Early Arctic CulturesEarly Arctic Cultures

Environment Environment Culture HistoryCulture History

Arctic CulturesArctic Cultures

In general, Aleuts and Eskimos exploited In general, Aleuts and Eskimos exploited aquatic resources in the Arctic and along aquatic resources in the Arctic and along the Alaskan coast, while Algonquian- and the Alaskan coast, while Algonquian- and Athabaskan speakers fished and hunted Athabaskan speakers fished and hunted caribou, elk, moose, and other land caribou, elk, moose, and other land animals inland in the Sub-Arctic and along animals inland in the Sub-Arctic and along the Sub-Arctic Atlantic Coast.the Sub-Arctic Atlantic Coast.Aleuts and Eskimos are the most recent Aleuts and Eskimos are the most recent of all native peoples of the Americas.of all native peoples of the Americas.

Language FamiliesLanguage Families

Aleut was spoken in the Aleutian Islands onto Aleut was spoken in the Aleutian Islands onto the Alaska Peninsula, and Eskimo from about the Alaska Peninsula, and Eskimo from about Kodiak Island around the coast all the way to Kodiak Island around the coast all the way to Greenland.Greenland.Despite the stereotype for the Arctic of the fur-Despite the stereotype for the Arctic of the fur-clad, happy Eskimos hunting seals in a flat, ice-clad, happy Eskimos hunting seals in a flat, ice-covered landscape (Nanook of the North), there covered landscape (Nanook of the North), there were diverse landscapes and societies were diverse landscapes and societies throughout the Arctic.throughout the Arctic.

Nyla, wife of Nanook

EnvironmentEnvironment

Alaska and the Yukon are rugged areas crossed by Alaska and the Yukon are rugged areas crossed by mountain ranges enclosing rough, swampy mountain ranges enclosing rough, swampy lowlands.lowlands.Useful terms include: Useful terms include: – Arctic Slope; Arctic Slope; – the Brooks, Alaska, and Aleutian ranges; the Brooks, Alaska, and Aleutian ranges; – Alaska Peninsula; Alaska Peninsula; – Aleutian Island chain; Aleutian Island chain; – the Yukon and Kuskokwin rivers; the Yukon and Kuskokwin rivers; – Bering Sea; Bering Sea; – Norton Sound; Norton Sound; – Kodiak Island. Kodiak Island.

EnvironmentEnvironmentA great central A great central lowland stretches lowland stretches eastward from the eastward from the Yukon, with a large Yukon, with a large basin around basin around Hudson Bay. Hudson Bay. Much of this area, Much of this area, such as the such as the Canadian Shield, is Canadian Shield, is rocky and devoid of rocky and devoid of much vegetation.much vegetation.

To the north of the To the north of the mainland is the mainland is the Canadian Arctic Canadian Arctic Archipelago in the Archipelago in the Arctic Ocean, which Arctic Ocean, which is largely covered is largely covered with permanent ice with permanent ice or is barren.or is barren.

The Arctic roughly coincides with the The Arctic roughly coincides with the treeless tundra and ice zone in the north treeless tundra and ice zone in the north and the Sub-Arctic with the boreal forests and the Sub-Arctic with the boreal forests to the south. Winters in both areas are to the south. Winters in both areas are very cold, with a somewhat longer summer very cold, with a somewhat longer summer in the Sub-Arctic.in the Sub-Arctic.

Tundra in the interior of Prince of Wales Island.

Caribou, musk-ox, hares, lemmings, arctic Caribou, musk-ox, hares, lemmings, arctic fox, wolves, bears, lots of nesting birds, fox, wolves, bears, lots of nesting birds, and abundant aquatic resources (fish, and abundant aquatic resources (fish, seals, whales, walrus) occur to the north, seals, whales, walrus) occur to the north, while moose, woodland caribou and while moose, woodland caribou and buffalo, migrating birds, and many smaller buffalo, migrating birds, and many smaller animals occur to the south.animals occur to the south.

 Arctic Poppies  Arctic Willow

Coast of Prince of Wales Island and sea ice in July.

Caribou, Musk ox, Arctic hareArctic Fox, lemmings, Seals, and Polar bear

Culture HistoryCulture History

The Paleo-Arctic Tradition (c.8000-The Paleo-Arctic Tradition (c.8000-5000 BC)5000 BC)

Hunter-gatherer cultures in Early Holocene far Hunter-gatherer cultures in Early Holocene far northwestern North America during a period of northwestern North America during a period of increasing environmental diversity and change.increasing environmental diversity and change.Since coastal sea mammal hunting base camps were Since coastal sea mammal hunting base camps were buried by rising sea levels, the tradition is known mostly buried by rising sea levels, the tradition is known mostly from small, inland hunting sites (at least this is an from small, inland hunting sites (at least this is an hypothesis). However, specialized sea mammal-hunting hypothesis). However, specialized sea mammal-hunting artifacts are not present.artifacts are not present.Typical stone artifacts include microblades, wedge-Typical stone artifacts include microblades, wedge-shaped microcores, leafshaped bifaces, scrapers, and shaped microcores, leafshaped bifaces, scrapers, and gravers. Organic material (bone) has not survived.gravers. Organic material (bone) has not survived.Well-known site is Anangula on the Aleutian Chain.Well-known site is Anangula on the Aleutian Chain.

Anangula SiteAnangula SiteThe Anangula archeological site is located among The Anangula archeological site is located among the Aleutian Islands, which extend southwest the Aleutian Islands, which extend southwest outward from the Alaskan peninsula. It is believed outward from the Alaskan peninsula. It is believed to be one of the original homelands of the ancient to be one of the original homelands of the ancient Eskimo tribe called the Aleuts. Eskimo tribe called the Aleuts. The Anangula archeological site is a part of the The Anangula archeological site is a part of the Anangula island. Anangula island. – The Anangula site was first recognized in 1938 by a man The Anangula site was first recognized in 1938 by a man

with the last name of Laughlin.with the last name of Laughlin.– After the initial discovery, there was no significant After the initial discovery, there was no significant

research done on the site until 1952. research done on the site until 1952. – During 1952, R. F. Black and a research team revisited During 1952, R. F. Black and a research team revisited

the Anangula Island and did more extensive the Anangula Island and did more extensive archeological research. archeological research.

http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/anangula_site.html

Anangula siteAnangula siteThe current water depth between Anangula island and The current water depth between Anangula island and Umnak island is about 11 meters.Umnak island is about 11 meters.The sea levels of 8,000 years ago were approximately 20 The sea levels of 8,000 years ago were approximately 20 meters less than the contemporary. Therefore there was meters less than the contemporary. Therefore there was dry land between the islands. dry land between the islands. This explains how the people living in the Anangula site This explains how the people living in the Anangula site were not actually secluded on the small island of Anangula were not actually secluded on the small island of Anangula and could easily travel for resources. Evidence shows that and could easily travel for resources. Evidence shows that the islands all were connected by stable land eastward to the islands all were connected by stable land eastward to the Alaskan peninsula. the Alaskan peninsula. The Anangula site was located on the southern end of the The Anangula site was located on the southern end of the Anangula Island, which by landscape provides protection Anangula Island, which by landscape provides protection from the weather of the Bering sea. The landscape from the weather of the Bering sea. The landscape surrounding in most other directions protected the site as surrounding in most other directions protected the site as well.well.

Anangula site, Anangula site, Ananiuliak IslandAnaniuliak Island

Anangula SiteAnangula Site

http://www.nps.gov/akso/CR/AKRCultural/CulturalMain/2ndLevel/NHL/NHLAnangula.htm

Coastal Adaptations on the Pacific Coastal Adaptations on the Pacific Coast (c.4000 BC - AD 1000)Coast (c.4000 BC - AD 1000)

Once sea levels stabilized c. 4000 BC, sea coastal Once sea levels stabilized c. 4000 BC, sea coastal adaptations (ocean fish and marine mammals like adaptations (ocean fish and marine mammals like sea otters, hair and fur seals, and whales).sea otters, hair and fur seals, and whales).Area of greatest concentration is in the area of Area of greatest concentration is in the area of Kodiak and Unimak islands. Kodiak and Unimak islands. Both Aleuts and Pacific Eskimos involved. Although Both Aleuts and Pacific Eskimos involved. Although there are differences between them, they both had there are differences between them, they both had two-person skin kayaks for open water hunting, and two-person skin kayaks for open water hunting, and multi-barbed harpoons for taking large sea multi-barbed harpoons for taking large sea mammals.mammals.

Coastal Adaptations on the Pacific Coast Coastal Adaptations on the Pacific Coast (c.4000 BC - AD 1000)(c.4000 BC - AD 1000)

Three archaeological traditions have been identified:Three archaeological traditions have been identified:– Ocean Bay traditionOcean Bay tradition– Kodiak traditionKodiak tradition– Koniag cultureKoniag culture

Ocean Bay TraditionOcean Bay Tradition

(4000 BC - AD 1000). Marine mammal (4000 BC - AD 1000). Marine mammal hunters in the Kodiak Island area.hunters in the Kodiak Island area.

Kodiak TraditionKodiak Tradition

(4000 BC - AD 1000). A more southern derivative (4000 BC - AD 1000). A more southern derivative of Ocean Bay composed of sea mammal hunting, of Ocean Bay composed of sea mammal hunting, salmon fishing, and caribou hunting Eskimos. salmon fishing, and caribou hunting Eskimos. Known for its slate tools, such as the ulu. In its Known for its slate tools, such as the ulu. In its latest stage (Kachemak, c. 500 BC - AD 1000), latest stage (Kachemak, c. 500 BC - AD 1000), there is a greater variety of bone and slate there is a greater variety of bone and slate artifacts (e.g., net weights, stone lamps), greater artifacts (e.g., net weights, stone lamps), greater site densities and midden accumulation (i.e., site densities and midden accumulation (i.e., more people), and more elaborate mortuary more people), and more elaborate mortuary rituals (i.e., greater social complexity).rituals (i.e., greater social complexity).

UluUlu

Modern ulu

Replica

BASALT toolsBASALT tools

Photo courtesy http://www.alaskanartifacts.com/

Koniag CultureKoniag Culture

(AD 1000-historic), which becomes the (AD 1000-historic), which becomes the historic Eskimo along the Pacific Coast.historic Eskimo along the Pacific Coast.

Kodiak IslandKodiak Island

Aleut Town siteAleut Town site

Harpoon Harpoon HeadsHeads

Aleutian Tradition Aleutian Tradition (c.2500 BC - AD 1800)(c.2500 BC - AD 1800)

The main archaeological tradition on the The main archaeological tradition on the Aleutian islands. These were sea mammal Aleutian islands. These were sea mammal hunting and fishing Aleuts.hunting and fishing Aleuts.A core and flake tradition, with bifacial projectile A core and flake tradition, with bifacial projectile points and knives, adzes and ulu blades, points and knives, adzes and ulu blades, chisels, and awls (etc.), that remained fairly chisels, and awls (etc.), that remained fairly stable throughout the life of the tradition. stable throughout the life of the tradition. There are also elaborate bone harpoon heads, There are also elaborate bone harpoon heads, and bone and ivory ornaments, whose shifting and bone and ivory ornaments, whose shifting styles help date sites. styles help date sites. A well-known site is Chaluka on Umnak island.A well-known site is Chaluka on Umnak island.

Chaluka site, Umnak IslandChaluka site, Umnak Island

Arctic Small Tool Tradition in the Arctic Small Tool Tradition in the West (c.2000-800 BC)West (c.2000-800 BC)

Most likely an intrusive ancestral Eskimo sea mammal and Most likely an intrusive ancestral Eskimo sea mammal and caribou hunting, salmon fishing culture from Siberia that caribou hunting, salmon fishing culture from Siberia that spread along the Alaskan coast from the Alaska Peninsula spread along the Alaskan coast from the Alaska Peninsula in the south to the Brooks Range in the north.in the south to the Brooks Range in the north.A new toolkit of microblades (for multi-component tools); A new toolkit of microblades (for multi-component tools); also scrapers, gravers, adze blades, etc.). Organics are also scrapers, gravers, adze blades, etc.). Organics are poorly known.poorly known.These people may have introduced the bow and arrow into These people may have introduced the bow and arrow into the Americas.the Americas.Sites include small camps and larger base camps with Sites include small camps and larger base camps with semi-subterranean, sod roofed houses.semi-subterranean, sod roofed houses.

Arctic Small ToolArctic Small Tool

A fragment of a flaked stone end-blade (i.e, the sharp blade that would be mounted at the tip of a bone, antler or ivory harpoon or spear), found lying on the surface within a rock cache as it has for well over 2000 years.

Arctic Small ToolArctic Small Tool

A complete flaked stone end-blade from the Arctic Small Tool tradition.

Other Artifacts: Toggle harpoonsOther Artifacts: Toggle harpoons

Toggle harpoons

Animal Effigy: Polar bear carved Animal Effigy: Polar bear carved from ivory.from ivory.

Settlement of the Eastern Arctic Settlement of the Eastern Arctic (c. 2000 BC)(c. 2000 BC)

Arctic Small Tool tradition folks were also Arctic Small Tool tradition folks were also the first people to push eastward across the first people to push eastward across the Arctic to the coast of Greenland. They the Arctic to the coast of Greenland. They have been separated into two phases have been separated into two phases whose interrelationship remains unclear.whose interrelationship remains unclear.Independence I (2000-1700 BC). Independence I (2000-1700 BC). Pre-Dorset (1700-900/600 BC).Pre-Dorset (1700-900/600 BC).

Independence I (2000-1700 BC)Independence I (2000-1700 BC)

Very mobile hunters in the High Arctic who Very mobile hunters in the High Arctic who subsisted mainly on musk ox, but also on birds, subsisted mainly on musk ox, but also on birds, fish, seals (etc.). fish, seals (etc.). They probably consisted of tiny hunting bands of They probably consisted of tiny hunting bands of 4-6 people who lived in musk-ox hide covered 4-6 people who lived in musk-ox hide covered tents, for stone rings are found at some sites.tents, for stone rings are found at some sites.

A large summer surplus of food was probably stored for the A large summer surplus of food was probably stored for the long winter.long winter.Besides typical Arctic Small Tool tradition stone artifacts, Besides typical Arctic Small Tool tradition stone artifacts, they also had bone needles, arrowheads, and non-toggling they also had bone needles, arrowheads, and non-toggling harpoons.harpoons.

This Arctic Small Tool tradition (Independence I culture) tent ring is referred to as a "mid-passage" house. The outer ring of rocks would have weighed down the edges of a tent. The "mid-passage" is formed by the parallel lines of rocks dividing the interior of the house; at the center of the mid-passage there is a small hearth or fireplace in which willow twigs or driftwood would have been burned.

Pre-Dorset (1700-900/600 BC)Pre-Dorset (1700-900/600 BC)Arctic Small Tool tradition people who moved Arctic Small Tool tradition people who moved eastward south of Independence I people. They eastward south of Independence I people. They were concentrated in the Hudson Strait and Fore were concentrated in the Hudson Strait and Fore Basin region.Basin region.West of Hudson Bay, they were mainly inland West of Hudson Bay, they were mainly inland land hunters and fisher folk, who only land hunters and fisher folk, who only occasionally hunted on the coast. occasionally hunted on the coast. In the Hudson Bay region and to the east, they In the Hudson Bay region and to the east, they were sea mammal hunters and ocean fishers were sea mammal hunters and ocean fishers who also hunted musk ox, caribou, polar bear, who also hunted musk ox, caribou, polar bear, and smaller mammals.and smaller mammals.

This Arctic Small Tool tradition (Pre-Dorset culture) structure is only evident on the surface by the patch of lichen and moss that was nourished by the scraps of food, charcoal, etc., left behind by the people who lived here. Although they can't be seen in this photograph, numerous tiny stone artifacts were found in and around that patch of vegetation.

Archaic Hunter-Gatherers in the Archaic Hunter-Gatherers in the Sub-Arctic (c. 5000 BC-historic)Sub-Arctic (c. 5000 BC-historic)

As glacial ice retreated northward, plants, As glacial ice retreated northward, plants, animals, and people spread northward. animals, and people spread northward. At least three major groups were involved.At least three major groups were involved.– Northern Archaic 9c.4000 BC-historic). Northern Archaic 9c.4000 BC-historic). – Shield Archaic (c.5000 BC-historic). Shield Archaic (c.5000 BC-historic). – Maritime Archaic (c.7000 BC-historic). Maritime Archaic (c.7000 BC-historic).

Northern Archaic Northern Archaic (c.4000 BC-historic)(c.4000 BC-historic)

Athabascans who were adapting to the Athabascans who were adapting to the changing Holocene environment in inland changing Holocene environment in inland areas for the most part in far northwestern areas for the most part in far northwestern North America (e.g., Alaska, Yukon). North America (e.g., Alaska, Yukon). They hunted caribou and waterfowl with They hunted caribou and waterfowl with side-notched projectile points.side-notched projectile points.

Shield Archaic (c.5000 BC-historic)Shield Archaic (c.5000 BC-historic)

A basic northern Algonquian-speaking A basic northern Algonquian-speaking forest culture centered on the Canadian forest culture centered on the Canadian Shield that fished and hunted caribou in Shield that fished and hunted caribou in the north and elk, moose, and deer in the the north and elk, moose, and deer in the south. south. Some lived along the tree line to take Some lived along the tree line to take advantage of both environments. advantage of both environments. They had lanceolate projectile points, They had lanceolate projectile points, bifacial knives, scrapers, adzes, etc.bifacial knives, scrapers, adzes, etc.

Maritime Archaic Maritime Archaic (c.7000 BC-historic)(c.7000 BC-historic)

More socially complex Algonquian speaking hunter-More socially complex Algonquian speaking hunter-gatherer-fishers who lived along the Atlantic Coast from gatherer-fishers who lived along the Atlantic Coast from Maine to Labrador. Maine to Labrador. They had a seasonal subsistence cycle that exploited sea They had a seasonal subsistence cycle that exploited sea mammals along the coast in the summer and inland land mammals along the coast in the summer and inland land resources (elk, moose, caribou, etc.) in the winter.resources (elk, moose, caribou, etc.) in the winter.

Social ComplexitySocial ComplexityTheir higher degree of social complexity is apparent in Their higher degree of social complexity is apparent in numerous rich graves covered with red ocher (thus the numerous rich graves covered with red ocher (thus the Red Paint people).Red Paint people).Included as grave offerings were elaborate bone points, Included as grave offerings were elaborate bone points, foreshafts, and socketed toggling harpoons, shell bead foreshafts, and socketed toggling harpoons, shell bead ornaments, and antler, bone, and ivory daggers.ornaments, and antler, bone, and ivory daggers.Some people were buried in earthen mounds that date to Some people were buried in earthen mounds that date to c.6000 BC.c.6000 BC.Longhouses were built at some sites late in the tradition. Longhouses were built at some sites late in the tradition. Port aux Choir in Newfoundland is a famous sea Port aux Choir in Newfoundland is a famous sea mammal hunting base camp. mammal hunting base camp. These people were probably pushed southward after c. These people were probably pushed southward after c. 1000 BC by PreDorset and Dorset Eskimos who were 1000 BC by PreDorset and Dorset Eskimos who were moving southward from the Arctic.moving southward from the Arctic.

Norton, Dorset, and ThuleNorton, Dorset, and Thule c.1000 BC-AD 800 c.1000 BC-AD 800

Norton Tradition of the Western Arctic Norton Tradition of the Western Arctic – Choris 1000-500 BC,Choris 1000-500 BC,

Norton 500 BC-AD 800Norton 500 BC-AD 800Iputiak AD 1-800Iputiak AD 1-800

Dorset Culture of the Eastern Arctic Dorset Culture of the Eastern Arctic – c. 700 BC-AD 1800 c. 700 BC-AD 1800 Thule (Inuit/Eskimo) Tradition in AlaskaThule (Inuit/Eskimo) Tradition in Alaska– After c, AD 900After c, AD 900– Thule Expansion EastwardThule Expansion Eastward

The Norton Tradition of the Western Arctic The Norton Tradition of the Western Arctic (c. 1000 BC-AD 800)(c. 1000 BC-AD 800)

The Norton tradition, which is divided into three cultures The Norton tradition, which is divided into three cultures (Choris 1000-500 BC, Norton 500 BC-AD 800, Ipiutak (Choris 1000-500 BC, Norton 500 BC-AD 800, Ipiutak AD 1-800), is characterized by: AD 1-800), is characterized by: – Major changes in subsistence strategies: a more maritime focus, Major changes in subsistence strategies: a more maritime focus,

year round sea mammal hunting both in open water and through year round sea mammal hunting both in open water and through winter ice, intensive fishing; caribou and small mammal hunting winter ice, intensive fishing; caribou and small mammal hunting remain important among Choris and Norton people.remain important among Choris and Norton people.

– First definitive shift toward establishing permanent settlements First definitive shift toward establishing permanent settlements on the seacoast; substantial year-round semi-subterranean on the seacoast; substantial year-round semi-subterranean houses; dense long-term occupation (hundreds of houses houses; dense long-term occupation (hundreds of houses occur at some sites, such as Point Hope). occur at some sites, such as Point Hope).

– An Arctic Small Tool tradition tool base except microblades and An Arctic Small Tool tradition tool base except microblades and the burin technology is gone; first pottery vessels (fiber-the burin technology is gone; first pottery vessels (fiber-tempered, stamped pottery from Asia) and stone lamps for tempered, stamped pottery from Asia) and stone lamps for burning oil; toggling harpoons and polished slate implements.burning oil; toggling harpoons and polished slate implements.

Ipiutak CultureIpiutak Culture

Burial skull of the Ipiutak culture, Alaska, with artificial eyes of jade and ivory.

Ipiutak style Mask, walrus ivory, National Museum, Copenhagen

Dorset CultureDorset Culture

top left to right: flaked stone end-blade to fit in the tip of a harpoon head; 3 harpoon heads; a so-called "spatula" carving; bottom: a harpoon foreshaft and harpoon head.

Thule CultureThule Culture

Bowhead whale mandible (jawbone) used as rafters for winter semi-subterranean houses.

Truelove Lowland, Devon Island,Truelove Lowland, Devon Island,and site QkHn-12and site QkHn-12

QkHn-12

Top row from left to right: Harpoon head; harpoon foreshaft; two fragments of a harpoon socket piece; harpoon ice pick; arrowhead; Dorset culture barbed projectile. Above scale: Pre-Dorset projectile points.Small artifacts below scale from left to right: Pendant; ivory garming piece (?); adze head.Bottom row from left to right: Seal scratcher; wooden implement; sling handle; gull hook; ulu (?) handle; soapstone sherd; man's knife handle.

Thule ArtifactsThule Artifacts

SourcesSources

http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/ANTHRO/http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/ANTHRO/rwpark/ArcticArchStuff/Environment.htmlrwpark/ArcticArchStuff/Environment.htmlhttp://daphne.palomar.edu/ais130/http://daphne.palomar.edu/ais130/Arcticart.htmArcticart.htmhttp://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/ANTHRO/http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/ANTHRO/rwpark/ArcticArchStuff/Dorset.htmlrwpark/ArcticArchStuff/Dorset.htmlhttp://www.alaskanartifacts.com/ http://www.alaskanartifacts.com/