ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Early to high medieval colonization and alluvial landscapetransformation of the Labe valley (Czech Republic): evaluationof archaeological, pollen and macrofossil evidence

Radka Kozakova • Petr Pokorny • Jan Marık •

Vera Culıkova • Ivana Bohacova • Adela Pokorna

Received: 25 April 2013 / Accepted: 23 February 2014

� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014

Abstract In the High Middle Ages, a wave of landscape

transformation which originated in western Europe swept

across the east-central part of the subcontinent. In the

Czech Republic, this happened during the 13th century and

it had the same environmental attributes as in the rest of

Europe—a considerable increase in population, vast

deforestation resulting in a rapid increase in soil erosion,

irreversible changes in forest species composition and

overall formation of a cultural landscape. In the Czech

Republic, the dynamics of such a radical change are poorly

understood because it would require detailed archaeologi-

cal, historical and palaeoecological insight into develop-

ments during the Early Middle Ages—a demand that is

mostly not met. The aim of this paper is to fill in this gap.

Archaeological and historical data from three early medi-

eval strongholds located in central Bohemia, at Libice nad

Cidlinou, Stara Boleslav and Hradistko, are summarized

and evaluated. The first two sites represent well-known

political and religious centres of the early Czech state in

the 10 to 11th centuries, while the last was of secondary

importance. These archaeological sites have radiocarbon

dated pollen and plant macrofossil evidence from oxbow

sedimentary sequences which are situated in the immediate

vicinity of the strongholds. The issue of fluvial transport of

pollen and macrofossils is also discussed. Both pollen and

macrofossil data from Hradistko show surprisingly small

impact of the stronghold on the forested alluvial environ-

ment. The vicinity of Stara Boleslav was intensively

affected by human activity only during the later 11th

century. It has not been possible to trace any impact of the

foundation of the stronghold at Libice nad Cidlinou on the

landscape. Medieval landscape change began before the

13th century in some places, as shown by the data from

Stara Boleslav.

Keywords Human impact � Medieval � Pollen �Macrofossils � Stronghold � Alluvial landscapes

Introduction

The landscape transformation that occurred at the begin-

ning of High Middle Ages in western and central Europe is

reflected in many pollen diagrams (Rosch 2000; Ralska-

Jasiewiczova et al. 2004; Brown and Pluskowski 2011;

Giesecke et al. 2011; Wieckowska et al. 2012). This event,

with such striking and widespread effects, was already

recognised by Franz Firbas who distinguished a biostrati-

graphic period called the Jungsubatlantikum (Later Sub-

atlantic) (Firbas 1949). In the Czech Republic, this radical

landscape transformation occurred around the mid 13th

century AD (Klapste 2012). At that time, the population

grew substantially, probably in connection with the process

of massive colonization. Large numbers of new inhabitants

created the need to establish an appropriate pattern of

settlements, which has survived with only little change

Electronic supplementary material The online version of thisarticle (doi:10.1007/s00334-014-0447-1) contains supplementarymaterial, which is available to authorized users.

R. Kozakova (&) � J. Marık � V. Culıkova � I. Bohacova �A. Pokorna

Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the

Czech Republic, Prague, v.v.i. Letenska 4, 118 01 Prague 1,

Czech Republic

e-mail: kozakova@arup.cas.cz

P. Pokorny

Centre for Theoretical Study, Charles University in Prague and

the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Jilska 1,

110 00 Prague 1, Czech Republic

123

Veget Hist Archaeobot

DOI 10.1007/s00334-014-0447-1

until today. In the course of a single century, increased

human activity formed a cultural landscape that was much

more similar to the modern landscape than to the landscape

of, for instance, the 19th century (Opravil 1983; Sadlo et al.

2008).

We can consider the Early Middle Ages as a transitional

period when all the later transformation must have started.

Archaeological data from the Czech Republic has shown a

gradual trend of concentration and extension of populated

areas as early as the 6th century as a result of increasing

population, following its great decline in the Migration

Period (Klapste 1994; Kuna and Profantova 2005). In

combination with early written sources from the beginning

of the 10th century, archaeological data provide a rather

comprehensive picture of political organization and the

basic structure of the emergence of the early medieval

Czech state (Slama 1988; Bohacova 2011). However, our

knowledge of economic structure or cultural landscape

development remains rather limited. The pollen data

mostly give us an idea about landscape characteristics of a

wider region, as the sampling sites are usually located in

wetlands and thus far from the populated areas. Therefore,

we are not exactly familiar with the situation of the cultural

landscape before the 13th century, and whether there was

an overall progressive increase in human activities, or

whether isolated patches of highly altered cultural land-

scape only existed around the important population centres

that gradually grew and later merged into a continuous

agricultural landscape.

This paper focuses on the above-mentioned issues. As a

background, archaeological and historical data from three

early medieval strongholds situated on alluvial lowlands of

the river Labe floodplain within the old settlement zone of

the Czech Republic, Stara Boleslav, Libice nad Cidlinou

and Hradistko, are summarized (Fig. 1). The first two sites

played an important role in the formation processes of the

early medieval Czech state during the tenth and 11th

centuries. The seats of local rulers were based at Stara

Boleslav and Libice nad Cidlinou, and these strongholds

were also centres of increasing Christianity, and overall

central places with relatively high population densities and

levels of craft production (Bohacova ed. 2003; Marık

2009). The stronghold at Hradistko is representative of a

later feature of the settlement structure. It is smaller in size,

shows limited evidence of craft production and was, of

course, probably inhabited by a smaller group of people

(see below). Sites of this type filled in the spaces between

important sites of the first rank (Marık 2013).

While searching for archaeobotanical evidence, we were

able to obtain pollen and macrofossils from the sediments

of old oxbow lakes in old river channels that are located in

the immediate vicinity of the strongholds (Figs. 2, 3, 4). In

the course of ongoing archaeological research in Stara

Boleslav and Libice nad Cidlinou, numerous palaeoenvi-

ronmental studies on pollen, plant macrofossils and bones

have already been performed on samples from cultural

layers (Culıkova 1999, 2003, 2006; Mlıkovsky 2003).

Unfortunately, the application of the data from cultural

layers to the drawing of conclusions regarding landscape

development is rather limited. In the territory of the present

Czech Republic, other important alluvial strongholds

Fig. 1 Czech Republic with the indications of early medieval centres

mentioned in the text (dots) and our sites (squares): 1 Stara Boleslav,

2 Libice nad Cidlinou, 3 Hradistko

Fig. 2 Map showing the Stara Boleslav stronghold with the indica-

tions of early medieval archaeological finds and pollen and macro-

fossil profiles. Pollen profile Stara Boleslav 2 (grey star) was

analyzed by Eva Brızova (1999)

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

existed, especially the significant centres of the Great

Moravian Empire founded during the 19th century, the

sites of Mikulcice and Pohansko (Fig. 1; Machacek et al.

2007). Pollen and macrofossil data from these two

strongholds were obtained from flood loams, subfossil soils

and partly also from cultural layers (Svobodova 1990;

Dolakova et al. 2010). A complicated sedimentology

together with the absence of radiocarbon dates makes the

comparison of those results with our data difficult. In the

case of some off-site profiles, the absence of radiocarbon

dates again makes their applicability for chronological

purposes problematic (Svobodova 1990). Thus, due to the

circumstances mentioned above, no really close analogies

for the results presented here can be found in the present

Czech Republic.

We believe that the comparison of historical, archaeo-

logical and palaeoecological data will allow us to deter-

mine the impact the strongholds exercised on their natural

environment in great detail. Nevertheless, there exist cer-

tain limits to our data, especially in the case of pollen

evidence. Pollen data from old oxbows require specific

methodological approaches, which are discussed and taken

into account in our study.

The following questions will also be asked and dis-

cussed in this article: (1) Is our pollen and macrofossil

evidence sensitive enough to reflect settlement events; at

least those that are attested by archaeological research? (2)

Did the early medieval strongholds continue from some

previous settlements on the sites or their close vicinity? (3)

How did the foundation of the strongholds influence the

natural environment in their surroundings? (4) Was the

landscape surrounding the strongholds already significantly

changed by human activity in early medieval times or did

the radical landscape transformation occur only in the High

Medieval Ages?

Location and description of sites

Natural conditions

All the three studied strongholds are situated in the central

Bohemian lowland that is significantly influenced by the

river Labe (Fig. 1). The pre-Quaternary bedrock consists of

Upper Cretaceous sediments, mostly claystones, siltstones

and marlstones. The wide and shallow valley of the river

Labe is filled with Quaternary sands and gravels that form

fluvial terraces, of which the latest and at the same moment

the lowest one is of early Holocene age (Dreslerova et al.

2004). All the observed sites are located on geomorpho-

logical relicts of these terraces in close contact with the

Holocene floodplain and with abandoned oxbows. In

comparison with the rest of the Czech Republic, the region

has a relatively high mean annual temperature (9–10 �C)

Fig. 3 Map showing the Libice nad Cidlinou stronghold with the

indications of early medieval archaeological finds and pollen and

macrofossil profile

Fig. 4 Map showing the Hradistko stronghold with the indications of

early medieval archaeological finds and pollen and macrofossil profile

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

and a relatively lower mean annual amount of rainfall

(560–600 mm). The present day landscape is cultural with

cultivated fields and little remaining woodland.

Archaeological and historical background

Stara Boleslav

The stronghold was founded on a remnant of a fluvial terrace,

which rises at least 2 m above the alluvium of the floodplain

(Fig. 2). The area surrounding the stronghold is one of the

regions which have been continuously inhabited since the

late Neolithic period (4200–2200 cal. BC). A combination of

historical and archaeological sources dates the foundation of

the Stara Boleslav stronghold to around AD 900 (Bohacova

ed. 2003; Bohacova 2006). Stara Boleslav was a seat of the

Premyslids dynasty in the early development phases of the

Czech state. The stronghold was situated at the edge of the

area controlled by the Premyslids at the crossing of the river

Labe by the important road leading from central Bohemia to

the north and northeast which formed a connection with the

principal European network of roads.

The fortified part of the stronghold covered approxi-

mately 5 ha. The intensively populated outer bailey (11 ha)

adjoined the fortified part to the east and no fortification

has been found there so far (Fig. 2). According to

archaeological evidence it seems that there was no early

medieval settlement immediately prior to the 19th century,

when the stronghold of Stara Boleslav was founded.

Archaeological finds from earlier phases of the strong-

hold’s existence have clearly showed that the inhabitants of

Stara Boleslav were of a rather exclusive social status

(Bohacova 2003). At that time, the ruler’s power was

demonstrated not only by the foundation of a church, but

also by construction of a unique fortification wall.

Later, prior to the mid 11th century, Stara Boleslav

became a primary religious centre of the Czech state, and

one of the earliest canonries with an appropriate basilica

and two other churches were built there. Precisely at this

period of time, archaeological evidence shows striking

changes in organization and use of the inhabited areas,

such as new burial grounds around the churches or a paving

of previously inhabited areas in the stronghold’s centre. At

the same time, local craft production significantly

increased, especially local pottery and floor tiles, and

processing of silver, iron and non-ferrous metals.

No later than the 12th century, Stara Boleslav started to

lose its importance. Archaeological evidence from this time

has revealed a decreased rate of formation of cultural layers,

and a lack of maintenance of the infrastructure as well as

few repairs to the above-mentioned stone fortification.

Continuity in deposition of cultural layers ends some time

during the first half of the 13th century. Archaeological finds

from the beginning of the High Middle Ages in the first half

of the 13th century are rather rare, which means that

development of the stronghold of Stara Boleslav did not

continue. Even though the stronghold was still inhabited, its

central part was not rebuilt or reconstructed.

In its broader vicinity, the early medieval settlement

followed the edges of the river floodplain on the left bank

of the river Labe, between the city of Prague (Praha) and

Stara Boleslav, also on the long distance trade road, men-

tioned above. During the course of the eleventh and 12th

centuries, new domains belonging to several Prague reli-

gious institutions were founded in the area between Prague

and Stara Boleslav. On the other hand, areas adjoining the

stronghold to the east were rather thinly populated and only

a little farmed in the early medieval period.

Libice nad Cidlinou

The stronghold of Libice nad Cidlinou (from now on

referred to as Libice) was founded on two island-like

remnants of a fluvial terrace with a total area of 24 ha on

which stand the inner and outer baileys, or courtyards. The

terrace topography was created by the erosion of the rivers

Labe and Cidlina (Fig. 3).

The earliest traces of settlement on these two areas of

fluvial terraces are dated to the middle Bronze Age (ca.

1600–1200 cal. BC). The earliest early medieval settlement

at the site can be associated with the arrival of the Slavonic

ethnic group in the course of the sixth and 7th centuries. At

this time, archaeological data indicate that an unfortified

smaller settlement stood on the outer bailey. A find of belt

fittings discovered in the inner bailey suggests settlement

continuity during the seventh and 8th centuries. A distinct

increase in settlement activities at the site is dated to the

late 9th century, when large burial grounds were estab-

lished in the inner bailey and its close surroundings

(Fig. 3). Finds of graves containing jewellery and weapons

definitely corroborate the presence of higher social strata.

The major change in settlement intensity and structure at

the end of the 9th century can be interpreted as a founda-

tion phase of the stronghold. The position of the stronghold

of Libice at the crossing point of two long-distance trans-

port and trade routes leading northwards to Silesia and

eastwards across Moravia to eastern Europe was very

beneficial to it. From the late 9th century onwards, a new

settlement zone appeared on the northern bank of the river

Cidlina that stood apart from the central areas of the

stronghold with the inner and outer baileys. Another

important change in the stronghold’s history occurred in

the mid 10th century when a stone church was built in the

inner bailey. At the same time, a fortification was built

encircling the inner and outer baileys. The existence of an

earlier fortification dated to the late 9th century is also

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

plausible, but no absolutely reliable evidence has survived.

In the second half of the 13th century, Libice appeared for

the first time in written sources in connection with the

Slavnıck dynasty, a noble family who ruled the stronghold

until AD 995. During the 11th century, there is significantly

less settlement evidence at the stronghold, both in the

fortified centre and its vicinity. Settlements on the north

bank of the river Cidlina were abandoned and the fortified

section of the stronghold was used only as a burial ground.

The inner bailey was also abandoned and a new village,

already in High Medieval style, was founded in the outer

bailey. In the year 1130, the stronghold of Libice appeared

in written sources for the last time as a fortified centre

(oppidum).

The fact that the stronghold of Libice was an important

early medieval centre is reflected in both archaeological

and written sources. Among crafts, there is archaeological

evidence for iron production, jewellery workshops where

gold and silver were used and textile production reflected

by numerous finds of whorls. The mint that according to

the written sources must have existed at the stronghold at

the end of the 10th century has remained so far archaeo-

logically undetected. Economic models suggest that the

main resources such as crops, fuel wood, timber and stones

for various constructions, which were needed for life at the

stronghold, could mostly be obtained from the surrounding

land up to a maximum radius of 4 km (Marık 2009). The

fact that only a few other settlements have been found in

this area supports this presumption.

Hradistko

This settlement is situated on the east bank of the river

Labe on a sand and gravel fluvial terrace remnant,

approximately 7.5 km south of Libice (Fig. 4). The total

area of the settlement covered 5.2 ha. In the eastern part of

the site, apparent remnants of fortification, which encircled

part of the settlement (2.4 ha), are still visible in the fields.

During the surface surveying, two distinct concentrations

of early medieval pottery were observed, one within the

fortified area, while the other was beyond the fortification.

Tentatively, the foundation of this settlement can be dated

to the transition from the tenth to the 11th century, and it

was probably abandoned by the 12th century. Even though

the stronghold of Hradistko is relatively less known, the

site is interesting from the point of view of the regional

settlement structure development. One of the long-distance

routes running towards Libice and Stara Boleslav passes by

the Hradistko stronghold. Another important regional

centre was the site of Kolın that is situated approximately

11.5 km to the south of the stronghold of Libice (Fig. 1). It

seems that Hradistko and two other similar settlements

located between Libice and Kolın were probably founded

to meet the demands for more intensive agricultural pro-

duction. They may also represent the result of the

expanding state administration of the young Czech state.

Demographic estimates

Assessment of the numbers of people living in the early

medieval strongholds remains rather problematic. No

written sources that could be used for such demographic

estimations have survived and thus the estimates can only

be based on archaeological data. Due to the rather frag-

mentary character of archaeological evidence, only prob-

able figures with quite wide error ranges can be predicted.

For the demographic estimates, the extent and structure

of burial grounds, size of houses or area of the settlement

(Hassan 1978) can be used as further indicators. In the case

of early medieval strongholds, the data from burial grounds

are the most suitable, however these have only rarely been

completely excavated. For the sites discussed in this paper,

Table 1 Overview of the radiocarbon dates. The measurements were made in the radiocarbon laboratory in Poznan, Poland (AMS method) and

in the CRL radiocarbon laboratory in Prague (decay counting method)

Site Depth (cm) Type Lab. code 14C age (years BP) Cal. age AD (1r-range) Material

Stara Boleslav 60–65 AMS Poz-26551 1,010 ± 30 1,013 ± 17 Fruits of Carex

Stara Boleslav 75 Conv. 7161 1,166 ± 82 850 ± 96 Wood

Stara Boleslav 100–110 Conv. 7160 1,559 ± 87 488 ± 85 Wood

Libice 26–29 AMS Poz-33152 945 ± 35 1,089 ± 48 Fruits of Carex

Libice 71–74 AMS Poz-33153 1,070 ± 30 955 ± 42 Fruits of Carex, Sparganium

Libice 113–116 AMS Poz-33150 1,325 ± 35 702 ± 42 Fruits of Carex, Potamogeton

Hradistko 107 AMS Poz-29398 760 ± 30 1,249 ± 19 Bark

Hradistko 140 AMS Poz-29399 1,160 ± 30 871 ± 58 Fragment of fruit

Hradistko 161 AMS Poz-33146 1,170 ± 35 858 ± 60 Twig

Hradistko 182 AMS Poz-29400 1,230 ± 30 781 ± 62 Twig

The radiocarbon dates were calibrated using the Cal Pal Online programme (Danzeglocke et al. 2012)

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

the only sufficient data come from Libice, where a rather

dense network of archaeological test pits has enabled the

reconstruction of the most probable extent of burial

grounds there which have not been excavated so far. On the

basis of this reconstruction and the data obtained from

excavated burials, the number of inhabitants of Libice in

the 10th century can be estimated as 600–900 (Marık

2009). In the case of the other two sites, Stara Boleslav and

Hradistko, we are lacking either a sufficient number of

excavated burials or we do not know the extent of the

burial grounds. In the case of Stara Boleslav, the size of

houses cannot be used as an indicator because the structure

of the inhabited area is unknown. Therefore, the last

approach, the least accurate one, based on the size of the

populated area can be applied. This approach is usually

used for population size estimates for ancient towns in the

eastern Mediterranean (Kolb 2005). However, these towns

were of various structures and fulfilled very different

functions and so the regularly applied figure of 200–300

inhabitants per hectare applied there cannot be simply

transposed to the central Bohemian region. Population

estimates from Libice (total area 24 ha) indicate a figure of

25–37.5 inhabitants/ha. Similar results (37.8 inhabitants/ha)

have been obtained in demographic analyses of burials that

were performed on the early medieval stronghold of

Mikulcice (Stloukal and Vyhnanek 1976) as well as the

early medieval town of Haithabu in northern Germany

(42 inhabitants/ha; Steuer 1984). By using the figure from

Libice we can estimate 400–650 inhabitants for Stara Bo-

leslav and 90–150 for Hradistko.

Materials and methods

Pollen and macrofossil data

Each sedimentary profile was sampled from a trench which

was dug into an old oxbow as close as possible to each

fortified settlement (Figs. 2, 3, 4). Sediments were sampled

into metal monolith boxes 50 cm long, 11 cm wide and

7.5 cm deep. Individual pollen subsamples were collected

with 2 ml syringes at 3 cm intervals. The upper parts of the

profiles were removed because the recent soil horizons

could have been cultivated in recent decades and, besides,

the material was aerated and thus contained only degraded

pollen grains and macrofossils. All three sites have

revealed similar sedimentation dynamics, with organic

sediments combined with fine silt at the base of each profile

and thick flood loam deposits in the upper part.

Samples for pollen analysis were prepared according to

Fægri and Iversen (1989). Sediment was digested in 10 %

KOH, carbonates were removed by applying concentrated

HCl, silicates dissolved in concentrated HF and most of the

organic material removed during acetolysis, using acetic

anhydride and sulphuric acid in a 1:9 ratio. Usually, more

than 500 grains were counted per sample. Pollen types

were defined according to Punt (1984), Reille (1992) and

Beug (2004). Pollen grains were well preserved in most of

the samples from organic as well as fluvial sediments. In

the case of the site of Libice, no pollen samples in the

interval between 44 and 72 cm were analysed, because the

pollen in this section was strongly degraded or completely

Fig. 5 Percentage pollen diagram of selected taxa for the site of Stara

Boleslav, analyzed by P. Pokorny. Grey silhouettes represent 910

exaggeration of the scale. Arrow indicates expected date of founda-

tion of the stronghold. Lithology: 1 fluvial sand, 2 organic sediment

with sand (grains up to 1 mm), 3 organic sediment with wood and

plant macrofossils, 4 organic sediment with a certain amount of flood

loam

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

absent. Similarly, in the macrofossil diagram, samples

between 37 and 67 cm were excluded for their low content

of macrofossils (0–16).

The pollen diagrams are based on a total terrestrial

pollen sum from which the following taxa were excluded,

Alnus, Salix, all aquatic and wetland herbs and all non-

pollen objects. Microscopic charcoal particles were coun-

ted using the point-count method (Tolonen 1986). The

curves of all pollen and non-pollen objects that were

excluded from the sum were calculated as percentages of

the total terrestrial pollen sum. Our data from Stara Bole-

slav are compared with earlier research, which was sam-

pled from the same oxbow as our pollen site, and is

referred to here as Stara Boleslav 2 (Fig. 2; Brızova 1999).

For macrofossil analysis, the sampling intervals were

3 cm (Hradistko and Libice) and 5 cm (Stara Boleslav).

The sediment was wet sieved on 0.25 and 0.5 mm meshes.

Plant diaspores and vegetative parts were then picked out

under a dissecting microscope.

Pollen and macrofossil diagrams were plotted using

Tilia 1.7.16 (Grimm 1992). Diagrams were zoned subjec-

tively according to distinct changes in presence and

abundance of ecologically important taxa.

The radiocarbon dates for the profiles are presented in

Table 1 with all complementary information.

Archaeological research

The site of Stara Boleslav was intensively explored in the

course of a systematic rescue archaeological research pro-

gramme which was conducted especially in the years

1988–2001, when some representative archaeological sites

were excavated both in the centre and in the adjacent areas of

the stronghold (Bohacova 2003, 2006, 2011). Stratification

of the sediments showed several early medieval horizons

which could be dated at least to a time interval on the basis of

presence of the Prague pottery sequence, whose chronology

was defined during the excavations at Prazsky hrad (Prague

castle) by available dendrochronological dates (Bohacova

2001). Also, written sources from the tenth and 11th centu-

ries have provided some dating information because several

medieval authors mentioned at least approximate dates of

some events which can be detected archaeologically, such as

construction of the basilica in AD 1039–1046, or the unique

stone fortification of the 930 s.

The stronghold of Libice has been archaeologically sur-

veyed continuously since 1949. Archaeological test pits cover

approximately 5 % of the total fortified area and a further

15,000 m2 have been excavated in the adjoining village, where

the majority of building activities have been accompanied by

rescue archaeological fieldwork. Archaeological research

conducted on the inner bailey occurred mainly in 1949–1974

and focused predominantly on the church and adjoining burial

ground. Since 2010, the entire inner bailey has been studied by

non-destructive methods such as geophysical survey, surface

collections or aerial photographic interpretation.

As the stronghold of Hradistko is omitted from the

written sources, we must rely solely on archaeological

evidence. The earliest archaeological test pits excavated at

the end of the 19th century definitely dated the site to the

early medieval period. Several settlement features from the

tenth to 11th centuries were excavated in 1990. Later

analytical surface collections have enabled estimation of

the total extent of the settlement (Fig. 4).

Fig. 5 continued

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

Results

Stara Boleslav

Pollen data

SB P1 (AD 399–1026) According to the calibrated radio-

carbon chronology, the sedimentary record starts around AD

400 (Fig. 5). The composition of pollen spectra is steady,

with a prevalence of Quercus. Even though decreases in

Quercus are noticeable, but only in several single layers, in

general no profound decrease in arboreal pollen is evident

during this zone. There was an area of cultural landscape

indicated by low and discontinuous pollen curves of cere-

als, ruderals and weeds, and this was encircled by the

forested alluvium surrounding our pollen site. Initially, a

pool had existed in the old oxbow (as shown by pollen of

Potamogeton, Myriophyllum and Nuphar) but during the

first half of this zone the site became a wetland. In the

upper part of this zone, the stronghold’s foundation is

supposed to have taken place.

SB P2 (AD 1026–1129) A decrease in Pinus and an abrupt

increase in indicators of human activities such as Triticum-

type, Secale cereale, Artemisia, Urtica, Brassicaceae, Ru-

biaceae, Rumex acetosa-type and Trifolium-type is clearly

visible. Quercus forests were still dominant in the region

during this stage.

SB P3 (AD 1129–1275) Radical vegetation changes mark

the beginning of this zone. Quercus rapidly declines together

with an ongoing decline in Pinus. Quercus was partly

replaced by Carpinus, which grows faster and regenerates

well from stumps after cutting or grazing. Eutrophication

very probably represents the cause of the distinct regenera-

tion of Acer and Ulmus in the alluvium. For the same reason,

Sambucus nigra, Urtica, Solanum dulcamara, Symphytum

and Filipendula expanded. The dominant local vegetation

community was alder carr, and local Alnus glutinosa stands

were obviously not cut for timber.

SB P4 (AD 1275–1406) The most recent part of the pollen

profile is connected with a change in sedimentation. Instead

of organic sediments, flood loams gradually filled in the old

oxbow. One of the major vegetation changes represents the

expansion of Pinus that, above all, replaced Carpinus and

Quercus. From the beginning of this zone, pollen of cereals

increased, and Centaurea cyanus, a typical weed of the

High Middle Ages occurred for the first time. Artemisia

was very common as a ruderal and could indicate aban-

donment of areas of dry ground or, at least, their less

intensive use.

Macrofossils

SB M1 (AD 399–1000) Finds of Potamogeton and Nuphar

lutea together with larval cases of Trichoptera and also

Alisma plantago-aquatica and Oenanthe aquatica corrob-

orate the existence of shallow stagnant waters in the oxbow

that diminished in the second half of this zone (Fig. 6).

Alnus was present in waterlogged zones around the oxbow.

Macrofossils of Quercus, Tilia and Betula together with

Fig. 6 Absolute macrofossil diagram for the site of Stara Boleslav,

analyzed by A. Pokorna and P. Pokorny. Expected date of foundation

of the stronghold is indicated by the arrow. Most common and

indicative taxa selected from the total sum of 52. x-axes, count of

macrofossils in 350 cm3 of sediment

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

shrubs represented by Cornus sanguinea and C. mas indi-

cate that a certain part of the alluvium was covered by

mixed deciduous woodland.

SB M2 (AD 1000–1246) From this zone onwards, Quercus

disappears from the macrofossil assemblage and Carpinus

is relatively frequent. A rapid increase in Alnus shows its

expansion on the alluvium. Several taxa that expanded

during this zone, especially Persicaria cf. hydropiper and

Urtica dioica, indicate eutrophication. Human impact is

further evident from the finds of the weeds Xanthium

strumarium and Polygonum aviculare.

SB M3 (AD 1246–1406) Alnus was reduced, and ruderal

vegetation grew around the site, which is evident from the

numerous macrofossils of S. nigra.

Libice nad Cidlinou

Pollen data

LC P1 (AD 693–936) The second half of this zone cor-

responds to the foundation of the stronghold according to

the absolute chronological data (Fig. 7). Arboreal pollen is

slightly over 50 %, which is the lowest percentage in

comparison with the other two sites in a similar period of

time. In the waterlogged land on the alluvium, Salix and

Alnus were present, while mixed deciduous woodland with

dominant Quercus occupied drier places. In the second half

of the zone, some decrease in Quercus is evident. The

pollen of shrubs represented by Prunus-type, Sorbus-type

and Rhamnus is quite frequent considering the relatively

low pollen production and dispersal of these taxa, and

represents scrub which could have grown as wayside or

field edge vegetation around the stronghold, while others

such as Frangula alnus and Viburnum opulus would have

grown in wet places around the oxbow. A continuous curve

of Potamogeton shows the existence of a pool at the site in

the earlier half of the zone. A cultural landscape on drier

land surrounding the oxbow is indicated by plentiful pollen

of cereals, ruderals and weeds. Occurrence in the sediment

of the ova of Trichuris, an intestinal parasite of mammals

as well as humans, is a sign of faecal pollution. A rich

pollen spectrum of herbs reflects pastures and meadows.

LC P2 (AD 936–1118) This zone is marked by an abrupt

change in lithology that can be dated to the end of the 10th

century (Fig. 7). Organic sediment was replaced by fine

and impermeable flood loams, and pollen was poorly pre-

served or completely absent between 44 and 72 cm. Such a

change was probably the result of the extensive loss of

woodland in regions in the upper basin of the river Labe.

Quercus pollen counts are radically reduced and Alnus also

distinctly decreases. A rapid increase in Poaceae pollen

very probably indicates expansion of reedbeds in riverine

wetlands. Also, Urtica, Cyperaceae, S. dulcamara, Humu-

lus lupulus and other wetland taxa become more common.

The increase in crops, ruderals and weeds is not very sig-

nificant. Increased human impact is more clearly reflected

by increased charcoal percentages or numerous pollen of

Trifolium repens-type showing increasing grassland.

Macrofossils

LC M1 (AD 693–936) Aquatic taxa indicate the presence of

mesotrophic or naturally eutrophic water at the site (Fig. 8).

All the present aquatic plants and especially green algae of the

genus Chara are sensitive to eutrophication. Marsh plants are

represented by several taxa indicating shallow still water,

Alisma plantago-aquatica, Oenanthe aquatica and Sagittaria

sagittifolia. A number of other wetland taxa formed species

rich bank and sedge communities. Ruderal bank vegetation is

shown by Urtica dioica, Polygonum hydropiper and various

Rumex taxa. Macrofossils of Quercus are rare compared with

the other two sites (ESM). The only locally common trees

were Alnus and Salix. A few macrofossils indicate the culti-

vation of Panicum miliaceum, Triticum and Cannabis sativa

(Fig. 8, ESM). Local cultivation is further reflected by rela-

tively numerous finds of cereal weeds. Among ruderal and

weed communities, annual nitrophilous plants such as Atri-

plex and Chenopodium, perennial nitrophilous taxa such as

Aegopodium podagraria and Silene latifolia, annual weeds

often associated with root crops such as Solanum nigrum,

Galeopsis, Hyoscyamus niger, Lamium purpureum and Ech-

inochloa crus-galli, and a typical indicator of trampled veg-

etation, Polygonum aviculare, are present (Fig. 8, ESM).

LC M2 (AD 936–1118) The most distinct difference from

Zone LC M1 is caused by the distinct change in sedi-

mentation (Fig. 8). In the interval 37–72 cm with poorly

preserved or absent pollen, the number of macrofossils is

also low, with 0–16 finds, and therefore these samples were

excluded. In the rest of the zone, the total sum of macro-

fossils is only one tenth of that in Zone LC M1. Therefore,

the overall decrease in the number of identified taxa is

caused by both the decrease in the total sum of macro-

fossils and the effects of human activities on the site.

Macrofossils from this zone support the pollen results

showing the likely disappearance of Alnus from the site.

Hradistko

Pollen data

HR P1 (AD 705–796) The sediment in the lowest section of

the profile is organic combined with fine flood loams and it

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

contains layers with numerous plant macrofossils (Fig. 9).

Arboreal pollen generally reaches over 80 %. Species-rich

mixed deciduous woods where Quercus prevailed were

common on alluvium and probably also in the whole region.

Waterlogged places on alluvium were dominated by alder

carr. The oxbow was not yet filled with sediments, as shown

by numerous pollen of aquatic plants such as Potamogeton

and Nuphar. S. dulcamara, Filipendula and especially

Urtica pollen indicate eutrophic wetland vegetation. The

landscape surrounding the river was cultural with the same

characteristics as in the following phase.

HR P2 (AD 796–1349) The sediment is similar in char-

acter to the previous zone. The foundation of the strong-

hold corresponds approximately to the middle of this zone,

according to the absolute chronological data (Fig. 9). A

gradual reduction in arboreal pollen is evident, but the taxa

composition of mixed deciduous woodland was rich and

steady, with Quercus, Corylus, Carpinus, Tilia, Ulmus and

Pinus. Alnus and Salix grew in waterlogged places on the

alluvium and the pool in the oxbow still existed. Human

impact is directly shown by pollen of cereals, mostly Se-

cale cereale, and C. sativa was also detected. Continuous

pollen curves of Plantago lanceolata and Rumex acetosa-

type as well as pollen of numerous herbs suggest pastures

and meadows that could have been extensive.

HR P3 (AD 1349–1572) Radiocarbon dating suggests that

the radical vegetation change detected at the beginning of

this zone can be connected with the massive clearance of

woodland in the 13th century and later (Fig. 9). Most of the

oak woods were cut down in the region and Alnus also

nearly disappeared from the flood plain. Even Abies and

Fagus decreased, which means that the clearance of

woodland was overall and also affected the uplands about

20 km away which had suitable ecological conditions for

them to grow. As a consequence, from 85 cm masses of

eroded soil started to accumulate in the oxbow in the form

of flood loams. A substantial increase in Poaceae very

probably shows the expansion of reedbeds on this new

substrate. An increase in cultivated crops shows a rather

intensified agriculture and a rapid increase in weeds and

ruderals shows overall development of a cultural land-

scape. Also, grazing intensified, which is especially

reflected by a significant increase in Trifolium repens-type.

HR P4 (AD 1572–1799) Original mixed deciduous

woodland was mainly replaced by Pinus, but some regen-

eration of Quercus, Tilia and Carpinus is also evident. The

increase in Picea very probably reflects modern forest

plantations.

Macrofossils

HR M1 (AD 705–1051) Macrofossils of numerous aquatic

plants indicate the presence of mesotrophic still water at

this stage (Fig. 10, ESM). In the waterlogged vicinity of

the oxbow, species-rich alder carr occurred, in which Alnus

Fig. 7 Percentage pollen diagram of selected taxa for the site of

Libice nad Cidlinou, analyzed by R. Kozakova. Grey silhouettes

represent 910 exaggeration of the scale. Expected date of foundation

of the stronghold is indicated by the arrow. Empty space between 44

and 72 cm represents section with no or badly preserved pollen.

Lithology: 1 sand, 2 organic sediment with numerous plant macro-

fossils and a very small amount of fine silt; 3 flood loam, grey, fine-

grained, plastic and homogenous

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

was the most common but Salix, Fraxinus and Prunus

padus were also present. Drier parts of alluvium were still

wooded as indicated by the macrofossils of Quercus, Tilia,

Corylus, Crataegus and Carpinus (Fig. 10, ESM). The

cultural component of the macrofossil assemblages is more

or less the same as in the following stage, except that the

finds are less frequent.

HR M2 (AD 1051–1349) The beginning of this zone cor-

responds to the foundation of the stronghold (Fig. 10). A

decrease in Alnus macrofossils probably shows some local

reduction of alder trees. Aquatic plants also decrease,

which together with the simultaneous increase in Alisma

plantago-aquatica and Oenanthe aquatica, could show that

the water level was decreasing (Fig. 10). A number of

ruderals and weeds occur in this zone, especially Cheno-

podium album, Polygonum aviculare, Stellaria media,

Barbarea vulgaris, Galeopsis pubescens/tetrahit, Solanum

nigrum and Fallopia convolvulus, reflecting local ruderal-

isation as well as human impact in the vicinity (Fig. 10,

ESM). The presence of cereal crops is directly indicated by

Panicum miliaceum macrofossils.

HR M3 (AD 1349–1506) This zone can be clearly corre-

lated with a particular zone of the pollen diagram (HR P3,

Fig. 9). Alnus glutinosa as well as other trees disappeared

from the site. A distinct decrease in the number of marsh

plants and the dominant taxa, especially Carex hirta and

Juncus, indicate human activities (ESM). Frequent occur-

rence of cereal weeds signifies extension of cultivated

fields and fallow land around the site.

HR M4 (AD 1506–1799) This part of the profile was

extremely poor in macrofossils. One exception represents

the layer at 58 cm with an enormous amount of Pota-

mogeton macrofossils (Fig. 10), which were probably

transported fluvially.

Discussion

Fluvial transport of pollen grains and macrofossils?

It is widely accepted among pollen analysts that most of the

pollen and spores entering alluvial sedimentary basins are

fluvially transported from river catchments (Peck 1973;

Bonny 1978; Pennington 1979). Recently, Brown et al.

(2007) performed an extensive modern analogue study of

this process, demonstrating how important this knowledge

is for pollen-based reconstructions of cultural landscapes.

Our sedimentary records originated in alluvial oxbow sub-

environments that were undoubtedly influenced by fluvial

sedimentation. The evidence for this is the regular, though

variable, occurrence of fine silt in the studied profiles.

Using the present state of the data, it is unfortunately

impossible to directly study the quantitative relationships

between the airborne and waterborne components of the

pollen spectra (both terms used by Brown et al. 2007).

Nevertheless, we may assume that some unknown pro-

portion of pollen grains in our pollen slides was fluvially

transported.

The result of these considerations may be a cautious

approach to the effort to compare local settlement events,

Fig. 7 continued

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

based on interpretation of archaeological evidence, with

chronologically correlated pollen spectra. Our insight into

local conditions may be blurred by a long-distance trans-

ported waterborne pollen component. In other words, we

must take into account the serious possibility that a pollen

signal may reflect changes in local environments to a lesser

degree than in the case of ‘‘classical’’ pollen analytical sites

such as lakes and peat bogs outside large river alluvia.

The above-mentioned considerations may count also for

the macrofossils. Although these have different sedimen-

tation characteristics (in a physical sense), it is equally

plausible that some of them may have been brought in by

running water of the major river channel and do not have

local origins.

Being aware of the interpretation limits of the data from

a fluvial environment, we have to stress that our sites are

old oxbows that were almost completely separated from the

river and thus from the major fluvial sedimentation zone at

the time of their formation. Thanks to this fact the inflow of

fluvially transported silt into the sedimentary sequences

was very low in the deeper parts of our profiles and greater

only in the upper sections. In deeper parts of the three

profiles the sediments are nearly completely organic

(Figs. 2, 3, 4) and such a sedimentary sequence we con-

sider to reflect predominantly local conditions. In the case

of Hradistko and Stara Boleslav, this organic section covers

the crucial period of the Early Middle Ages, when the

foundation and existence of the strongholds is recorded by

archaeological methods. Only in the case of Libice, where

flood loams sedimented already during the Early Middle

Ages, does the tracing of the local environmental devel-

opment around the stronghold remain problematic. The

distinct change in the lithology in the upper parts of our

profiles (number 4 in lithology columns, Figs. 5, 7, 9)

certainly indicates an abrupt increase in the proportion of

fluvially transported pollen and macrofossils. Except for

the site of Libice, this process only occurred in the High

Middle Ages, when the landscape transformation was

already extensive and, thus, the requirement to detect local

pollen spectra becomes less important for us. Nevertheless,

Fig. 8 Absolute macrofossil diagram for the site of Libice nad

Cidlinou, analyzed by V. Culıkova. Most common and indicative taxa

selected from the total sum of 130. x-axes, count of macrofossils in

210 cm3 of sediment. Expected date of foundation of the stronghold is

indicated by the arrow. Empty space between 37 and 67 cm

represents section with very low macrofossil sums (0–16). Taxa

included in Carex sp. div. (fruit and utricle) are Carex acuta, C. hirta,

C. pseudocyperus, C. vesicaria. Taxa included in Rumex sp. div.

(fruit) are Rumex cf. aquaticus/hydrolapathum, R. crispus/obtusifo-

lius, R. hydrolapathum, R. maritimus, R. cf. obtusifolius, R. cf.

sanguineus, R. conglomeratus/obtusifolius. Taxa included in Cheno-

podium sp. div. (seed) are Chenopodium album, Ch. ficifolium, Ch.

hybridum, Ch. polyspermum

b

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

when commenting on the landscape changes in the High

Middle Ages we must be aware of the fact that our pollen

signal reflects a larger spatial scale than the local one.

Stara Boleslav

Before the stronghold was founded, wooded alluvium

without any settlements dominated the river valley. The first

clearly evident colonization event is reflected by a distinct

fall in the Pinus pollen percentage at the start of Local Pollen

Zone SB P2 (Fig. 5). This can probably be connected with

clearance of woodland on the colonized highest fluvial ter-

race, located outside the flooded zone, which was rather dry

and thus suitable for pines. At the same time, woodland

clearance and settlement facilitated the growth of Artemisia.

Unfortunately, radiocarbon chronology (Fig. 5; Table 1)

does not allow us to distinguish exactly whether the begin-

ning of Local Pollen Zone SB P2 relates to the original

foundation of the fortified settlement at Boleslav around AD

900, or if it can be connected with the later foundation of the

basilica (church) in 1039–1046. The former is, however,

more likely. In any case, this first significant phase of human

activity seems to have had a rather local extent, because it did

not yet affect the oak woods.

Extensive landscape change occurred only later and is

marked by the beginning of Local Pollen Zone SB P3

(Fig. 5). Based on absolute radiocarbon chronology, this

event can be dated to the 11th century and thus this section

of the pollen diagram can be better connected with the

foundation of the canonry, which certainly represented a

significant increase in the economic and agricultural

development of the site. In the 12th century, the importance

of Stara Boleslav as a political, religious and representative

centre was already gone (Bohacova 2003). Basically, this

decline is not reflected in pollen and macrofossil data. Only

a distinct increase of Alnus, Salix and Acer can be observed

in the pollen diagram, suggesting that the alluvial zone was

abandoned and not exploited. Apart from this local vege-

tation change, the landscape in the region became more

intensively used.

In the pollen diagram Stara Boleslav 2, from another site

situated in the same oxbow less than 1 km away (Fig. 2),

the general trends are similar. The prevalence of alluvial

woodlands before and even after the expected time of the

foundation of the stronghold is evident. Compared to our

pollen data, the initial woodland composition around the

site Stara Boleslav 2 was different, with a higher proportion

of Alnus and Salix and a lower proportion of Pinus and

Quercus (Brızova 1999). Such a result reflects the strong

effect of pollen rain from the local vegetation. Both pollen

diagrams seem to corroborate the assumption that the

profound landscape transformation that is elsewhere con-

nected only with the 13th century in the Czech lands,

occurred in the region surrounding Stara Boleslav no later

than during the 12th century. Even though the reasons for

such an earlier landscape change in the Stara Boleslav

region cannot be precisely distinguished, its relative

proximity to Prague, the real centre of the state (Fig. 1),

must be taken into consideration.

Libice

Even before the foundation of the stronghold, the vicinity

of this site was mostly not wooded, probably reflecting the

human impact of the previous settlement phase. The

foundation of the stronghold was quickly followed by a

distinct vegetation change, marked especially by a decrease

in trees that comprised the major woodland, Quercus, Tilia,

Carpinus, Ulmus and Corylus. Also, Alnus and Salix on the

alluvium were cut down. Simultaneously, the sediment

type rapidly changed from predominantly organic into fine

loams, probably as a consequence of the erosion following

clearance of woodland in the region situated upstream.

Such an evident correlation between vegetation and sedi-

ment change was not observed at the other two sites

(Figs. 5, 9). Also, the timing of the sedimentation change is

different at Libice; this can be explained by the different

sedimentation histories of the two rivers, the Cidlina at

Libice and the Labe at the other two sites. Considering

such an extreme change in sedimentation, we have to

assume that there was also a relative increase in fluvially

transported pollen, and so an increase in the long-distance

fluvial component of the pollen spectra. If most of the

pollen recorded in the upper part of the pollen diagram was

fluvially transported from further away, the cultural char-

acter of the spectrum can be magnified as a consequence of

an extensive settlement located about 5 km upstream from

Libice which had existed in the 6th century (Princova

2004). In our data, it is impossible to detect the landscape

change which was caused only by the activities around the

stronghold at Libice. The local landscape change could

either have been limited, as at the stronghold of Stara

Boleslav, or it could have been more extensive which is

likely due to the bigger expected population at Libice, and

especially because there was already a settlement there

before the stronghold and thus human activity had an

earlier start at that site.

Hradistko

The fact that the stronghold of Hradistko has a longer and

better sedimentary record and is situated in the same region

as Libice (Fig. 1) compensates for the lack of a sedimen-

tary record from the High Middle Ages at Libice.

Prior to the foundation of the stronghold, there was a

combination of woodland and open cultural landscape

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

around this site. Exploitation of the landscape was not

intensive but rather cumulative, which is reflected by a

long-term gradual reduction of woodlands, in which the

taxa composition was practically undisturbed (Fig. 9). The

foundation of the stronghold is reflected only by increased

numbers of macrofossils of some ruderal taxa and a

reduction in macrofossils of Alnus and Quercus. The rather

limited local impact of the stronghold is evident from the

lack of apparent change in the pollen diagram. The radical

landscape transformation can be connected only with the

colonization of this area in the High Middle Ages which is

dated to the late thirteenth or 14th century (Fig. 9), and

when accumulation of flood loams in the oxbow also

started. The very limited impact of the foundation of the

small stronghold of Hradistko shown by pollen data can

serve as a rather interesting precedent for other studies,

demonstrating that especially smaller settlements in pre-

historic landscapes can be invisible when traced only by

pollen data.

The results obtained from Hradistko show that the

landscape changes, which occurred in the tenth and 11th

centuries and can be linked to the foundation of the nearby

centre of Libice, did not affect the natural environment

around Hradistko, which was only 7.5 km away. Another

settlement situated at the site of the modern city of Kolın,

only 3 km upstream from Hradistko (Fig. 1), did not pro-

foundly affect its natural environment either.

These results suggest that the early medieval landscape

in central Bohemia was still relatively well wooded.

Individual settlements were isolated by the woods from

other ones, only a few kilometres distant, even when some

of the settlements were important centres. We do not know

if the latter is valid for the entire old settlement zone of the

modern Czech Republic, but it is certainly true for the

alluvial landscapes in this study. The Czech Republic

covers an area which lay outside the Roman Empire, and

the history of this area, including cultural landscape

development during the Roman and Migration periods, is

therefore very different to that of the Roman Empire itself.

One of the main differences was certainly the rate of

removal of woodland and the timing of the extensive

opening of the landscape, which occurred earlier in parts of

western Europe which had been in the Roman Empire

(Nakagawa et al. 2000; Mackel et al. 2009; Doyen et al.

2013; Etienne et al. 2013), than in the 13th century in the

area of the Czech Republic.

Medieval landscape transformation

In the Early Middle Ages, forests around the strongholds

were species rich lowland mixed oak woods combined with

pines on sandy soils. There were also similar forests,

according to pollen analyses, around important Moravian

centres from the 9th century, such as Mikulcice and Po-

hansko (Svobodova 1990; Dolakova et al. 2010). The

woodlands in the early medieval vegetation were probably

stable for as long as 3,000 years in their main character-

istics and especially taxon composition. This idea is

Fig. 9 Percentage pollen diagram of selected taxa for the site of

Hradistko, analyzed by R. Kozakova. Grey silhouettes represent 910

exaggeration of the scale. Expected date of foundation of the

stronghold is indicated by the arrow. Lithology: 1 sand, 2 organic

sediment with numerous plant macrofossils and a very small amount

of fine silt and sand (grains up to 0.5 mm), 3 organic sediment with

plant macrofossils and a certain amount of flood loam, 4 flood loam,

grey-ochre, containing rootlets and spots of ferrous precipitates

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

corroborated by the pollen diagram from Stara Boleslav 2

(Fig. 2; Brızova 1999) as well as by pollen data from other

Czech sites located in lowlands where the pollen record

from the agricultural period of the Holocene is complete

(Pokorny 2005).

Macrofossil data from sites studied here have enabled a

detailed reconstruction of non-woodland vegetation com-

munities. The variability of macrofossil assemblages,

especially the number of ruderal, weed and dry land taxa,

was exceptional due to the proximity of populated areas to

the sampled sites and there was maybe some long-distance

fluvial transport too. Floral richness as well as the resulting

plant communities surrounding the sites compare well with

the macrofossil analyses from the stronghold of Mikulcice

(Opravil 1978).

In our work we have focused on an extremely detailed

study of landscape development in the course of several

centuries. One of the major limits of such an effort is that

radiocarbon dates are less accurate than historically or

archaeologically based chronologies. This may be the

reason why, at least according to our knowledge, other

similar studies have not gone into such detail (Latałowa

1992; Niewiarowski 1995; Miller et al. 1997; Risberg et al.

2002). Comparisons with these studies seem to indicate

that the human impact caused by the early existence of our

three archaeological sites is more similar to the impact of,

for instance, the Iron Age stronghold of Biskupin in Poland

(Niewiarowski 1995) rather than the impact at some early

medieval trading centres such as Wolin and Birka

(Latałowa 1992; Miller et al. 1997; Risberg et al. 2002).

Such comparisons can be only made with caution because

the other pollen sites have a more regional pollen signal,

mostly from lakes or bigger mires and there are greater

distances between the pollen sites and settled areas. Also,

the results sometimes derive from cultural layers (Risberg

et al. 2002) or they do not have radiocarbon dates (Nie-

wiarowski 1995; Karlsson 1997).

Landscape changes that occurred approximately in the

13th century were radical and strongly influenced the

pollen data from both Hradistko and Stara Boleslav, but the

sedimentary record from Libice ended in the Early Middle

Ages. In the case of Stara Boleslav, the earliest significant

landscape transformation had occurred as early as the 11th

century, and as far as pollen data are concerned, it seems

that the main colonization wave also came earlier, in the

late 12th century (Brızova 1999). The major difference

characterizing the High Middle Ages was, very probably,

the increase in population. However, demographic data

remain uncertain and thus only the consequences of mas-

sive colonization can be better observed. At least in wes-

tern and central Europe, the high medieval transformation

brought not only vast clearance of woodland but also

irreversible changes in woodland taxon composition, with

several general changes such as the expansion of Pinus,

occurrence of Carpinus in places where Quercus used to be

more common, reduction in some demanding deciduous

trees such as Tilia and Ulmus and recent forestry planta-

tions of Pinus and Picea (Nozicka 1957; Rosch 2000;

Ralska-Jasiewiczova et al. 2004; Brown and Pluskowski

2011; Wieckowska et al. 2012).

The rapid increase in soil erosion that occurred as a

consequence of massive removal of woodland most

Fig. 9 continued

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

significantly changed the morphology of lowland alluvia

by causing the sedimentation of flood loams, an event that

has been noticed in all studied profiles. Even though the

summarized data from Germany also show that there were

increases in soil erosion during the prehistoric period,

especially in the late Bronze and Iron Ages (Dreibrodt et al.

2010), they also agree with our results in that the most

intensive erosion occurred only in high medieval and

modern times (Bose and Brande 2010; Dreibrodt et al.

2010).

Conclusions

Relevant literature references indicate that increased

attention should be paid to the interpretation of pollen and

macrofossil data from alluvial sedimentary basins. Long-

distance fluvial pollen transport may reduce the interpre-

tation potential of such sites in relation to local events, and

thus the events that are relevant for comparison with local

archaeological data. By taking these fluvial effects into

consideration, we have still found our pollen and macro-

fossil records well comparable with local archaeological

data, especially due to the fact that our sites in old oxbows

were separated from the main river. At two of our three

sites, the crucial early medieval part of the profile was

represented by organic sediments with only a minor

amount of fluvial silt.

Generally speaking, formation of a cultural landscape

seems to have been limited to areas only a few kilometres

wide on the alluvial land around the most densely popu-

lated strongholds in the early medieval period. According

to our data, the foundation of the three strongholds could

have had various impacts on the local natural environ-

ments. The site of Stara Boleslav was founded in an area of

wooded alluvium and the pollen data show two distinct

colonization phases. A relatively small human impact at a

landscape level was detected in the 10th and the first half of

the 11th centuries with a considerable increase in the later

11th century. It was unfortunately not possible to detect the

impact of the presumably most densely populated strong-

hold at Libice, with 600–900 inhabitants, due to the

Fig. 10 Absolute macrofossil diagram for the site of Hradistko,

analyzed by V. Culıkova. Most common and indicative taxa selected

from the total sum of 154. x-axes, count of macrofossils in 210 cm3 of

sediment. Expected date of foundation of the stronghold is indicated

by the arrow. Taxa included in Carex sp. div. (fruit and utricle) are

Carex cf. acuta, C. sp. cespitosa, C. 9 dioica-type, C. echinata, C.

flava agg., C. hirta, C. nigra, C. cf. otrubae. Taxa included in Rumex

sp. div. (fruit) are Rumex cf. crispus, R. cf. obtusifolius, Rumex sp.

Taxa included in Chenopodium sp. div. (seed) are Ch. album, Ch.

ficifolium, Ch. cf. glaucum, Ch. hybridum, Ch. polyspermum

b

Veget Hist Archaeobot

123

extreme change in sedimentation which made the com-

parison of pollen spectra before and after the foundation of

the stronghold impossible. In any case, the amount of

human activity around Libice must have been spatially

limited, since it did not affect areas further than approxi-

mately 4–5 km from the site. The stronghold of Hradistko

was smaller than the other two centres with about 90–150

inhabitants, and its foundation is reflected only by a slight

increase in macrofossils of a few ruderal plants. Otherwise,

the pollen diagram from Hradistko showed a gradual

reduction in woodlands during the early medieval period.

Our results have clearly shown that the landscape

transformation occurring on the onset of High Middle Ages

was a very radical and rapid process, at least in this par-

ticular alluvial setting in central Bohemia.

Acknowledgments The research was supported by the Czech

Academy of Sciences (project No.GA404/08/1696). We thank Jan

Havrda for geological description of studied sediments. We are

grateful to Bruce Albert and Dagmar Dreslerova for critical com-

ments on the manuscript and to Petra Marıkova Vlckova and James

Greig for revising the English.

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