Early Farming Cultures of Saurashtra : Their contributions toEarly Farming Cultures of Saurashtra : Their contributions toEarly Farming Cultures of Saurashtra : Their contributions toEarly Farming Cultures of Saurashtra : Their contributions toEarly Farming Cultures of Saurashtra : Their contributions tothe Development of Regional Harappan Culturethe Development of Regional Harappan Culturethe Development of Regional Harappan Culturethe Development of Regional Harappan Culturethe Development of Regional Harappan Culture

Prabodh Shirvalkar and Vasant ShindePrabodh Shirvalkar and Vasant ShindePrabodh Shirvalkar and Vasant ShindePrabodh Shirvalkar and Vasant ShindePrabodh Shirvalkar and Vasant Shinde

Introduction

The discovery of the site of Harappa made a great

impact on the history of Indian subcontinent in early

twenties of the last century. The subsequent

excavations and explorations in various parts of

Pakistan and India confirmed the presence of

Harappan Civilization and its chronological position.

After the discovery of new civilization many

excavations were undertaken, the main concentration

of the researchers was the big and major sites. The

most focused sites of the Harappan culture are

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which are used as the

reference sites for the study of the other sites. "Non-

Harappan material found stratified below the ""Mature''

Harappan remains was regarded as "Pre-Harappan'.1

Various theories about the origin of the civilization

have been formulated by a number of scholars right

from its discovery. Foreign origin theories have taken

backseat now and the indigenous development theory

is getting more and more support in the form of

archaeological evidence. The excavations at

Mehrgarh,2 Nausharo3 and Kot-Diji4 proved immensely

important for the indigenous development theory.

These excavations were able to show the cultural

development within the site as well as within the

Indus-Saraswati plains. The landmark work of Raffique

Mughal5 dealing with the ceramics from different

sites, which were earlier reported as pre or non-

Harappan turned out to be early Harappan, showing

the continuity in cultural assemblage. This was a

major change in the approach towards the Harappan

origin and chronology.

As the excavations and explorations, continued new

data kept emerging. Taking into consideration the

distribution of sites, location of important cities and

towns Possehl6 tried to understand the internal

structure of the Harappan cultural landscape. With

this aim, he developed the concept of Harappan

domains. These domains are the points of cleavage

between major geographic features.

The Region of Gujarat

Possehl's7 Southern domain on ecological grounds

has four parts- Saurashtra, Kachchh, southern Gujarat,

and northern Gujarat. The entire Gujarat occupied

by the Harappans comes under semi-arid zone.

The excavations at "Vallabhipur' was the first Harappan

site excavated in 1930, archaeologically proved the

importance of Gujarat though known for a long

Paper presented in the International seminar on the "First Farmers in Global Perspective', Lucknow, India, 18-20 January, 2006

Received : 15 February 2008; Revised: 12 March 2008

216

izkX/kkjk] vad & 18

period. In 1934 Pandit M.S. Vats of the archaeological

Survey of India examined some mounds around

Limdi in the present Surendranagar district. He laid

three trenches at Rangpur, where he identified some

ceramic assemblage belonging to the Indus cultural

period. Due to his new discoveries the extent of

Indus culture was pushed up to the Kathiawar or

the present Saurashtra.8 Further it was excavated by

G.S. Ghurye in 1936. He excavated six trenches. He

says, ""as far its ornamentation is concerned, would

appear to link it up with Baluchistan and with Amri''.9

Then again in 1947 the site was excavated by M.G.

Dixit of Deccan College, Pune with the intentions of

reaching the virgin soil and to find out the Pre-

Harappan levels. He divided the total assemblage

into three phases: Phase I as the formative period of

Rangpur culture, Phase II as maturation of Rangpur

culture and Phase III shows the last phase of Rangpur

culture. The painted motifs in all the phases are

predominantly geometric and confined to the rim,

neck and belly. He totally disagreed with the views

of M.S. Vats that it belonged to the Harappan period.

He put forth that there were many differences within

the two ceramics as well as the painted designs. He

assigned this phase to the Post-Harappan phase.10

Again the Department of Archaeology, Govt. of India

excavated the site from 1953 to 1956 under the

leadership of S.R. Rao. The excavated material showed

and proved Rangpur as a true Harappan settlement.

The most important contribution was the establishment

of cultural sequence starting with the true Harappan

culture to its degenerated form, i.e. the Lustrous Red

Ware culture. During the period of excavation intensive

explorations were carried out in Saurashtra, Kachchh

and some parts of Mehasana and Surat. S.R. Rao

was able to find out eighty five sites of mature or

late Harappan affinity. His explorations also brought

to light the famous site of Lothal.11

S.R. Rao excavated the site of Lothal from1955 to

1962. The excavations revealed true Harappan

settlement with citadel area and lower town. The

most important discovery was that of the dock yard

though it was criticized and still remains a question

mark. A different ceramic assemblage below the

Harappan levels was identified in this excavation for

the first time. This ceramic tradition was designated

as the Micaceous Red Ware Culture.12 In 1955-57,

M.S. University of Baroda excavated the site of

Prabhas Patan, which was re-excavated by the

Gujarat state Dept., and Deccan College. During this

excavation Pre-Prabhas levels were identified.13 The

site of Rojdi was first excavated by Pandya in

1957-59 then by Dhaky in 1962-65 and again

from 1982-86 it was excavated by the Pennsylvania

University where G.L. Possehl for the first time

developed his concept of "Sorath Harappan' to

distinguish pottery assemblage from the Sindhi

Harappan pottery style.14 In 1964 J.P. Joshi of

A.S.I. started explorations in Kutch Dist. particularly

in the northern area close to Sind. He brought to

light 25 Harappan and post Harappan sites along

the Rann of Kutch including the important site of

Surkotada.15 The site of Padri in Bhavnagar district

was excavated by V.S. Shinde of Deccan College

between 1990-95 and brought to light the new

ceramic called Padri Ware.16 Since 1995 M.S.

University of Baroda began excavating the site of

Bagasra where the pottery belonging to the classical

Harappan, Sorath Harappan and Northern Gujarat

Anarta tradition was recovered.

The most important excavated sites of the early

period show that during the latter half of third

millennium B.C. there were Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic

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Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18

communities living in small villages having agro-

pastoral economy. There are different Pre-Harappan

cultures in Saurashtra i.e. Padri, Pre Prabhas and

Micacious Red Ware and in North Gujarat there is

Anarta culture (Map 1). The ceramic traditions of

these cultures are as follows:

Micaceous Red Ware culture: S. R. Rao first reported

the ware of this culture from Rangpur and later on

from Lothal. The main types were round-bottomed

jars, bowls and convex sided bowls with stud handle.

The decorations were done in black over a light red

surface. They include plant motifs, horizontal, zigzag,

loops and intersecting lines. The evidence of Pre-

Harappan occupation of the village at Lothal is

provided by the utter scarcity of Harappan pottery

and exuberance of the Micaceous Red Ware in a

three-meter thick occupation debris below the present

water table.17

Micaceous Red Ware: It is fine in texture and well

fired. The slip colour varies from light red to orange.

The dominant shapes of this ware are globular jars

with flared mouth, convex-sided bowels with

featureless rim and stud handle bowels, lamp with

pinched lip and perforated cylindrical jars. The

paintings are done in black colour. The painted

motifs consists of horizontal bands, wavy lines, loops,

zig zag lines, cross hatched diamonds and groups

of dots and strokes (Fig.1).

Map. 1 Distribution of Various Chalcolithic Traditions

218

izkX/kkjk] vad & 18

Coarse Red WareFig. 2. Micaceous Red Ware Culture Ceramic (After Rao 1985)

Coarse Red Ware: It is of gritty fabric. The upper

surface of the vessels have dull red colour and this

ware is generally unslipped or some times red wash

is applied. The main types in the ware are bulbous

jars with a flaring rim with rounded bottom and

bowls having flaring rim and rounded bottom. The

motifs such as horizontal lines, wavy lines, oblique

strokes and dots are executed in black (Fig. 2).

Black and Red Ware : The core of this ware is

smoky. The important shapes are convex sided

bowels and stud handle bowels, basins and the

dishes. The painted designs such as dots, strokes,

wavy lines and hatched circles are done in white

colour only on the interior surface (Fig. 3).18

Micaceous Red WareFig. 1. Micaceous Red Ware Culture Ceramic (After Rao 1985)

Pre-Prabhas culture: The Pre-Prabhas cultural phase

at the site of Prabhas-Patan is characterized by the

ceramic assemblage such as Red Ware: It is hand

made and has a smooth surface. It has coarse

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Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18

Black and Red WareFig. 3. Micaceous Red Ware Culture Ceramic (After Rao 1985)

220

izkX/kkjk] vad & 18

fabric. The ware is represented by wide mouthed

jars and rarely dish (Fig. 4).

Incised Red Ware: It is coarse and without any slip.

The colour varies from red to grey. The incised

decorations are mostly bold strokes. The major shapes

are basins (Fig. 4).

Black and Red Ware: The fabric of the ware is fine

and the surface is treated with red or orange slip,

which bears high burnishing and has incipient

horizontal or oblique ribs. The forms identified from

the limited material mainly show wide mouthed jars

and a small carinated handi (Fig. 5).

Grey Ware : It is hand made and crude. The shapes

include dishes and wide mouthed jars (Fig. 5).19

Padri culture: The ceramic assemblage associated

with this culture is termed as Padri Ware. This

assemblage was first identified at the site of Padri.

This is a coarse ware divided in to thick and thin

varieties. The thick ware is made up of coarse clay

with lots of sand as tempering material. It is medium

thick in section and is ill-fired. This ware is

represented by the convex sided bowls with

featureless rim, deep bowls with straight or incurved

sides, and bowls with slightly everted rims. Basins

have either flat projecting or round under cut rims

and globular pots have short out turned or beaded

rims. The paintings are done carelessly in black. The

motifs include vertical or horizontal bands, group of

vertical and horizontal bands, chevron pattern, etc.

Fig. 4. Pre Prabhas Cultural Ceramic (After Dhavlikar andPossehl 1992)

Fig. 5. Pre Prabhas Cultural Ceramic (After Dhavlikar andPossehl 1992)

221

Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18

The thin variety is finer than the thick variety. It is

made of fine clay and is well fired. The slip is thick

red. On the neck portion is a patch of buff colour

between broad horizontal bands, decorated with a

mesh pattern in black or very rarely in white. The

small squares in jali pattern are filled in with either

white or light brown colour giving Polychrome effect.

Only small globular pots with out turned rim are

found in this variety (Fig. 6).

Pink Slipped Painted Ware: It is ill-fired and thin in

section. It has Pink slip over which designs were

executed in black such as connected hatched

diamonds, oblique lines suspending from a broad

horizontal band, short horizontal strokes and a leaf

motif.

White Lustrous Ware : It has very fine fabric, well

fired and thin in section. It is treated with the white

slip on outer side and red slip on the inner side.

Bichrome: It is crude and coarse in fabric. Two slips

were applied red and white or pink.

Red Painted Ware: it has two verities viz. coarse

painted and fine ware. Former has red slip over

which paintings were executed in black such as

vertical wavy lines, cross and banana leaf pattern.

Fine variety has thin section and red wash. The

shapes in both the cases are small globular pots

with slightly concave neck and thickened out rim.

Plain Handmade Ware: It has fine and smooth surface

without any slip or designs. The shapes are wide

mouthed pots such as convex sided bowls with

slightly everted rim.20

Anarta culture: This particular culture is identified

in north Gujarat at the sites of Nagawada and

Loteshwar. The excavations at Nagawada revealed

both Harappan as well as non-Harappan pottery.

The typical mature Harappan type potteries like

painted and plain Sturdy Red ware and Buff Ware

were found above the burials. The non-Harappan

pottery was associated with the extended and pot

burials. The shapes in these burials include are

dish on stand, bowl, disc based globular jar, dish

Fig. 6 : Padri Cultural Ceramic (After Shinde1998)

222

izkX/kkjk] vad & 18

without carination and beaker. These shapes are

similar to that of upper Pre- Harappan levels at

Amri, Nal and Kot-Diji. Among the non-Harappan

pottery types, coarse gritty Red Ware and Black

and Red Ware are important. The important thing

about these ceramic traditions except Black and

Red ware is that these ceramics have been found

over a larger area and also along with different

Harappan phases. At some sites these ceramics

are not associated with Harappan or Late Harappan

showing existence of independent ceramic tradition

of north Gujarat, which is termed as "Anarta tradition'

(Fig. 7).21

Gritty Red Ware : The core of the pottery is gritty

as the name suggest due to the use of large amount

of sand. On the basis of sand particle size it can be

further divided into a fine and coarse variety. The

fine variety has a thin body and proper slip, where

as Coarse variety has thick body and thin slip or

wash. In general, Gritty Red Ware has two types of

surface treatments viz., slipped and unslipped. The

slip has shades of red, chocolate and buff or cream.

""In many specimens, while the whole vessel was

coated with a red slip, zones either at the rim, neck

or at the shoulder were applied with a cream or

white slip and then painted in a red or black

pigment''.22 Along with this pottery, buff and cream

slips are also common. The shapes in this ware

include small or medium size pot or jar with bulbous

body, elongated and constricted neck and a widely

flaring out rim also short projected out or straight

rims. Bowls have mostly convex or straight sides

with slightly incurved rims. Basins are generally with

the large open wide mouth and have slightly convex

sides and round bottom. Along with these shapes

some of the Harappan shapes are also copied in

this variety such as dish-on-stand and perforated

jars ""such imitated forms were generally made of

relatively fine clay, coated with slip and well fired so

as to look like the Harappan pottery''.23 The painted

motifs are mostly geometrical such as horizontal

parallel lines with vertical or oblique lines over it,

wavy lines, hatched diamonds, squares, circles, loops

etc. The paintings are mostly done in black as well

as use of white is also common. This ware is mostly

either hand made or made on turn table.

Fine Red Ware: It is made of fine clay. Treatment

wise as well as shapes or form wise this ware is

identical with the Gritty Red Ware.

Burnished Red Ware: It has been identified on the

basis of surface colour and decoration. The mostFig. 7. Anarta Tradition Ceramic (After Hegde1988)

223

Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18

common shape in this category are small pots or

jars with flaring out rim, long and constricted neck,

elongated, bulbous body with round base.

Burnished Grey or Black Ware: This particular ware

is similar to Burnished Red Ware in shapes with the

only difference is of the colour.

Black and Red Ware: It is made of well levigated

clay. This ware is represented by large stud handle

bowls. On the interior of these bowls the paintings

are done in white, mostly vertical strokes, wavy

lines, dots, comb like motif etc.24

Structural Remains from Pre-Harappan Levels

Good evidence of the construction activities has

come from the site of Padri. Two structural phases

were identified as Pre-Harappan levels.

Structures of phase I are rectangular or squarish on

plan with low mud walls and probably wattle-and

daub constructions. The houses were provided with

the storage pits and the hearths inside the room.

Along with the domestic structure, there is also

evidence for the bead manufacturing area. The area

identified based on presence of number of beads in

the different manufacturing stages along with the fire

pit for heating raw material and a sand stone bead

polisher.

Phase two has complex structural activities. They

used mud as well as mud bricks, close to the ratio

of 1:2:4. The header and stretcher method of

construction was used.

The two pottery kilns were identified. The first kiln

is 2.20 m long (E-W) and 1.34 m wide (N-S) and

is 70 cm. deep. While the other kiln is of 1.10 m

diameter.

At the site of Prabhas Patan there is evidence of

wall plaster with the reed impressions suggesting

wattle and daub constructions.25

Other Cultural Material

Early Chalcolithic material shows evidence of crafts

using shell, steatite, semi-precious stones and

terracotta cakes. The lithic industry consists of

chalcedony blades and bladelets. Lothal has produced

terracotta spindle-whorls, stone bangles and shell

bangles. The lithic industry consists of short

chalcedony blades.26 A lot of evidence for craft

manufacture activities also comes from Nagwada

such as gold objects and silver ornaments, long

chert blades, terracotta triangular cakes, toy carts,

wheels, votive tanks and bull figurines.27 At Prabhas-

Patan the cultural material consists of few chalcedony

blades, steatite and faience beads.28

Subsistence

We do not have good knowledge of plant economy

during the earlier stages but the animal economy is

well established and studied at the site of Padri. It

is mostly of domestic mammalian types like Bos

indicus, Bubalus bubalis, Capra/Ovis, Rattus rattus,

Rodent bones, Marine fish, and marine gastropod.

The bones of the domestic animals are several times

more than those of the wild animals. The cattle were

dominant in the assemblage. The Padri faunal

assemblage is more or less similar with the Surkotada

in Kutch.29

Discussion

In Saurashtra and North Gujarat the dates for the

local cultures go back to 3600 BC or earlier also.

These cultures have their own pottery style but they

have similar type of architecture, craft and lithic

224

izkX/kkjk] vad & 18

industries. Around 2500 BC mature Harappan

appears on the horizon. Even then the local

Chalcolithic cultures (Pre-Harappan) and Harappan

lived together for some time. These local cultures

are Non-Harappan in nature.

""Civilization in west and east Asia rose on the

background of agricultural communities spread mainly

in the riverine plains of the Euphrates, Tigris, Indus

and Hong Ho. The early farming communities were

spread in large areas. Especially in Indian

subcontinent, in the North-west there is evidence of

continuous indigenous evolution from the Mesolithic

to the Harappan at Mehrgarh and Kile Gul

Mohammad, in Baluchistan. The regions of North

Gujarat, Saurashtra and Mewar are other important

zones in the process of domestication and formation

of village life. This region does not come under

North-Western influence but witnessed an indigenous

development''.30 That is why Raffique Mughal's31 theory

of Early Harappan can not be applied to Saurashtra.

""The productive power of food production played

critical role in the growth and differentiation of

peoples of ancient India and Pakistan''.32 The sites

of Padri and Prabhas-Patan in Saurashtra clearly

indicate the beginning of village culture going back

to middle of the fourth millennium BC. The same

evidence has come from the sites of Nagwada and

Loteshwar in North Gujarat. The similarity in ceramic

technique and mass manufacture of craft activities

""is not due to the ethnical or racial homogeneity,

but due to the contacts and mutual experiences

based on the similarity of general economy and

social conditions''.33

These early cultures are termed as Padri and Pre-

Prabhas cultures at Padri and Prabhas-Patan

respectively and they are the earliest farming cultures

of Gujarat discovered so far in this region. These

communities are termed variously in literature such

as "Non', "Pre' and "Early' Harappan cultures. The

term "Pre' implies to the cultural gap between the

two cultures, while the term "Early' shows the

transition or continuity. The work at site of Padri,

Prabhas Patan and a few in North Gujarat clearer

demonstrate continuity between the Chalcolithic and

Harappan. This also indicates that the early cultures

in Saurashtra have contributed to some extent in the

development of the Regional Harappan phase in

Saurasthra. These early farming cultures in the form

of Padri and Pre-Prabhas cultures were contemporary

with the Early Harappan phase. Nevertheless, in

reality there are various differences in the life style,

ceramic, eating habits, infrastructure and civic status.

Most of the Harappan material is missing at these

sites. Therefore, it is hard to term these cultures as

"Harappan cultures'.

In the light of these factors it is better to call these

cultures as independent or local Chalcolithic cultures.

This would simplify many things and provide insight

into the cross-cultural influences.

A lot of sites in north Gujarat and Saurashtra are

mostly small settlements reflecting the agro-pastoralist

way of life. In the Harappan subsistence pastoral

nomads played an important role. They can be

termed as good carriers of information because of

which Harappans were able to attend to remarkable

degree of integration.34 These pastorals who were

the suppliers of the raw material were continuously

in contact with Harappan cultures, and at the same

time were receiving Harappan material as well as

technology. Most of the settlements in the Saurashtra

are along the major rivers like Shatrunji, Malan,

Dhantarwadi, Bhadar, Kalubhar etc., which have the

fertile black cotton soil. Even the sites, which are

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Pr¢gdh¢r¢, No. 18

located on the hill topes or slopes, may be for

exploiting natural resources that Harappans required

for their productions. The emergence of towns implies

the presence of considerable number of people who

do not grow food for themselves, but work at crafts

or perform services while subsisting on food produced

mainly by the villagers. The important centres such

as Nageswar, Lothal, Kuntasi, Dholavira etc., as well

as most of the sites in Kutch are non-agricultural

sites. These sites must have survived on the supplies

of essential goods from the smaller local Chalcolithic

food producing communities like Padri, Prabhas Patan,

Nagwada, and Loteshwar etc.

Northern Gujarat and Saurashtra are not strictly the

part of the Indus system. In terms of environment

Northern Gujarat and Saurashtra are in many ways

like an extension southward, down the coastal plain,

of the environment of the lower Indus valley and the

delta. The principal sites are located either on the

estuaries of minor streams or on rocky hills or

uplands. "In spite of the close similarities to the

heartland there are indications that these sites served

as gateways to the out side world; to sea trade with

the Arabian Gulf and Mesopotamia; to over land

trade with the Ahar copper miners of the southern

Rajasthan and the agate miners of the central Gujarat;

and perhaps also trade with other communities in

the subcontinent, like a southern Neolithic people of

Karnatak'.35

It is also interesting to understand the role of sea in

the local Chalcolithic cultures. Saurashtra's physical

features suggest that it may have been an island or

group of islands. In course of time the low-lying

area once under the sea, got filled up with the river

alluvium due to lowering of sea level mostly because

of tectonic movements. Even in the foreign accounts

of Vathema 1503, Baldaeus 1672 and Alexander

Hamilton 1690-172136 mentions Saurashtra as an

island. So in that case the locational analysis of

some sites may furnish useful information about the

role played by local Chalcolithic cultures in Harappan

economy.

Using the imported technological information, these

local Chalcolithic cultures or early farming

communities also acquired some degree of

sophistication in art and craft as also the cultural

integration to some level which can be seen in the

form of similarity of architecture, craft activities and

subsistence, due to which these cultures show

tremendous amount of Harappan influence in their

remains. This kind of contact was there right from

the earliest period. The early Chalcolithic people

were in contact with the Early Harappan people of

Amri, Nal, Kot-Diji, Sothi, etc as evident from the

burial pottery at Nagwada, which mainly consist Kot

Dijian style ceramic. So a parallel indigenous

development in various regions was happening

simultaneously. Possibly due to the supremacy of

the Harappans these cultures remained subordinate.

The early Chalcolithic cultures adopted various

Harappan traits but modified them to suit their own

economy and day-to-day needs and maintained their

identity.

That is the reason we do see a lot of similarity in

their ceramic assemblage and town planning but

with regional variations. The Harappan characteristic

material like seals, sealing, tablets, script are missing

because these cultures were not so sophisticated

and did not require them to control these small

agro-pastoral rural settlements. "The vast area of

Harappan civilization involves environmental

differences which must have played a significant

role in moulding different adaptations and

organizations. Different adaptations involve different

226

izkX/kkjk] vad & 18

responses, contrasting social organizations and

occupy different positions within an integrated

civilizational system'.37 The integration of culture

also means the integration or involvement of the

different cultures for the politico-socio-economical

benefits. In such cooperative environment cultural

diffusion and adaptations of ideas are very fast.

Such environment tends to form similar societies

looking alike but even then, the differences are

bound to happen due to the natural, ecological

habitats of the people. This reflects in their diet and

other day-to-day assemblage like ceramic shapes.

For example the Harappans preferred wheat in Sindh

whereas in Saurashtra people favored Bajara and

Jawar. In Sindh, they were eating mostly solid food

and hence used plates more while Bajara and Jawar

requires the liquid supplementary food that's the

reason why we get more numbers of bowls in the

assemblage. These "Parallelism and differences have

to be interpreted together as stadial contemporaniety

and distinctly local cultural traits,'38 which develop

due to the combinations of various cultural streams

giving rise to the independent regional cultural

character.

References

1. Mughal, M.R. 1970. The Early Harappan Period inthe Greater Indus Valley and Baluchistan(Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation), Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania.

2. Jarrige, Catherine, J.F. Jarrige, R.H. Meadow and G.Quirvon (eds.) 1995. Mehrgarh Field Reports1974-1985- From Neolithic Times to TheIndus Civilization. Pakistan: The Department ofCulture and Tourism, Government of Sindh,Pakistan in Collaboration With French Ministryof Foreign Affairs.

3. Jarrige, J.F. 1988. "Excavations at Nausharo',Pakistan Archaeology 23: 149-203.

Jarrige, J.F. 1989. "Excavations at Nausharo: 1988-89', Pakistan Archaeology 25: 193-240.

4. Khan, F.A. 1965. "Excavations at Kot Diji', PakistanArchaeology 2: 13-85.

5. Mughal 1970. Op. cit.

6. Possehl, G.L. 1993. Harappan Civilization: AContemporary Perspective. New Delhi: Oxford& IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.

7. Ibid.

8. Vats, M.S. 1934-35. "Trial Excavations at Rangpur,Limbdi State, Kathiawar', Annual Report of theArchaeological Survey of India 34-35: 34-38.

9. Ghurye, G.S. 1939. "Two Old sites in Kathiawar',Journal of the University of Bombay VIII (1)New series: 3-12.

10. Dixit, M.G. 1950-51. "Excavations at Rangpur: 1947',Bulletin of the Deccan College Research InstituteXI: 3-55.

11. Rao, S.R. 1962-63. "Excavations at Rangpur andother explorations in Gujarat', Ancient India18-19: 1-207.

12. Rao, S.R. 1973. Lothal and the Indus Civilization.Bombay:Asia Publishing House.

13. Dhavalikar, M.K. and G.L. Possehl 1992. "The pre-Harappan period at Prabhas Patan and thepre Harappan phase in Gujarat', Man andEnvironment 17(1):71-78.

14. Possehl, G.L. and Rawal M.H. 1989. HarappanCivilization and Rojdi. New Delhi: Oxford & IBHPublication Co. Pvt. Ltd.

15. Joshi, J.P. 1966. "Exploration in Northern Kutch',

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Journal of the Oriental Institute M.S. Universityof Baroda XVI (1): 62-69.

Joshi, J.P. 1972. "Exploration in Kutch andExcavations at Surkotada and New Light onHarappan Migration', Journal of the OrientalInstitute M.S. University of Baroda XXII: 98-144.

16. Shinde, Vasant and Sonya Bhagat Kar. 1992."Padri Ware: A new Painted Ceramic Found inthe Harappan Levels', Man and EnvironmentXVII (2):105-110.

17. Rao, S.R. 1985. Lothal A Harappan Port Town1955-62 (Vol.II). New Delhi: ArchaeologicalSurvey of India.

18. Ibid.

19. Dhavalikar and Possehl 1992. Op. cit.

20. Shinde and Bhagat 1992. Op. cit;

Shinde, V.S. 1998. "Pre Harappan Padri Culture inSaurashtra: The Recent Discovery', South AsianStudies 14:173-182.

21. Sonawane, V.H. and Ajitprasad. 1994. "HarappanCulture and Gujarat', Man and Environment19 (2):129-139.

22. P. Ajitprasad and V.H. Sonawane 1994. "TheHarappan Culture in North Gujarat: A RegionalParadigm': p. 7. Paper Presented in Seminaron ""The Harappan Culture and Gujarat'' atPune (In Press).

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Dhavalikar and Possehl 1992. Op. cit.

26. Rao 1973. Op. cit.

27. Hegde, K.T.M. 1988. "Excavation at Nagawada 1986and 1987: A Preliminary Report', Man andEnvironment XII: 55-65.

28. Dhavalikar and Possehl 1992. Op. cit.

29. Joglekar, P.P. 1996-97. "Faunal Remains from Padri:Second Preliminary Report', Bulletin of theDeccan College Research Institute 56-57: 55-67.

30. Shinde, V.S. 2002. "The Emergence, Developmentand Spread of Agricultural Communities in SouthAsia', in Yoshinori Yasuda (ed.) The Origins ofPottery and Agriculture, pp.89-115. New Delhi:Roli Books Pvt. Ltd.

31. Mughal 1970. Op. cit.

32. Possehl, G.L. 2002. The Indus Civilization AContemporary Perspective. New Delhi: VistarPublications.

33. Mode, Heinz 1959. The Harappan Culture and thewest. Calcutta: The Principal, Sanskrit College.

34. Guha Sudeshna 1994. "Recognizing "Harappan': ACritical Review of the Position of Hunter-Gatherers within Harappan Society', South AsianStudies 10: 91-97.

35. Allchin, Bridget and Raymond 1997. Origins of aCivil ization : The Prehistory and EarlyArchaeology of South Asia. New Delhi: VikingPenguin Books India (p) Ltd.

36. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Bombay Presidency1909(II): 340-46.

37. Possehl, G.L. 1980. Indus Civilization in Saurashtra.New Delhi: B.R.Publishing Corporation.

38. Heniz 1959. Op. cit.

Prabodh Shirvalkar andVasant ShindeDepartment of ArchaeologyDeccan College, Pune 411006.