Early National Period

United States 1

John Adams

• In 1797, Adams takes control of a deeply divided nation

• Adams was brilliant, austere, stubborn and self-important

• Disliked by even those who respected his national service.

John Adam’s Administration 1796-1800

• Beset with problems– Had to follow Washington– Deep political divisions– Nation being dragged into war in Europe

• Issue of Neutral rights

XYZ Affair

• Attempts to resolve European affairs• Adams sends diplomatic team to France to

renegotiate old alliance with France• French officials demand a bribe before

negotiating• Adams upset

– Makes French demands public

• Poisons Franco-American relations• Quasi-war breaks out on seas with France

Alien & Sedition Acts

• Greatest Crisis of Adams’ administration• Confronted by growing critics

– Some being immigrant pamphleteers– Federalist move to silence– Passes new naturalization law extended from

5 to 14 years the time to become a citizen

• Alien Act—allowed deportation of “dangerous” aliens

Alien and Sedition Act (cont.)

• Sedition Act—authorized prosecution of almost all public assembly and publications critical of the government

• Acts drew immediate criticism• 18 individuals were charged under

Sedition Act—10 were convicted• Fails to silence critics

– Republicans make it a focal point of discussion

Election of 1800

• Alien and Sedition Acts shaped debate• Republicans used “liberty” as a key phrase

in debate– Effectively rally their electorate, Federalists

were much less effective

• Jefferson wins election• Adam’s acceptance of defeat establishes

vital precedent of a peaceful transition of power

Jefferson Presidency

• 1st president to begin term in new city of Washington

• Jefferson hoped to dismantle as much of the Federalist system as possible– During 8 years:

• Reduced # of gov. employees• Slashed the army and navy• Abolished all taxes but tariffs• Paid off the national debt

• Sought to prevent U.S. from becoming a centralized state (anti-British sentiments)

Marbury vs. Madison

• Unable to completely end national authority• Never trusted an unelected judiciary

– Believed the dominance of local self-government

• John Marshall—strong believer in national supremacy

• Issue of midnight justices• Established court’s power to review laws of

congress and the states

Louisiana Purchase

• Jefferson forced to compromise– Believed that federal government was limited to

powers outlined in the constitution

• U.S. long concerned about access to New Orleans—essential for western farmers– Feared French intervention in commerce– Sent envoys to France to offer to buy city– Napoleon offers entire Louisiana Territory for 15

million

Louisiana Purchase

• Doubles size of nation

• French presence on Western frontier ended

• Jefferson admits that he exceeded the constitution– Believed benefits exceeded problems– Believed he was ensuring the agricultural

character of America

Lewis and Clark

• Within a year, Jefferson dispatches an expedition to explore newly acquired lands

• Meriweather Lewis and William Clark• Objective was scientific and commercial

– Discover potential of the region– Trade with Indians– Find water route to the Pacific

• Helped to strengthen idea that America destined to reach Pacific.

Foreign Entanglements

• Despite relative isolation, U.S. still influenced by European affairs– European wars impacted farmers, merchants,

artisans

• Jefferson hoped to avoid foreign problems• However, realities forced him to expand

military at time of he was limiting power of national government

Barbary Pirates

• Preying on shipping in the Mediterranean and Atlantic– Receiving tribute from a number of countries,

including the U.S.– Pasha of Tripoli increases demands—U.S.

refuses—undeclared war breaks out– Jefferson sent warships to Tripoli.– Stephen Decatur– U.S. pays $60,000 for hostages

Franco-British War

• Resumes in 1803– U.S. trade jeopardized

• Each side declares a blockade, seeks to deny trade with America

• British resumed practice of impressment

• USS Chesapeake

Embargo

• To Jefferson, Freedom of trade was critical– Farmers need access to markets

• As colonial leaders had done previously, he decides to use trade as a weapon

• 1807—Enacts embargo-ban on all American vessels sailing to foreign ports– Constitutional basis—power to regulate trade– Failed—few Americans willing to make necessary

sacrifices– Amazing exercise of federal power

• U.S. trade drops 80%

Impact

• Very little effect on Britain and France

• Devastated American economy– New England merchants– Southern and Western Farmers

• Jefferson repeals Embargo in 1809, just before term expired

Madison Administration

• Primary focus was dealing with situation regarding Britain and France

• Madison was a great theorist– Author of constitution– Weak and indecisive leader

War situation

• When he takes office, attacks get serious• Competing blockades• Tries to replace Embargo with Non-Intercourse

Act(1809)– Freed merchants to trade with anyone except British

and French

• Macon’s Bill #2 (1810)– Whoever drops restricts, US would re-impose on

other

• Madison administration was desperate

War Direction

• By 1811, appears that the policies of Jefferson and Madison have failed

• US looks powerless to great powers– Two choices

• Submit to indignities or go to war

War Hawks

• Submission was unacceptable to group of young congressmen elected in 1811.– Henry Clay of Kentucky– John C. Calhoun of South Carolina

• New generation of politicians– Nationalist but looked at international markets– New style of agrarian-commercialism

Regional Divisions

• Northeast—generally opposes war– Can run the blockade, make big profits

• South and West—hurt by blockades—no consistent markets– Support war—save national honor, progress

War

• Both British and France obnoxious– Unable to fight both

• Special reasons to fight British– Canada

• Supporting Indian unrest in Northwest

– Florida• Also supporting Indian unrest/haven for runaway

slaves

– Impressment of sailors

Spring 1812

• Madison out of options—”painted self into a corner”

• Declaration of war passes a divided congress– Two days before, British had repealed all

trade restrictions—coercion had worked– Essentially a war of Republicans from the

South and West

War of 1812

• Disaster

• Fortunately, British were pre-occupied with Napoleon

• Weak leadership in Washington and in the field

Canadian Invasion

• Grand plans in West quickly dissolve into a series of defeats– Surrender of Detroit– Major losses on the Niagara Frontier

• Queenston Heights• Niagara Falls

Naval War

• British able to control the seas– American victories—small and isolated– American do control the Lake Erie

• Force British to abandon Detroit

National Divisions

• Much of weakness result of divisions– Southerners—little interest in Canada– Northerners—Little interest in Florida– New England—opposed to whole war

• Unwilling to provide troops• Unwilling to make loans

British Offensive

• By 1814, British able to shift focus to America– Series of attacks

• Washington, Baltimore• South from Canada• Mississippi Delta

– Initial success, then hit stalemate

• Agree to Treaty of Ghent—restored the status quo– Didn’t mention neutral rights, impressments– US escaped without territorial loss

Hartford Convention

• Meeting of New England representatives to discuss actions of federal government during the war

• Some advocate secession

• Many want changes to constitution to address regional issues

• Appear very unpatriotic

• Destroys Federalist Party

Era of Good Feeling

• By end of War of 1812, Federalist Party had collapsed

• Period of few political divisions

• Republicans increasingly retreating from philosophy of state’s rights– National Bank– Protective Tariff – Federally supported internal improvements

American System

• Program pushed by Henry Clay• Encouraged government leadership in

economic development– High protective tariff—20% increase

• Establish economic self-sufficiency

– Established 2nd Bank of the United States– Wanted to establish major transportation

Projects• Little success• National Road—Only major project

James Monroe

• Hand-picked successor to Monroe

• Experienced, but unimaginative leader

• National harmony—went out of war to avoid controversy

• Wanted to end sectional and economic differences--fails

Missouri Issue

• Bitter controversy over admission of Missouri into union

• 1817—applied for statehood as a slave state• 1st state carved out of Louisiana Territory

– Implications for future– Brings out northern resentments

• Southern control of presidency• 3/5 compromise• Tallmadge Amendment

Compromise

• Petition by Maine to enter union offered way out

• Feb 1820—Missouri Compromise– Missouri—slave state– Maine—Free state– Prohibited slavery north of southern border of

Missouri

• Sectional crisis resolved– Foreshadows future problems

Foreign policy

• Nationalism spread to foreign affairs

• Independence movements in Latin America– Afraid Spain might seek to reclaim

• Worried about Russian interests in Oregon region

• Threats push US closer to Great Britain– Also wants independent America

Monroe Doctrine

• British Foreign Minister George Canning– Proposes joint statement– Monroe supports

• Sec. of State J.Q. Adams wants different direction– Believes US should go alone

• 1823—Monroe Doctrine– Opposes further colonization in Western

Hemisphere– Any attempt to extend political systems to W.H.– In return, US will stay out of European affairs

• Little initial impact—US unable to enforce

John Quincy Adams

• Able leader—well qualified• Not a politician• Election of 1824

– 4 way race—settled in House of Representatives– Corrupt Bargain—Henry Clay

• Adams faced with a hostile congress• Main issue—Tariff

– 1828—Protective tariff passed to help get Jackson elected

Election of 1828

• Jackson vs. Adams– 1st modern campaign– Jackson supporters use electioneering techniques

• Huge public rallies, torchlight parades, barbeques

– Heavy mudslinging• Jackson’s wife accused of bigamy

• Jackson’s edge—viewed a man of the people• Anti-intellectualism is powerful force in American

politics

Jackson

• Turns out to be one of the most forceful and dominating American presidents– Strong-willed, intolerant of opposition,

unforgiving of an insult– Frontier background made his tough and

resourceful but also inflexible.

Spoils System

• Makes extensive use– Appoints supporters to federal jobs– 1st president to acknowledge use and view it

as acceptable

• Problem—some very questionable appointments—old friends and political supporters