9Rainfall

exposure to wind and, 51vegetation and, 30–31

Rainforest, 4climate, 40defined, 189tropical, 34, 86

Ranchers, 88Recycling, 69Redesigning the American Lawn

(Bormann), 112Redwoods, 8Red-yellow podzol, defined, 189Regenerative Design for Sustainable

Development (Lyle), 82Region. See EcoregionsRegional diagram technique, 26, 27Regional ecology

defined, 189need for, 6–7, 9–14

Regionalism, defined, 4, 189Regional landscape design, 112Regional planning, 64Regional-scale ecosystem units. See

EcoregionsReimann, Andreas, 32Remote sensed data, 131Reserve-buffer zone system, 91Reservoirs, 78Resiliency, 88, 189Return migration, 68Rice, Bob, 73Rice-Wheat Initiative, 145Rio Grande River, 60Riparian forests, 27, 54, 56

218 Index

Riparian habitats, 21, 129, 189Road construction, 117Roadfood (Stern), 66Roadology, defined, 189Roads, 66, 88, 137Rocky Mountain Institute, 169Rocky Mountains, 27, 45, 53Roof overhangs, 63, 64Rouge plant, 85Rowe, J.S., 2, 19, 46, 47Rudis, V.A., 138Runoff, 84Russian olive, 129, 130

Salt River, 72San Dimas Experimental Forest, 124San Fernando Valley, 32, 120San Francisco, 13San Francisco Bay, 14San Gabriel Mountains, 120San Salvador, 44Savanna, 48, 189Sawyer, J.W.D., 28Scale, defined, 189Schmidt, Andy, 73Schmitz-Gunther, Thomas, 69Schultz, J., 38Sclerophyll, 122, 189Second Nature (Pollan), 112Sediment, 11Sedimentation, 121, 122Seed use, 100Selenium, 90Selva, defined, 189Semiarid, 4

climate, 27defined, 189steppe, 108

Semidesert, defined, 189Semievergreen forest, 189Sense of place, 60, 156–158, 189Seurat, George, 18Shale, 52Sheard, J.W., 2Shelford, V.E., 36Short-grass prairie, 190Short-grass steppe, 10, 24, 45, 46Shrub, defined, 189Siebert, Harry, 73

Sienna, 63Sierozem soil, 183Sierra Club, 75Sierra Club Critical Ecoregions

Program, 172Sierra Nevada Mountains, 73, 86,

155Silvicultural practices, 100Silviculture, 190Site(s), 15, 33

classes, 51defined, 190monitoring, 105–106regions, 55, 57role in planning landscaping, 107topographic variables and, 57toxic-waste, 85vegetation and, 105

Site typesazonal, 53defined, 53intrazonal, 53–54unbalanced chemically, 53–54very dry, 54very shallow, 54very unstable, 54very wet, 54zonal, 53

Ski slopes, 111Slope(s)

chaparral-covered, 124climate and, 55erosion, 76, 77lee, 52ski, 111stability, 118, 120, 190

Slump-earth flows, 115Smith, D.W., 136Smith, R.L., 134Smog, 148Smokey Bear-era, 95Snow, 52Soil

brown forest, 182catena, 51chernozem, 182climate and, 105colluvial, 124desert, 183

Index 219

Soil (Contd.)erosion, 30gray-brown podzolic, 185latosolic, 33mapping, 80moisture, 52, 57, 78, 80orders, 190selenium-rich, 90slip, 120, 190slips, 124, 125topography and, 54–55tundra, 191wildfires impact on, 123yellow forest, 189zonal, 49

Soil Conservation Service surveys,26

Soil formationbedrock lithology and, 52landforms and, 50macroclimates and, 47–48

Solar energy, 86Solar gain, 64Solar radiation, 41, 50Sonoran Desert, 3, 70, 134South America, 26South-facing slopes, 53, 76, 149South Platte River, 96, 102Southern California, 14, 119–122Southern Nevada Water Authority,

111Southern Pacific Railroad Company, 9Southern Rocky Mountain, 137Spatial

defined, 190patterns, 26, 153

Speciescomposition, 29–30defined, 92, 190distribution of imperiled, 141

Spectral data, 131Spectral signature, 132, 190Spellerberg, I.F., 28Spodosol soils, 10, 190Stegner, Wallace, 4, 26Steppe

climates, 40defined, 190

dry, 78forest, 46–47, 188

Stern, Michael, 66Stewardship Across Boundaries

(Knight), 29Stickley, Gustav, 61Storefronts, 66Streams, 11

intermittent, 96, 186landscape and, 102perennial, 96, 188

Strip malls, 65Subarctic climate, 50Subdivide and Conquer: A Modern

Western, 173Suburbs, 65Succession, 36

defined, 54, 190plants and, 90

Sunset magazine, 9Susanka, Sarah, 67Sustainability, defined, 190Sustainable design

defined, 190ecosystems and, 4–6Internet sources, 171–173organizations, 168–169overview of, 1–2periodicals, 170–171publications, 167–168videos, 173

Swanson, F.J., 51, 77Swiss Alpine architecture, 70

Tahoe Basin, 73Tansley, A.G., 37Taoist engineers, 84Taos, New Mexico, 61Targhee National Forest, 28Taxonomy, defined, 190Tayga, defined, 190Technology, environment and,

31–32, 158Tectonic activity, 121, 190Temperate, defined, 190Temperature, 76Tempe Town Lake, 72Tennessee Valley Authority, 26

220 Index

Terrestrial systems, 104Teton National Park, 115, 117Texas, 54Thayer, Robert L., 103Thomas, K.A., 91Thornthwaite, C.W., 51Tidal barrages, 28, 190Timber Culture Act of 1873, 30Timber harvesting, 29, 36, 117–118Toffler, Alvin, 60Topoclimate, 51

defined, 191normal, 53soil moisture and, 57, 76

Topography, 52biodiversity and, 77–78defined, 191impact on climate, 54–55soil-site relationship and, 57vegetation and, 78

Toposequence, 51, 191Toxic-waste sites, 85Traditional Neighborhood Design,

74–76Transcontinental belts, 38Trewartha, G.T., 48Triage, 128Tricart, J., 38Trophy homes, 67Tropical wet climate, 33, 34Tucson, Arizona, 71Tundra

defined, 191division, 49soil, 191

Tupelo forests, 54Twiss, Bob, 73

U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 17U.S. Department of Defense, 146U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 17,

142U.S. Forest Service, 17U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 17,

91, 118, 142U.S. National Arboretum, 38Udvardy, Miklos, 36Ultisol, defined, 191

Union Pacific Railroad, 89United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP), 145United States Department of

Agriculture, 38Upper Great Lakes, 136New Urbanism, 74–76USDA Forest Service, 131, 168, 171,

172USDA Natural Resources

Conservation Service (NRCS),17, 138

USDA Sustainable AgricultureNetwork, 171

USDA UVB (ultraviolet-B) RadiationMonitoring Program, 138, 172

Utah desert, 54

Vale, T.R., 94Valleys, 53Van der Ryn, S., 1, 26, 59, 84, 88,

90, 92Vegetation

aquatic systems and, 104bedrock lithology and, 52climatic climax, 37, 183compensation factors and, 55forest fires and, 93–95intrazonal, 53landform features and, 25, 78, 149maps, 91, 131–132, 143physiognomy, 188potential natural, 188prairie, 88rainfall and, 30–31sites and, 55, 57, 105–106water table and, 54wild, 8zonal, 49zones, 140

Vernacular architecture, 191Vittori, Gail, 60Volcanism, 81von Humbolt, Alexander, 38

Walter, Heinrich, 36Wann, D., 1Washington state, 89

Index 221

Waterconservation, 112diversion, 156purification, 85restrictions, 111, 112table, 54, 117

Watershed, 10, 22defined, 191ecoregions and, 103–104

Waterstained Landscapes: Seeingand Shaping RegionallyDistinctive Places (Woodward),26, 32, 150

Weed(s)barrier, 81buffalo grass and, 110, 111defined, 191

Wells, Malcolm, 70West Africa, 104Wetlands, 85, 96, 97, 191Wet sites, 76White Mountains, 72White spruce, 100Whole Earth, 88, 171Wild Earth, 170Wilderness, 91, 92Wildfires, 95, 122–123Wildflower, 171Wild Garden, 171Wildlands Project, The, 137, 169Wild Lawn Handbook, The (Daniels),

108

Wildlife, 3attracting, to gardens, 114–115corridors, 92populations, 29–30

Wilson, E.O., 149Windmills, 9, 96Windward hill slopes, 51Wood, Grant, 4Woodland, defined, 191Woodland-savanna, defined, 188Woodward, Joan, 26, 28, 32, 80, 86,

150Woolworth, F.W., 67World Bank, 150World War II, 63World Wildlife Fund, 142, 172Wright, Frank Lloyd, 64Wyoming, 4, 90

X-DRAIN, 137, 138Xeriscape design, 112, 191

Yellow forest soil, 189Yellowstone National Park, 28,

95Young Corn (Wood), 4

Zonal site types, 53Zonal soil, 49Zone, defined, 191Zuni (pueblo), 61Zwinger, Ann, 4

222 Index

About the Author and the IllustratorROBERT G. BAILEY (b. 1939, California Coastal Chaparral ecoregion)received his Ph.D. in geography from the University of California, LosAngeles, in 1971. A geographer with the U.S. Forest Service in FortCollins, Colorado, he was leader of the agency’s Ecosystem Manage-ment Analysis Center for many years. Currently, he works for the In-ventory & Monitoring Institute, where he is in charge of ecoregion stud-ies. He has over three decades of experience working with the theoryand practice of ecologically based design and management. He is au-thor of numerous publications on this and related subjects, includingtwo books.

LEV ROPES (b. 1936, Middle Rocky Mountains ecoregion) is a semi-retired consultant, designer, and computer-graphic artist with manyyears of experience helping people to graphically communicate com-plex scientific and technical ideas to their audiences. He worked as alimnologist, groundwater hydrologist, and geochemist for the U.S. Ge-ological Survey. He later founded LCT Graphics, Inc., a Denver firmthat designed and produced exhibits and presentation materials for sci-ence and technology, as well as litigation. He works currently underthe name of Guru Graphics.