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1.2 Network standards

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Organization that set the standards for network:-

a. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

b. Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) andTelecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

c. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)

d. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)e. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

f. Internet Society (ISOC)

g. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) andInternet Corporation for Assigned Names andNumbers (ICANN)

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Networking Standards Organizations

Standards are documented agreements containing

technical specifications

ANSI(American National Standards Institute) is anorganization composed of more than a thousandrepresentatives from industry and government who

together determine standards for the electronics industry

and other fields, such as chemical and nuclear

engineering, health and safety, and construction

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(continued)

ANSIalso represents the United States in settinginternational standards

EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) is a trade organizationcomposed of representatives from electronics

manufacturing firms across the United States

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(continued)

TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) Focuseson standards for information technology, wireless,satellite, fiber optics, and telephone equipment

TIA/EIA alliance are its guidelines for how network cable

should be installed in commercial buildings, known as the

TIA/EIA 568-B Series.

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IEEE(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), orI-triple-E, is an international society composed of

engineering professionals

IEEEgoals are to promote development and education in

the electrical engineering and computer science fields


(continued)

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ISO (International Organization for Standardization),

headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, is a collection of

standards and organizations representing 148 countries

ISOs goal is to establish international technological

standards to facilitate global exchange of information and

barrier-free trade


(continued)

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The ITU(International Telecommunication Union) is aspecialized United Nations agency that regulatesinternational telecommunications, including radio and TVfrequencies, satellite and telephony specifications,

networking infrastructure, and tariffs applied to globalcommunications


(continued)

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(continued)

IAB (Internet Architecture Board) is a technical advisorygroup of researchers and technical professionals

interested in overseeing the Internets design and

management

IETF(Internet Engineering Task Force), the organizationthat sets standards for how systems communicate over

the Internetin particular, how protocols operate andinteract

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(continued) IANA and ICANN

Every computer / host on a network must have a unique

address

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) kept records of

available and reserved IP addresses and determined howaddresses were issued out

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN), a private, nonprofit corporation and is now

ultimately responsible for IP addressing and domain name

management

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1.3 Principles ofcommunication in

networking

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Principles of communication in

networking Source

Channel

Destinations

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SOURCE, CHANNEL & DESTINATION

Source - Sources are objects which encode message/data and transmit the information, via a channel, toone or more receiver. (adalah objek yang encode mesej / data dan menyampaikanmaklumat tersebut, melalui saluran, untuk satu atau lebih penerima)

Channel - refers either to a physical transmission

medium such as a wire, or to a logical connectionover a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel.

Destination - the receiving end of a communicationchannel. It receives decoded messages/informationfrom the sender, who first encoded them. (penerima terakhirdari sebuah saluran komunikasi. Ia menerima decode mesej / maklumat dari penghantar)

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SOURCE, CHANNEL & DESTINATIONCont

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Rules of communication

a. Establish a link

b. Issue a command and command qualifierc. Acknowledgment of command

d. Dissection messagese. Error detection and correction

f. Termination of transmission

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RULES of COMMUNICATION

For two computer-based devices to communicate with oneanother, even at the lowest level, a number of rule must be

satisfied.

A Point to Point Link

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(I) Establish a link

Device 1 checks to see if Device 2 is present on thelink by sending a specific "enquiry" message.

If the link is active and device 2 is active then itshould respond by sending back an"acknowledgement" message. (Jika link tersebut aktif dan peranti 2 jugaaktif maka ia akan memberi maklum balas dengan menghantar mesej ACK)

Device 1 must track the time that device 2 takes torespond. (peranti 1 perlu menjejaki masa yang diperlukan untuk peranti 2 memberi maklumbalas)

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(I) Establish a link

If device 2 does not respond within a time interval(defined by the protocol) then device 1 assumes that

the link is not active. This is called a transmission"time-out" error. (Jika peranti 2 tidak memberi maklumbalas dalam selang waktu(ditentukan oleh protokol), maka peranti 1 menganggap bahawa link sudah tidak aktif. Ini disebuttransmisi "time-out" error.)

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(II) Issues a command and command qualifier

Device 1 sends device 2 a message, in a predefinedformat, which tells device 2 that a file is to be

transferred. (peranti 1 akan menghantar mesej ke peranti 2 mengikut format dimana ia akanmemberitahu peranti 2 bahawa fail akan dihantar)

device 1 tells device 2 what to do with the file. For

example, device 1 may tell device 2 to place theincoming file onto disk storage, with the file-name"FRED". (peranti 1 akan memberitahu peranti 2 apa yang harus dilakukan dengan fail tersebut.Sebagai contoh, peranti 1 akan memberitahu peranti 2 untuk menyimpan file yang dihantar ke dalam

cakera simpanan, dengan nama-fail "FRED".)

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(III) Acknowledgment of command

If device 2 has correctly received the command andqualifier from device 1, and is capable of carrying out

the command, then it sends device 1 anacknowledgement message. (Jika peranti 2 telah menerima perintah dari

peranti 1, dan mampu melaksanakan perintah tersebut, maka akan ia akan menghantar ACK)

The acknowledgement message tells device 1 that itcan now proceed with further action needed to fulfillthe command. (ACK memberitahu peranti 1 bahawa sekarang ia boleh meneruskantindakan yang selanjutnya bagi memenuhi perintah)

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Acknowledgment of commandCont

If device 2 is unable to act upon the command fromdevice 1, then it must respond with an error

message. (Jika peranti 2 tidak boleh bertindak atas arahan dari peranti 1, maka ia harusmemberi maklumbalas dengan mesej ralat(negarif acknowledgment))

An error could occur on the receiver, for example,

the disk on which the incoming file is to be stored, isalready full. The error response message would telldevice 1 that it should not proceed with its proposed

course of action.(Kesalahan biasa terjadi pada penerima, contohnya, cakera tempat fail

yang akan disimpan, sudah penuh. Mesej kesalahan tersebut akan memberitahu peranti 1 agar tidakmeneruskan tindakan/proses)

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(IV) Dissection messages

All messages, command and otherwise, must bebroken down into packets of manageable size for

transmission. (Semua mesej, perintah dan sebaliknya, perlu dipecah menjadi pakej-pakej saizyang mudah untuk dikendalikan bagi penghantaran)

Thus if an error should occur in a packet, then only

that packet needs to be re-transmitted (and not theentire message). (jika berlaku ralat, hanya paket itu sahaja yang perlu dihantar semula)

Therefore, when device 1 wishes to transfer a largefile to device 2, the file is broken up into packets and

transmitted packet by packet. (Oleh kerana itu, apabila peranti 1 inginmemindahkan fail besar ke peranti 2, fail dipecah menjadi paket-paket dan di hantar paket demi paket)

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(V) Error detection and Correction

When device 1 sends a message packet to device 2, itperforms a mathematical calculation (manipulation)

on every unit of data transmitted. (Apabila peranti 1 menghantar paketmesej ke peranti 2, ia melakukan pengiraan matematik (manipulasi) pada setiap unit data yang dihantar)

This calculation is transmitted to device 2

immediately after the message. (Pengiraan ini akan dihantar ke peranti 2selepas mesej)

Device 2 performs exactly the same mathematical

calculation on its incoming data as device 1. (peranti 2melakukan pengiraan matematik pada data yang masuk sama seperti yang dilakukan oleh peranti 1 padadata tersebut)

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(V) Error detection and Correction

Device 2 also reads in the calculation sent by device 1and compares it with the local calculation. (peranti 2 jugamembaca pengiraan yang dihantar oleh peranti 1 dan membandingkannya dengan pengiraan yang telahdibuat)

If the two calculations provide an identical result,then it is assumed that the incoming message wasnot corrupted on the link. (Jika dua pengiraan memberikan hasil yang sama,maka diandaikan bahawa mesej yang masuk tidak rosak pada link)

Device 2 can then issue a positive acknowledgement

to device 1 to indicate that it is ready for the nextmessage. (peranti 2 kemudiannya boleh mengeluarkan pengakuan positif(ACK) kepada peranti 1untuk menunjukkan bahawa ia bersedia untuk menerima mesej seterusnya)

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Error detection and CorrectionCont

If the two calculations are inconsistent, then itis assumed that incoming data has beencorrupted, and device 2 issues a "negativeacknowledgement" message to device 1,which indicates that the previous datamessage must be re-transmitted. (Jika dua pengiraan yangtidak konsisten, maka dianggap bahawa data yang masuk telah rosak, dan peranti 2 akan mengeluarkan

pengakuan "negatif" ke peranti 1, yang menunjukkan bahawa mesej data tersebut perlu dihantar semula)

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(VI) Termination of transmission

Device 1 transmits a file, piece-wise, ensuring thateach packet is correctly received by device 2, using

the technique described in (v). (peranti 1 akan menghantar file dalampecahan paket dan memastikan paket2 tersebut diterima oleh peranti 2 dengan betul denganmenggunakan kaedah (V))

After the last piece of the file is transmitted to device2 and positively acknowledged, then device 1 mustterminate the transmission. (Setelah bahagian terakhir dari fail telah dihantarke peranti 2 dan ACK positif diakui, maka peranti 1 harus berhenti penghantaran)

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(VI) Termination of transmission

Device 1 sends an "end of transmission message to

device 2. (peranti 1 menghantar penamatan penghantaran" mesej ke peranti 2)

This allows device 2 to close the stored file andreturn to other duties. (ini membolehkan peranti 2 untuk memberhentikan proses

penyimpanan data dan meneruskan dengan tugas yang lain)

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File Transfer Sequence under Typical Protocol

Terminologies in Relation to

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Terminologies in Relation to

Communication in Networking:

a. Message Encoding

b. Message Formatting

c. Message Size

d. Message Timing

e. Message Patterns

TERMINOLOGIES

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TERMINOLOGIES

There are several terminologies in relation to

communication in networking:

(I) M E di

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(I) Message Encoding

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORK

Encoding occurs in computer communication. Encoding

between hosts must be in an appropriate form for the

medium.(Encoding terjadi dalam komunikasi komputer. Encoding antara host

perlu dalam bentuk yang tepat/sesuai untuk medium)

Messages sent across the network are first converted

into bits by the sending host. Each bit is encoded into apattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses

depending on the network media over which the bits

are transmitted. (Mesej yang dihantar di seluruh rangkaian terlebih dahuluditukarkan kepada bit oleh penghantar. Setiap bit akan dikodekan menjadi pola suara,gelombang cahaya, atau impuls elektrik bergantung pada media rangkaian di mana bit

dihantar)

M E di C t

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Message EncodingCont

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORKINTRODUCTION TO NETWORK

The destination host receives and decodes the signals in order to interpret the

message. (penerima akan menerima dan menterjemah isyarat-isyarat untuk menginterpretasikanmesej)

(II) Message Formatting

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(II) Message Formatting

When a message is sent from source to destination,

it must use a specific format or structure. (Ketika mesejdihantar dari sumber ke destinasi, ia harus menggunakan format atau struktur yang tertentu)

Message formats depend on the type of message

and the channel that is used to deliver the message.(format Mesej bergantung pada jenis mesej dan saluran yang digunakan untuk menyampaikan mesej)

The process of placing one message format (the

letter) inside another message format (the

envelope) is called encapsulation. (Proses menempatkan satu formatmesej (huruf) ke dalam format yang lain (sampul surat) disebut encapsulation)

Message Formatting Cont

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Message FormattingCont

De-encapsulation occurs when the process is

reversed by the recipient and the letter is removed

from the envelope. (De-encapsulation berlaku apabila proses dibatalkan olehpenerima dan surat akan dikeluarkan dari sampul surat)

Each computer message is encapsulated in a specific

format, called a frame, before it is sent over thenetwork. (Setiap mesej komputer dirumuskan dalam format khusus, yang disebut rangka,sebelum dihantar melalui rangkaian)

A frame acts like an envelope; it provides theaddress of the intended destination and the address

of the source host. (Sebuah rangka bertindak seperti sampul surat, ia mempunyai

alamat destinasi dan alamat sumber)

Message Formatting Cont

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Message FormattingCont

(III) Message Size

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(III) Message Size

when a long message is sent from one host to

another over a network, it is necessary to break the

message into smaller pieces. (apabila mesej yang panjang dihantar dari satuhost ke host yang lain melalui rangkaian, ia perlu untuk dipecahkan kepada beberapa bahagian)

The rules that govern the size of the pieces, or

frames, communicated across the network are verystrict. They can also be different, depending on the

channel used. Frames that are too long or too short

are not delivered. (Peraturan-peraturan yang menetapkan saiz potongan, atau rangka,dihubungkan di seluruh rangkaian sangat ketat. Ia juga berbeza, bergantung pada saluran yang

digunakan. Bingkai yang terlalu panjang atau terlalu pendek tidak akan dihantar)

Message Size Cont

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Message SizeCont

(IV) Message Timing

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(IV) Message Timing

Timing effects how much information can be sent

and the speed that it can be delivered. (Timing memberi kesankepada berapa banyak maklumat yang boleh dihantar dan kelajuan penghantaran)

In network communication, a sending host can

transmit messages at a faster rate than the

destination host can receive and process. (penghantar bolehmenghantar mesej lebih laju berbanding keupayaan destinasi menerima dan memproses mesej)

Source and destination hosts use flow control to

negotiate correct timing for successfulcommunication. (sumber dan destinasi akan menggunakan flow control untuk berundingtempoh yang betul bagi memastikan komunikasi berjaya)

Message Timing Cont

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Message TimingCont

Hosts on the network have rules that specify how

long to wait for responses and what action to take if

a response timeout occurs. (Host di jaringan mempunyai peraturan yangmenentukan berapa lama untuk menunggu maklumbalas dan tindakan yang harus diambil jika tamat

waktu maklumbalas berlaku)

(V) Message Patterns

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(V) Message Patterns

There are the standard message patterns in relation to human

communication

Unicast

Multicast

Broadcast

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Message PatternsCont

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Message PatternsCont

If all hosts on the network need to receive the

message at the same time, a broadcast is used.

Broadcasting represents a one-to-all messagepattern. (Jika semua host dalam rangkaian perlu menerima mesej pada masa yang sama,broadcast akan digunakan. Broadcast merupakan pola mesej satu-untuk-semua)

Additionally, hosts have requirements foracknowledged versus unacknowledged messages.

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Identify if a communication problem,

in a given scenario, deals with message

format, timing, message pattern, or

message size.

Documents

EC301 Chapter 1 (1.2 and 1.3)