1

PRAGATI

Proceedings of All India Biennial Civil Engineering

Conference on Advances in Civil Engineering

April 1-3, 2011

Editors

Dr. B. Kumar Dr. P. R. Maiti

Organised by

Civil Engineering Society Department of Civil Engineering

Institute of Technology

Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi - 221 005

2

Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya Ji

150th

Anniversary

(25.12.1861–12.11.1946)

Founder of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

3

A Brief History of Mahamana ji’s Life

adan Mohan Malaviya ji was a great Indian nationalist and a

true propounder of Hindu culture. He joined the Indian National

Congress during its Second session in 1886. He had been

associated with the Congress party and twice elected as its

president. Later he became the president of the Hindu Mahasabha. He

played an important role in bringing about the Congress - League accord. He

was the founder of Banaras Hindu University. Pandit Madan Mohan

Malaviya, a staunch supporter of Hindu Culture and Civilization was born

on 25 December 1861 in a poor family. He was a brilliant student. He

completed his graduation in 1891 and later on joined law. But the call of

Mother India to free her from the oppressive British rule inspired him to

plunge into the freedom struggle. Malaviya ji was an able parliamentarian.

He was elected to the provincial and central Legislatures several times. He

was also the editor of "The Hindustan", "The Indian Union" and the

Abhyudaya. He was very popular among the Indian masses as well as

among the British officers. He was called Mahamana and very much loved

by all. Due to the love of his supporters and his long association with the

Congress he was elected twice as the president of the Congress. The credit of

bringing about the Congress and the Muslim League into one platform and

the signing of the Congress - league accord goes to him. Malaviya ji was a

great admirer of Swadeshi goods. He promoted the use of indigenous

manufactures and helped to organise the Indian Industrial Conferences and

the Uttar Pradesh Industrial Association at Allahabad in 1907. The

contribution of Madan Mohan Malaviya to Indian education has been

significant and a mile stone in the field of education. He established the

Banaras Hindu University and for several years served as it‘s Vice -

Chancellor. While establishing this University he collected funds from the

rulers. In spite of their disagreement with his views the landlords and

Maharajas generously contributed for this noble cause. His appeal was so

very convincing and impressive that no one dared to deny him. Malaviya ji

was a great exponent of Indian Culture. He became famous for his social,

ethical and educational upliftment. He died in 1946 at the age of 85.

M

4

PREFACE

ivil Engineering Department, IT-BHU feels proud to introduce

Nirmaan‘11 under the banner of Civil Engineering Society. With

both students and faculty as its members the Civil Engineering

Society, IT-BHU was formed with the primary aim of exposing future civil

engineers to challenges of the profession. The Civil Engineering Society

prides itself in the lively interaction between the students and the faculty

The Civil Engineering Society activities of 2 years culminate in NIRMAAN,

the Civil Engineering festival. The festival acts as a launching platform for

budding civil engineers and brings out their creativity through competitive

events.

This conference gives an opportunity to the young students and scientist in

Civil engineering to expose their geniuses. It is good opportunity for the

budding engineers to include a culture of research, thinking exchanging and

presenting ideas and technologies in a professional manner. It is expected

that the deliberations in the conference through paper presentation and

contributory research papers will focus on the key issues of civil engineering

and thus will help in formulating the future research strategies, useful for

the nation and seed the buds in the young mind of the student.

The technical paper in the conference encompasses a wide spectrum on Civil

Engineering. The conference attempts to highlight the recent Advances in

Civil Engineering and its allied field.

The Civil Engineering Society and organizing committee of NIRMAAN-2011

extend their thanks and sincere appreciation to everyone who made the

conference and proceedings possible, and hope this document is of use to

the reader.

B. Kumar & P. R. Maiti

C

5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To give shape to the proceedings and conference in general a large number

of individuals and groups have contributed in many ways and it is our

pleaser to acknowledge their efforts. We are extremely thankful to the

contributory authors for their contribution and co-operation, which has

resulted in the timely publication of these proceedings.

We are thankful to all faculty members of Civil Engineering Department for

their support at different stages of the conference.

We are extremely thankful to our students Aniruddha, Aayush, Shashank

and Hanush for their untiring efforts during the preparation of proceedings

of the technical paper and souvenir.

We wish to acknowledge the help we received from various individuals and

institutions in the preparation of the proceedings.

B. Kumar & P. R. Maiti

6

DISCLAIMER

Neither the editors nor Civil Engineering Society, Department of Civil Engineering, IT-BHU is

responsible for statements and opinions printed in this publication. Editors and publishers

bear no responsibility with regard to accuracy or authenticity of the information contained

in this proceedings and do not accept liability of any kind for any error or omissions towards

this publication.

7

CONTENTS

Page No.

Investigation about the Location of Shear wall in RCC Medium-Rise Buildings

9-20

Agrawal S., Anshuman, Dipendu Bhunia, R. K. Pandey

A Comparative Study on Effectiveness of Cable Network of Various Configurations to reduce wind & rain-wind induced vibrations in cable-stayed bridges

21-45

Parikshit Verma

Reinforced Concrete Design with FRP Bars 46-55

Abhinav Srivastava

Production of Low Cost Concrete from Paper Industrial Wastes

56-65

M. Nidhin, S. Thamizharasan

Seismic Retro fitting of Buildings 66-73

G. Ayiswarya, S.Pradeepa

Stability Analysis of Humayun’s Tomb 74-87

Meenakshi Verma, Tabish Mohammad, Uroos Choudhry, Ankur Gautam, Neha

Earthquake its terminologies, occurrences and Seismic zones of India: A Review

88-102

K. Theunuo, S.B.Dwivedi

An Overview of Soft Computing Tool ANN: Interdisciplinary Engineering Perspective

103-116

Mousumi Dhara, K. K. Shukla

Green Buildings 117-126

N. Venkateswarlu

Use of Receptor Modelling in Source Apportionment Study of Ambient Particulate Matter: Review of the Existing Models

127-135

Vivek Kumar Singh, Abhishek Jain

Low-cost Housing 136-146

P. Tarun and Ch. Kishan Kumar

8

Bio-filters in sustainable development and management

147-155

Sravani, Shiva Shankar Y and Abhishek Kumar

Integrating Cellular Technology with Civil Engineering

156-165

Ashutosh Chaturvedi, Akshay Dikshit, Devraj Sinha Roy

Application of GIS and GPS for Online Vehicle Tracking

166-186

Ganesh Kumar. B, Swarup. S

Tracking of Stolen Vehicles using an Ultra-High Speed Microcontroller with GPS and GSM Technology

187-197

L. Mohana Priya, M. Ponmani

Piano-Key weir 198-202

Aniket Kanchan, Aditya Karan

Civil Planning For A Closed-Knit Society: Residential Planning For A Dynamic, Vibrant And Closed-Knit Community

203-212

Aseem Kumar

Finite Element Analysis of Large Amplitude of Free Flexural Vibration of Isotropic Plates

213-221

K. Mishra, M. R. Barik

9

INVESTIGATION ABOUT THE LOCATION OF SHEAR

WALL IN RCC MEDIUM-RISE BUILDING

S.Agrawal1, S.Anshuman2, Dipendu Bhunia3 and R. K, Pandey4

1Higher Degree Student, 2Assistant Professor, 3Assistant Professor,

Civil Engineering Group, BITS Pilani, Rajasthan, India.

4Professor, Civil Engineering Group, Samhigginbottom Institute of Agriculture Technology

and Science, Allahabad, India

ABSTRACT

Shear wall systems are one of the most commonly used lateral-load resisting

systems in high-rise buildings. Shear walls have very high in-plane stiffness and

strength, which can be used to simultaneously resist large horizontal loads and

support gravity loads, making them quite advantageous in many structural

engineering applications. There are lots of literatures available to design and

analyze the shear wall. However, the decision about the location of shear wall in

multi-storey building is not much discussed in any literatures.

In this paper, therefore, main focus is to determine the solution for shear wall

location in multi-storey building based on its both elastic and elasto-plastic

behaviours. An earthquake load is calculated and applied to a building of fifteen

stories located in zone IV. Elastic and Elasto-plastic analyses were performed using

both STAAD Pro 2004 and SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) software packages. Shear forces,

bending moment and story drift were computed in both the cases and location of

shear wall was established based upon the above computations.

Keywords: linear behaviour of shear wall, seismic analysis, STAAD Pro 2004 and

SAP V 10.0.5 (2000)

1. INTRODUCTION

Reinforced concrete framed buildings are adequate for resisting both the vertical

and the horizontal load acting on them. However, when the buildings are tall, beam

10

and column sizes workout quite heavy, so that there is lot of congestion at these

joint and it is difficult to place and vibrate concrete at these places, which fact,

does not contribute to the safety of buildings. These practical difficulties call for

introduction of shear wall. The term ‗shear wall‘ is rather misleading as such a

walls behave like flexural members. They are usually used in tall buildings and

have been found to be of immense use to avoid total collapse of buildings under

seismic forces. It is always advisable to incorporate them in buildings built in

region likely to experienced earthquake of large intensity or high winds. The design

of these shear wall for wind are design as simple concrete walls. The design of these

walls for seismic forces requires special considerations as they should be safe

under repeated loads. Shear walls may become imperative from the point of view of

economy and control of lateral deflection. There are lots of literatures available

[Cardan, B. (1961), Syngellakis et al. (1991), Wight et al. (1991), Qiusheng et al.

(1994), White et al. (1995) and Rosowsky, D.V. (2002)] to design and analyze the

shear wall. However, any of these literatures did not discuss much about the

location of shear wall in multi-story building.

Hence, this paper has been described to determine the proper location of shear wall

based on its elastic and Elasto-plastic behaviours. A RCC medium rise building of

15 stories subjected to earthquake loading in Zone IV has been considered. In this

regard, both STAAD Pro 2004 and SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) software packages have

been considered as two tools to perform. Shear forces, bending moments and storey

drifts have been calculated to find out the location of shear wall in the building.

Fig. 1: Plan of the Building without Shear Wall

11

2. PROBLEM DEFINITION

The plan of the building without shear wall as shown in Fig. 1 has been considered

to carry out the study. Both STAAD PRO 2004 and SAP V 10.0.5 (2000) software

packages have been considered. The preliminary data as per the Table 1 is taken

up for this study.

Table 1: Preliminary Data

Zone IV

External wall 250mm thick

including Plaster

Ground

storey height

4.0m From

Foundation Internal wall

150mm thick

including Plaster

Floor to floor

height 3.35m

Grade of Concrete

and steel M20 and Fe 415

Size of exterior

column 300×500 mm2

Number of

stories FIFTEEN (G+14)

Size of interior

column 300×300 mm2

Shear wall

thickness 300 mm

Size of beams in

longitudinal

and transverse

direction

300×450 mm2

Depth of slab

150 mm

Ductility design

IS:13920-1993

12

2.1 Loading Consideration

Dead Load (DL) and Live load (LL) have been taken as per IS 875 (Part 1) (1987)

and IS 875 (Part 2) (1987), respectively. Seismic load calculation has been done

based on the IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002)‘s approach.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

It has been seen from Table 2 that the top deflection (when the seismic load

direction is in the shorter dimension) has been exceeded the permissible deflection,

i.e. 0.004 times the total height of the building [IS 1893 (Part 1) (2002)] in STAAD

PRO 2004. It has been exceeded for the load combinations 1.5(DL+EQ) and

0.9DL+1.5EQ, respectively.

Table 2: Maximum Deflection at the Roof without Shear Wall

Software Load

Combination

Calculated

Deflection

(mm)

Permissible

Deflection (mm)

[IS 1893 (Part 1)

(2002)]

STAAD PRO

2004

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 187.976

203.6

1.5(DL+EQ) 235.725

0.9DL+1.5EQ 235.685

SAP V 10.0.5

(2000)

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 158.71

1.5(DL+EQ) 198.4

0.9DL+1.5EQ 198.38

Similarly, bending moment and shear force were maximum at the ground level in

1st and 12th frames, respectively (Table 3).

13

Table 3: Maximum Bending Moment and Maximum Shear Force at the Ground Level

without Shear Wall

Frame

No. Software

Load

Combination

Calculated Bending

Moment

(kN-m)

Calculated

Shear Force

(kN)

1st and

12th

STAAD PRO

2004

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 238.041 110.49

1.5(DL+EQ) 294.134 136.43

0.9DL+1.5E

Q 288.096 133.26

SAP V 10.0.5

(2000)

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 236.98 113.67

1.5(DL+EQ) 296.06 142.04

0.9DL+1.5E

Q 302.65 145.26

Hence, for the above reason shear wall was provided in 1st and 12th frames,

respectively (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Plan of the Building with Shear Wall in 1st and 12th frames

14

It has been observed from Table 4 that the roof deflection was well within the

permissible limit for all cases after providing the shear wall in 1st and 12th frames,

respectively.

Table 4: Maximum Roof Deflection after Providing Shear Wall in the 1st and 12th

Frame

Software Load

Combination

Calculated Deflection

(mm)

Permissible

Deflection (mm)

[IS 1893 (Part 1)

(2002)]

Without

Shear Wall

With Shear

Wall

STAAD PRO

2004

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 187.976 123.59

203.6

1.5(DL+EQ) 235.725 154.49

0.9DL+1.5EQ 235.685 151.49

SAP V 10.0.5

(2000)

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 158.71 91.4

1.5(DL+EQ) 198.4 114.29

0.9DL+1.5EQ 198.38 114.29

It has also seen from Table 5 that both bending moment and shear force were

increased at the ground level in 1st and 12th frames after providing shear wall in 1st

and 12th frames.

15

Table 5: Maximum Bending moment and Shear Force at the Ground Level after

providing Shear Wall in the 1st and 12th Frame

Software Load

Combination

Calculated

Bending

Moment

(kN-m)

Calculated Shear

Force

(kN)

STAAD PRO 2004

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 698.24 337.97

1.5(DL+EQ) 861.27 416.28

0.9DL+1.5EQ 854.41 412.29

SAP V 10.0.5 (2000)

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 630.90 308.57

1.5(DL+EQ) 778.78 380.24

0.9DL+1.5EQ 779.73 381.03

Further, shear walls have been provided in the interior frames, i.e. 6th and 7th

frames as per the following fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Plan of the Building with Shear Wall in 6th and 7th frames

16

It has been seen from the Table 6 that roof deflection was well within the

permissible deflection for all cases after providing the shear wall in 6th and 7th

frames, respectively.

Table 6: Maximum Roof Deflection after Providing Shear Wall in the 6th and 7th

Frame

Software Load

Combination

Calculated Deflection

(mm)

Permissible

Deflection (mm)

[IS 1893 (Part

1) (2002)]

Without Shear

Wall

With Shear

Wall

STAAD PRO

2004

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 187.976 106.47

203.6

1.5(DL+EQ) 235.725 133.08

0.9DL+1.5EQ 235.685 135.47

SAP V 10.0.5

(2000)

1.2(DL+LL+E

Q) 158.71 84.72

1.5(DL+EQ) 198.4 105.91

0.9DL+1.5EQ 198.38 105.91

It has also seen from Table 7 that both bending moment and shear force were

increased at the ground level in 6th and 7th frames after providing shear wall in 6th

and 7th frames.

17

Table 7: Maximum Bending Moment and Maximum Shear Force at the Ground

Level after providing Shear Wall in the 6th and 7th Frame

Software Load Combination

Calculated

Bending

Moment

(kN-m)

Calculated

Shear Force

(kN)

STAAD

PRO

2004

1.2(DL+LL+EQ) 665.76 324.51

1.5(DL+EQ) 809.79 394.28

0.9DL+1.5EQ 803.14 389.25

SAP V

10.0.5

(2000)

1.2(DL+LL+EQ) 574.87 281.61

1.5(DL+EQ) 732.90 360.92

0.9DL+1.5EQ 729.19 358.67

3.1 Elasto-plastic analysis

Mahin and Bertero (1976) employed the wide-column frame analogy to assess the

importance of the strength and stiffness of the coupling beams on the elastic and

nonlinear, static, and dynamic responses of multi-story, coupled shear-wall models

to severe earthquake excitation. In wide column frame analogy shear wall has been

modelled as a wide column having same dimension of shear wall and shear wall is

connected to frame by connecting beam. Here shear walled frame has been

modelled in SAP 2000 vs. 10 in which nonlinear analysis is done by using inbuilt

coefficient given by FEMA 356 (FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY)

provisions. According to FEMA 356 the displacement of maximum displaced

column is restricted by 4% of height. Analysis is done for the design earthquake

which has the probability of occurrence is 100years and obtains the performance

point. Performance point gives the value of maximum displacement of column

which occurs for design earth quake intensity for particular zone i.e. zone IV.

Resultant base shear-displacement curve has been obtained for structure, which

shows behaviour of structure with respect to base shear.

18

Fig. 4: Graph showing Hinge Formation Levels

In analysis hinge formation has been also been observed. Hinge formation levels

are divided as yield level (B), immediate occupancy level (IO), life safety level (LS),

collapse level (CP), full collapse level (E) [Figure 4]. At the immediate occupancy

level structures have no sever damage and structures can be used for further life of

structure. Life safety level indicates there will not be any casualty due to

earthquake but structure cannot be used for further living. At collapse level

member will start to collapse and full collapse member will already collapse.

The elastic analysis has been extended to Elasto-plastic analysis as per the

criterion discussed above. SAP 2000 v10.0.5 software package has been considered

to carry out this analysis. Table 8 is showing the base shear and roof displacement

at the performance point. It has been observed that the performance point for both

the conditions (Shear Wall provided in the 6th and 7th Frames and Shear Wall

provided in the 1st and 12th Frames) is lying within the IO level.

Table 8: Base shear vs. Roof displacement at the performance point

Conditions Parameters

Base Shear (kN) Roof

Displacement(m)

Shear Wall provided in the

6th and 7th Frames

12539.097 0.116

Shear Wall provided in the

1st and 12th Frames

12208.913 0.110

19

4. CONCLUSIONS

The above study shows the idea about the location for providing the shear wall

which was based on the elastic and inelastic analyses in this paper.

It has been observed that the top deflection was reduced and reached within the

permissible deflection after providing the shear wall in any of the 6th& 7th frames

and 1st and 12th frames in the shorter direction.

It has been also observed that the both bending moment and shear force in the 1st

and 12th frame were reduced after providing the shear wall in any of the 6th& 7th

frames and 1st and 12th frames in the shorter direction.

Hence, it can be said that shear wall can be provided in 6th and 7th frames or 1st

and 12th frames in the shorter direction.

REFERENCES

[1] Bureau of Indian Standards: IS-875, part 1 (1987), Dead Loads on Buildings

and Structures, New Delhi, India.

[2] Bureau of Indian Standards: IS-875, part 2 (1987), Live Loads on Buildings

and Structures, New Delhi, India.

[3] Bureau of Indian Standards: IS-1893, part 1 (2002), ―Criteria for Earthquake

Resistant Design of Structures: Part 1 General provisions and Buildings‖,

New Delhi, India.

[4] Bernhard Cardan, ― Concrete Shear Walls Combined with Rigid Frames in

Multistory Buildings Subject to Lateral Loads‖, Journal of American Concrete

Institute, Vol. 58, pp.299-316,September 1961.

[5] Li Qiusheng, Cao hong and Li Guiqing ―analysis of free vibrations of tall

buildings‖ ASCE.

[6] David V. Rosowsky, ―Reliability-based seismic design of wood shear walls‖

Journal of Structural Engineering‖ ASCE, November 2002.

[7] SAP 2000: Advanced 10.0.5 (2006), Static and Dynamic Finite Element

Analysis of Structures, Computers and Structures Inc., Berkeley, CA.

20

[8] Stavros Syngellakis' and Idris A. Akintilo, ―nonlinear dynamics of coupled

shear walls using transfer matrices‖ ASCE, 1991.

[9] Maurice W. White and J. Daniel Dolan ―Nonlinear shear wall analysis‖

Technical Notes, Journal of Structural Engineering‖ ASCE, 1995.

[10] John Bolander Jr. and James K. Wight ―Finite element modelling of

shearwall- dominant buildings‖ ASCE, 1991.

21

A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON EFFECTIVENESS OF

CABLE NETWORKS OF VARIOUS CONFIGURATIONS

TO REDUCE WIND & RAIN-WIND INDUCED

VIBRATIONS IN CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Parikshit Verma

Undergraduate Student

Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology BHU,

Varanasi - 221005, India

Email: pverma.itbhu@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Cable stayed bridges are the most advanced, aesthetic and economic types of

bridges at present. One of the major problems with cable stayed bridges is wind

and rain-wind induced vibrations. Present paper is based on the study conducted

Caracoglia & Zuo (2009) to investigate the effectiveness of various cable

configurations having combined system of cross ties and dampers to mitigate the

large amplitude deflections caused by wind.

This study reviews the result of experiments conducted on Fred Hartman

Bridge, Huston, Texas, USA which are helpful in the future design of cable stayed

bridges

Key Words: Cable Stayed Bridges, Cable Networks, Viscous Dampers, Cross-ties,

Numerical method

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the biggest problems in cable stayed bridges is the large amplitude

vibrations of stay cables under excitation from wind and especially during rainfall.

Such problems are a cause of great concern for safety and serviceability of cable

stayed bridges. Although considerable progress have been made in identifying the

nature of vibrations but the phenomenon still eludes fundamental understanding

of the cause of vibrations.

22

Different theories available for the probable cause of the vibrations are given as:-

1. Professor Matsumoto [1] suggested that rain-wind-induced vibration is related to

interaction between along-wind Karman vortices and axial vortices along the

cylinder axis at a frequency that is much lower than the nominal Strouhal

frequency.

Fig. 1 Karman vortices behind a circular cylinder

Courtesy: Cesareo de La Rosa Siqueria

2. MacDonald and Larose [2] indicated that rain-wind induced vibrations can be

related to a type of dry-cable galloping in the critical Reynolds number range.

Fig. 2 Vortices behind cylinder at different Reynolds‘ No.

23

3. A study conducted recently [3], based on full-scale measurement and wind

tunnel tests, and proposed that the prevalent rain-wind-induced vibration is likely

related to a type of dry-cable vibration due to 3-dimensional vortex shedding.

Fig. 3 3D Vortex shedding

Yet the mechanism is still unknown, various techniques to mitigate the vibrations

have been evolved over a period of time based on the available knowledge. One of

the most adopted techniques used is as following:-

Method

Using secondary restrainers (also known as cross-ties) to connect adjacent stays to

form cable networks so that energy in a stay can be distributed to the higher modes

and to the other stays in the network (e.g., [4] ).

Advantages

1. Simple mechanism.

2. Easy to implement.

3. Effective in most of the situations.

24

Disadvantages

1. Aesthetically unpleasant.

2. Due to inherent in plane mechanism it is incapable of controlling out of plane

cable oscillations (i.e. plane orthogonal to primary cable plane).

3. It uses energy redistribution mechanism and does not dissipate energy.

4. Failure of restrainers may occur.

Due to above short comings designers opt for other vibration control strategies like

individual dampers connected to the deck in the proximity of each stay anchorage.

Traditionally, dampers and cross-ties have primarily been used independently. In

consideration of the limitations of the cross-ties stated earlier, it appears natural to

combine the energy dissipation property of dampers and the energy redistribution

capability of cross-ties to form a hybrid system by adding dampers to cable

networks formed using cross-ties [5].

Following discussion would be based on the study conducted on three different

types of cable network one with only one cross tie, second with three cross ties and

third with hybrid configuration of cross ties and dampers. The analytical model for

analyzing the linear in-plane free vibration of cable networks without external

energy dissipation devices was developed in [6].

It was subsequently extended to enable the simulation of hybrid networks with a

limited number of viscous dampers [5].The discussion would mainly be focused on

comparing the techniques and finally arriving at the most feasible and effective

method of mitigating the vibrations.

25

2. LIST OF VARIABLES

26

27

3. METHODS FOR COMPARISON

3.1 Analytical Model

The original model is generalized to include a more comprehensive set of

―damper-cross-tie‖ configurations and to simulate the presence of multiple

28

external viscous dampers connected to the stays, either in-line with the restrainers

or not.

Fig.1.Generalized Model of a Cable Network with Multiple Dampeners

As depicted in Fig. 1, in the proposed model, the stays in the network are simulated

by a set of parallel cables, interconnected by means of cross-ties. Each jthcable (j =

1; . . . ; n) in Fig. 1 is divided by restrainers into mj segments of length lj;p. The

cross-ties are modelled by linear spring elements of stiffness Kj;p, with j and p being

the cable and the segment indices.

Each element of the jth cable (j = 1; . . . ; n) is simulated as a linear

taut string and the free vibration is represented by the wave equation [7]. As an

example the equation of motion of the pth segment (p = 1; . . . ; mj) is

Let

Then eq (1) is reduced to

The dampers are anchored to the deck and are simulated by dashpots. These

dampers are divided into a group consisting of units installed in-line with a

restrainer and another group that is not oriented in-line with the cross-ties.

Normalized damper coefficients [7], irrespective of the group, are defined as

ρDSj = cDSj (H1μ1)−0.5 = ρDS 1ζDSj

29

Where ζDSj = cDSj /cDS 1

And ρDS 1 = cDS 1(H1μ1)−0.5

If a damper is installed close to the cable anchorage and is not in-line with a

restrainer, one additional ―S‖ segment of length lSjis added to the jth cable at the

deck level (Fig. 1). Expressions similar to Eq. (1) and (2), can be derived for the ―S‖

segments in terms of YjS (xjS).

The eigen-frequency ω in Eq. (2)is complex because of the presence of the

dampers. This frequency can be normalized with respect to the fundamental native

circular frequency of an unrestrained reference stay, ω01= π/ L(H11)-0.5[7] to yield

ω=γω01, with γ=α+iβ being a dimensionless complex frequency. The solution to Eq.

(2)can be expressed as

Eq. (3a)is associated with the internal segments of a cable (the ―non-S‖ segments),

and Eq. (3b)is related to the response of the ―S‖ segments. The unknown

amplitudes Aj;p; Bj;pand AjS , BjS are complex, and is the jth ―cable

frequency ratio‖.

Eqs. (3a)and (3b)are solved to obtain the unknown amplitudes by means of a

set of compatibility, continuity and equilibrium equations. Vanishing of

displacements at cable ends (with xj,p=lj,p/Lj and xjS=lSj/Lj), and continuity at the

nodes connecting consecutive segments on the same stay (internal and ―S‖

segments) are represented by Eqs. (4), (5a)and (5b), as follows:

Internal continuity along transverse direction in each cross tie is considered by

following equation:

30

(νK)2accounts for the relative reduction of mass and tension of each cable with

respect to the reference stay.

gp denotes the maximum number of cables interconnected by the pth cross-tie.

Relative stiffness accounts for non orthogonal orientation of

stays relative to restrainers.

Accounts for non parallel orientation of stays.

Global force eq at each cross tie account for potential presence of external damper

in-line with the restrainer below the lower stays (Fig 1), as given below:

At last force equilibrium equation simulating the behavior of a damper in the

proximity of a cable anchorage at the deck level and not in line with cross-tie is:

From Eq. (4)-(8), a homogeneous system of 2r = 2 mj + n equations can be

assembled in matrix form as SΦ=0, in which the complex matrix S consists of a set

of transcendental expressions as a function of γ, linearly dependent on Φ∈C2r, i.e.,

the vector of unknowns Aj;p, Bj;p and AjS , BjS . This system represents an eigen

value problem, which is numerically solved in this study for the eigen-values, γ.

3.2 Case Study & Full Scale Measurement Of Data

Bridge – Fred Hartman Bridge

Location – Houston, Texas, USA

Brief description of bridge – The Bridge is a twin-deck cable-stayed type with two

parallel main spans of 381 m in length. The main spans and the four side spans

are supported by 192 stays ranging from 59 m to 198 m in length.

31

3.2.1 Description of prototypes used in study

The first and second prototypes were modelled based on one of the BS-line stay

systems (south tower) on the bridge, which is schematically shown in Fig. 2. These

configurations represent the state of the cable plane between March 1999 and April

2004. Two cable networks were present on these stays: one labelled as BSU

(upper network) consisting of stays BS17 to BS24 interconnected by three

restrainers, and the other labelled BSL (lower network) between stays BS13 to

BS15, which were

Interconnected by one cross-tie. The Restrainers in network BSU are labelled as 1-

BS, 2- BS and 3-BS. Stay BS16 was not mitigated by cross-ties. Undesired

vibration of this stay was controlled by a viscous damper. Locations of the

accelerometers, used to monitor cable vibrations, are also indicated in the figure.

32

The third configuration represents the network consisting of a plane of the AS-line

stays, which originate from the south tower and partially support the east main

span. This network is designated as the AS network in subsequent discussions. In

this large network, stays AS13 to AS24 are connected together by three restrainers

labelled 1-AS, 2-AS and 3-AS. At a later stage viscous dampers D1 to D12 were

installed on each stay from AS13 to AS24 to supplement the existing cross-tie

system (restrainers 1-AS to 3- AS). Fig. 3 represents the configuration of this

network between June 2004 and September 2005.

Properties of the cables and restrainers of the three systems were derived from

design specifications. The main properties of the AS-line and BS-line stays are

summarized in Tables 1 and 2 below:

The damper properties are summarized in Table 3 below:

33

4. ANALYSIS RESULTS

4.1 Cable Network With Cross Ties Only

Numerical simulations were based on the configurations described earlier. In

particular, observations were also based on the results of previous studies [6]

conducted to analyze the performance of in-plane cable networks by varying the

number and the location of restrainers.

Fig. 4 depicts the mode-frequency evolution chart of the BSU (Fig. 4(a)) and BSL

(Fig. 4(b)) networks in the frequency range between 0.5 Hz and 5.0 Hz. In each

figure, the frequencies of the two networks are compared with the native

frequencies of the stays that are used to form the network, including both

fundamental and higher-mode frequencies. As anticipated, the network frequencies

are in general higher than the native fundamental frequencies of the longest

individual cables, such as 0.560 Hz, which is the fundamental frequency of BS24

in Fig. 4(a). In the same figure, a large plateau composed of many localized modes

above 2.0 Hz is present due to the existence of a large number of cable segments.

For the large AS network with twelve cables and three restrainers, the mode-

frequency evolution is shown in Fig. 5 below:

34

In this case, the first-mode frequency of the network was predicted at about 1 Hz;

while the fundamental native frequencies of the longest stay of the AS line was

estimated to be 0.565 Hz (AS24). The first modal plateau coincides with a frequency

range above 2.0 Hz, which is similar to the modal plateau of BSU, but the number

of modal solutions has increased. Fig. 5 also depicts a second configuration

(circular marker), representing the behaviour of the AS network with ―locked

dampers‖.

35

Fig. 6(a) above shows a typical example of a global mode (the first mode, BSU-

NM01, at 0.89 Hz), and Fig. 6(b) depicts a localized mode, i.e., a higher mode in

which only a portion of the network is actively involved. Specifically, in Fig. 6(b),

the mode BSU-NM04 with a frequency of 1.93 Hz is dominated by the vibration of

stay BS21.

The change in the modal frequencies and shapes of the cables when they are

interconnected through the cross-ties results in energy redistribution in the system

when external excitation is applied. The effectiveness of this mechanism is assessed

by interpreting the vibrations of the stays recorded by the full scale measurement

system.

36

Full-scale data suggest that the cross-ties were generally effective in preventing the

onset of various types of stay cable vibrations. As an example, Fig. 7(a) shows the 1

min. root-mean square (RMS) in-plane and lateral (out-of-plane) displacements of

stay AS1 recorded from October 1997 to September 1998, before the cross-ties

were added, and Fig. 7(b) shows the RMS displacements of the same stay from May

1999 to December 2003, when AS1 was interconnected to a number of adjacent

stays with cross-ties.

The RMS displacements were computed based on the displacement time histories,

which were obtained by numerically integrating the acceleration of the stays

recorded by the accelerometers. In this case, vibration suppression in the lateral

direction is due to the fact that, since wind- and rain wind- induced vibrations are

aero-elastic, a

37

mitigation mechanism in either direction is capable of suppressing vibration

components in both directions, unless the oscillation primarily occurs in the

unmitigated direction.

However, the full-scale data also revealed a number of limitations of cross-

ties as a mitigation strategy for stay cable vibrations. Fig. 8 shows the vibrations of

stay AN24 (which was in a cable network similar to the AS network shown in Fig. 3)

in the in-plane and lateral directions in its native modes between April, 1999 and

December, 2002, when the stay was connected to adjacent stays using cross-ties.

The modal displacements were obtained by decomposing the displacement time

histories using a sixth order Butterworth filter. This figure suggests that while the

cross-ties successfully suppressed vibrations in many of the lower native modes of

the stay, they appeared ineffective in mitigating vibrations in the fourth (2.25 Hz)

and the eighth (4.52 Hz) native modes. Evidence of vibration in native modes other

than numbers 4 and 8 was negligible, although some of these modes were indeed

observed at very low amplitudes. The ineffectiveness of the cross-ties for this

network is due to the fact they were evenly spaced and tied to AN24 at locations

very close to the nodal points of the fourth native mode so that modes 4, 8, 12 etc.

of this stay remain as in-plane native modes of the cable network, i.e., they are

essentially not restrained by the cross-ties and, as a result energy in these modes

cannot be effectively redistributed to the other modes of stay AN24 or the adjacent

stays.

Another limitations of cross ties is that they are essentially a mechanism in

the in- plane direction so their effectiveness is marginal in the lateral direction.

38

Such limitation of the cross-ties in the lateral direction can also be seen in

the statistics of recorded vibrations. As an example, Fig. 9(a) shows the one-minute

RMS displacement of stay AS20 during the time period between March 1999 and

June 2004, while it was in the AS network shown in Fig. 3. Cluster A in the graph

represents quasi-static vibrations of the stay due to deck oscillation [8], and cluster

B represents rain-wind-induced vibrations associated with wind approaching in a

direction very close to the projection of the cable axis in the horizontal plane. Fig.

9(b) shows the vibration locus of stay BS24 (BSU network in Fig. 4) the deck

oscillation was in the vertical direction, it can be seen that the vibration of stay

BS24 was more significant in the lateral direction than in the in-plane direction.

4.2 Cable Networks With Cross Ties and Dampers

4.2.1 Numerical simulation of network mode

A parametric study was conducted to assess the performance of the hybrid

―damper-cross-tie‖ system with multiple dampers (DS1 to DS12, Table 3), as shown

in Fig. 3. To limit the number of independent variables associated with the

dampers in the AS network, the normalized damper coefficient of ―DS1‖ in Table 3

ds1 was allowed to vary within a suitable interval, while the relative damper

coefficient ratios of other units 𝛇𝐃𝐒𝐣 = 𝐜𝐃𝐒𝐣/𝐜𝐃𝐒𝟏were assumed to be equal to the

design values indicated in the table.

In a cable network restrained by a ―damper-cross-tie‖ system, the

frequencies and Eigen-modes are influenced by the normalized damper coefficients

39

of each unit (i.e., dsj in Table 3). The evolution of the frequency solution in the

complex plane for the AS network, as a function of ds1, is represented in terms of

the dimensionless

frequency and damping ratio (0 1), computed as = / )2

1 + /) 2] 0.5

The solutions are characterized by two limiting real-frequency cases: ds1 = 0

i.e., undamped solution without dampers and ds1 +, i.e., all dampers are locked

and can be replaced by a rigid link to the deck. For intermediate values of ds1,

complex Eigen-modes are usually under damped with 1.Real frequencies

corresponding to undamped and locked damper configuration are shown in Fig. 5.

In particular, Fig. 5 confirms that, as anticipated, locking the dampers to the deck

has an effect exclusively on the global modes of the AS network while no significant

effect

40

in terms of frequency increase is evident for the first group of localized modes since

modal plateau 1 in Fig. 5 is practically coincident in the two cases.

Frequency-damping trajectories associated with the fundamental global modes M1

and M2 of the AS network with twelve dampers are shown in Fig. 10(a). In these

figures, real frequencies associated with the limiting cases are indicated as

undamped (u) and locked dampers (r), along with the direction of increasing

damping (ds1). From Fig. 10(a), it can be concluded that the current design (ds1 =

1.72, node ―a1‖) does not correspond to optimal damping for the fundamental

modes, i.e., the local maximum on each (,) trajectory. Even though the damping

ratio is significant (about 3.5% for mode M1 and 6.0% for mode M2), higher

damping for these network modes might be achieved if larger dampers were

employed. In contrast, modal behaviour for the higher and localized modes is quite

complicated due to the presence of a large number of dampers. This is especially

evident for modes M6 and M7 in Fig. 10(b).

Since simultaneous optimization of more modes (e.g., modes M1 to M3) is

difficult to achieve in practice because of the large number of dampers in the AS

network system, other solutions were tested starting from the design configuration

with three restrainers and all dampers in Fig. 3. For a given damper configuration

and mode, an (,) pair corresponding to the maximum achievable damping level

was determined as a function of the reference ds1, by subsequently removing the

damper units (one at a time). Table 4 summarizes the results of this investigation

for the fundamental global modes M1 and M2.

4.2.2 Simulation and full-scale record

Table 5 shows the results of the parametric investigation on the performance of the

AS network modes M5 and M7 (above 2 Hz). Case 1 corresponds to the gray

41

circular marker nodes in Fig. 10(b). It is revealed that, since the contribution to the

mode

shapes is primarily associated with the vibration of internal cable segments

(―non-S‖ segments), the presence of the dampers has little effect (< 0.2% in most

cases) and the performance of such modes is mainly linked to effects of the cross-

ties.

42

Two example mode shapes for higher network modes of the localized type, i.e., M5

and M7, are shown in Figs. 11 and 12 below. Real and imaginary parts of the

eigen-function are separately indicated. Each figure shows the mode shape

associated with the Eigen frequency corresponding to the maximum damping

nodes for the damper configuration labelled as ―case 4‖ in Table 5. These

correspond to ds1 =16.00 for M5 (Fig. 11) and ds1 = 19.00 for M7 (Fig. 12). Case 4

was also selected since Table 5 suggested that the optimal node for this

configuration could be considered efficient in comparison with other cases in the

same table. In case 4 a relatively large damping value is achieved for a relatively

low ds1, i.e., for smaller dampers.

It can be seen in above figures that most vibration occurs in the intermediate

portions of the network, away from the cable segments where most dampers are

located. The placement of dampers on every stay in the proximity of the cable end

is not beneficial, except for the location of D5, which is modelled as attached to

AS17 in-line with restrainer 2-AS, also indicated in Figs. 11 and 12. This damper

provides some contribution to the damping, especially for M7; in fact, the complex

part of the mode shape of the AS17 cable segment close to D5 is not negligible in

Fig. 12(b).

Table 5, Figs. 11 and 12 reveal the complexity in the behavior of a hybrid

cable network with multiple dampers attached between a stay and a deck.

However, they also suggest that, if a damper is optimized for the first native mode

of a stay, its performance may become inadequate for the higher modes of a

network, such as M5 to M7 in the AS network. However, even though in the

current practice the optimization of a damper attached to a stay is often based on

the first native mode, vibration at frequencies corresponding to M5 to M7 cannot be

excluded. If frequencies corresponding to modes M5 to M7 were of concern to the

designer, Table 5 confirms that this hybrid system would not be as effective as the

damper-to-stay case, optimally designed for the frequency range of M5 to M7.

The damper-cross-tie system has generally been effective in suppressing the

vibrations, unless the oscillations were primarily in the lateral direction. A

summary of the recorded vibrations of AS22 from June 2004 to September 2005,

when it was

43

mitigated by the damper-cross-tie system is shown in Fig. 13. It can be seen that

during the 15 months, the stay only exhibited a limited number of events of

moderate amplitude vibrations. The vibrations in the first native mode of the stay,

which were considerably two-dimensional, are identified to be due to oscillation of

the bridge deck in its first torsional mode, whose frequency is estimated to be 0.684

Hz [9] and close to the fundamental frequency of stay AS22. The vibrations in the

fourth (2.76 Hz) and the seventh (4.85 Hz) modes are identified to be rain-wind-

induced vibration. As stated earlier, the existence of low-amplitude native modes

were due to the fact that the connections between the cross-ties and the stays were

not perfectly tight. Fig. 13 also suggests that the damper-cross-tie system, which

consists of dampers and cross-ties in the in-plane direction of the stays, was also

ineffective in mitigating vibrations in the lateral direction. According to the full-

scale data it appears that no improved performance could be clearly attributed to

the addition of the dampers as compared to the full-scale response of the AS

network without dampers.

5. FINDINGS & CONCLUSION

1. Cross-ties are inherently an energy redistribution mechanism but not an energy

dissipation mechanism.

2. Cross-ties alone can be effective in mitigating large amplitude oscillations in the

lower (global) modes of cable network. This is primarily due to large increment

in modal mass that results when the stays are linked together.

44

3. Apart from global modes, a cable network exhibits a large number of localized

vibration mode. If these modes are excited they are more difficult to control

since they can occur on individual stays between the anchor points of the cross-

ties.

4. An evenly spaced configuration of cross ties is not a good practice. When

restrainers are sometimes introduced to reduce sag effects in long stays they

can be spaced in an evenly spaced pattern [10].

5. Oscillations of stays cannot be mitigated in the direction orthogonal to the plane

of cross-tie system. This inadequacy can be a cause of concern, since lateral

vibrations may create large stresses at either restrainer-stay or damper-stay

connections which can cause local damage.

6. Adding dampers in the in-plane direction orthogonal to the plane of cross-tie

system can induce appreciable damping levels in the lower modes of the

network in this plane but the benefits can be redundant as cross-tie system is

already an effective system to for these modes. However dampers can be added

to compliment or increase the performance of cross-ties system but in this case

they need not be attached in every stay.

7. Hybrid damper-cross-tie systems are complex and must be analyzed as

networks with attached dampers. Adding cross ties to a stay configuration

modifies the free vibration characteristics completely and can render dampers

ineffective.

8. The behaviour of the network in higher modes primarily depends upon the

geometric properties of cross-ties and their relative position along each stay.

Hence its performance can be improved by a better design of secondary

restrainers.

9. Simulations confirm that the optimization of more network modes at the same

time for damper-cross-tie system is difficult to achieve in practice because of the

complexity associated with the large number of independent parameters to be

determined i.e. damper coefficients and location of units.

10. Addition of dampers in the orthogonal direction of cable network can be effective

especially in case of bridges with exceptionally long stays.

Hence we can say that Cross-tie systems without the addition of dampers can be

effective in mitigating stay cable vibrations. However these systems are not effective

in suppressing vibrations in the lateral direction of stay cables.

45

REFERENCES

1. Matsumoto M, Yagi T, Goto M, Sakai S. Rain-wind-induced vibration of inclined

cables at limited high reduced wind velocity region. J Wind EngIndust

Aerodynam 2003;91(1-2):1-12.

2. Macdonald JHG, Larose GL. Two-degree-of-freedom inclined cable galloping -Part

2: Analysis and prevention for arbitrary frequency ratio. J Wind

EngIndustAerodynam 2008;96(3):308-26.

3. Zuo D. Understanding wind- and rain-wind-induced stay cable vibrations. Ph.D.

Disseration. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins University; 2005.

4. Ehsan F, Scanlan RH. Damping stay cables with ties. In: 5th US-Japan bridge

workshop. 1989;203-17.

5. Caracoglia L, Jones NP. Passive hybrid technique for the vibration mitigation of

systems of interconnected stays. J Sound Vib 2007;307(3-5):849-64.

6. Caracoglia L, Jones NP. In-plane dynamic behavior of cable networks. Part 2:

Prototype prediction and validation. J Sound Vib 2005;279(3-5):993-1014.

7. Irvine HM. Cable structures. Cambridge (MA, USA): MIT Press; 1981.

8. Liu M-Y, Zuo D, Jones NP. Deck-induced stay cable vibrations: Field

observations and analytical model. In: 6th international symposium on cable

dynamics. 2005;175-182.

9. Ozkan E. Evaluation of response prediction methodology for long-span bridges

using full-scale measurements. Ph.D. Dissertation. Baltimore, MD, USA: The

Johns Hopkins University; 2003.

10. Gimsing NJ. Cable supported bridges; concept and design. New York, USA:

John Wiley and Sons; 1983.

11. Caracoglia L., Zuo D. Effectiveness of cable networks of various configurations

in suppressing stay cable vibration; Article in press

46

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN WITH FRP BARS

Abhinav Srivastava

B. Tech, Department of Civil Engineering, IT BHU

ABSTRACT

Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics, and ceramics have been the

dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite

materials has grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly.

Today high performance fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) are starting to challenge that

most ubiquitous material, steel, in everyday applications as diverse as automobile

bodies and civil infrastructure. Each type of composite brings its own performance

characteristics that are typically suited for specific applications. High performance

FRP can now be found in such diverse applications as composite armouring

designed to resist explosive impacts, fuel cylinders for natural gas vehicles,

windmill blades, industrial drive shafts, support beams of highway bridges and

even paper making rollers. FRP bars have been and are being used to replace

conventional steel rebars for a host of reasons, but perhaps the most relevant is

that of prevention of reinforcement corrosion. The principles for design and

construction have been recently established and proposed to industry by the

American Concrete Institute (ACI). The fundamental principles at the basis of this

document are rooted in the steel-reinforced concrete practice with modifications to

account for the physico-mechanical characteristics of FRP. Some unresolved

questions remain pertaining to specifications, test methods, detailing, validation

and long-term durability (including fire resistance). Resolving these issues will

increase the degree of confidence in the technology and allow for its more

economical exploitation.

1. INTRODUCTION

The use of FRP as reinforcement in concrete structures has been growing rapidly

due to its advantages over conventional steel reinforcement (e.g., corrosion

resistance, light weight, magnetic neutrality). A potential application of FRP

reinforcement is in structural concrete. Corrosion of reinforcing steel has been the

primary cause of deterioration of reinforced concrete (RC) structures requiring

47

multi-million annual repair costs around the world. Furthermore, modern

equipment that employs magnetic interferometers, such as in hospitals, require a

nonmagnetic environment with no metallic reinforcement. This has led to an

increasing interest in FRP reinforcement, which is inherently nonmagnetic and

resistant to corrosion. FRP reinforcement also provides the option of easily

embedding fiber optic strain measurement devices for structural health monitoring

purposes. FRP composites do not deteriorate in saline environment, which curtails

the life of conventional structures. Additionally, FRP has strength to weight ratios

of 50 times that of concrete and 18 times that of steel. However, FRP materials

often exhibit lower ductility and weaker bond to concrete compared to that of

conventional steel reinforcement. The bond of FRP to concrete can be improved by

means of mechanical anchorages such as surface deformations and sand coating,

but its lower ductility remains a major concern, especially in structures subjected

to dynamic loading. The behaviour of FRP-reinforced concrete elements largely

depends on the bond between the concrete and composite reinforcement

2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES

FRP materials are anisotropic and are characterized by high tensile strength with

no yielding in the direction of the reinforcing fibers. This anisotropic behaviour

affects the shear strength and dowel action of FRP bars, as well as their bond to

concrete performance. Proposed design procedures account for a lack of ductility in

concrete reinforced with FRP bars. Both strength and working stress design

approaches are acceptable according to the provisions of the ‘95 edition of ACI 318

(ACI Committee 318, 1995). An FRP-RC member is designed based on its required

strength and then checked for serviceability and ultimate state criteria (e.g., crack

width, deflection, fatigue and creep rupture endurance). In most instances,

serviceability criteria will control the design.

2.1 Design Values

The design tensile strength that should be used in all design equations is given as

where: f fu = design tensile strength of FRP considering reductions for service

environment; CE = environmental reduction factor, given in Table 1 for various fiber

48

types and exposure conditions; and f*fu= manufacturer‘s guaranteed tensile

strength of an FRP bar defined as the mean tensile strength of a sample population

minus three times the standard deviation (f*fu= fu, ave– 3σ). The design rupture

strain should be determined similarly (i.e., average minus three times the standard

deviation), whereas the design modulus of elasticity is the same as the average

value reported by the manufacturer. Design parameters in compression are not

addressed by the guide since the use of FRP rebars in this instance is discouraged.

2.2 Behaviour and Failure Modes

The non-ductile behavior of FRP reinforcement necessitates reconsideration of

failure modes. If FRP reinforcement ruptures, failure of the member is sudden and

catastrophic. However, there would be some limited warning of impending failure in

the form of extensive cracking and large deflection due to the significant elongation

that FRP reinforcement experiences before rupture. The concrete crushing failure

mode is marginally more desirable for flexural members reinforced with FRP bars

since the member does exhibit some pseudo-plastic behaviour before failure. In

conclusion, both failure modes (i.e., FRP rupture and concrete crushing) are

acceptable in governing the design of flexural members reinforced with FRP bars

provided that strength and serviceability criteria are satisfied. To compensate for

the lack of ductility, the member should possess a higher reserve of strength. The

suggested margin of safety against failure is therefore higher than that used in

traditional steel-RC design.

2.3 Φ factor

When concrete crushing controls, a strength-reduction factor of 0.70 is adopted.

Furthermore, a Φ factor of 0.50 is recommended for FRP rupture-controlled failure.

While a concrete crushing failure mode can be predicted based on calculations, the

49

member as constructed may not fail accordingly. For example, if the concrete

strength is higher than specified, the member can fail due to FRP rupture. For this

reason and in order to establish a linear transition between the two values of Φ, a

section controlled by concrete crushing is defined as a section in which the

reinforcement ratio, ρ f, is greater than or equal to 1.4 times the balanced

reinforcement ratio, ρfb, (ρf≥ 1.4 ρfb,) and a section controlled by FRP rupture is

defined as one in which ρf<ρfb.

2.4 Minimum Reinforcement

If a member is designed to fail by FRP rupture, ρf<ρfb, a minimum amount of

reinforcement, Af, min, should be provided to prevent failure upon concrete

cracking (that is, ΦMn≥Mcr where Mn and Mcr are the nominal and cracking

moment, respectively). The minimum reinforcement area is obtained by multiplying

the existing ACI 318-95 limiting value for steel by 1.8 (i.e., 1.8 = 0.90/0.50 which is

the Φ ratio).

2.5 Creep Rupture & Fatigue

Values for safe sustained and fatigue stress levels are given in Table 2. These

values are based on experimental results with an imposed safety factor of 1/0.60.

3. SHEAR

Several issues need to be addressed when using FRP as shear reinforcement,

namely: FRP has a relatively low modulus of elasticity; FRP has a high tensile

strength and no yield point; tensile strength of the bent portion of an FRP bar is

significantly lower than the straight portion; and FRP has low dowel resistance.

50

According to ACI 318-95, the nominal shear strength of a steel-RC cross section,

Vn, is the sum of the shear resistance provided by concrete, Vc, and the steel shear

reinforcement, Vs. Similarly, the concrete shear capacity Vc,f of flexural members

using FRP as the main reinforcement can be derived from Vcmultiplied by the ratio

between the axial stiffness of the FRP reinforcement (ρfEf) and that of steel

reinforcement (ρsEs) necessary to develop the same flexural capacity. For practical

design purposes, the value of ρscan be taken as 50% of the maximum allowed by

the code (i.e., 0.5ρs,max or 0.375 ρb). Considering a typical steel yield strength of

420 MPa (60 ksi) for flexural reinforcement, the equation for Vc,f is that shown in

Eq. (1) (noting Vc,f cannot be larger than Vc).

The ACI 318-95 method used to calculate the shear contribution of steel stirrups,

Vs, is applicable when using FRP as shear reinforcement with the provision that its

stress level, ffv, should be limited to control shear crack widths, maintain shear

integrity of the concrete, and avoid failure at the bent portion of the FRP stirrup

(i.e., ffv<ffb = strength of the bent). The stress level in the FRP shear reinforcement

at ultimate for use in design is given by ffv= 0.002Ef ≤ ffb. An expression for ffbis

given in ACI 440.1R-01.

4. DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

The development length of FRP reinforcement can be expressed as shown in Eq. (2)

as a function of the bar diameter, db, and the design strength. This should be a

conservative estimate of the development length of FRP bars controlled by pullout

failure rather than concrete splitting.

Manufacturers can furnish alternative values of the required development length

based on substantiated tests conducted in accordance with available testing

51

procedures. Reinforcement should be deformed or surface-treated to enhance bond

characteristics with concrete.

4.1 Test Methods

Bond characteristics and related bond-dependent coefficients; creep rupture and

endurance limits; fatigue characteristics; coefficient of thermal expansion;

durability characterization with focus on alkaline environment and determination

of related environmental reduction factors; strength of the bent portion; shear

strength; and compressive strength.

One of the test methods under development allows obtaining the strength capacity

of 90- degree bents for FRP bars used as stirrups in shear reinforcement or used as

anchors. The photographs given in Figures 2 and 3 show a specimen under test

and the fractured bent. This method is intended for use in laboratory tests in which

the principal variables are the size or type of the FRP bar and radius of the bent. It

consists of a tension test conducted using a unique fixture which has three

components, upper and lower steel parts and interchangeable aluminium corner

inserts, machined to fit a specific bar diameter and bent radius. Instrumentation

may be used depending on the parameters being monitored. If elastic modulus and

strain distribution are required, strain gages can be mounted directly on the FRP

bent. This test method has several advantages, which include ease and reliability.

For example, in the case of one of the glass FRP bar systems used for validation,

the coefficient of variation for 12 consecutive tests remained below 5.5%.

Fig. 1Specimen under test

52

Fig. 2 Failed bent

5. GFRP-REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGE DECKS

The original Sierrita de la Cruz Creek Bridge in Potter County, Texas, was replaced

because it had become structurally deficient and functionally obsolete. The new

bridge is 168.7 m (553 ft) long with a superstructure consisting of seven spans

using 24.1-m (79-ft) pre-stressed concrete (PC) beams. The superstructure is

divided into three units namely: a two-span unit on the northend and a three-span

unit in the middle with epoxy-coated steel-RC decks and a two-span unit at the

south end, each with a top mat GFRP bar and bottom mat epoxy-coated steel-RC

deck. The transverse slab reinforcement is the primary load-carrying reinforcement

of the slab and there is no provision for the development of tension ties associated

with slab arching action.

Design forces were determined by a one-way analysis of the slab as well as from the

empirical formula. The one-way analysis was performed assuming a 300-mm (1-ft)

longitudinal strip of the transverse slab, continuous over knife-edged support

representing the six PC beams. Because the bottom mat of steel reinforcement was

held to no more than the 150-mm (6-in) standard spacing and because panels were

used for most bays, positive moment regions were adequately reinforced. Thus,

only negative moments were considered in determining the required GFRP bar size

and maximum spacing. Only the slab overhangs had the potential to reach full

flexural capacity. Crack width, rather than strength and allowable stress limits,

was the controlling design factor and determined bar size and spacing for the GFRP

bars in the deck. The choice of the value of maximum acceptable crack width was

in this case 0.5 mm (0.02 in). The calculated maximum stress for this crack width

was less than 15% of the guaranteed ultimate strength of the bar. For the deck slab

design, #6 GFRP bars spaced at 140 mm (5.5 in) were required, versus the #5

53

epoxy-coated steel bars at 150 mm (6 in), which is the standard size and spacing.

To summarize, GFRP bars spaced 7% closer than the standard epoxy-coated steel

reinforcement, each with 42% more cross-sectional area than the standard steel

reinforcement, was required in the top mat for the GFRP-reinforced deck as

compared with a fully epoxy-coated steel reinforced deck. Figures4 and 5 show the

GFRP reinforcement placement and the final product.

Fig. 3 Top GFRP mat placement

Fig. 4 Concrete Placement

6. CONCLUSION

Globally, composite technology and its applications had made tremendous progress

during the last two decades or so, as evident from the present level of consumption

of composite materials at about 2.2 million MT, with the Asia Pacific region

accounting for about 24% of this usage.

Currently, about 40,000 composite products are in use for an array of applications

in diverse sectors of the industry all over the world. India started making use of

54

composites almost about 30 years ago with a consumption level of about 30000

MT. The most important feature governing the choice of material & form of

construction for any component is its structural integrity.

Whereas high specific strength and lightweight were often the dominant criteria to

be achieved, particularly for aerospace applications, there is today an increasing

emphasis on other criteria such as environmental durability, embedded energy, fire

resistance. The materials previously regarded as being synonymous with high

performance FRP, such as carbon fiber, are more affordable today and hence not

always used to the limit of their capabilities.

With more & more realization on conservation of nature & natural resources,

scarcity of wood looms large for the construction & housing sector. This calls for an

immediate attention for developing suitable wood substitutes. From the point of

view of wood substitution, natural fiber composites would enjoy wider acceptance.

India enjoys a niche for the natural fiber composites as the country is endowed

with large varieties of natural fiber. Value-added novel applications of natural fiber

composites would also ensure international market for cheaper substitutes.

As far as FRP‘s as reinforcement is concerned even with some unresolved issues

that should become a priority for future research, it can be concluded that the

availability of design and construction guides developed by ACI for the use of FRP

internal reinforcement for concrete structures should allow the construction

industry to take full advantage of this emerging technology. Applications for

concrete construction using internal FRP reinforcement are rapidly developing.

55

REFERENCES

56

PRODUCTION OF LOW COST CONCRETE FROM

PAPER INDUSTRIAL WASTES

M.NIDHIN (1), S.THAMIZHARASAN (2)

(1)Pre-Final Year Student, Crescent Engineering College,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

(2)Pre-Final Year Student, Kongu Engineering College,

Erode, Tamil Nadu, India

ABSTRACT

Manufacture of ordinary Portland cement needs large amount of earth resources

and also releases enormous amount of green house gases during its production

which adversely affect the environment. Therefore an alternative to cement usage in

construction can make a huge impact on reducing environmental pollution. Paper

making industries generally produces large amount of solid wastes. To reduce

disposal and pollution problems emanating from these industrial wastes, it is most

essential to develop profitable building materials from them. Therefore in order to

resolve the disadvantages of both these sides, an attempt is made to use these

paper industrial wastes known as hypo sludge as replacement of cement for a

concrete. Hence it avoids environmental pollution due to usage of cement and also

solves the problem of mass disposal of these wastes.

This hypo sludge behaves like cement because of its silica, lime and magnesium

components. These components improve the setting of the concrete and also

provide necessary strength for the concrete. Keeping this in view, investigations

were done to produce low cost concrete by blending various ratios of cement with

sludge. The project deals with experimental investigations on strength of concrete

and optimum percentage of the partial replacement of cement by 10%, 20%, 30%,

40% hypo sludge and finding out the strength of blended materials. The percentage

of cost saved due to replacement is also found out. This project definitely has a

major impact on environmental production reduction.

57

1. INTRODUCTION

Over 300 million tonnes of industrial wastes are being produced per annum by

chemical and agricultural process in India. These materials pose problems of

disposal and health hazards.

The wastes like phosphor-gypsum, fluoro-gypsum and red mud contain obnoxious

impurities which adversely affect the strength and other properties of building

materials based on them. Out of several wastes being produced at present, the use

of phospho-gypsum, flout of solid waste. Paper fibers can be recycled only a limited

number of times before they become too short or weak to make high quality. It

means that the broken, low quality paper fibers are separated out to become waste

sludge. All the inks, dyes, coatings, pigments, staples and ―stickies‖ (tape, plastic

films etc) are also washed off the recycled fibers to join the waste solids. The shiny

finish on glossy magazine paper is produced using a fine kaolin clay coating, which

also becomes solid waste during recycling. This paper mill sludge consumes a large

percentage of local landfill space for each and every year. Worse yet, some of the

wastes are land spread on cropland as a disposal techniques, raising concerns

about trace contaminants building up in soil or running off into area lakes and

streams. Some companies burn their sludge in incinerators, contributing to our

serious air pollution problems. To reduce disposal and pollution problems

emanating from these industrial wastes, it is most essential to develop profitable

building materials from them.

2. SOLID WASTE FROM PAPER INDUSTRY

Wastes from paper industries are of many types as explained and the major waste

from these industries is called hypo sludge which usually contains, low calcium

Fig.1 Hypo-Sludge Deposition

58

and maximum calcium chloride and minimum amount of silica. Hypo sludge

behaves like cement because of silica and concrete. The following tables explain the

properties and nature of hypo sludge from paper industrial wastes.

Table 1 Properties of raw hypo sludge:

SI.No. Constituent %Present in Hypo-sludge

1 Moisture 56.8

2 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 3.3

3 Calcium oxide (CaO) 46.2

4 Loss on ignescent 27.00

5 Acid insoluble 11.1

6 Silica (SiO2) 9.0

7 R2O3 3.6

Table 2 Comparison of cement and hypo sludge:

Sl.No. Constituent Cement (in %) Hypo Sludge in (%)

1 Lime(CaO) 62 46.2

2 Silica (SiO2) 22 9

3 Alumina 5 3.6

4 Magnesium 1 3.33

5 Calcium sulphate 4 4.05

3. NEED FOR HYPO SLUDGE UTILIZATION

While producing paper the various wastes are comes out from the various

processes in paper industry. From the preliminary waste named as hypo sludge

due to its low calcium is taken out for our project to replace the cement utilization

in concrete. Due to the cement production green house gases are emitted in the

Fig. 2 Hypo-Sludge Sample

59

atmosphere. For producing 4million tons of cement, they emit 1 million ton green

house gases. Also, to reduce the environment degradation, this sludge has been

avoided in mass level disposal in land. To eliminate the ozone layer depletion,

production of cement becomes reduced. For this, the hypo sludge is used as partial

replacement in the concrete as high performance concrete. By utilizing this waste

the strength could be increased and also cost reduction in the concrete can be

achieved.

4. TEST ON HARDENED CONCRETE

4.1 Compression Test

The compression test is a laboratory test to determine the characteristic strength of

the concrete but the making of test cubes is sometimes carried out by the

supervisor on site. This cube test result is very important to the acceptance of in

situ concrete work since it demonstrate the strength of the design mix.

Procedure:

1. 150mm standard cube mould is to used for the concrete mix

2. Adequate numbers of required cube moulds are arranged in respect with the

sampling sequence for the proposed pour.

3. The apparatus and associated equipment are cleaned before test and checked

free from hardened concrete and superfluous water

4. The cube mould is correctly assembled and all nuts are tightened

5. Light coat proprietary mould oil is applied on the internal faces of the mould.

6. Mould is placed on level firm ground and filled with sampled concrete to a layer

of about 50mm thick.

7. A layer of concrete is compacted thoroughly by tamping the whole surface area

with the standard tamping bar.

8. Step 5 and 6 are repeated till the mould is all filled.

9. Surplus concrete is removed after the moulds is fully filled and trowel the top

surface flush with the mould.

10. The cube surface marked with an identification number (say simply 1, 2, 3 etc)

with a nail or match stick and this numbers are recorded in respect with the

concrete truck and location of pore when the sampled concrete is obtained.

60

11. The cube surface covered with a piece of damp cloth or polythene sheeting and

the cube is kept in a place free from vibration for about 24hrs to allow inertial

set.

12. The mould pieces are stripped off in about 24hrs after the respective pore is

cast.

13. The test cube is marked with a reference number with waterproof felt pen on

the molded side, in respect with the previous identification number.

14. The cube are placed and submerged in a clean water bath or preferably a

thermostatically controlled curing tank until it is delivered to the accredited

laboratory for testing.

15. After curing, the specimens were tested for compressive strength using a

calibrated compression testing machine of 2000KN capacity.

Table 3 Compression strength after 7 days

Partial Replacement of

Hypo-sludge in %

Ultimate Load (Tons) Ultimate compression

strength

0 48 20.92

10 46 20.05

20 44.5 19.40

30 43 18.74

40 38 16.56

Fig. 3Ultimate Compressive Strength of Cube (7 days)

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 10 20 30 40

ultimate compressive strength

61

Table 4 Compression strength after 14 days

Fig. 4 Ultimate Compressive Strength of Cube (14 days)

Table 5 Compressive strength after 28 days

Partial Replacement of

Hypo-sludge in %

Ultimate Load (Tons) Ultimate compression

strength

0 76 33.18

10 74 32.26

20 72.5 31.61

30 71 30.95

40 65 28.34

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0 10 20 30 40

ultimate compressive strength(N/mm2)

Partial Replacement of

Hypo-sludge in %

Ultimate Load (Tons) Ultimate compression

strength

0 62.5 27.25

10 61 26.59

20 59 25.72

30 57.5 25.07

40 52 22.67

62

Fig. 5 Ultimate Compressive Strength of Cube (28 days)

5. SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

Split tensile strength of concrete is usually found by testing plain concrete

cylinders. Cylinders of size 150mmX300mm were casting using M25 grade

concrete. Specimen with OPC and OPC replaced by hypo sludge at 10%, 20%, 30%,

40%, 50%, 60%, & 70% replacement levels were cast. During molding, the

cylinders were vibrated using a damping rod. After 24 hours, the specimens were

removed from the mould and subjected to water curing for 28 days. After curing,

the specimens were tested for compressive strength using a calibrated compression

testing machine of 2000kn capacity.

Table 6 Tensile strength after 28days

Partial

Replacement in %

Number of

Specimen

Ultimate

Load

Split Tensile Strength

in N/mm2

0 3 205 2.90

10 3 204 2.91

20 3 203.5 2.92

30 3 202 2.92

40 3 192 2.93

24

26

28

30

32

34

0 10 20 30 40

Ultimate compressive strength

63

Fig. 6 Split Tensile Strength

6. SLUMP TEST

The internal surface of the mould was thoroughly cleaned and freed from

superfluous moisture and any set concrete before the commencement of the test.

The mould was place on a metal pan, which was smooth, horizontal, rigid and

absorbent. The mould was carefully and firmly held in place while it was filled. The

mould was filled in four layers, each approximately one quarter of the height of the

mould. Each layer was tampered with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping

rod. The strokes were distributed in a uniform manner over the cross section of the

mould and for the second and subsequent layer penetrated into the underlying

layer. The bottom layer was tamped throughout the depth. After the top layer was

rode, the concrete was struck off level with a trowel such that the mould is exactly

filled. The mortar which has leaked out between the mould and the base plate was

cleaned away. The mould was removed from the concrete immediately by

determining the difference between the height of the mould and that of the highest

point of then specimen being tested. The above operations were carried out at a

place free from vibrations or shock and within a period of two minutes after

sampling.

Table 7 Slump Value

2.88

2.89

2.9

2.91

2.92

2.93

2.94

0 10 20 30 40

Split tensile strength (N/mm2)

Sl.No. Ingredients Slump Value (mm)

1 Cement + 0% Hypo-sludge 61

2 Cement + 10% Hypo-sludge 62.5

3 Cement +20% Hypo-sludge 64

4 Cement + 30% Hypo-sludge 66

5 Cement + 40% Hypo-sludge 67.5

64

7. COST ANALYSIS

Cost analysis is carried out for the designed optimum mix proportion of percentage

of hypo sludge in concrete. The cost is calculated for 10m3 of design optimum

concrete mix and compare with that of normal concrete mix and is tabulated below

Calculations:

Quantity of Cement Required = (1/6.15)*15=2.45m3

Quantity of Sand Required = (1.5/6.15)*15=3.65m3

Quantity of Coarse Aggregate Required = (3.65/6.15)*15=8.90m3

Table 8 Cost of material of normal concrete/10m3

Description Quantity Cost Cost of Material

Cement 72 250/Bag 18000

Hypo-sludge 0.50

Sand 3.65 750 2740

Coarse 8.90 500 4450

Total Cost 25190

Cost/m3 = Rs 25190/10= 2519Rs/-

Table 9 Cost of Material of 30% Partially Replaced Concrete/10m3

Description Quantity Cost Cost of Material

Cement 50.21 250/Bag 12550

Hypo-sludge 22 1/kg 22

Sand 3.65 750 2740

Coarse 8.90 500 4450

Total Cost 19762

Cost/m3 = Rs. 19760/10=1976Rs, Cost Saved =2519-1976=543 %Cost Saved = (2519-1976)/2519=21.55%

65

7. CONCLUSION

The compressive strength test of the concrete give satisfactory results up to 30%

replacement of cement by hypo sludge as the strength exceeds the required value.

The split tensile strength also gives desired results when the % of the replacement

(30%) is increased. The replacement of cement with this waste of hypo-sludge

material provides maximum compressive strength at 30%replacement.This project

suggests a reduction in the amount of cement for equal strength of concrete mix.

On one hand the waste disposal problem is solved and on the other hand the paper

waste is gainfully utilized. Since there is a reduction in the cement usage, there is a

reduction in the amount of cement production and hence the release of green

house gases. Savings in cost of construction can be achieved. A better measure by

NEW CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL is formed out through this project.

REFERENCES

1. Shetty M.S., Concrete mix design.

2. IS 10262:1981 ―IS METHOD OF MIX DESIGN‖, Bureau of Indian Standards,

New Delhi.

3. IS 383:1970, specification of coarse and fine aggregate from natural sources of

concrete

4. Rajput R. K., Construction materials.

5. Journal on Indian Infrastructure and Construction.

6. Dutta B.N., Estimation and Costing.

7. Srinivasan R. and Prof. Palanisamy, the Effects of Wastes on Concrete.

8. Matti S.C., Agarwal R.K. And Kumar Rajdeeb, Concrete Mix Proportioning,

Indian Concrete Journal-December 2006.

66

SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF BUILDINGS

G. Ayiswarya, S.Pradeepa Department of Civil Engineering, III Year, Arunai Engineering College,

Tiruvannamalai, India.

ABSTRACT

This paper deals with the seismic retro fitting in construction using FRP strips.

Externally bonded (ebb) fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) have been employed

extensively throughout the world in numerous rehabilitation applications of

reinforced concrete or masonry structures. This paper focuses on the seismic

retrofitting and masonry walls by means of FRPs. Basic retrofit issues, namely

shear strengthening and increase of confinement at plastic hinge or lap splice

regions, are summarized first and a summary of application techniques is given.

Some key behavior and design aspects for shear-strengthened or FRP-confined

members are provided and a brief description of some recent developments related

to the seismic strengthening of beam–column joints is presented.

1. DEFINITION FOR RETROFITTING

Modifying the existing structures with additional or new components or members.

2. SEISMIC RETROFITTING

Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more

resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes.

With better understanding of seismic demand on structures and with our recent

experiences with large earthquakes near urban centers, the need of seismic

retrofitting is well acknowledged.

Seismic Retrofitting means providing Earthquake Resistance to an old building.

Retrofitting also allows a building to withstand much greater earthquake forces

then those for which it was originally designed with much less structural damage.

Retrofitting also means making a building re-serviceable and reusable after it has

67

suffered damages.

A seismic retrofit is the addition of one or more structural enhancements that will

help keep a building, its workers, production equipment and inventory safe from

the effects of seismic activity that occurs suddenly or over time. The enhancements

might be as simple as straps that secure equipment to complex structural anchors

or roofing modifications.

A seismic retrofit can be performed on numerous types of buildings, such as un-

reinforced masonry, concrete masonry units, tuck-under parking (also called soft

story construction) or frequently constructed concrete tilt-up. For this brief

introduction to seismic retrofitting, we focus on a retrofit for a concrete tilt-up

building, but if you would like details about seismic retrofitting for other types of

buildings, please contact our association.

The most common purpose of a seismic retrofit on a concrete tilt-up building is to

keep the roof (or, if applicable, the mezzanine or second floor) from separating from

the walls at the building‘s perimeter. Typically, buildings need reinforcing because

the concrete tilt-up walls are very heavy, and when they move during an

earthquake, they exert a great deal of force.

A seismic retrofit on this type of building usually consists of adding roof-to-wall

anchors and continuity ties, strengthening the key structural connections that

have proven to be inadequate in older buildings.

3. FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER

The current method of flexural strengthening reinforced concrete members involves

bonding fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) strips, which requires extensive time and

skilled labor. An alternative method is being developed which uses powder actuated

fastening systems to attach the FRP strips to the concrete surface. Powder actuated

tools are inexpensive, readily available, and do not require sophisticated training to

operate. The fasteners must be attached in a certain manner as not to destroy the

concrete substrate, which reduces fastener strength and reduces the durability of

the concrete member. This paper presents the initial experimental and analytical

68

research from the investigation of this method on full-scale reinforced concrete T

beams.

The objective of the investigation described in this paper was to develop a basic set

of data required for the application of the strengthening method of bonding pre-

stressed FRP strips as reinforcing elements to the existing reinforced concrete

structures. In addition to the investigation aimed at establishing the dimensioning

data, the work also focused on technical issues related to the design and execution

in order to ensure the practical applicability of the method of externally bonded

pre-stressed FRP strips. Based on the experimental results, a design algorithm for

the strengthening was established according to the Czech and EC standard. The

seismic retrofitting of reinforced concrete buildings not designed to withstand

seismic action is considered. After briefly introducing how seismic action is

described for design purposes, methods for assessing the seismic vulnerability of

existing buildings are presented. The traditional methods of seismic retrofitting are

reviewed and their weak points are identified. Modern methods and philosophies of

seismic retrofitting, including base isolation and energy dissipation devices, are

reviewed. The presentation is illustrated by case studies of actual buildings where

traditional and innovative retrofitting methods have been applied.

4. SEISMIC RETROFITTING IN CONSTRUCTION

Seismic retrofitting of constructions vulnerable to earthquakes is a current problem

of great political and social relevance. Most of the Italian building stock is

vulnerable to seismic action even if located in areas that have long been considered

of high seismic hazard. During the past thirty years moderate to severe

earthquakes have occurred in Italy at intervals of 5 to 10 years. Such events have

clearly shown the vulnerability of the building stock in particular and of the built

environment in general. The seismic hazard in the areas, where those earthquakes

have occurred, has been known for a long time because of similar events that

occurred in the past.

It is therefore legitimate to ask why constructions vulnerable to earthquakes exist if

people and institutions knew of the seismic hazard. Several causes may have

contributed to the creation of such a situation. These are associated to historical

events, fading memory, greed, avarice, poverty and ignorance.

69

Among historical events particularly relevant are wars, epidemics, and natural

disasters which may limit, in a significant way, the available resources of a

country. In such circumstances there is a tendency to build with poor materials

and without too much attention to good construction techniques and safety

margins. A situation of this kind occurred in Italy and in Japan after the Second

World War and similar situations have occurred in Italy many times in the past. In

such a situation it is possible that the phenomenon of fading memory occurs and

past memories are easily erased. In Italy commercial profits often result from the

employment of poor material and workmanship rather than of the optimal

utilization of the production factors. The depressing situation of poor quality

control and material acceptance also falls into this framework, which, in most

cases, results only in paperwork devoid of substantive value. Marginal propensity

to expenditure sometimes ensures that even the owner prefers a low quality

product to save resources for more immediate needs.

Among causes arising from ignorance there may be both an inadequate knowledge

of the seismic hazard and design errors due to insufficient knowledge of the

earthquake problem; also the inability to correctly model the structural response to

the seismic action. While considerable progress has been made in recent years by

the research community in dealing with the above problems, it has become more

difficult to transfer the results to the seismic engineering profession and the

situation can only deteriorate in the near future. Recent changes in the curricula of

engineering schools are leading to a general impoverishment of the basic knowledge

and operational capabilities of our engineering graduates.

A final cause of vulnerability is connected with the maintenance of constructions; it

is obvious that if a construction is not regularly maintained, much as happens for

a motorcar, the mechanical properties of the materials may undergo local and

global degradation with a significant loss of resistance of the structural members

and of the entire construction. Also, changes in service conditions, often made

arbitrarily, may lead to substantial changes in the structural behavior resulting in

a degradation of the structural response to the expected loading conditions.

On the basis of what has been presented so far, it is not surprising that in areas

long known to be subject to the seismic hazard it is not infrequent to find

constructions vulnerable to earthquakes. These constructions need to be retrofitted

70

to allow them to withstand the effects of the earthquake ground motion expected at

the site considered. In the following sections some procedures used for the

evaluation of the seismic resistance and vulnerability of reinforced concrete

buildings will be described together with traditional and innovative techniques of

seismic retrofitting of the same structures. The paper ends with a description of the

seismic retrofitting of two reinforced concrete residential buildings in the village of

Solarino, near Syracuse, in Sicily. The buildings belong to the Institute Autonomo

Case Popolari (IACP) of Syracuse. As will be clear from following arguments the aim

of the paper is not to discuss in depth the state-of the-art of seismic retrofitting,

but rather to give a general overview. The aim is also to focus on a few specific

procedures which may improve the state-of-the-art practice for the evaluation of

seismic vulnerability of existing reinforced concrete buildings and for their seismic

retrofitting by means of innovative techniques such as base isolation and energy

dissipation.

5. SEISMIC ACTION

Seismic vulnerability is not an absolute concept but is strongly related to the event

being considered. The same construction may not be vulnerable to one class of

earthquakes and yet be vulnerable to another. Therefore, before attempting a

seismic vulnerability evaluation of a given construction, the seismic action that will

affect that construction must be fully specified. All seismic codes specify the

seismic action by means of one or more design spectra. These are a synthetic and

quantitative representation of the seismic action which, besides depending on the

characteristics of the ground motion, depends on some intrinsic characteristics of

the structure such as the fundamental mode of vibration and its energy dissipation

capacity.

The elastic design spectrum depends on the vibration periods of the structure and

on the available damping. This acceleration, called the maximum effective ground

acceleration or PGA, depends directly on the seismic hazard at the construction site

and acts as the anchoring acceleration of the spectrum.

71

6. SEISMIC REHABILITATION OF BEAM-COLUMN JOINTS USING FRP

LAMINATES

An innovative and practical technique for the seismic rehabilitation of beam-

column joints using fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) is presented. The procedure is

to upgrade the shear capacity of the joint and thus allow the ductile flexural hinge

to form in the beam. An experimental study is conducted in order to evaluate the

performance of a full-scale reinforced concrete external beam-column joint from a

moment resisting frame designed to earlier code then repaired using the proposed

technique. The beam-column joint is tested under cyclic loading applied at the free

end of the beam and axial column load. The suggested repair procedure was

applied to the tested specimen. The composite laminate system proved to be

effective in upgrading the shear capacity of the non-ductile beam-column joint.

Comparison between the behavior of the specimen before and after the repair is

presented. A design methodology for fiber jacketing to upgrade the shear capacity

of existing beam-column joints in reinforced concrete moment resisting frames is

proposed.

7. SEISMIC DESIGN

Seismic design is a specific area of architecture dedicated to the structural

analysis of buildings, bridges, and roads, with the aim of making them resistant

to earthquakes and other seismic activity. Its ethical goal is the protection of the

occupants and users of these structures. In an earthquake, unsound structures

are more likely to collapse and cause damage. Heavily urbanized areas become

more lethal because of the high density of structures and the threat of structural

collapse. In this sense, structures can be viewed as heightening the danger created

by any seismic activity and increasing the risk to life.

Seismic design must take into account the various effects produced by the ground

motion that is caused by the earthquake. Duration, magnitude, and velocity are

factors of seismic analysis that should be measured by architects, and each

earthquake possesses its own unique danger. Nevertheless, the common element in

the displacement of structures by the motion of earthquakes is the carrying over of

the seismic force into the structures themselves, which is the reason structures are

72

destroyed. The movement of the ground produces what is referred to as an inertial

force within structures; the greater the mass of the structure, the greater is this

inertial force, and hence the likelihood of destruction. The key becomes how the

structures can absorb these forces in order to minimize damage, as opposed to

being destroyed by them.

One of the approaches of seismic design is to produce more lightweight structures,

due to the correlation between structural mass and inertial force. Selection of

materials is critical to the process in order to minimize mass; yet the seismic

designer must also be aware of local building codes and requirements when

choosing material. These materials must also have good absorption ratings. Such

materials are ductile and are able to move with the force of the earthquake and

dissipate its impact. Materials with good absorption ratings are wood; steel frames;

and reinforced walls, such as concrete or masonry, while pre-cast concrete frames

are considered poor absorbers.

8. APPLICATIONS

One of the most promising applications of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)

composites is in reinforced concrete columns. This paper provides a review of

recent research in this area. Based on the literature available, it is found that most

applications and research are focused on the FRP retrofit or repair of existing

reinforced concrete columns primarily for improved ductility. Some recent research

efforts have been directed to the new design of columns using FRP tubes or FRP

bars. The use of FRP tubes is reviewed in comparison to previous research on

concrete filled steel tubular (CFT) structures and the tubed structures. It is more

likely favourable for the FRP tube or rebars to be used as transverse reinforcement

of concrete columns for better ductility needed for seismic design. A new concept by

the author on confined concrete filled tubular (CCFT) columns is also introduced

along with promising test results.

9. CONCLUSION

Many more people are coming to live in earthquake-prone areas, especially urban

ones. Many such areas contain low-rise, low-cost housing, while little money is

available to retrofit the buildings to avoid total collapse and thus potentially save

73

lives. The lack of money, especially in developing countries, is exacerbated by

difficulties with administration, implementation and public awareness.

If we are planning to strengthen your home against earthquakes, it's essential to

acknowledge the basic concepts of seismic retrofitting.

REFERENCES:

1. http://www.icomos.org/iiwc/seismic/Cheung-M.pdf

2. http://www.indianconsultancy.com/earthquakeresistant/index.html

74

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF HUMAYUN’S TOMB

Meenakshi Verma1, Tabish Mohammad2, Uroos Choudhry3,

Ankur Gautam4, Neha Bansal5

Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, F/O Engineering and Technology, New-Delhi

Email id: meen.verma@gmail.com1

ABSTRACT

Archaeological monuments, arts and crafts, oral and written literature, living

traditions, natural features and environment are all a part of our heritage. All that

we manifest in our day to day life is a part of our heritage.

We live in a country known for its varied natural environment and rich cultural

heritage seen in our world famous monuments, archaeological sites, natural areas

and our living traditions. Collectively, it is a past that we have a responsibility to

safeguard for future. It is our solemn responsibility to respect, cherish and preserve

the heritage that we have inherited.

The present study is an attempt in this direction to study the stability of an

existing monument ―Humayun‘s Tomb‖, so that so that we can figure out the

measures, if required, to protect it from damage. A procedure is established to

evaluate the critical forces and suggest the corresponding behaviour.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the ancient period construction of concrete structure was not popular due to the

lack of advance technology used in this type of construction. Masonry construction

was widely used at that time because of locally available material, need of less

skilled labor, less engineering intervention etc. However; there are some

disadvantages for this type of construction, particularly when it is built in seismic

environment. The seismic resistance capacity of masonry construction is relatively

low in comparison to engineered construction. In India, masonry construction are

generally made by using locally available material like stone, brick, timber, mud

etc. and are constructed in a traditional manner with or without earthquake

resistance features mentioned in IS: 4326 and IS: 13927. Therefore, this type of

75

construction is treated as non-engineered construction and most of the casualties

occur due to the collapse of these constructions in earthquake. The present report

is a step towards with regards to develop a procedure for seismic analysis of

historical masonry buildings.

2. OBJECTS AND SCOPE

The object of this study is to analyse the behaviour of a masonry monumental

building under seismic load and to present such data which could be used to

proportion the critical strengthening elements.

Therefore the scope of such is to determine whether the structure needs any

retrofitting or any other preventive measures to protect it from any severe damage

and casualties after an earthquake and to preserve our heritage.

3. PRESENT CONDITION AND NEED OF ANALYSIS

Most of our heritage buildings of hundreds of years back were informally

constructed in a traditional manner without due consideration to the effects of

dynamic loads. The major reason was obviously lack of awareness and knowledge.

Such buildings need to be analysed and if found unsafe, require retrofitting as per

the Indian Standards Codes to enhance the performance during an earthquake.

The present study is an attempt in this direction to study the stability of an

existing monument ―HUMAYUN‘S TOMB‖ New Delhi, so that one can say that the

present state of this heritage structure in terms of his behaviour under seismic

loads. The observation on the building shows cracks and sign of distress at many

positions and hence become the need of the study. A procedure is established to

evaluate the critical forces and suggest the corresponding behaviour.

4. STEPS OF ANALYSIS

Following steps were used in the analysis as per IS 1893(part 1-2002):

1. Idealization of plans and elevations.

2. Calculation of loads on structure.

3. Determination of design base shear.

76

4. Vertical distribution of base shear.

5. Determination of rigidity of shear walls.

6. Determination of direct shear forces and torsional shear forces in shear wall.

7. Determination of increase in axial load in piers due to overturning.

8. Check the stability of flexural walls for out-of plane forces.

4.1 Idealisation of Plans For Analysis

Since the structure is very complex, therefore all the plans are idealized on the

basis of area. The area of actual plan is equal to the area of idealized plan. All the

calculations are based on the idealized plan. The calculations for actual and

idealized area are shown in Excel Sheets.

4.1.1 Ground Floor

ORIGINAL PLAN

77

IDEALISED PLAN

4.1.2 First Floor

ORIGINAL PLAN

78

IDEALISED PLAN

4.1.3 Second Floor

ORIGINAL PLAN

79

IDEALISED PLAN

4.1.4 Terrace

ORIGINAL PLAN

80

IDEALISED PLAN

4.2 Determination of Lateral Loads

One of the most important loads on a structure is due to earthquake, which arises

from inertia (mass) of the structure. These earthquake loads are sudden, dynamic

and can be of immense intensity. The magnitude of lateral force mainly depends

upon the seismic zone, type of soil or ground condition and fundamental

characteristics. The design base shear shall first be computed as a whole, than be

distributed along the height of the buildings based on simple formulas appropriate

for building with regular distribution of mass and stiffness. The design lateral force

obtained at each floor level shall than be distributed to individual lateral load

resisting elements depending upon floor diaphragm action. Following are the major

steps for determining the lateral forces.

4.2.1 Horizontal Seismic Coefficient (Ah):

The value of horizontal seismic coefficient shall be determined by the following

expression:

Ah = 𝒁∗𝑰∗𝑺𝒂

𝟐 ∗𝑹∗𝒈

Z = Zone Factor

81

R = Response Reduction Factor

I = Importance Factor

Sa/g = Average response acceleration coefficient.

4.2.2 Fundamental Natural Period Of Vibration (T):

The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration (T), in seconds, may be

estimated by the empirical expression:

T = 𝟎.𝟎𝟗𝒉

√𝒅

Following values were used in the calculations:

FACTOR VALUE

Z 0.24

I 1.5

R 1.5

Sa/g 2.5

Ta 0.187

Ah 0.3

4.3 Design Seismic Base Shear (VB)

The design lateral force or design seismic base shear along principal direction shall

be determined by the following expression:

VB = Ah * W

W: seismic load

4.4 Vertical Distribution of Base Shear To Different Floor Levels

The design base shear shall be distributed along the height of the building as per

the following expression:

Qi = VB * 𝑾𝒊∗𝒉𝒊

𝟐

𝑾𝒊∗𝒉𝒊𝟐𝒏

𝒊=𝟏

82

Where,

Qi = Design lateral force at floor ith,

Wi = Seismic weight of floor ith,

hi = Height of floor ith measured from base, and

n = number of storey in the building is the number of levels at which the masses

are located.

4.5 Determination of Rigidity of Shear Wall By Considering Openings

The building is analysed considering each segment as a cantilever.

∆c = 𝟏

𝑬∗𝒕 [4(

𝒉

𝒍)𝟑 + 𝟑(

𝒉

𝒍)]

Rigidity of Cantilever segment:

Rc = 𝟏

∆𝐜

In our analysis the openings of gates and jails were idealised as thorough opening

and the rigidity was calculated of each of the segment rather than a wall. The

83

reason for such an assumption is presence of dissimilar separating segments and

irregular distribution of space. There is an absence of district straight wall.

4.6 Determination of Direct Shear Forces and Torsional Shear Forces

4.6.1 Direct Shear Force

The building is modelled as a two-degree-of-freedom shear-beam system. In the

present study, the idealized plans obtained were in the form of piers or segments.

The stiffness of all the segments in longitudinal (L-direction) and transverse (T-

direction) directions of the building has been computed separately. This has been

done based on the assumption that force in any of the direction (longitudinal or

transverse) is resisted by all the segments.

For any ith wall, the relative rigidity is given by:

Ri= 𝑹𝒄𝒊

𝑹𝒄𝟏+ 𝑹𝒄𝟐+……….𝑹𝒄𝒏𝒏𝒊=𝟏

Ri: Relative rigidity of ith segment

Rc: rigidity of ith segment

DIRECT SHEAR = RELATIVE RIGIDITY * LATERAL FORCE

4.6.2 Torsional Shear Force

When the centre of mass and centre of gravity do not coincide, torsional shear force

will be induced on the wall in addition to the direct shear force. The horizontal load

P, at the centre of mass, thus a torsional moment𝑀𝑡, is induced that is equal to

𝑃𝑦 ∗ 𝑒𝑥 , where𝑒𝑥, is the distance between the lines of force (centre of mass) and the

centre of rigidity.

In symmetrical structure eccentricity is equal to zero, but a minimum eccentricity

amounting to 5% of the building dimension is assumed which is called accidental

eccentricity.

84

4.6.2.1. Centre of Mass

Fig. 1. Shows the procedure used to calculate centre of mass

Xm = WiXi/WT

Ym = WiYi/WT

Wi = weight of each segment

Xi = distance from origin up to axis of segment ……..in x - direction

Yi = distance from origin up to axis of segment .........in y - direction

WT= weight of all segments + roof

4.6.2.1 Centre Of Rigidity

Xcr = RTi * Xi

Ycr = RLi * Yi

RTi = relative rigidity of segment for transverse force

RLi =relative rigidity of segment for longitudinal force

Xi = distance of axis of segment from origin in x - direction

Yi = distance of axis of segment from origin in y – direction

4.6.2.2 Total Eccentricity

85

eX = Xe+ 5% accidental eccentricity

eY = Ye + 5% accidental eccentricity

Since Humayun‘s tomb is a symmetric structure, therefore the centre of mass and

the centre of rigidity are nearly same, therefore the static eccentricity is

approximately equal to zero, but torsional shear force will be calculated for the

accidental eccentricity.

4.6.2.3 Torsional Shear

MT = lateral force * eX

ML = lateral force * eY

MT = torsional moment due to transverse force

ML = torsional moment due to longitudinal force

𝑻𝒙 = 𝑹𝒙∗𝒅𝒚

𝑹𝒙∗𝒅𝒚𝟐 * 𝑽𝒚 * 𝒆𝒙

𝑻𝒚 = 𝑹𝒚∗𝒅𝒙

𝑹𝒚∗𝒅𝒙𝟐 * 𝑽𝒙 * 𝒆𝒚

Where,

Rx and Ry are the rigidity in x- and y-direction

Vx and Vy are the base shear in x- and y-direction

ex and ey are the design eccentricity in x- and y-direction

dx and dy are the distance of considered wall from centre of gravity

Tx and Ty are the torsional shear force in x- and y-direction

4.7 Determination of Increase In Axial Load In Piers Due To Overturning

86

In shear wall analysis, the principal forces are in-plane shear (direct + torsional),

in- plane moment (in plane shear *1/2 of the height of pier) and dead load and live

load carried by the pier. In addition to those forces sometimes, the lateral forces

from the wind or earthquake creates severe overturning moment is great enough, it

may overcome the dead weight of the structure and may cause tension at the ends

of the piers of shear walls. It may also induce high compression forces in the pier of

walls that may increase the axial load in addition to dead load and live load.

The axial load on pier due to overturning is given by the following expression:

Povt = Movt * 𝑨𝒊∗𝑰𝒊

𝑰𝒏

Where,

Ii = distance from the centre of gravity of net wall section in the storey to the

centroid of the pier.

Ai = Cross-sectional area of the pier.

In = Moment of inertia

TOTAL SHEAR = DIRECT SHEAR + TORSIONAL SHEAR

MOVT= Total shear at a given floor × critical height(hcr) + lateral loads at roof level

× storey height

hcr: is measured from the sill level of a pier

4.8 Check The Stability Of Flexural Wall For Out-Of-Plane Forces

In seismic design of masonry building, it is assumed that the total base shear

induced by an earthquake will be resisted by the in-plane shear wall and

transverse walls or flexural walls which will not resist any shear. However, the

flexural wall will be checked for out- of-plane forces with the vertical loads.

The unity equation for checking out-of –plane bending is given as:

𝒇𝒂

𝑭𝒂 +

𝒇𝒃

𝑭𝒃 ≤ 1

Where,

fa and fb are compressive stress due to applied axial load and bending respectively.

Fa and Fb are allowable axial and bending compressive stress respectively.

For unreinforced masonry, the allowable compressive stresses:

Fb = 𝒇′𝒎

𝟑

For h/r > 99

87

Fa = 0.25 * fm * (𝟕𝟎

𝒉/𝒓) 2

For h/r < 99

Fa = 0.25 * fm * [1-(𝒉/𝒓

𝟏𝟒𝟎) 2]

Where

h/r = slenderness ratio of the wall and

fm = design compressive strength of masonry = 2.5 N/mm2.

5. RESULT AND CONCLUSION

A real life problem is chosen to demonstrate how the seismic assessment of stone

masonry structure can be carried out. The design forces, determined by

considering direct and torsional forces due to lateral loads, axial loads and due to

overturning in addition to live load and dead load are computed with permissible

values and on the basis of the analysis and calculation results following conclusion

are made:

1. The unity equation is satisfied, therefore the overall structure is stable, and no

pier was found weak.

2. The stresses are within permissible limit.

3. The structure is safe both in shear and in bending.

4. From the visual inspection, the cracks occurred might be due to deep

penetration of roots, disintegration of materials due to water seeping in some of

the parts of the structure. The Wall-Floor Area ratio is high; this is also one

reason for the stability.

REFERENCES

1. IS: 1905-1980, ‗Indian Standard Code of Practice fro Structural safety of Buildings-Masonry Walls‘, Second Revision-1981, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

2. IS: 4326-1993, ‗Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Buildings Design and Construction of Buildings‘, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

3. IS: 13828-1993, ‗Indian Standard Code of Practice for Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength Masonry Buildings‘, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.

4. IS: 13920-1993, ‗Indian Standard Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Seismic Forces‘, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi

88

EARTHQUAKE ITS TERMINOLOGIES, OCCURRENCES

AND SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA: A REVIEW

K.Theunuo1 and S.B.Dwivedi2

1Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras

Hindu University

2Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras

Hindu University

ABSTRACT

An Earthquake occurs when there is a sudden or violent shifting of massive rocks

along the plate margins or fault plane due to the release of stored stress energy.

The world‘s earthquakes are not randomly distributed, as 90% of the world‘s

earthquakes take place along the plate boundaries as tectonic earthquakes. We can

also predict the general regions on the Earth's surface where we can expect large

earthquakes as each year about 140 earthquakes of magnitude 6 or greater occur

along the plate boundary areas which constitute 10 percent of the Earth's surface.

Indian subcontinent have been divided into five seismic zones on the basis of the

seismic activity as well as the major past earthquake in India.

1. INTRODUCTION

An Earthquake is defined as the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth‘s

crust that creates seismic waves. The seismic event can be natural or caused by

humans, while most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth's tectonic

plates and rupture of geological faults, human activities like storing large amounts

of water behind a dam, drilling and injecting liquid into wells, coal mining and oil

drilling1, mine blasts and nuclear tests can also produce earthquakes. Earthquakes

manifest themselves at the earth surface by shaking and sometimes displacement

of the ground, but when a large earthquake is located offshore the sea bed may be

displaced sufficiently which cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger

landslides and occasionally volcanic activity.

89

Tectonic earthquakes occur along the plate boundaries where there is sufficient

amount of stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault

plane. Transform or convergent type plate boundaries, form the largest fault

surfaces on earth. As most of the boundaries have asperities (irregular surfaces), it

form a stick-slip behaviour. Thus once the boundary is locked, continuous relative

motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and strain energy is stored in

the volume around the fault surface. After a certain period of time the stress

increases sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing the plates to

slide over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy as a

combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault

surface, and cracking of the rock, causing an earthquake. This process of gradual

build-up of strain and stress, punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure

is referred to as elastic rebound theory. Energy release associated with rapid

movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes. It is estimated that

only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic

energy.

Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km are classified as 'shallow-

focus' earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km as 'mid-

focus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and

colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate deep focus

earthquake may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to

700 kilometres) 2. An earthquake that occurs after the main shock is called an

aftershock; it is in the same region as the main shock but always of a smaller

magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, it is re-designated as the

main shock and the original main shock is re-designated as a foreshock.

Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the

effects of the main shock.

An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus and the point at ground

level directly above is called the epicentre. The seismicity or seismic activity of an

area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period

of time. Earthquakes are measured with seismograph.

90

2. SEISMIC WAVES

Earthquakes produce three main types of seismic waves, which travel through the

rocks with different velocities: Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves),

Transverse S-waves (both body waves) and surface waves (Rayleigh and Love

waves). Propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approximately

3 km/s up to 13 km/s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In

the Earth's interior the shock/P waves travel much faster than the S waves

(approx. relation 1.7: 1). The differences in travel time from the epicenter to the

observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources

of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of the hypocenter/focus

can be computed roughly.

In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7 km per second but the velocity

increases within the deep mantle to ~13 km/s. The velocity of S-waves ranges from

2–3 km/s in light sediments and 4–5 km/s in the Earth's crust and up to 7 km/s

in the deep mantle.

3. FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE

There are about 500,000 earthquakes each year, and about 100,000 of these can

actually be felt (United States Geological Survey, USGS). Minor earthquakes occur

nearly constantly around the world compared to major which occur less frequently,

but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere. More earthquakes are reported

compared to the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in

instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The

United States Geological Survey estimates that, since 1900, there have been an

average of 18 major earthquakes of magnitude (7.0-7.9) with one great earthquake

(magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable

4. In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased,

though this is probably a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend5.

4. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes occur mainly along three kinds of plate boundary: ocean ridges where

the plates are pulled apart, margins where the plates scrape past one another and

91

margins where one plate is thrust under the other, thus because of friction and the

rigidity of the rock, it cannot simply glide or flow past each other. Rather, stress

builds up in rocks and when it reaches a level that exceeds the strain threshold,

the accumulated potential energy is dissipated by the release of strain, which is

focused into a plane along which relative motion is accommodated as the fault.

There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse

(thrust) and strike-slip (fig.1). Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust

is being extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas

where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip

faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past

each other and transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many

earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-

slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip. Internal stress fields develop

within the plate which is caused by their interactions with neighboring plates and

sedimentary loading or unloading. These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure

along existing fault planes, giving rise to Intra-plate earthquakes.

Fig1: Schematic diagram of Normal, Reverse and Transform or Strike slip fault

A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault surface,

once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault surface this

process is known as nucleation. The possibility that the nucleation involves some

sort of preparation process is supported by the observation that about 40% of

earthquakes are preceded by foreshocks.

5. PLATE TECTONICS AND PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

The theory of plate tectonics combines many of the ideas about continental drift

(Alfred Wegener 1912 ) and sea-floor spreading (Harry Hess of Princeton

92

University), where they interact along their margins. The world's earthquakes are

not randomly distributed over the Earth‘s surface; most of them are confined to

narrow belts which define the boundaries of the plates, also important geological

processes such as the formation of mountain belts and volcanoes takes place along

these plate boundaries. At present seven major crustal plates have been identified

and subdivided into a number of smaller plates having patterns that are neither

symmetrical nor simple, they are about 80 kilometres thick and in constant motion

relative to one another, at rates varying from 10 to 130 millimetres per year. With

more information about the major plates, we find that many complicated and

intricate manoeuvres are taking place.

Fig 2: Global earthquake epicentres, 1963-1998

As lithosphere covers the whole Earth, ocean plates are also involved particularly in

the process of sea-floor spreading, the ocean floor is continuously pulled apart

along the mid-ocean ridges with hot volcanic material rising from the Earth's

mantle to fill the gap and continuously forming new oceanic crust, consequently

the mid-ocean ridges themselves are broken by offsets known as transform faults.

Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the

40,000 km long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the Circum-Pacific seismic belt,

known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate

6,7 Massive earthquakes also tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such

as the Himalayan Mountains 8. The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at

the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometres.

93

(a) (b)

Fig 3: (a) Circum-Pacific seismic belt (b) Direction of different plate movement

Plate tectonics confirms that there are four types of seismic zones. The first follows

the line of mid-ocean ridges where seismic activity is low, and occurs at very

shallow depths. The lithosphere is very thin and weak at these boundaries, as a

result the strain cannot build up enough energy to cause large earthquakes, and

therefore volcanic activity takes place along the axis of the ridges.

The second type is the shallow-focus event unaccompanied by volcanic activity

where two mature plates are scraped by one another. The friction between the

plates can be so great that very large strains can build up before they are

periodically relieved by large earthquakes.

The third type is related to the collision of oceanic and continental plates where one

plate is thrust or subducted under the other plate so that a deep ocean trench is

produced, this type of earthquake can be shallow, intermediate, or deep, according

to its location on the subducted lithospheric slab.

The fourth type of seismic zone occurs along the boundaries of continental plates.

Within this zone, shallow earthquakes are associated with high mountain ranges

where intense compression takes place. Intermediate and deep-focus earthquakes

also occur and are known in the Himalayas and in the Caucasus.

94

6. EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ZONING OF INDIA

The Indian subcontinent has a history of many devastating earthquakes; the

Himalayan frontal arc is one of the most seismically active regions of the world, the

peninsular shield of India has also generated some remarkable earthquakes, the

Latur earthquake in the heart of the Indian shield is considered as a typical Stable

Continental Regions (SCR) earthquake, besides this the largest earthquake induced

by an artificial reservoir also occurred at Koyna, Maharashtra. The 1819 Runn of

Kutch earthquake (M ~ 8.0) is one of the largest Intra-plate events that produced a

surface scarp about 100 km long.

The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that

India is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year9 sustaining the

elevation of the Tibetan Plateau, deforming the Himalaya, Altyn Tagh and Tien

Shan mountains, and causing a steady but unpredictable, sequence of earthquakes

in Asia and parts of India. The Himalayan mountain range is the dramatic outcome

of the collision of Indian and Eurasian plates, some 40 million years ago, this zone

has been marked by intense seismic activity, with four great earthquakes (1897

Assam,1905 Kangra; 1934 Bihar-Nepal and 1950 Assam) which occurred in a short

span of 53 years. The frequent moderate earthquakes and the infrequent great

earthquakes suggest that episodic slippage is continuing in this region. These

ongoing processes also imply that future great earthquakes can be expected in the

unruptured parts of the Himalayan front. Major uncertainties remain regarding the

recurrence interval of great earthquakes.

Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54% of the land is vulnerable to

earthquakes. One possible reason for seismicity in India is that deformation does

not occur as net contraction, but as flexural strain associated with the Himalayan

collision. In its northward progress, India streams through a flexural bulge that

locally stresses the plate.

95

Fig 4: Different Seismic zones in India

The seismic zonation map of a country is a guide to the seismic status of a region

and its susceptibility to earthquakes. India has been divided into five zones with

respect to severity of earthquakes. Of these, Zone V is seismically the most active

where earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more could occur. Recent strong motion

96

observations around the world have revolutionized thinking on the design of

engineering structures, placing emphasis also on the characteristics of

the structures themselves. In the case of shield type earthquakes, historic data are

insufficient to define zones because recurrence intervals are much longer than the

recorded human history, this may often give a false sense of security. According to

the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas

Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. Each zone indicates the

effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the

affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like Modified

Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale (MSK).

Zone 5

Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of

intensity MSK IX or greater. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone.

The state of Kashmir, Punjab, western and central Himalayas, the North-East

Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone. Generally, the areas having

trap or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes.

Zone 4

This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII,

the Indo-Gangetic basin, Delhi, Jammu and Bihar fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra

Patan area (Koyananager) also in zone 4.

Zone 3

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir and Western Himalayas fall

under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is

liable to MSK VII.

Zone 2

This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk

Zone.9,10,11,12

97

Table.1: Past Major Earthquakes in India

Time

Place Comments Magnitu

de

Andaman Islands

earthquake August

11, 2009, at 01:25

am local time

(August 10,

19:55)UTC

Andaman Islands

of India. The

epicentre was 260

km north of Port

Blair

The strongest

earthquake in the region

since the2004

earthquake.

7.5

Gujarat

earthquake

On 6 April 2006,

reported at

11:29:16 p.m. IST

Gujarat, Kutch

and Saurashtra

.The location of the

earthquake was

measured at

23.281°N,

70.422°E at the

depth of 10KM.

5.5

Kashmir

earthquake

October 8, 2005 at

03:50:38 UTC,

08:50:38 Local

Time

Kashmir Pakistan

& India

The location of

earthquake was at

lat 34.43°N long.

73.54°E

Casualties greater than

80,000.

7.6

Indian ocean

earthquake

December 26,

2004 at 00:58:53

UTC, 07:58:53

Local Time.

West coast of

northern Sumatra,

India, Sri lanka,

Maldives location

of earthquake – lat

3.30°N , long.

95.87°E

Third largest earthquake

ever recorded. Fatalities

around 283,106.

9.0 to

9.3

Gujarat

earthquake

January 26 ,2001

08:50:00 Local

Time

Kutchh Epicentre -

Lat. 23.6N, long.

69.8E.

fatalities around 20000

were recorded

7.6/7.7

98

Jabalpur

earthquake May

22, 1997

Jabalpur district

in Madhya Pradesh

The epicentre of

the earthquake

was located at

23°11‘N

80°01‘E23.18°N80.

02°E near

Koshamghat

village

Caused due to the

presence of Narmada

Fault.

A total of 887 villages

were affected,

approximately 8546

houses collapsed and

nearly 52,690 houses

were partially damaged.

The death toll was 39

and 350 were injured.

6.0

Latur earthquake

September 29,

1993

03:50:38 UTC,

22:25 Local Time

Affected areas

Latur-Killari, Lat

18.08°N long.

76.52°E

Fatalities around 9,748

were recorded..

6.2

Uttarkashi

earthquake

October 20, 1991.

Uttarkashi region

Indian state of

Uttarakhand

Lat. 30.73°N &

long. 78.45°E

Killed many people and

damaged completely or

partially about 48,000

houses it occurred

because of a slippage

along the Main Central

Thrust (MCT), a major

tectonic boundary,

which also divides lesser

Himalayan terrain in the

south from the snow

clad mountains in the

north

6.6.

Bihar earthquake

August 21, 1988

North Bihar and

Nepal.

killing about 1004

persons (282 in India

and 722 in Nepal) and

injuring more than

16,000.The earthquake

6.6

99

struck in two

installments of 10

seconds and 15 seconds

each and left cracks in

50,000 buildings,.

Kinnaur

earthquake

19 January

1975.[2][3]

Its epicentre was

in Kinnaur district

in the south-

eastern part of

Himachal Pradesh.

Landslides, rock falls

and avalanches caused

major damage to the

Hindustan-Tibet road.[2]

The Spiti and Parachu

valleys in particular

suffered the greatest

damage being on the

north-south Kaurik-

Chango fault.

6.8

Assam earthquake

August 15, 1950

Tibetan plateau

(Arunachal

Pradesh - china

border),

Lat. 28.5°N, long.

96.7°E.

It was the Largest

earthquake recorded in

mainland India since

Independence.

8.5

Bihar earthquake

2:13 PM (I.S.T.)

January 15, 1934

Bihar

Lat 25°N, long.

85°E.

Largest ever earthquake

recorded in mainland

India.

8.7

Assam earthquake

June 12, 1897

Shillong Plateau

Lat. 26°N long.

91°E.

Largest ever earthquake

recorded in mainland

India.

8.7.

Nicobar Island

earthquake

07:49 local time

December 31,

1881

At Andaman and

Nicobar Island

Lat. 8.52, long.

92.43

Earliest earthquake for

which rupture

parameters have been

estimated instrumentally

(from tide gauges).

7.9

100

7. EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

7.1 Shaking and ground rupture

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes,

principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings and other rigid

structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of

the earthquake magnitude, distance from the epicenter, and the local geological

and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation13.

Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along

the trace of the fault, it is a major risk for large engineering structures such as

dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing

fault14.

7.2 Landslides and Avalanches

Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, wildfires and coastal wave

attacks can produce slope instability leading to landslides, which is a major

geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel are

attempting rescue15

7.3 Fire

Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. In the event

of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to

stop the spread of a fire once it has started. Example: Fires of the 1906 San

Francisco earthquake.

7.4 Tsunami

Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the sudden or

abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean the distance

between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers (62 miles), and the wave periods

can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers

per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending on water depth. Large waves

produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal

101

areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers

across Open Ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the

earthquake that generated them16 most destructive tsunamis are caused by

earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more.

7.5 Floods

Floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged.

Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods17

7.6 Human Impact

An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge damage, general

property damage and collapse or destabilization (potentially leading to future

collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities,

higher insurance premiums; Earthquakes can also cause volcanic eruptions,

bringing further problems.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to the Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Institute of

Technology, Banaras Hindu University for providing the infrastructure for the

research.

REFERENCES

1. Madrigal, Alexis (4 June 2008) ―Top five ways to cause Man-Made

Earthquakes‖. Wired news (Conde Net).

http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/06/top-5-ways-that.html.

Retrieved 2008-06-05

2. National Earthquake Information Center, 17october2005.

ftp://hazards.cr.usgs.gov/maps/sigeqs/20050926/20050926

3. Scientific American, 1976, Continents adrift and continents aground -

Reading from Scientific American: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 2

30 p.

4. ―Common Myths about Earthquakes‖ United States Geological Survey.

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/faq.php?categoryID=6&faqID=110

5. The 10 biggest earthquakes in history, Australian Geographic, March 14,

2011

102

6. Historic Earthquakes and Earthquakes Statistics: Where do Earthquakes

occur?‖ United States Geological Survey. .

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/faq.php?categoryID=11&faqID=95

7. Visual Glossary – Ring of Fire‖ United States Geological Survey.

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/glossary.php?termID=150.

8. Jackson, James―Fatal attraction: living with earthquakes, the growth of village

into megacities, and earthquake vulnerability in the modern world‖

philosophical Transaction of the royal society. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2006.1805

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 15 August 2006 vol. 364 no. 1845 1911-1925

9. Earthquake Hazards and the collision between India and Asia. Colorado

Sc.Edu Science reviews NOAA 2002 abstract 18

10. Vulnerability Zones in India.

http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/SKAR-

64GBJW?OpenDocument

11. Lessons learned from the Gujarat earthquake – WHO Regional Office for

South East Asia. http://w3.whosea.org/gujarat/finalreport3.html.

12. Rebecca Bendick, Roger Bilham, Frederick Blume, Grant Kier, Peter Molnar,

Anne Sheehan and Kali Wallace NOAA SCIENCE REVIEW 2002

13. On Shaky Ground Association of Bay Area Goverment, San Francisco, Report

1995, 1998 (updated 2003).

http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/contents.html

14. Guidelines for evaluating the hazards of surface fault rupture, California

Geological Survey

15. Natural Hazards Landslides. United States of Geological Survey.

http://www.usgs.gov/hazards/landslides/

16. Noson, Qamar, and Thorsen (1988). Washington Division of Geology and

Earth Resources Information Circular 85. Washington State Earthquake

Hazards.

17. Notes on Historical Earthquakes. British Geological Survey.

http://www.quakes.bgs.ac.uk/earthquakes/historical/historical_listing.htm

103

AN OVERVIEW OF SOFT COMPUTING TOOL ANN:

INTERDISCIPLINARY ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVE

Mousumi Dhara1, K. K. Shukla2

1Research Scholar, 2Professor

Department of Computer Engineering,

Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005

ABSTRACT

Soft computing is an emerging field that consists of complementary elements of

fuzzy logic, neural computing, evolutionary computation, machine learning and

probabilistic reasoning. Due to their strong learning, cognitive ability and good

tolerance of uncertainty and imprecision, soft computing techniques have found

wide application. Soft computing differs from conventional computing in that,

unlike hard computing, it is tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and

approximation. In effect, the role model for soft computing is the human mind. A

neural network is a powerful data modelling tool that is able to capture and

represent complex input/output relationships. The motivation for the development

of neural network technology stemmed from the desire to develop an artificial

system that could perform "intelligent" tasks similar to those performed by the

human brain. ANN ensemble techniques have become very popular amongst neural

network practitioners in a variety of ANN application domains. Neural network is a

learning paradigm where a collection of finite number of neural networks is trained

for the same task.

Keywords: ANN, soft computing, learning paradigm

1. INTRODUCTION

Soft computing are neural computing, fuzzy logic, evolutionary computation,

machine learning, probabilistic reasoning, chaos theory and parts of learning

theory. It deals with imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation to

achieve tractability, robustness and low solution cost. Conventional model-based

data processing methods are computationally expensive and require experts‘

104

knowledge for the modelling of a system; neural networks provide a model-free,

adaptive, parallel-processing solution. Neural Networks in a Soft computing

Framework presents a thorough review of the most popular neural-network

methods and their associated techniques. Various applications of soft computing

techniques are in economics, mechanics, medicine, automatics and image

processing and forecasting natural disaster like flood, earthquake. Now a day ANN

is used in different field of engineering to predict the future state of the system and

system parameters. Recently it has becomes a very hot topic in both neural

networks and machine learning communities, and has already been applied to

diversified areas such as face recognition, optical character recognition, etc.

Karunanithi et al. (1994) used the cascade-correlation algorithm for river flow

prediction and found that ANNs had the adaptive capability to match changes in

flow history. Hsu et al. (1995) found that multilayer feed-forward networks is best

suited for input-output function approximation. Liong et al. (2000) were able to

achieve a high degree of accuracy with ANNs for river stage forecasting. They also

found that reduction of insignificant input variables did not affect prediction

accuracy, and thus ANNs could be used to avoid unnecessary data collection.

Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is currently a 'hot' research area in medicine and it

is believed that they will receive extensive application to biomedical systems in the

next few years. At the moment, the research is mostly on modelling parts of the

human body and recognizing diseases from various scans (e.g. cardiograms, CAT

scans, ultrasonic scans, etc.).

Neural network system helps where we can't formulate an algorithmic solution,

where we can get lots of examples of the behaviour we require and where we need

to pick out the structure from existing data. An artificial neural network (ANN),

usually called neural network(NN), is a mathematical model or computational

model that is inspired by the structure and/or functional aspects of biological

neural networks. A neural network consists of an interconnected group of artificial

neurons, and it processes information using a connectionist approach to

computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its

structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network

during the learning phase. Modern neural networks are non-linearstatisticaldata

modelling tools. They are usually used to model complex relationships between

inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data. Neural Networks are a different

105

paradigm for computing: Von Neumann machines are based on the

processing/memory abstraction of human information processing. Neural networks

are based on the parallel architecture of animal brains. Neural networks are a form

of multiprocessor computer system, with simple processing elements, a high degree

of interconnection, simple scalar messages and adaptive interaction between

elements. Real brains, however, are orders of magnitude more complex than any

artificial neural network so far considered.

In this paper, soft computing technique is discussed with special emphasized on

artificial neural network ANN and its applications in different engineering field.

ANN is used to process control where processes cannot be determined as

computable algorithms.

2. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK

An artificial neural network is a system based on the operation of biological neural

networks, in other words, is an emulation of biological neural system. Why would

be necessary the implementation of artificial neural networks? Although computing

these days is truly advanced, there are certain tasks that a program made for a

common microprocessor is unable to perform; even so a software implementation of

a neural network can be made with their advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of ANN are: A neural network can perform tasks that a linear program

cannot. When an element of the neural network fails, it can continue without any

problem by their parallel nature. A neural network learns and does not need to be

reprogrammed. It can be implemented in any application. It can be implemented

without any problem.

Disadvantages of ANN are: The neural network needs training to operate. The

architecture of a neural network is different from the architecture of

microprocessors therefore needs to be emulated. Requires high processing time for

large neural networks

Another aspect of the artificial neural networks is that there are different

architectures, which consequently requires different types of algorithms, but

despite to be an apparently complex system, a neural network is relatively simple.

In the world of engineering, neural networks have two main functions: Pattern

classifiers and as non linear adaptive filters. As its biological predecessor, an

106

artificial neural network is an adaptive system. By adaptive, it means that each

parameter is changed during its operation and it is deployed for solving the

problem in matter. This is called the training phase.

An artificial neural network is developed with a systematic step-by-step procedure

which optimizes a criterion commonly known as the learning rule. The

input/output training data is fundamental for these networks as it conveys the

information which is necessary to discover the optimal operating point. In addition,

a non linear nature makes neural network processing elements a very flexible

system.

Basically, an artificial neural network is a system. A system is a structure that

receives an input, process the data, and provides an output. Commonly, the input

consists in a data array which can be anything such as data from an image file, a

WAVE sound or any kind of data that can be represented in an array. Once an

input is presented to the neural network, and a corresponding desired or target

response is set at the output, an error is composed from the difference of the

desired response and the real system output.

The error information is fed back to the system which makes all adjustments to

their parameters in a systematic fashion (commonly known as the learning rule).

This process is repeated until the desired output is acceptable. It is important to

notice that the performance hinges heavily on the data. Hence, this is why this data

should pre-process with third party algorithms such as DSP algorithms.

In neural network design, the engineer or designer chooses the network topology,

the trigger function or performance function, learning rule and the criteria for

stopping the training phase. So, it is pretty difficult determining the size and

parameters of the network as there is no rule or formula to do it. The best we can

do for having success with our design is playing with it. The problem with this

method is when the system does not work properly it is hard to refine the solution.

Despite this issue, neural networks based solution is very efficient in terms of

development, time and resources. Nowadays, neural network technologies are

emerging as the technology choice for many applications, such as patter

recognition, prediction, system identification and control.

107

3. THE BIOLOGICAL MODEL

Artificial neural networks born after McCulloc and Pitts introduced a set of

simplified neurons in 1943. These neurons were represented as models of biological

networks into conceptual components for circuits that could perform

computational tasks. The basic model of the artificial neuron is founded upon the

functionality of the biological neuron. By definition, ―Neurons are basic signaling

units of the nervous system of a living being in which each neuron is a discrete cell

whose several processes are from its cell body‖

Fig. 1 Neurons

The biological neuron has four main regions to its structure. The cell body, or

soma, has two offshoots from it. The dendrites and the axon end in pre-synaptic

terminals. The cell body is the heart of the cell. It contains the nucleolus and

maintains protein synthesis. A neuron has many dendrites, which look like a tree

structure, receives signals from other neurons.

A single neuron usually has one axon, which expands off from a part of the cell

body. The axon main purpose is to conduct electrical signals generated at the axon

hillock down its length. These signals are called action potentials. The other end of

the axon may split into several branches, which end in a pre-synaptic terminal. The

electrical signals (action potential) that the neurons use to convey the information

of the brain are all identical. The brain can determine which type of information is

being received based on the path of the signal.

The brain analyzes all patterns of signals sent, and from that information it

interprets the type of information received. The myelin is a fatty issue that

108

insulates the axon. The non-insulated parts of the axon area are called Nodes. At

these nodes, the signal traveling down the axon is regenerated. This ensures that

the signal travel down the axon to be fast and constant.

The synapse is the area of contact between two neurons. They do not physically

touch because they are separated by a cleft. The electric signals are sent through

chemical interaction. The neuron sending the signal is called pre-synaptic cell and

the neuron receiving the electrical signal is called postsynaptic cell. The electrical

signals are generated by the membrane potential which is based on differences in

concentration of sodium and potassium ions and outside the cell membrane.

Biological neurons can be classified by their function or by the quantity of

processes they carry out. When they are classified by processes, they fall into three

categories: Unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons and multi-polar neurons. Unipolar

neurons have a single process. Their dendrites and axon are located on the same

stem. These neurons are found in invertebrates. Bipolar neurons have two

processes. Their dendrites and axon have two separated processes too.

When biological neurons are classified by function they fall into three categories.

The first group is sensory neurons. These neurons provide all information for

perception and motor coordination. The second group provides information to

muscles, and glands. There are called motor neurons. The last group, the inter-

neuronal, contains all other neurons and has two subclasses. One group called

relay or protection inter-neurons. They are usually found in the brain and connect

different parts of it. The other group called local inter-neurons are only used in

local circuits.

4. THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Once modeling an artificial functional model from the biological neuron, we must

take into account three basic components. First off, the synapses of the biological

neuron are modeled as weights. The synapse of the biological neuron is the one

which interconnects the neural network and gives the strength of the connection.

For an artificial neuron, the weight is a number, and represents the synapse. A

negative weight reflects an inhibitory connection, while positive values designate

excitatory connections. The following components of the model represent the actual

activity of the neuron cell. All inputs are summed altogether and modified by the

109

weights. This activity is referred as a linear combination. Finally, an activation

function controls the amplitude of the output. For example, an acceptable range of

output is usually between 0 and 1, or it could be -1 and 1. Mathematically, this

process is described in the figure 2.

Fig. 2 Mathematical Model

From this model the interval activity of the neuron can be shown to be:

The output of the neuron, yk, would therefore be the outcome of some activation

function on the value of vk.

5. ACTIVATION FUNCTIONS

The activation function acts as a squashing function, such that the output of a

neuron in a neural network is between certain values (usually 0 and 1, or -1 and

1). In general, there are three types of activation functions, denoted by Φ (.). First,

there is the Threshold Function which takes on a value of 0 if the summed input is

less than a certain threshold value (v), and the value 1 if the summed input is

greater than or equal to the threshold value.

110

Secondly, there is the Piecewise-Linear function. This function again can take on

the values of 0 or 1, but can also take on values between that depending on the

amplification factor in a certain region of linear operation.

Thirdly, there is the sigmoid function. This function can range between 0 and 1,

but it is also sometimes useful to use the -1 to 1 range. An example of the sigmoid

function is the hyperbolic tangent function.

The artificial neural networks which describe here are all variations on the parallel

distributed processing (PDP) idea. The architecture of each neural network is based

on very similar building blocks which perform the processing. An artificial neural

network consists of a pool of simple processing units which communicate by

sending signals to each other over a large number of weighted connections.

6. PROCESSING UNITS

Each unit performs a relatively simple job: receive input from neighbors or external

sources and use this to compute an output signal which is propagated to other

units. Apart from this processing, a second task is the adjustment of the weights.

The system is inherently parallel in the sense that many units can carry out their

computations at the same time. Within neural systems it is useful to distinguish

three types of units: input units (indicated by an index (i) which receive data from

outside the neural network, output units indicated by an index (o) which send data

out of the neural network, and hidden units indicated by an index (h) whose input

and output signals remain within the neural network. During operation, units can

be updated either synchronously or asynchronously. With synchronous updating,

111

all units update their activation simultaneously; with asynchronous updating, each

unit has a (usually fixed) probability of updating its activation at a time t, and

usually only one unit will be able to do this at a time. In some cases the latter

model has some advantages.

7. NEURAL NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

This focuses on the pattern of connections between the units and the propagation

of data. Feed-forward neural networks, where the data from input to output units

is strictly feed forward. The data processing can extend over multiple (layers of)

units, but no feedback connections are present, that is, connections extending from

outputs of units to inputs of units in the same layer or previous layers.

7.1 Training of Artificial Neural Networks

A neural network is a powerful data modeling tool that is able to capture and

represent complex input/output relationships. The motivation for the development

of neural network technology stemmed from the desire to develop an artificial

system that could perform "intelligent" tasks similar to those performed by the

human brain. A neural network has to be configured such that the application of a

set of inputs produces (either 'direct' or via a relaxation process) the desired set of

outputs. Various methods to set the strengths of the connections exist. One way is

to set the weights explicitly, using a priori knowledge. Another way is to 'train' the

neural network by feeding it teaching patterns and letting it change its weights

according to some learning rule.

Supervised learning or Associative learning in which the network is trained by

providing it with input and matching output patterns. These input-output pairs

can be provided by an external teacher, or by the system which contains the neural

network (self-supervised).

Unsupervised learning or Self-organization in which an (output) unit is trained to

respond to clusters of pattern within the input. In this paradigm the system is

supposed to discover statistically salient features of the input population. Unlike

the supervised learning paradigm, there is no a priori set of categories into which

the patterns are to be classified; rather the system must develop its own

representation of the input stimuli.

112

Reinforcement Learning in which learning may be considered as an intermediate

form of the above two types of learning. Here the learning machine does some

action on the environment and gets a feedback response from the environment. The

learning system grades its action good (rewarding) or bad (punishable) based on the

environmental response and accordingly adjusts its parameters. Generally,

parameter adjustment is continued until an equilibrium state occurs, following

which there will be no more changes in its parameters.

Fig. 3 Training of artificial neural network

Neural networks resemble the human brain in the following two ways:

1. A neural network acquires knowledge through learning.

2. A neural network's knowledge is stored within inter-neuron connection

strengths known as synaptic weights.

The true power and advantage of neural networks lies in their ability to represent

both linear and non-linear relationships and in their ability to learn these

relationships directly from the data being modelled. Traditional linear models are

simply inadequate when it comes to modelling data that contains non-linear

characteristics.

The most common neural network model is the multilayer perceptron (MLP). This

type of neural network is known as a supervised network because it requires a

desired output in order to learn. The goal of this type of network is to create a

model that correctly maps the input to the output using historical data so that the

113

model can then be used to produce the output when the desired output is

unknown. A graphical representation of an MLP is shown below.

Fig. 4 Block diagram of a two hidden layer multiplayer perceptron (MLP).

The inputs are fed into the input layer and get multiplied by interconnection

weights as they are passed from the input layer to the first hidden layer. Within the

first hidden layer, they get summed then processed by a nonlinear function

(usually the hyperbolic tangent).

As the processed data leaves the first hidden layer, again it gets multiplied by

interconnection weights, then summed and processed by the second hidden layer.

Finally the data is multiplied by interconnection weights then processed one last

time within the output layer to produce the neural network output.

The MLP and many other neural networks learn using an algorithm called back

propagation. With back propagation, the input data is repeatedly presented to the

neural network. With each presentation the output of the neural network is

compared to the desired output and an error is computed.

This error is then fed back (back propagated) to the neural network and used to

adjust the weights such that the error decreases with each iteration and the neural

model gets closer and closer to producing the desired output. This process is

known as "training".

114

Fig. 5 Demonstration of neural network learning to model the exclusive-or (Xor)

data

The Xor data is repeatedly presented to the neural network. With each

presentation, the error between the network output and the desired output is

computed and fed back to the neural network. The neural network uses this error

to adjust its weights such that the error will be decreased. This sequence of events

is usually repeated until an acceptable error has been reached or until the network

no longer appears to be learning.

7.2 Few Applications of Neural Networks

1. Process Modelling and Control - Creating a neural network model for a

physical plant then using that model to determine the best control settings for the

plant.

2. Machine Diagnostics - Detect when a machine has failed so that the system can

automatically shut down the machine when this occurs.

3. Portfolio Management - Allocate the assets in a portfolio in a way that maximizes

return and minimizes risk.

4. Target Recognition - Military application which uses video and/or infrared image

data to determine if an enemy target is present.

5. Medical Diagnosis - Assisting doctors with their diagnosis by analyzing the

reported symptoms and/or image data such as MRIs or X-rays.

6. Credit Rating - Automatically assigning a company's or individual‘s credit rating

based on their financial condition.

115

7. Targeted Marketing - Finding the set of demographics which have the highest

response rate for a particular marketing campaign.

8. Voice Recognition - Transcribing spoken words into ASCII text.

9. Financial Forecasting - Using the historical data of a security to predict the

future movement of that security.

10. Quality Control - Attaching a camera or sensor to the end of a production

process to automatically inspect for defects.

11. Intelligent Searching - An internet search engine that provides the most

relevant content and banner ads based on the users' past behavior.

8. CONCLUSION

The computing world has a lot to gain from neural networks. Artificial neural

networks are among the newest signal processing technologies nowadays. The field

of work is very interdisciplinary; here it will be restricted to an engineering

perspective. Their ability to learn by example makes them very flexible and

powerful. Furthermore there is no need to devise an algorithm in order to perform a

specific task; i.e. there is no need to understand the internal mechanisms of that

task. They are also very well suited for real time systems because of their fast

response and computational times which are due to their parallel architecture.

Neural networks have a huge potential, best of them when they are integrated with

computing, AI, fuzzy logic and related subjects.

REFERENCES

[1] Bezdek J. C. (1981) Pattern recognition with fuzzy objective function algorithms;

New York: Plenum Press

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117

GREEN BUILDINGS

N. Venkateswarlu1

1VISVODAYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur, KAVALI, ANDHRA

PRADESH.

E-mail: venkateshdmp@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

With the rapid advancement in the technology, the building industry is growing at

an enormous pace. This has resulted in an adverse impact, being made on the

environment. The pollution, resulting from the construction activities, is disturbing

the natural ecosystems and the damage caused by it, is irreparable. One area of

concern is the energy consumption and release of CO2. Green building technology

is expected to provide solutions to the problems faced by the world. Engineers,

architects and builders must ensure that the development is sustainable and for

the betterment of the society. An attempt has been made, I this paper, to outline

the various concepts and outcomes of using green buildings.

1. INTRODUCTION

It is found that the building industry will consume 40% of the total global energy

and release about 3800 megatons of CO2 into atmosphere. With this pollution the

environment is alarming. To bring them under control the concept of green

architecture came into spotlight.

2. RANGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

According to a world watch paper entitled‖ A BUILDING REVOLUTION‖, the

building industry is responsible for:

1. 40% of world‘s total energy is being consumed.

2. 30% of consumption of raw materials.

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3. 25% of timber harvest is going down.

4. 35% of world‘s CO2 emission is because of building industry.

5. 16% of fresh water with drawled

6. 40% of municipal solid waste is taken place.

7. 50% of ozone depleting CFC‘S still in use

8. 55% of timber cut for non-fuel uses.

9. 30% of the residents having building sick building syndrome.

3. WHY TO GO TO GREEN ARCHITECTURE

The situation is alarming and leads to disturbances to natural ecosystems,

irreparable damage to the top soil and vegetation emission of green house gases

and particulate matter and pollution of air, land and water. The industry is thus

becoming non-sustainable. The neglect of natural elements in the planning and

design causes sick building syndrome. It is therefore necessary to increase the

efficiency and use discretion in all processes related to the green architecture.

4. WHAT IS A GREEN BUILDING

A Green building is one which incorporates several Green features, such as:

1. Effective use of existing landscapes

2. Use of energy efficient and Eco-friendly equipment

3. Use of recycled and Environmental friendly Building materials

4. Quality indoor air quality for human safety and comfort

5. Efficient use of water

6. Use of Non-Toxic & recycled materials

7. Use of renewable energy

8. Effective controls and building management system.

5. PRINCIPLES OF GREEN CONSTRUCTION

1. Low energy usage, clean/renewable energy

2. Site selection & planning, landscaping, storm water management.

3. Use of recycled and rapidly renewable materials

4. Efficient fixtures, wastewater reuse, efficient irrigation

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5. Improved indoor air quality, increased day lighting, better thermal

comfort/control, no HCFCs or CFCs.

6. SOME IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES

6.1 Orientation and Shape. Orient your building to minimize or maximize solar

heat gain according to your heating and cooling needs. ―Design the shape of your

building to optimize day lighting and reduce your electric lighting costs.

6.2 Landscaping. Greenery absorbs heat helping to increase occupant comfort and

lower air conditioning costs by bringing down interior temperatures and providing

shade. Green roofs also provide extra insulation in cold weather.

6.3 Windows and Day lighting. Incorporate daylight design elements such as

clerestories, light shelves, skylights and high performance windows. Tune your

window specifications to your building‘s orientation. Shading coefficients are most

important on southern, eastern and western exposures, while northern exposures

should have high visible transmittance and low U-values.

Fig. 1

Thus, the % usage is dropped from 100% to a mere 27% a whooping saving of

almost 73% is achieved in lighting alone.

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6.4 Energy Efficiency. Passive design strategies can dramatically affect building

energy performance. Develop strategies to provide natural lighting. Install high-

efficiency lighting systems with advanced lighting controls. Design Orientation of

the building to get maximum day-lighting. Use Green roof and Green wall to avoid

heat gain into the building. Adopt spectrally neutral glass materials such that it

reduces heat gain. Minimize lighting of landscape features. Use of energy efficient

white goods .Use zero CFC base refrigerant in Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning

system. Use Renewable energy to reduce environmental impacts associated with

fossil fuel energy use. Establish baseline data for energy consumption. Install

online energy monitoring system to monitor the energy performance.

6.5 Water Use Efficiency. A Green building is one which incorporates several

Green features, such as follows:

1. Capture storm water from impervious areas of the building for ground water re-

charge or reuse.

2. Do not use potable water for landscape irrigation. Use recycled water/storm

water.

3. Install moisture sensor on plants for water conservation .Use recycled water for

HVAC system.

4. Use recycled water for toilet flushing .Use ultra high efficiency water fittings and

controls

6.6 Eco-Friendly Building Materials and Resources. Select materials such that a

major portion of the building is recyclable during renovation and re-construction.

Use materials having longer life which ultimately can reduce environmental impact

in material manufacturing and transporting (wood, flooring, paneling, cabinet,

doors, frames, brick, light fixtures etc).Use locally available materials for

construction, thereby reducing environmental impact resulting from transportation

and supporting to the site area .After construction of the building, recycle or

salvage at least 50 to 75 % (by weight) of construction, demolition and land clearing

waste. Allocate separate space for sorting and storing waste disposals (E.g.

Newspapers, Organic substances, Dry waste etc). The location of storage place

should be easily accessible for the workmen .Provide Rest/change room with

shower facility for residents commuting on two wheelers & four wheelers. Design

waste bin, which allow for easy cleaning and thereby avoid health hazards.

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6.7 Indoor Air Quality. The intake air should be clean - suction should not be

close to exhaust fan, A/c exhaust, cooling tower and other source of

contamination. Install online CO2 system for monitoring indoor air quality through

building automation system. Provide sufficient fresh air intake Use non-toxic

materials to avoid contamination of air. Avoid exposure of building occupants to

potentially hazardous chemicals. Provide controls for temperature, ventilation and

lighting system, which can be controlled based on individual requirements. Install

temperature and humidification monitoring system for the building.

7. GREEN BUILDING FEATURES

The concept of Green Buildings is in an infant stage.The development of Green

buildings in India will have to be a combination of locally available materials and

economically viable technologies. Some of the typical ideas applicable in the Indian

context are as follows:

7.1 Building Materials.

1. Fly ash cement and Fly ash bricks for construction

2. Steel salvaged from old buildings

3. Recycled glass & ceramics for tiles and sanitary ware

4. Harvested or recycled wood from old buildings

5. Recycled glass for windows & doors

6. Non-Toxic and Environment friendly Paints

7.2 Electrical equipment.

1. Energy efficient amorphous core transformer. Alternatively environmentally

friendly Dry type transformer with On-load Voltage correction facility.

2. Oil free environmentally friendly Vacuum circuit breakers / Air circuit breakers

3. As far as possible, copper bus bars with minimum bends and joints

4. Flameproof copper cables for power distribution.

5. Automatic power factor correction relay for power factor correction (APFCR).

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7.3 Lighting Feeder.

1. Dedicated lighting feeder/transformer with on-line voltage correction facility

2. Maximum utilization of natural light during daytime.

3. Energy efficient light fittings and accessories.

4. Limit switch / key tag system for lighting control, wherever there is no

occupancy

5. Energy efficient High Pressure Sodium Vapor (HPSV) lamps for street and

outdoor lighting.

6. Solar photovoltaic cells for building lighting, Telephone booths, etc.,

7.4 Air Conditioning

1. Energy efficient screw chiller compressor with a built-in variable frequency drive.

Non CFC Refrigerant for refrigeration system

2. Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) for chiller pumps, condenser water pumps and

AHU fans for energy saving.

3. Temperature Indicating Controller (TIC)/ VFD for cooling tower fans,

alternatively, Natural Draft Cooling towers can also be used.

4. FRP Blades for cooling tower fans

5. Double-glazed glasses in air-conditioning environment to minimize heat gain.

6. Provide for Green wall and green roofing

7. Insulation of exposed roofs to minimize heat gain.

8. High efficiency pumps and motors

7.5 Building Management System (BMS).

1. Computerized Building Management System (BMS) to help in monitoring &

controlling electrical energy and water consumption.

2. Automatic Temperature sensors & controllers to maintain the required

temperature.

3. Movement sensors for rooms to control the lighting and air conditioning load.

4. Automatic controls for water taps.

5. Fire fighting& fire alarm systems to avoid fire hazardous.

6. Generator set Sound proof enclosure for the Generator room to control sound

pollution.

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7.6 Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS).

Uninterrupted power supply (UPS) for computers and telephone system, coupled

with battery less DC motor. White Goods Energy efficient and environmental

friendly white goods viz., Refrigerator, water cooler, etc.

8. BASIC CONCEPTS OF GREEN BUILDINGS

Conservation of natural resources through their efficient use:

1. Use of indigenous materials.

2. Efficient use of recyclable, recycled and salvaged materials and components.

3. Reduction in the use of high materials like cement, aluminium etc.,

4. Use of materials and techniques to provide high insulation against penetration of

heat, cold and sound.

5. Adopting design to use lighting and natural ventilation.

6. Use of landscaping to reduce the adverse effects of topography.

7. Scattered spacing of buildings to increase ventilation.

8. Courtyard houses with the central courtyards providing light, ventilation and

privacy.

9. Low walls and projecting eaves to reduce the exposure of walls to solar Radiation

and lashing rains.

10. Attic windows for circulation of air.

11. Judicious planning of trees to provide shade during summer and to allow sun‘s

rays in winter.

12. Roof frame which can be easily dismantled and reassembled again.

13. Modular design to enable reuse of building components without alterations.

14. Location of bed rooms and living rooms in such a manner as to make use of the

natural elements of sunlight and ventilation.

9. MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Space design to suit the environment, location of facilities in appropriate places,

use of low energy materials and reusable and recycled materials, optimum

utilization of natural elements etc., are some of the techniques used in modern

architecture. These will include:

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1. Preservation and protection of favorable feature of landscape and modification

of adverse ones.

2. Controlling the erosion of soil and sedimentation.

3. Controlling the runoff of storm water to have maximum percolation into the

ground.

4. Location of buildings with convenient and easy access to public transportation

systems

5. Use of indigenous and low energy materials for construction.

6. Use of renewable and salvaged materials.

7. Roof-top water harvesting.

8. Use of solar energy directly and/or indirectly for lighting and heating.

9. Day lighting devices

10. Natural cooling arrangements, providing wind scoop towers.

11. Good insulation of walls to protect the interior forms the elements of weather.

12. Use of paints, varnishes and other surface coatings as well as sealants and

adhesives that do not produce volatile organic compounds.

13. Avoiding the use of refrigeration equipments that use CFC or HCFC.

14. Avoiding the use of asbestos, especially those formed through dry process.

15. Landscaping to take advantage of nature.

9.1 Green concepts can be easily adopted for walls, windows and roofs

9.1.1.Walls. Increase the use of reusable materials like stone blocks in place of

monolithic cement concrete. Cavity walls with the cavities filled with air or

insulating materials such as glass wool. Walls with hollow blocks. Roof overhangs,

pergolas, buttresses. Creepers over the walls.

9.1.2. Windows and Other Openings. In hot humid climate of Kerala, large

protected wall openings are required to provide ventilation. In order to avoid direct

sunlight and lashing rains, sunshades or eave projections are necessary. In dry

countries, the window size, especially in the upper floors, will be small to avoid

penetration of sun and cold winds. Glass shutters will allow the sunlight but will

prevent heat escaping out, thus producing green house effect. This effect can be

reduced by right choice of glass to reduce penetration of heat and UV rays. Double

glazings also can de resort to.

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9.1.3. Roof. Sloping roofs increase the volume of the room and, therefore, are

better than flat ones in summer. Clearstory windows will increase lighting and

ventilation. Using heat reflecting paints over roof will reduce heat conduction.

Suspended ceiling with insulating materials placed below the roof will make the

interior comfortable.

10. ARE GREEN BUILDINGS COSTLY

The additional cost for incorporating green design will be only 5 to 6% of the total

cost. This will be offset by the reduced costs of operation and maintenance. Cost of

lighting, heating/cooling, water supplied will be much less than that for the

conventional buildings. With the costs of cement and steel sky-rocketing, green

buildings will prove to be cost effective. Apart from the considerations of the direct

cost, the environmental cost of green buildings will be much lower than that of

conventional ones.

11. CASE STUDY

Fig. 2 CII-SOHRABJI GODREJ GREEN BUILDING

CENTRE AT HYDERABAD.

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This building has been given the platinum rating by LEED. Some of its green

features are:

1. 80% of materials were recycled ones and were eco-friendly.

2. Two 13.5 wind scoop towers and screen walls provide air pre-cooled by 10

degrees to the AC systems.

3. 40% of the roof is covered by photo-voltaic cells producing 100 to 120 units of

power daily.

4. 60% of the roof is covered by roof garden.

5. The building discharges no water, as all the used water is recycled.

6. Waste water is treated on-site and used for gardening.

7. It has a central courtyard to enhance air and light in the interior. It is claimed

that 90% of the area does not require artificial lighting during the day time.

12. CONCLUSION

With the world facing serious environmental concerns, it is necessary for the

building industry to take all steps to reduce the environmental impact of the

industry. Green building techniques will go a long way to mitigate the adverse

environmental effects. The building codes and building rules should incorporate

mandatory provisions for green buildings. The engineers, architects and builders

should take up the challenge and play their role in delaying, if not preventing, this

world fast slipping towards environmental catastrophe.

REFERENCE

1. Stott R., Healthy response to climate change. BMJ 2006; 332: 1385–7.

2. Bhattacharjee J., Former Chief Engineer, MES. Paper on Green-building

concept and various applications.

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USE OF RECEPTOR MODELLING IN SOURCE

APPORTIONMENT STUDY OF AMBIENT

PARTICULATE MATTER: REVIEW OF THE EXISTING

MODELS

Vivek Kumar Singh, Abhishek Jain

Department of Civil Engineering, IT BHU

Varanasi, U.P.

ABSTRACT

Several health studies have demonstrated an association between air pollution

sources and adverse health and environmental effects. Therefore, it is important to

identify the various sources contributing to the environment we are exposed to and

the characteristics of those sources and of major air pollutants so that they can be

controlled appropriately. The Physical and Chemical Characteristics of air

pollutants can be understood with the help of Receptor Models which help in

identifying their sources and in estimating contributions of each source to receptor

contributions. This paper provides a quick review of the basic Receptor Models

(CMB, PMF and UNMIX) that are practised for PM source apportionment when the

sources are unknown.

Keywords: Chemical mass balance (CMB); Source Apportionment; Positive matrix

factorization (PMF); UNMIX; PM.

1. INTRODUCTION

Air Pollution constitutes a widespread problem by decreasing the quality of air due

to continuous emission of Particulate Matter (PM) and many harmful gases into the

ambient environment. In India, major sources of urban air pollution include coal

combustion, oil refineries and industrial manufacturing facilities (Murray et al.,

2001). Automobile exhaust and emission from small-scale workshops are also

considered as important contributing factors.

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Particulate Matter is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air,

many of which are hazardous. The particles size range varies from coarse

(PM10<dp>PM2.5), fine (dp<PM2.5) and ultra fine (dp<PM0.1). Typical ambient particles

are the complex mixture of dust, smoke, pollen, soot, liquid droplets and organic

compounds etc. Particulate Matter (PM), which is composed of a broad class of

chemically and physically diverse substance, can be very variable in size, chemical

composition, formation mechanism and origin. These PM absorb and scatter

sunlight, thereby altering the earth‘s radiative balance subsequently leading to

increased temperature, decreased rainfall, and a weaker hydrological cycle

(Ramanathan et al.,2001). The scattering of sunlight is the leading cause of

visibility reduction.

Majority of the Indian cities have concentrations of Particulate Matter well above

the recommended limits of WHO and US EPA (Sadasivan and Negi, 1990; Gupta

and Kumar, 2006).Toxicological and epidemiological studies have confirmed the

relationship of exposure of particles to human health (Saxon and Diaz-Sanche,

2000; Schwartz et. al., 1996). Various epidemiological studies (Pope et al., 1995),

also, have shown that there is a significant relationship between increasing

particulate matter and increased human mortality and morbidity.

As the Human exposure to this particulate matter is associated with detrimental

health impacts and increased mortality rates (Chow et al., 2006), there is a great

need to formulate emission reduction strategies for effective air quality

management. Therefore, for devising abatement policies, the characterization of the

complex properties of these PM is extremely important. While formulating the

strategies, it is important to identify the different sources contributing to the

emission also to determine if the sources are local, regional or inter-continental in

nature. The characterisation of sources at receptor location and identifying the

physical location of their origin is important for policy making decisions.

Source Apportionment is a method of quantifying the relative impacts of different

emission sources on particulate matter formation and provides valuable

information that can be used in the formulation of emission reduction strategies.

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Receptor Models are mathematical or statistical procedures for identifying and

quantifying the sources of air pollutants at a receptor location. Unlike Dispersion

modelling, Receptor Modelling cannot predict future air quality but looks at the

past data collected at one site over a specific time period to determine the source to

that site. It uses the variability of chemical composition,particle size, and

concentration variations in space and time to identify source types and to quantify

source contributions that affect particle mass concentrations, light extinction, or

deposition.

Receptor models provide the theoretical and mathematical framework for

quantifying source contributions at that receptor. The two basic types of receptor

models are

1. Sources are known(e.g. Chemical Mass Balance)

2. Sources are unknown( e.g. Positive matrix Factorization and UNMIX)

Many of the statistical based methods cannot be used for quantitative source

apportionment studies as they produce negative source composition and

contribution sometimes violating the mass conservation. The three receptor model

discussed above i.e. CMB, PMF and UNMIX are specifically designed for this

purpose and are capable of producing both the qualitative and quantative source

apportionment results (Hopke et al.,2003). The basic equation used by all the

three model above is of mass balance

X = GF+ E,

Where X is an n x m matrix consisting of n number of observations for m chemical

species. It is assumed that there are p sources influencing the data matrix. The aim

of multivariate receptor models is to obtain two matrices G and F where G is an n x

p matrix of source contributions describing the temporal variation of the sources, F

is a p x m matrix of source profiles, which is the chemical composition of the

emission, with each chemical species expressed as a mass fraction of the total, and

E represents the unexplained data variance by the model.

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2. POSITIVE MATRIX FACTORIZATION

Multi-variate factor analysis has been widely used to identify sources of ambient

particles. Factor Analysis (FA) techniques are multivariate data analysis methods

that are used in environmental studies to estimate the number and compositions of

the sources as well as their contributions to the samples taken at the receptors.

PMF was developed as a new approach to FA which uses a weighted least-squares

approach and imposes non-negativity constraints for fitting the FA model. PMF

decomposes a matrix of speciated sample data into two matrices-factor

contributions and factor profiles which then need to be interpreted by an analyst as

to what source types are represented using measured source profile information,

wind direction analysis and emission inventories. EPA PMF is one of the receptor

model developed by EPA-ORD. PMF is applicable easily in source apportionment

studies as it incorporates the variable uncertainties often associated with

measurements of environmental samples and also forces all of the values in the

solution profiles and contributions to be nonnegative, which is more realistic then

solutions obtained from previously used methods. A speciated data set can be

viewed as a data matrix X of n x m dimensions, in which n number of samples and

m chemical species were measured as discussed above. The goal of the PMF model

is to identify a number of factors p, the species profile f of each source, and the

amount of mass g contributed by each factor to individual sample.

xij = gik 𝑓kj pk=1 + 𝑒ij

where eij is the residual for each sample.

The goal in PMF is to estimate the factor contribution (G) and factor profile (F)

matrices that best explain X. It minimizes the object function Q based upon the

uncertainties (u)

𝑄 = 𝑥ij − gik 𝑓kj

𝑝𝑘=1

𝑢ij

𝑚

𝑗=1

𝑛

𝑖=1

Where the uncertainty data sheet is prepared and supplied as an input by the user

using equation

Uij = pjXij+ MDLj/3

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Where pj is the uncertainty proportional parameter for the jth species.Xij is the

measured concentration for ith sample and jth species and MDLjis the method

detection limit for jth species (Pekney et al., 2006).

3. CHEMICAL MASS BALANCE (CMB)

This model is used when the source profile is already known. If the nature of the

pollution sources influencing the measurements is known (i.e. p and F) then the

only unknown is G which can be solved by CMB using an effective variance least

squares approach. The CMB can analyze individual samples if local source profiles

are known (Abu et al., 2002). In order to obtain a source profile of a given source

the chemical species that characterize that source profile and the relative

proportions of each of those elements that provide the signature for the source

profile at the sampling site must be determined. CMB analysis can also be used to

estimate the daily contribution from the individual source if the source profiles are

properly estimated as the analysis could be applied on a single sample also.It is

applicable for small data set also (Chowdhury et al., 2003).

The CMB model uses the chemical compositions of airborne particulate matter

samples to estimate the contributions of different source types to the measured

concentrations at the receptor site using previously estimated source profile. These

source profiles can be obtained from the United States Environmental Protection

Agency (USEPA) library (SPECIATE). The major drawback of this model is that it

cannot separate the sources that have very similar chemical compositions. It also

estimates the source contributions for each individual sample. The partial

composition may differ from one sample to next due to the difference in emission

rates, wind speed, direction and changes in emission composition.

The model consists if the following equations:

𝐶i = 𝐹i1𝑆1 + 𝐹i2𝑆2 + 𝐹i3𝑆3……… . . +𝐹ij𝑆j…………+ 𝐹iJ𝑆J

Where, i = 1.........I and j = 1.......J

Ci = Concentration of species I measured at receptor site.

Fij = Fraction of species i emission from source j.

Sj = Estimate of the contribution of the source j.

I = Number of chemical species.

J = Number of source types.

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These equations give unique solution only when the number of species is equal to

or greater than the number of sources.The greater the number of species, the more

precise the apportionment.

4. UNMIX

The EPA UNMIX model ―unmixes‖ measured species concentration to infer the

source contributions at the receptor site. This model uses the transformation

method based on self modelling curve resolution technique to resolve the sources of

pollution using Eigen value analysis. This method uses implicit least-square

analysis approach to estimate the source profile and contribution.

While CMB requires a priori knowledge of the source profiles, Unmix seeks to solve

the general problem where the data are assumed to be a linear combination of an

unknown composition, which contribute an unknown amount to each sample. It

also assumes that the compositions and contributions of the sources are all

positive. It solves the problem assuming that for each source there are some

samples that contain negligible amount or no contribution from that source.

Unmixuses the non-negativity conditions and the constraints of the data to find out

the unique solution. When the data do not support a solution, Unmix will not find

any solution.

Unmix uses the SVD, singular value decomposition method to estimate the source

number by reducing the dimensionality of the data space m to p(Henry et al. 2003).

The equation used in the model can be expressed as

Where U, D and V are nxp,pxp diagonal and p x m matrices, respectively; and εij is

the error term. Geometrical concepts are also used to ensure that the results obey

the non-negative constraints and the additional constraints of the data.

If there are observations of M species in a data, the data can be plotted in an M-

dimensional data space where the coordinates of a data point are the observed

concentrations of the species. For N sources, the data space can be reduced to N-1

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dimensional space. Unmix assumes that for each source there are some data

points where the contributions of the source is not present or negligible as

compared to the other sources. These data points are known as edge points. Unmix

finds these edge points and fit a hyper plane through them, this hyper plane is

called an edge. For N sources, there are N-1 hyper planes and the intersection of

these hyper planes defines a point that has only one source contributing, which

gives the source compositions. Similarly the composition of N sources can be

found.

5. COMPARISON OF THE MODELS

The major drawback of the CMB model is that with CMB, the user must provide

source profiles which the model uses to apportion mass. PMF and CMB have been

compared in several earlier studies. Rizzo and Scheff (2007) compared the

magnitude of source contributions resolved by each model and examined

correlations between PMF resolved contributions and that of CMB. The source

profiles information may not be always readily available especially in the developing

countries like India. In such cases, UNMIX and PMF are usually applied as they do

not require any priori source information.

On the other side, one of the major limitations with the UNMIX model is that it

scales the data matrix either by row or column, which tend to distort the analysis

results. This scaling issue, however, was solved by Paatero (Paatero et al., 1994)

developed the PMF with a very different approach that uses the explicit weighted

least-squares approach to obtain the source profiles and contributions. Also,

Unmix does not allow individual weighting of data points as does PMF. Although

major factors resolved by both are same, Unmix does not always resolve as many

factors as PMF (Pekney et al., 2006 ; Poirat et al., 2001).

6. APPLICATION AND IMPACT

With deteriorating air quality being one of the major global problems, it is

important to know about the various sources which are mainly responsible for the

declining air quality. Source apportionment studies are usually carried out for

developing effective air pollution regulation. In Tampa, Studies showed that a

reduction in mercury impact when a major power plant changed its fuel from coal

to natural gas. Also, In Steubenville, Ohio research clearly demonstrated the large

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impact of regional domestic coal combustion on the deposition of mercury in rain

water. Research Results showed differences in air pollution sources during the

different stages of the recovery effect after 9/11 in World Trade Centre. Study in

Research Triangle Park, N.C., found around 50 per cent of PM from motor vehicle

exhaust was present inside homes and that cooking was a major contributor to PM

personal exposure. Also, Studies at a major steel facility helped quantify the impact

of various industrial sources on local areas in St. Louis. This research underlines

the importance of tracking specific sources and using the result to improve control

strategies.

7. CONCLUSION

This paper discussed about the various receptor models highlighting both the

advantages and disadvantages of a particular model in a particular situation.

Though each receptor model can be used alone to apportion the sources, the

author advises the use of all the three models or at least two of the model for

precise source apportionment study. Generally, the major source contributors as

obtained from all the three models are same. Actually, these receptor models are

complementary to each other and applying them together can lead to better

understanding of the complex source apportionment studies.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Much of this work was carried out during the summer of 2010. We would like to

thank Assoc. Prof. Tarun Gupta for assistance and useful guidance. We would,

also, like to thank Mr. Jaiprakash and Mr. Anil Mandariya for all their valuable

assistance in the work.

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7, No. 4, pp. 446-468,2007.

12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA positive matrix factorization (PMF)

3.0 Fundamentals and User guide.

13. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA UNMIX 6.0 Fundamentals and

User guide.

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LOW-COST HOUSING

P. TARUN1 AND Ch. KISHAN KUMAR1

1VISVODAYA ENGINEERINGCOLLEGE,

Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur, Kavali, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: tarunp1991@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The scope of the study covers national perspectives on housing for economically

weaker sections of the society, defining the problems and efforts that should be

made for solving the existing housing technologies. Housing is one of the

fundamental needs of any living being. Whether, rich or poor, all of us need a place

to live. But if we look at the cost of purchasing a house across the country and

metros in particular, it‘s well beyond the affordable limit of the majority. In a

society where the majority cannot afford a place of their own because of the

skyrocketing property prices, low cost housing assumes crucial importance.

Moreover, the Government of India has a vision ―Housing for all by the year 2010‖.

Cost effective does not mean low quality and low durability meant only for low-

income or poor sections. This paper also deals with the efficiencies of low cost

housing and use of new materials and their experimentation on affected areas and

also the introduction of paper and cardboard as a building material. This paper is

based on reporting review.

1. INTRODUCTION

In every country the housing industry is a fundamental and planned sector linked

to improving the standard of living. The housing sector depends highly on

technological innovation as a constant driving force.

Technological innovation creates added value, it improves the product, and cuts the

costs, thus allowing for a greater distribution of the product on the market and an

extension in the distribution range.

Our country has a population of around 1.20 bn. Considering the vastness of the

country, both in terms of area and population, the dwelling unit required to pocket

such population would be around 16.8 m in the urban area and the fund

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requirement would be around Rs 1,213.7 bn. (Ministry of Urban Development and

Poverty Alleviation).

This means that to address this problem we need low cost housing or cost effective

housing. Cost effective does not mean low quality and low durability meant only for

low-income or poor sections. On the contrary, there is a need for appropriate,

intermediate, modern and alternative technologies, which are strong durable,

functional and environment friendly. The Government machinery needs to ensure

sustainability in housing delivery, involving mixed component of cash, savings,

loans, and government subsidy. Propagating appropriate building materials and

sustainable responsible construction practices in the country becomes

government's most important responsibility.

When cost of construction is considered, it is not the cost of building technologies

alone, but the cost of land, infrastructure, and construction, all put together, that

makes up the final cost. So, in the Indian context the model where government and

private sector working together would be an ideal mix to ensure the demand of

fund for construction and supply of land for the same. The synergies of the

government for land and infrastructure and of the private sector for housing

development will go a long way in fulfilling the demand for housing. The most

important thing is that this will result in housing for all depending upon the

individual's income level.

A glance at the vast area of the country reveals that there is ample land for

construction. The fact is that except in metros like Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore,

Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, and a few other big cities, there is no shortage of land

for construction in other parts of the country. So, we don't have to necessarily go

for skyscrapers, instead 3 or 4-storeys building will serve the purpose better.

Moreover all these skyscrapers have higher requirement of power for lifts, pumping

up water, fire hazard, etc which are in short supply in the country.

With housing cost beyond the reach of poor, low-income and even middle-income

groups, there is need to identify cost effective technologies and more focused

approach towards bringing down the property prices across the country, to a

reasonable limit. Otherwise ―Housing for all by the year 2010‖ will remain a dream

only.

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2. EFFICIENCIES OF LOW COST HOUSING

2.1 Construction efficiencies.

Construction efficiencies are among the most effective approach for decreasing the

cost of housing construction without reducing its life. Construction details that use

standard material dimensions and equipment modules limit waste and labor,

reducing costs by at least 10 percent. Using locally available and easy to repair

materials, equipment, and finishes also contains construction and life-cycle costs.

Factory-built housing, both manufactured and modular, offers greater cost savings

when compared with conventional site-built housing. Moreover, modular housing is

considered the strongest among framework housing, conforms to the same

standards, and codes as site-built. Pre-manufactured components, such as roof

and floor trusses and wall panels, allow builders to enclose a structure, quickly

saving both time and labour costs. The ability to place and secure a finished unit

quickly can be especially advantageous in urban areas where a site-built home

faces prolonged exposure to robbery and vandalism.

Rehabilitation of existing housing and the adaptive reuse of other building types, if

the structures are in good condition, can also offer cost-effective construction

practices. Recycling an entire building to extend its useful life is environmentally

sound and preserves cultural and historic structures.

2.2 Space efficiencies.

Space efficiencies can be achieved without reducing livable spaces, by minimizing

circulation space and room dimensions. For example, the arrangement of

circulation space in a central joint or short hallway with surrounding rooms can

significantly decrease the unit square footage without changing the size of the

rooms. The ratio of a room‘s width and length also determines how well

conventional furnishes will fit without wasting space. Rooms that are very long

proportionally often do not offer the most efficient use of space.

Dense building forms minimize the building‘s ―envelope,‖ and thus decrease costly

building components, such as the foundation, roof, and exterior walls. A one-story

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single-family dwelling is more expensive to build than a two-story structure with

the same square footage, quality of construction, and facilities. Dense building

forms also reduce life cycle costs because they are less luxurious to heat, cool, and

maintain.

2.3 Design for durability.

Design for durability saves on costly maintenance and future building renovations.

Spending on durable materials, finishes, furnishings, and equipment may involve

higher initial construction costs, but is compensated by substantially decreased

life-cycle costs. Good examples of moderate up-front costs and big savings follow.

A typical two-ply asphalt single roof needs to be replaced every 10 to 15 years. A

three-ply roof, for only a few hundred dollars more in materials and no additional

costs for installation, can easily last the tenure of typical homeownerships.

Burnished block is slightly more expensive than standard face block but lasts

longer, is more impervious to water, and has much higher aesthetic appeal.

High-quality windows may cost more than lightweight vinyl windows but are

unlikely to warp easily and will keep energy costs down. 5/8‖ drywall costs

minimally more than 1/2‖ but will withstand wear and tear better.

Solid core doors and durable hardware will cost more than hollow core doors, but

will need less frequent repair and replacement. High-quality workmanship is

equally important to assure durability.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES IN INDIA

The developments in composite material after meeting the challenges of aerospace

sector have fallen down for cookery to domestic and industrial applications.

Composite, the wonder material with light-weight, high strength-to-weight ratio and

stiffness properties have come a long way in replacing the conventional materials

like metals, woods etc. The material scientists all over the world focused their

attention on natural composites reinforced with jute, sisal, coir (coconut fiber),

pineapple etc. primarily to cut down the cost of raw materials.

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Eastern India has been bestowed with abundant cultivation of jute. The production

of processed jute fiber in India has touched 1.64 million tons in 1999-2000. Jute as

a natural fiber has been traditionally used for making twines, ropes, cords, as

packaging material in sacks & gunny bags, as carpet backing and more recently, as

a geo-textile material. But, lately the major share of its market has been eroded by

the advent of synthetic materials, especially polypropylene.

In order to save the crop from extinction and to ensure a reasonable return to the

farmers, non-traditional outlets have to be explored for the fiber. One such avenue

is in the area of fiber-reinforced composites. Such composites can be used as a

substitute for timber as well as in a number of less demanding applications. Jute

fiber due to its adequate tensile strength and good specific modulus enjoys the

right potential for usage in composites. Jute composites can thusensure a very

effective and value-added application avenue for the natural fiber.

Interest in using natural fibers as reinforcement in polymer matrices and also in

certain applications as partial replacement of glass fibers has grown significantly in

recent years for making low cost composite building materials. Thus, new

alternative materials have emerged that could partially meet the demands of

conventional materials especially wood in buildings.

3.1 Natural fibers.

Jute, sisal, banana and coir (coconut fiber), the major source of natural fibers, are

grown in many parts of India. Some of them have aspect ratios (ratio of length to

diameter) > 1000 and can be rush easily. Sisal and banana fibers are cellulose-rich

(> 65%) and show tensile strength, modulus and failure strain comparable with

other cellulose-rich fibers like jute and flax whereas the lignin-rich (> 40%) coir

fiber is relatively weak and possess high failure strain.

These fibers are extensively used for cordage, sacks, fishnets, matting and rope,

and as filling for mattresses and cushions (e.g. rubberized coir). Cellulosic fibers

are obtained from different parts of plants, e.g. jute and ramie are obtained from

the stem; sisal, banana and pineapple from the leaf; cotton from the seed; coir from

the fruit, and so on.

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Recent reports indicate that plant-based natural fibers can very well be used as

reinforcement in polymer composites, replacing to some extent more expensive and

non-renewable synthetic fibers such as glass.

The maximum tensile, impact and flexural strengths for natural fiber reinforced

plastic (NFRP) composites reported so far are 104.0 MN/m2 (jute-epoxy), 22.0 kJ/

m2 (jute-polyester) and 64.0 MN/m2 (banana-polyester), respectively.

3.2 Jute and glass fibers.

Although the tensile strength and Young‘s modulus of jute are lower than those of

glass fibers, the specific modulus of jute fiber is superior to that of glass and when

compared on modulus per cost basis, jute is far superior. The specific strength per

unit cost of jute, too, approaches that of glass. Therefore, where high strength is

not a priority, jute may be used to fully or partially replace glass fiber. The need for

using jute fibers in place of the traditional glass fiber partly or fully as reinforcing

agents in composites stems from its lower specific gravity (1.29) and higher specific

modulus (40 GPa) of jute compared with those of glass (2.5 & 30 GPa respectively).

Apart from much lower cost and renewable nature of jute, much lower energy

requirement for the production of jute (only 2% of that for glass) makes it attractive

as a reinforcing fiber in composites.

The natural fiber imparts lower durability and lower strength compared to glass

fibers. However, low specific gravity results in a higher specific strength and

stiffness than glass. This is a benefit especially in parts designed for bending

stiffness. In addition, the natural fibers offer good thermal and acoustic insulation

properties along with ease in processing technique without wearing of tool.

The jute composites may be used in everyday applications such as lampshades,

suitcases, paperweights, helmets, shower and bath units. They are also used for

covers of electrical appliances, pipes, post-boxes, roof tiles, grain storage silos,

panels for partition & false ceilings, bio-gas containers, and in the construction of

low cost, mobile or pre-fabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural

calamities.

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4. NEW MATERIALS FOR LOW COST HOUSING

4.1 Steel stiffened ferrocrete (ssf).

This is a revolutionary invention, because it offers a fire proof, cyclone proof

&earthquake proof house for rural poor people, at the construction cost of only

about Rs.130/sq. ft., comparable to that of conventional hut. Whereas relatively,

the conventional RCC building structures cost more than Rs.300/sq. ft. Though

cost-wise SSF structure is comparable to that of conventional mud huts,

performance wise it is equal / rather better than RCC structures to effectively

withstand even severe natural hazards such as cyclones, earthquakes, etc.

4.2 Spercrete panel housing.

The devastating Tsunami of 26th Dec.-04, has given another opportunity to invent

yet another low-cost construction technology. In this context, a new SPERCrete

panel system housing is developed. On the request of Sri Ilango, the most popular

Gandhian panchayath president of Kutthumbakkam village, Thiruvallur District,

Tamil nadu, SPERC is constructing a prototype full scale model of this SPERCrete

panel house, using ferrocrete / Ferro cement construction technique. The

additional advantage in this invention is the possibility of expanding it to first floor

construction with the same spercrete panels in future, as it offers flat roofing.

Spercrete panel system also offers fire-proof, cyclone-proof and earthquake

resistant housing at about mere Rs.100/- per sq. ft., which lasts for few

generations. SPERC hopes that this latest innovation of Spercrete panel system

would revolutionize the scenario of future low cost housing.

4.3 Grancrete.

The United Nations estimates there are almost a billion poor people in the world,

750 million of who live in urban areas without adequate shelter and basic services.

But scientists at Argonne and Casa Grande LLC are developing a promising new

technology that may lead to affordable housing for the world‘s poorest. A tough new

ceramic material that is almost twice as strong as concrete may be the key to

providing high-quality, low-cost housing throughout developing nations.

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The ceramic is called Grancrete, which, when sprayed onto a rudimentary

Styrofoam frame, dries to form a lightweight but durable surface. The resulting

house is a major upgrade to the fragile structures in which millions of the worlds

poorest currently live.

The Virginia firm Casa Grande in conjunction with Argonne developed Grancrete. It

is based on an Argonne-developed material called Ceramicrete, which was

developed in 1996 to encase nuclear waste. The resilient Ceramicrete permanently

prevents hazardous and radioactive contaminants from leaching into the

environment.

According to experiments, Grancrete is stronger than concrete, is fire resistant and

can withstand both tropical and sub-freezing temperatures, making it ideal for a

broad range of geographic locations. It insulates so well that it keeps dwellings in

arid regions cool and those in frigid regions warm. Currently, Grancrete is sprayed

onto Styrofoam walls, to which it adheres and dries. The Styrofoam remains in

place as an effective insulator, although Wagh suggests simpler walls, such as

woven fiber mats, also would work well and further reduces the raw materials

required.

Using Grancrete in developing countries also allows for two important criteria, says

Wagh. ―When you build houses in these poor villages, the materials you use should

be indigenous, and the labour should be indigenous,‖ he says. ―Every village has

soil and ash, and the labour and training requirements are so minimal that two

local people can build a house in two days.‖

According to Paul, workers only need two days of training to learn how to control

and calibrate the machinery. Casa Grande typically assembles a team of five people

who can start in the morning and create a home that residents can move into that

evening. The material cures in 15 minutes, whereas concrete can take hours or

days to dry. Grancrete is made from an environmentally friendly mix of locally

available chemicals.

―Grancrete is 50 percent sand or sandy soil, 25 percent ash and 25 percent binding

material,‖ Wagh says. Binding material is composed of magnesium oxide and

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potassium phosphate, the latter of which is a biodegradable element in fertilizer. So

even if Grancrete were to decompose, he points out, it would revitalize the soil.

The cost of building a Grancrete home, estimated by Casa Grande at about $6,000

U.S. for labour and materials, is several times less expensive than a home built

using conventional building materials. And the homes themselves are more than

four simple walls. For less than $10,000 U.S., laborers can produce Grancrete

dwellings of 800 square feet; a typical apartment in a city like Bombay, India, is

only 400 square feet.

5. LOW COST HOUSING FROM RECYCLED MATERIALS

The main walls of the structure are built of used tires, laid concrete-block fashion,

and filled with densely packed earth. Concrete 'parging' covers these walls,

smoothing them, and surrounding aluminium pop cans which occupy space and

reduce the amount of concrete needed. In addition, the walls are built as 'U'-

shaped bays, with the open end of the U facing the sun, and the arch butting into

the earth. The walls thus built are immensely thick and strong, and (according to

the Potters) qualify, as load-bearing foundation walls in their own right. A low wall

closes the south side of the house, beneath wide windows that admit light and

warmth.

6. HOUSES OF THE FUTURE

6.1 Design concept.

The Cardboard House represents the reduction of technology and the simplification

of needs. By demonstrating that we are able to recycle 100% of the building

components at extremely low cost, the Cardboard House is a direct challenge to

the housing industry to reduce housing and environmental costs. A cardboard

house places the least demand on resources and encourages people to shift their

preconceptions about the ―typical Australian house‖. Many Australians enjoy

camping on their holidays, easily shifting their lifestyle from the rigidity of the

urban home to the freedom of the campsite.

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Being extremely low cost and transportable, the Cardboard House could be used in

a wide variety of applications. You could live in one while your permanent house is

being built or renovated, for emergency housing, or for short-term accommodation.

Fig. 1: An example

6.2 Selection of card board as a building material.

Cardboard is not a traditional building material, however the introduction of

innovative bonding, cutting and structural techniques has provided the opportunity

to consider this lightweight and recyclable material in a more creative fashion.

Structure provides a creative architectural frame from which the house derives its

aesthetic. Fixed and moveable furnishings, floor systems, door and opening frames,

lighting and other services all relate to the structure and layout. The roof covering

is a lightweight material that is as transportable as the structure. Similar to a tent

fly, the roof fabric assists in holding down the building, providing a diffuse light in

the day and a glowing box at night. Water is collected in bladders underneath the

floor which double as ballast to hold down the lightweight building. A composting

toilet system produces nutrient-rich water for gardening.

Low-voltage lighting can be powered using a 12-volt car battery or small

photovoltaic cells mounted on the roof framing.

6.3 Implications for the future of housing.

The Architects see this project as a genuine housing option. Extremely low cost,

transportable, lightweight and flexible, this building could be used in a variety of

widespread applications. The Cardboard House is seen as a prototype that may

serve to meet future housing in a way that is responsible and beautiful.

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6.4 Environmental features.

1. Uses 85% recycled materials.

2. All materials are 100% recyclable

3. Recycling the house saves 12 cubic meters of landfill, 39 trees and 30000 litres

of water.

4. Extremely low cost, transportable, and flexible, this is a genuine housing option

that could be used in a variety of temporary applications.

5) Autonomous servicing: uses only 12-volt batteries or small photovoltaic cells

for power generation.

6) Composting system produces nutrient-rich water for gardening.

7. CONCLUSION

With housing cost beyond the reach of poor, low-income and even middle-income

groups, there is need to identify cost effective technologies and more focused

approach towards bringing down the property prices across the country, to an

affordable limit. Otherwise ―Housing for all‖ will remain a dream only.

REFERENCES

1. Suresh S.V, Bharathi Nirman: News and Letters HIDCO-New Delhi.

2. Madhava Rao A.C and Ramachandramurthy D.S: Performance

3. Evaluation of Low Cost Houses- SERC Madras

4. Mathur G.C., Low Cost Housing in Developing Countries.

5. Unmesh C. Desai; The Indian Concrete Journal * January 2001 pg: 1to16

6. Lal A.K., Handbook of Low Cost Housing, New Age International publisher.

7. Kumar Deepak, Low Cost Housing & Vastushastra.

8. Zainun Noor Yasmin and Majid Muhd. Zaimi Abd., Techniques To Develops

Forecasting Model On Low Cost Housing In Urban Area, Malaysian Journal of

Civil Engineering (2002).

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BIO-FILTERS IN SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT

Sravani1, Shiva Shankar Y2 and Abhishek Kumar2

1 Student, Department of Chemistry, Loyola Academy, Secunderabad

2 M-Tech Student, Environmental Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering,

Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

Email: prabhala89@rediff.com

ABSTRACT

Bio-logical treatment by the use of bacteria and other microorganisms to remove

contaminants in air, water and waste water by assimilating them is emerging

technology in environmental management. The applications of Bio-logical methods

are increasing due to advantages like cost effectiveness and use of natural systems

with decreased by-products. All Bio-logical-treatment processes take advantage of

bacteria‘s remarkable ability to use diverse waste constituents to provide the

energy for microbial metabolism and the building blocks for cell synthesis. This

metabolic activity can remove contaminants. These methods can be applied in

various fields like air treatment removing odors and volatile organic compounds

(VOC‘s), water and waste water management. This paper discusses about the

applications of Bio-filters in environmental management.

Keywords: Bio-filter, Vegetative Filter Strips, Grey Water, Storm Water, Volatile

Organic Compounds

1. INTRODUCTION

Use of environmentally friendly and sustainable alternative for managing and

recycling wastes, has gained increasing importance with increased capital costs in

treatment and disposal. Use of Bio-filters is a good solution to minimize the

operational and maintenance costs. Bio-filtration is a pollution control technique

using living material to capture and biologically degrade process pollutants.

Initially Bio-filters are used in odor control at waste water treatment plants. With

passage of time and need for sustainable alternatives in environmental

management, their applications are increasing. Common uses include processing

waste water, storm water management and biotic oxidation of contaminants in air.

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The paper discusses about the applications of Bio-filters in waste air, water and

waste water management.

2. BIO-FILTERS IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Biological waste air treatment techniques have become the method of choice in

many instances for the control of low concentrations of odors, volatile organic

compounds (VOC‘s) or hazardous air pollutants in large streams. Bio- filters are

reactors in which a humid polluted air stream is passed through a porous packed

bed (generally peat or compost mixture) on which a mixed culture of pollutant-

degrading organisms is naturally immobilized. The elimination of gaseous

component in Bio-filter is the result of complex combination of different physic-

chemical and Bio-logical phenomena (http://deshusses.pratt.duke.edu). Under

optimal conditions, the volatile or gaseous pollutants can be degraded completely to

carbon dioxide, water and excess Bio-mass. In the case of contaminants such as

hydrogen sulfide or reduced sulfur compounds, or Bio-degradable chlorinated

compounds, harmless sulfate or chloride are additional by-products

(http://www.engr.ucr.edu).

Bio-filter media types include wood-chip media, soil media, and inorganic synthetic

media. Wood-chip/bark media generally possess a large diversity and density of

microorganisms, accepts moisture relatively well, has low initial costs, and is

readily available. The normal lifetime for wood-chip/bark media is 2 – 4 years. Soil

media is a blended mix of soils, primarily sand-based. The primary advantage of

soil media over wood-chip/bark media is service life. Soil has an estimated lifetime

of over 30 years as a filter media. Soil is denser than wood-chip/bark media and

therefore resists compaction, it resists acidification because of its inherent pH

buffering properties, it is less difficult to rehydrate after drying out, and generally

distributes the air more uniformly than wood-chip/bark media. The inorganic

synthetic media consists of strong, uniform sized gravel like cores that do not

compact as easily as organic media. This type of media may be used in the modular

designs because it allows greater media depth and a smaller footprint. The cores

are commonly coated with nutrient rich organic and inorganic adsorbents. The

media typically comes with a 10 year life guarantee (www.odor.net).

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Bio-filters are categorized by the configuration (open or closed) and flow sequence

(up-flow, down-flow, or horizontal flow). A closed system controls both the Bio-filter

outlet and inlet gas streams whereas an open system discharges treated gas from

the Bio-filter directly to the atmosphere. Industrial applications may place Bio-

filters in closed vessels with deep layers of media to save space. These systems may

be either up or down flow, depending upon the moisture application system. Open

Bio-filters are more commonly used as they are less expensive than closed systems,

have relatively thin layers of media to reduce backpressure on the air handler, are

outdoors, and are usually quite large in terms of surface area exposed to the

atmosphere (http://www.ncsu.edu).

2.1. Major Design Considerations

Methods of air flow distribution and media support -

Air flow through the Bio-filter may be distributed by several methods. The outer

walls of the air plenum may be formed by earth beams, concrete walls or other

support mechanisms. A plenum lining provides for proper drainage of the Bio-filter,

it can be formed with perforated air distribution piping buried in a coarse rock bed.

If a rock bed is used, special consideration must be given to the type of rock.

Limestone and other soft rock cannot be used because it breaks down in the acidic

environment and may obstruct air flow.

2.1.1. Media selection

Media may be purchased or blended based on local availability. Wood chips, bark,

and various soil media are commonly used. Media replacement frequency is

affected by media selection, as mentioned above.

2.1.2. Moisture Control

Moisture control may be accomplished by pre-humidification of the air in a mist

chamber with spray nozzles, with a packed tower humidification chamber, by

keeping the media wet using soaker piping within the media bed, surface irrigation

with spray nozzles, or a combination of these methods. Moisture sensors have not

proven to be extremely reliable, therefore manual operator monitoring is typically

used to ensure adequate moisture content.

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2.1.3. Loadings

Loading of Bio-filters should be properly designed to prevent acid formation,

corrosion problems, premature compaction of the media, short-circuiting the media

bed, inadequate Bio-logical activity, and other problems which can result in sub-

standard performance of the Bio-filter.

2.1.4. Corrosion Protection

Due to the formation of sulfuric acid as a byproduct in hydrogen sulfide treatment,

the following corrosion protection should be included in the Bio-filter design:

1. Liners or protective coatings on concrete

2. Installation of pH probes in drain water to measure pH (www.odor.net).

3. BIO-FILTERS IN WATER AND WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

Bio-filters can be used in treatment of water containing natural organic matter,

storm water management and treatment of waste water.

3.1. Bio-filters in Water Treatment

Due to its low maintenance costs and effective removal of Bio-degradable organic

matter, ozonation – Bio-filtration is becoming an attractive drinking water

treatment method. Natural organic matter (NOM) in water is a major concern and

should be removed from drinking water due to the following reasons

1. affects properties of water (color, taste and odor);

2. reacts with disinfectants used in water treatment affecting the disinfection

process

3. increased coagulant demand;

4. may control coagulation conditions and coagulation performance;

5. affects corrosion processes;

6. affects Bio-stability and Bio-logical re-growth in distribution systems

(http://www.techneau.org)

Four principal methods for removal of NOM are chemical coagulation, anion

exchange, membrane filtration, and granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration. GAC

is being replaced with ozonation Bio-filtration process (OBP). In this process,

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instead of using adsorptive properties of GAC, the microbes living in the media are

employed. Bio-logical processes offer a potentially useful alternative because

regular regeneration of GAC is not required and Bio-degradable organic matter is

preferably eliminated

The principle of Bio-filtration is to utilize bacteria and protozoa, which are attached

to the surface of filter materials, to clean water from undesirable substance in

drinking water. The Bio-filters are used for removal of Bio-degradable organic

matter, iron, manganese, sulphate, nitrate, pesticides, taste and odor causing

substances and algal metabolites.

The ozonation Bio-filtration processes (OBP) are used for the removal of NOM from

groundwater as well as surface water. In groundwater and small surface water

treatment plants, ozonation-Bio-filtration may be used as the only unit processes.

In larger plants, which are using polluted surface water, it is common that OBP are

only parts of the unit processes used in the plant. Commonly, the process is

combined with coagulation and particle separation. The process often includes pre-

ozonation to provide primary disinfection and also to aid coagulation/flocculation

in a following particle separation step. In Bio-filtration granular activated carbon is

normally the filter media, and disinfection step (UV, chlorination, chloramination)

after the Bio-logical filtration in order to obtain additional disinfection and

inactivate the heterotrophic bacteria present in the Bio-filter effluent. This

procedure is proved to be successful in some towns of European Nations

(http://www.techneau.org).

3.2 Bio-filters in Storm and Waste Water Management

Bio-filters can be applied to address all of the design objectives of urban Storm

Water Management. These include: reduction of urban runoff impacts,

groundwater recharge, water quality control, stream channel protection and peak

discharge control...The most common application of the Bio-filters is typically their

use as the first stage of the treatment and their purpose is to address groundwater

recharge and water quality control for small headwater areas (wwe.epa.gov).

Grey-water represents 80% of the total wastewater generated in homes, the product

of many everyday activities including personal hygiene, household cleaning, and

the washing of dishes, cooking utensils and clothes. An alternative form of grey-

water management is the Bio-logical filter, which uses natural processes to purify

water. Bio-logical filters have proven to be an appropriate technology for the

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treatment of domestic grey-water, ensuring the effective removal of 95% of organic

matter. The quality of water found in effluent is optimal for use as irrigation, and

can be channeled into a body of surface water or used to recharge groundwater

aquifers through infiltration. Cleaning up the water helps to minimize the negative

environmental impacts caused by the disposal of grey-water in soils, lakes and

rivers.

A Bio-filter is designed to treat grey-water and regulate storm water by Bio-

filtration, which combines mechanical retention through filtering material and Bio-

logical transformation of the pollutants in the water to be treated, eliminating a

significant amount of pollutants before they reach the groundwater, river or natural

wetland. The system can be designed for a single house or groups of houses. The

size of the system varies according to the volume of water treated. Grey-water

contains nitrates, phosphates, soap, salt, bacteria, foams, food particles, organic

matter, suspended solids, perfumes and dyes. Grey-water originates from

households, schools and all places where water is used for cleaning purposes,

excluding excreta. It is the product of laundries, bathrooms, sinks and other

household uses. Home Bio-filters are a sustainable way of removing pollutants

from grey-water (www.ideassonline.org).

Vegetative filter strips and bare soil can be used in this process. Different studies

have shown the efficacy of vegetated buffer strips in removing contaminants from

various kinds of wastewater (particularly wastewater derived from farming activities

or non-point-sources of pollution); while soil column experiments have shown that

pollutant concentrations can be attenuated in part by the soil itself. In particular,

use of vegetative filter strips designed for the removal of sediments, organic matter,

nutrients, agrochemicals, and bacteria from run-off and wastewater is

recommended.

Three different types of vegetated Bio-filter types are

3.2.1. Grass Swales

Grass swales have traditionally been used as a low cost storm-water conveyance

practice, called grassed waterways, in low to medium density residential

developments (e.g., half-acre lots).

153

These attributes include:

1. Slower flow velocities than pipe systems that result in longer times of

concentration and corresponding reduction of peak discharges

2. Ability to disconnect directly connected impervious surfaces, such as driveways

and roadways, thus reducing the computed runoff.

3. Filtering of pollutants by grass media

4. Infiltration of runoff into the soil profile, thus reducing peak discharges and

providing additional pollutant removal

5. Uptake of pollutants by plant roots (phyto-remediation) (www.epa.gov)

3.2.2. Dry Swale with Filter Media

The dry swale consists of an open channel that has been modified to enhance its

water quality treatment capability by adding a filtering medium consisting of a soil

bed with an under drain system. The dry swale is designed to temporarily store the

design water quality volume and allow it to percolate through the treatment

medium. The system is designed to drain down between storm events within

approximately one day. The water quality treatment mechanisms are similar to Bio-

retention practices except that the pollutant uptake is likely to be more limited

since only a grass cover crop is available for nutrient uptake (www.epa.gov).

3.2.3. Vegetative Filter Strips

Vegetative Filter Strips and buffers are areas of land with vegetative cover that are

designed to accept runoff as overland sheet flow from upstream development. They

can be constructed, or existing vegetated buffer areas can be used. Dense

vegetative cover facilitates sediment attenuation and pollutant removal. Unlike

grass swales, VFS are effective only for overland sheet flow and provide little

treatment for concentrated flows. Grading and level spreaders can be used to create

a uniformly sloping area that distributes the runoff evenly across the filter strip

Filter strips have been used to treat runoff from roads and highways, roof

downspouts, very small parking lots, and pervious surfaces. They can also be used

as the ―outer zone‖ of a stream buffer or as pretreatment to a structural practice.

VFS are often used as pretreatment for other structural practices, such as

infiltration basins and infiltration trenches. This recommendation is consistent

with recommendations in the agricultural setting that filter strips are most effective

when combined with another practice (www.epa.gov).

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3.2.4. Bio-retention

Bio-retention is a practice that manages and treats storm-water runoff using a

conditioned planting soil bed and planting materials to filter runoff stored within a

shallow depression. The method combines physical filtering and adsorption with

Bio-logical processes. The system consists of a flow regulation structure, pre-

treatment filter strip or grass channel, sand bed, pea gravel overflow curtain drain,

shallow ponding area, surface organic layer of mulch, a planting soil bed, plant

material, a gravel under drain system, and an overflow system (www.epa.gov).

This technology can be used even at house hold or community level by passing the

house hold grey water through vegetated Bio-filter after suitable pretreatment.

Pretreatment is essential because it prevents larger particles from reaching the Bio-

filter. Routine maintenance for this process involves the removal of solids and fat

stuck to the tanks. Maintenance frequency depends on the volumes of water

discharged and the number of solids present. The effluent of Bio-filter can be used

for maintaining lawns or can be disposed safely into surface streams.

The recent studies indicate that even the traditional waste water treatment

methods like Suspended growth systems (Activated Sludge process) and Attached

growth systems (trickling filters) can be enhanced by increasing the rate of Bio-logic

metabolism by modifying aeration patterns, use of media like plastics ,rubber

etc(www.epa.gov).

4. CONCLUSION

Sustainable environmental management mainly includes proper water, waste water

management and conservation of atmosphere by protecting from harmful hazards

of air pollution. Use of Bio-filters satisfies the purpose by reducing the operational

and maintenance costs.

Proper management of storm water and house hold waste water is very much

required to implement water conservation and reuse techniques like ground water

recharge and reuse of household domestic waste water. Natural Bio-filters like

vegetative filter strips can be used as a solution.

155

REFERENCES

1. Home Bio-filters Bio-logical Filters to Remove Grey water Nutrients available at

http://www.ideassonline.org/public/pdf/Bio-filtro_ideassonline_eng.pdf

2. Marc A Dehusses Bio-logical Waste Air Treatment in Bio-filters available at

http://deshusses.pratt.duke.edu/files/deshusses/u31/pdf/ja7.pdf

3. Marc A. Dehusses BIO-TRICKLING FILTERS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

available at http://www.engr.ucr.edu/~mdeshuss/pdf%20Files/bc3.pdf

4. Michael L. Clar Billy J. Barfield Thomas P. O‘Connor (2004) Storm water Best

Management Practice Design Guide Volume 2 Vegetative Bio-filters available at

http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r04121/600r04121a.pdf

5. ODOR CONTROL TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY available at

http://www.odor.net/images/Bio-xide.pdf

6. R.E. Nicolai and R.M. LefersBio-filters Used to Reduce Emissions from Livestock

Housing – A Literature Review available at

http://www.ncsu.edu/airworkshop/Posters-n-p.pdf

7. T. Juhna, E. Melin (2006) Ozonation and Bio-filtration in Water Treatment

8. Operational status and Optimization issues Techneau available at

http://www.techneau.org/fileadmin/files/Publications/Publications/Deliverable

s/D5.3.1B-OBF.pdf

156

INTEGRATING CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY WITH CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Ashutosh Chaturvedi1, Akshay Dikshit1, Devraj Sinha Roy1

1 Department of Electronics Engineering, 3rd year, Northern India Engineering College,

Lucknow

E-mail: ashutoshc21@gmail.com, akshay0803@gmail.com, raj24490@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Suppose there is a construction project to be done, and then prior to that there will

be surveys of the project like the site analysis, geographical variations etc. If the

project is for a Highway, say 500 KM long, then we will have to trace the proposed

path for the complete knowledge of how and what to start with. This can be done

by using sensors at those portions and controlling them by micro controllers over a

network via DTMF or GPRS modules. For example, we attach an ultrasonic sensor

which emits ultrasonic waves and receives the waves reflected from nearby

surroundings. It will keep on ―INFORMING‖ the controller about the conditions of

the structure by analyzing the distance from which the waves are coming back.

Our work is based mainly on DTMF & GPRS controlling of the devices because they

have no range boundations as well as mobile networks are available almost

everywhere. We just have to make a call to the device, it will auto answer our call

and based on reports and data we will send instructions to the device via our

mobile phones to take the next action, like sending more details or informing some

other team which is stationed nearby.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mobile communication systems have proved to be a great leap for mankind, no

matter which field you hail from, what discipline you are in, you cannot ignore

Cellular Services and using them definitely has added benefits, be it in ease of

communicating, data transfer, fun & entertainment. So in order to make the

mobile phones more beneficiary we present here a paper for ―Integrating Cellular

Technology with Civil Engineering‖ at Nirmaan-11, IT-BHU. It is a part of the event

157

PRAGATI with the theme ―Emerging aspects of Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS‖.

First of all talking about GPS or the global positioning system, mobile phones are

nowadays equipped with GPS facilities. It is a system to trace the exact location of

a person on the earth if he is carrying a GPS device with him. Let‘s see how this

can help civil engineers:

Suppose there is a construction project to be done, and then prior to that there will

be surveys of the projects like the site analysis, geographical variations etc. If the

project is for a Highway, say 500 KM long, then we will have to trace the proposed

path for the complete knowledge of how and what to start with. If we use a GPS

equipped vehicle and just traverse one throughout the proposed path, we can get a

recorded graphical analysis of the path with very minute details of the path due to

which it will lead to speedy processing of the project which is very necessary in

India.

Now looking out for another feature is the site analysis in tough terrains, for this

application let‘s suppose there is a construction project to be done in some

mountainous region or a place where reaching is not so easy. For this instead of

moving with extra efforts we can send a robot which is capable of image processing

as well as communication, that robot will reach the site and will be least affected

by the hardships there. By studying the reports and data sent by the robot, we can

have detailed analysis of the site by without actually going there and decide how to

start the project.

Moving a step ahead and perhaps most important aspect of this presentation of

this paper we have to think about the monitoring of the civil constructions. For

example, suppose a mega project is completed with a very new approach and the

site is up to public use, but since the idea was new, we have to be cautious about

the shortcomings or limitations of that too. We all know that every construction

has a life time after that it becomes weak and demands maintenance work, by

proper usage of sensors (Remote Sensing) we can keep 24x7 watch on whatever

portions we desire to and quickly take suitable action as soon as a threat is

detected. This can be done by using sensors at those portions and controlling them

by micro-controllers over a network via DTMF or GPRS modules. For example, we

attach an ultrasonic sensor which emits ultrasonic waves and receives the waves

reflected from nearby surroundings. It will keep on ―INFORMING‖ the controller

about the conditions of the structure by analyzing the distance from which the

waves are coming back. Now if there is a flaw in the structure, say a crack, there

158

will be slight deformation which may be not interpreted by human senses but the

sensors would record a slight change in received waveforms due to which,

according to programming of the circuit we will get a notification. Now we can

tolerate a fixed amount of distortion then we just have to feed in the values up to

which there is no danger, we will be kept in touch of that too but if there is much

deviation from those parameters we will be alarmed over the network and we can

decide the next step. These simple applications are easy to use, cheap, extremely

fast and accurate and the most important benefit is that we will be in touch of each

and every part of our structure every time. Our work is based mainly on DTMF &

GPRS controlling of the devices because they have no range boundations as well as

mobile networks are available almost everywhere. We just have to make a call to

the device, It will auto answer our call and based on reports and data we will send

instructions to the device via our mobile phones to take the next action, like

sending more details or informing some other team which is stationed nearby.

These approaches are quite useful and if applied properly can add new benefits for

civil engineers in future and overall we can help our nation in better management

of Human Resource as well as speedy infrastructural developments.

2. THE IDEA

The main theme of this presentation is to design a system which will regularly

monitor a structure which might be a mega civil project or any new design of a

building or something which is very important and critical either from economic

point of view or utility. Sensors have changed the world of electronics a lot. With

the help of sensors, emitters and receivers we can monitor anything without

human effort and get informed whenever there is a change in it. Starting over the

project first of all we had to decide what kind of sensors will fulfill our purpose.

Initially for the sake of simplicity we used IR sensors. IR stands for infrared sensors

which consist of an IR LED and an IR receiver. We fixed the sensor on a wall out of

which flat cemented flakes dropped occasionally. We kept on repairing it but it fell

again. So we used this sensor to immediately know if next time the cement pieces

even came out a centimeter from their regular position.

If it worked here, we could easily implement it on any structure we want to. After

fixing the sensor in such a position that initially the IR rays travelled straight along

159

the wall but if something pops out of the wall, it will hinder the path of the ray, it

will get reflected and come back to the sensor and generate a HIGH logic at its IR

receiver which in turn is fed to the microcontroller. As soon as it gives high logic,

the program running in the controller retrieves what‘s the next action, which we

have programmed to simply turn on a LED on a monitor panel which will be with

us. As soon as we get the LED on, we come to know that something is wrong there

in the wall.

3. THE IMPLEMENTATION

To realize the above mentioned scheme we used an AVR Development board which

has all necessary circuitry to take input from the sensors and give corresponding

results. Then we have an AT Mega 8535 microcontroller, a DTMF decoder module,

2 cell phones with headset and auto answering facility. The controller has 40 pins

out of which 32 can be used as I/O pins i.e. we have 4 8-bit ports which we can

configure to work as per our need. On one port (PORT A) we connected the sensor

and on another we connected the DTMF decoder to send the information to us.

DTMF stands for Dual Tone Multiple Frequency. Every key on our mobile has

unique tone, although we cannot distinguish between them but electronics can

do!!! So we are ready with the apparatus. We connect one cell phone to the

microcontroller in such configuration that on different situations it ―VIRTUALLY

PRESSES‖ different keys varying from 0 to 9.

VIRTUAL PRESS means that the keys will not be pressed but the microcontroller

will short that switch which is equivalent to pressing that switch. We programmed

our system such that whenever the sensors make a high logic the ―CALL BUTTON‖

will be shorted. The call will reach the remote phone i.e. to us and we come to know

that something is erroneous there. The call will be auto answered and. After this

according to variety of situations there the controllers will ―VIRTUALLY PRESS‖

respective keys as per our program and transmit it over the phone line. At our end

the DTMF decoder will inform us which key is pressed there and hence we come to

know what PROBABLY could be the problem. But there is one major drawback in

this system and that is that if some creatures like insect, lizard etc come in front of

the sensor it will get initiated for the whole process. To overcome this difficulty we

can make use of Ultrasonic sensors which can be configured to sense changes at

some distance or even also we can use MEMS which will give us the logic just if it

varies in position. In that case we are free from surrounding disturbances.

160

4. THE ADVANTAGES

MEMS stand for Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, where by some mechanical

force or variation we can generate electronic signals. They are very easy to use and

handle, the procedure for using them is exactly same as IR or LDR sensors with the

only difference that they generate the voltage whenever there is a change in its

alignment or somewhat. The only ‗AS ONE CAN SAY‖ disadvantage is that they are

right now much costlier than normal sensors but we are sure that cheaper

fabrication of memos would soon be a reality.

Furthermore these systems can be used in any location, in all terrains, they are

least affected by climate and physical conditions. There are places which are

hazardous for humans, so we can design small robots fixed with these devices to

properly analyze and monitor such areas and inform us about any such changes

we are concerned off or somewhat.

5. CONCLUSION

In the end we just want to say that this is just a sudden implementation of a very

small scale project but it proved very useful and they can surely be applied in

larger dimensions for big use and they are going to be beneficial.

Last but not the least, I want to tell you that we call this system as S. M. S and

that‘s not Short Message Service but its Structure Monitoring System or simply we

can say Smart Monitoring System but as we have implemented it through mobile

phones, SMS seems to be perfect title for it.

6. FIGURES

161

Fig.1 : The AVR Development Board

.

162

DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips)

1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz

697 Hz 1 2 3 A

770 Hz 4 5 6 B

852 Hz 7 8 9 C

941 Hz * 0 # D

163

Fig.2: Detailed Schematic

164

Fig.3 The AT mega 8535 pin out

165

Fig. 4.

REFERENCES

1. Majidi & Ayala, Microcontrollers.

2. Technophilia Systems, AVR Tutorial.

3. William Lee, Mobile Communication Engineering.

4. Schilling Taub, Principles of Communications.

166

APPLICATION OF GIS & GPS FOR ONLINE VEHICLE

TRACKING

GANESH KUMAR. B, SWARUP. S

INSTITUTE OF ROAD AND TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY,

ERODE – 638316, India

Email: ganeshkumar.pollachi@gmail.com, swarupselvaraj@live.com

AABBSSTTRRAACCTT

Roads are part of the infrastructure that makes up the spinal cord of modern

society. The aim of the project work is to develop a system for obtaining real time

data such as velocity, location of vehicles, and travel time of vehicles etc using GPS

receivers. The data from the GPS are transmitted to a base station via GSM to the

system ARC GIS and it can be displayed in map. The current technology in the field

of communication is used for Real time vehicle tracking. This solution doesn‘t

require any intervention of user and data gets automatically transferred through

service provider networks for two-way communication. The various issues involved

in this task include the use of GPS receivers linked with mobile applications (GSM)

to provide direct observations of the vehicle. This is coupled with a database

management system using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software, to

provide a reliable and efficient system for online vehicle monitoring, navigation and

tracking. Integration of GIS/GPS with modern techniques such as Web mapping

will enable web based tracking of vehicles from away part of the globe. Web

mapping solution plays an important role in online vehicle tracking service, based

on GPS and Cellular technology. The ideal solution would allow customers to

access a Web-based map to track their vehicles in real-time.

11.. IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN

TThhee pprreesseenntt aannnnuuaall pprroodduuccttiioonn ooff vveehhiicclleess iinn IInnddiiaa iiss ooff tthhee oorrddeerr ooff 77..33 mmiilllliioonn.. AAss

tthhee nnuummbbeerr ooff vveehhiicclleess oonn rrooaadd iinnccrreeaasseess,, tthhee ffoolllloowwiinngg pprroobblleemmss aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh

tthhee ttrraaffffiicc mmaannaaggeemmeenntt aallssoo iinnccrreeaasseess vviioollaattiioonn ooff ttrraaffffiicc rruulleess,, aacccciiddeennttss,, vveehhiiccllee

tthheefftt..

At present there is no scientific system available to track and minimize the

problems mentioned above. With the integration of GPS data, GIS database, it is

167

possible to monitor the movements of all vehicles on road. However this involves

the usage of GPS in all vehicles, which will decrease the cost of the vehicles by an

amount of at least Rs.2500/- by providing a built-in GPS in all vehicles. Attempt

has been made to design a system to track the vehicles owned by government and

private agencies such as universities, Call Taxis, corporations etc using GIS and

GPS.

2. GIS (GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM)

GIS is a computer based system, consisting of computer hardware, software,

geographic data, and personnel designed to effectively capture, store, update,

manipulate, analyze and display the spatial and non-spatialdata.GIS allows a user

to interact with geographically referenced information. A GIS can provide a valuable

tool for tracking and monitoring vehicles movements. The current location of

vehicles can be viewed in a transportation network. The entire system was framed

around the two major building blocks of a GIS enabled system of Spatial and Non-

spatial data. This project work attempts to display the extent of existing GIS

applications within road transportation network, and critically assess their

appropriateness and potential for vehicle tracking. Spatial data are spatial layers

that required to be incorporated into the system and Non-spatial Data are

attributes that are required to be attached to the spatial data layers.

3. GPS TECHNOLOGY (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)

A satellite based radio positioning system.

TThhrreeee SSeeggmmeennttss

11.. SSppaaccee SSeeggmmeenntt -- 2244 ssaatteelllliitteess..

22.. CCoonnttrrooll SSeeggmmeenntt..

33.. UUsseerr SSeeggmmeenntt..

33..11.. GGPPSS SSaatteelllliittee

11.. FFiirrsstt oonnee llaauunncchheedd iinn 11997788 aanndd iiss ccoonnttrroolllleedd bbyy tthhee UU..SS DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt ooff DDeeffeennssee..

22.. EEaacchh ssaatteelllliittee iiss bbuuiilltt ttoo llaasstt aabboouutt 1100 yyeeaarrss.. RReeppllaacceemmeennttss aarree ccoonnssttaannttllyy bbeeiinngg

bbuuiilltt aanndd llaauunncchheedd iinnttoo oorrbbiitt.. SSiiggnnaallss aarree aavvaaiillaabbllee ttoo cciivviilliiaann uusseerrss ffrreeee ooff

cchhaarrggee..

168

33.. GGPPSS ssaatteelllliitteess ttrraannssmmiitt ttwwoo llooww ppoowweerr rraaddiioo ssiiggnnaallss,, ddeessiiggnnaatteedd LL11 aanndd LL22.. GGPPSS

uusseess tthhee LL11 ffrreeqquueennccyy ooff 11557755..4422 MMHHzz iinn tthhee UUHHFF bbaanndd..

33..22.. GGPPSS NNoommiinnaall CCoonnsstteellllaattiioonn

11.. 2244 ssaatteelllliittee iinn 66 oorrbbiittaall ppllaanneess..

22.. 44 ssaatteelllliitteess iinn eeaacchh ppllaannee..

33.. 2200,,220000 kkmm aallttiittuuddee,, 5555 DDeeggrreeee IInncclliinnaattiioonn..

33..33.. SSaatteelllliittee SSeeggmmeenntt

11.. NNAAVVSSTTAARR ((NNaavviiggaattiioonn bbyy SSaatteelllliittee TTiimmiinngg aanndd RRaannggiinngg))..

22.. SSaatteelllliitteess oorrbbiitt iinn 66 oorrbbiittaall ppllaatteess ttoo pprroovviiddee ccoommpplleettee ccoovveerraaggee..

33.. SSaatteelllliitteess oorrbbiitt aatt 1100,,990000 mmiilleess..

33..44.. UUsseerr SSeeggmmeenntt

11.. UUnniittss rreecceeiivvee ttrraannssmmiissssiioonn ffrroomm SSaatteelllliitteess..

22.. CCoosstt bbeettwweeeenn RRss1100,, 000000 ttoo RRss77,, 0000,,000000 //-- ((ddeeppeennddss oonn aaccccuurraaccyy))..

33.. MMuusstt bbee lliinnee ooff ssiigghhtt wwiitthh ssaatteelllliitteess..

33..55.. PPrriinncciippllee ooff GGPPSS

11.. PPoossiittiioonn ooff ssaatteelllliitteess iiss kknnoowwnn..

22.. SSaatteelllliittee pprroovviiddeess aann ――eelleeccttrroonniicc aallmmaannaacc‖‖ ttoo tthhee rreecceeiivveerr ((SSookkkkiiaa))..

33.. TThhee ssppeeeedd ooff tthhee rraaddiioo ssiiggnnaall ffrroomm eeaacchh ssaatteelllliittee iiss kknnoowwnn..

4. Timing allows the calculation of the distance from each satellite.

5. Using triangulation, the position of the receiver is calculated.

44.. TTRRAACCKKIINNGG

TToo ttrraacckk wwhheerree tthhee vveehhiiccllee iiss iinn tthhee ggiivveenn mmoommeenntt ooff ttiimmee iiss eeqquuaallllyy,, iiff nnoott eevveenn

mmoorree ccrruucciiaall,, iinn eeffffiicciieenntt fflleeeett mmaannaaggeemmeenntt.. TTrraacckkiinngg aanndd mmoonniittoorriinngg ooff vveehhiiccllee

169

mmoovveemmeennttss eemmeerrggeedd wwiitthh tthhee aaddvvaanncceess iinn mmoobbiillee ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn ((GGSSMM)) aanndd

ssaatteelllliittee nnaavviiggaattiioonn ((GGPPSS)).. TThhee ppoossiittiioonn ooff aa vveehhiiccllee iiss mmoonniittoorreedd vviiaa oonnbbooaarrdd GGPPSS,,

ttrraannssmmiitttteedd bbaacckk ttoo aa bbaassee vviiaa GGSSMM,, aanndd llooaaddeedd iinnttoo GGIISS ssooffttwwaarree wwhheerree iitt ccaann bbee

ddiissppllaayyeedd oonn mmaapp.. IIff tthhiiss iiss aapppplliieedd ttoo aa fflleeeett ooff ccaallll ttaaxxii tthhee eexxaacctt llooccaattiioonn ooff aallll

vveehhiicclleess wwiillll bbee kknnoowwnn aatt aallll ttiimmeess ttoo tthhee ccaarr oowwnneerrss,, tthhuuss iimmpprroovviinngg aannyy nneeeeddeedd

eemmeerrggeennccyy rreessppoonnssee ttoo tthhee ddrriivveerr aanndd ccuussttoommeerr rreessppoonnssee ttoo iinnccoommiinngg oorrddeerrss,,

eennssuurriinngg tthhaatt tthhee nneeaarreesstt aavvaaiillaabbllee ttaaxxii iiss sseenntt ttoo tthhee ppiicckkuupp llooccaattiioonn.. WWhheenn aa GGPPSS

iiss mmoouunntteedd oonn aa ccaarr,, iitt ccoonnttiinnuuoouussllyy rreellaayyss tthhee ccaarr‘‘ss ppoossiittiioonn ttoo aa ccoonnttrrooll cceennttrree..

TThhee ccaarr ccaann eeaassiillyy bbee ttrraacckkeedd iinn ccaassee iitt iiss ssttoolleenn.. IInn ccaassee ooff aann eemmeerrggeennccyy

bbrreeaakkddoowwnn,, hheellpp ccaann rreeaacchh tthhee eexxaacctt llooccaattiioonn wwiitthhiinn aa sshhoorrtt ssppaann ooff ttiimmee..

55.. CCOONNCCEEPPTT OOFF VVEEHHIICCLLEE TTRRAACCKKIINNGG

TThhee ccoonncceepptt ooff vveehhiiccllee ttrraacckkiinngg ssttaarrtteedd wwiitthh tthhee FFiirrsstt ggeenneerraattiioonn pprroodduucctt ooff ddaattaa

llooggggiinngg ssyysstteemmss.. TThhiiss hhaadd lliimmiittaattiioonnss aass ddaattaa wwoouulldd bbee llooggggeedd oonn tthhee ddeevviiccee iinn aa

vveehhiiccllee aanndd ccoouulldd bbee ddoowwnnllooaaddeedd oonnllyy aafftteerr tthhee vveehhiiccllee rreeaacchheedd iittss ddeessttiinnaattiioonn..

TThheenn ccaammee tthhee SSeeccoonndd--ggeenneerraattiioonn pprroodduucctt iinn tthhee ffoorrmm ooff iinnffrraarreedd ttoowweerrss.. TThhiiss ttoooo

wwaass sshhoorrtt--lliivveedd,, aass iitt rreeqquuiirreedd hhuuggee iinnvveessttmmeennttss ttoo sseett uupp tthhee iinnffrraarreedd ttoowweerrss aalloonngg

tthhee hhiigghhwwaayyss ttoo ttrraacckk tthhee vveehhiicclleess.. TThhee TThhiirrdd--ggeenneerraattiioonn pprroodduucctt iinnvvoollvveedd

GGPPSS//GGSSMM mmooddeellss wwiitthh ffiixxeedd ssooffttwwaarree.. EEvveenn tthhiiss wwaass ffoouunndd ttoo bbee eexxppeennssiivvee,, hheennccee

ccoouulldd nnoott bbee uusseedd ccoommmmeerrcciiaallllyy ..NNooww,, aa nneeww rraannggee ooff pprroodduuccttss hhaass eemmeerrggeedd iinn tthhee

gglloobbaall mmaarrkkeett tthhaatt iiss bbaasseedd oonn GGPPSS//GGSSMM mmooddeellss,, bbuutt wwiitthh aa mmoodduullaarr ccoonncceepptt,,

ooffffeerriinngg ttwwoo--wwaayy iinntteerraaccttiioonn bbeettwweeeenn tthhee oowwnneerr aanndd tthhee ddrriivveerr aallll tthhrroouugghh tthhee

jjoouurrnneeyy..

66.. TTYYPPEESS OOFF VVEEHHIICCLLEE TTRRAACCKKIINNGG

BBaasseedd oonn tthhee wwaayy iinn wwhhiicchh vveehhiicclleess aarree ttrraacckkeedd,, tthhee ttrraacckkiinngg ssyysstteemm ccaann bbee

ccllaassssiiffiieedd bbrrooaaddllyy iinnttoo ttwwoo ttyyppeess nnaammeellyy,,

11.. OOnnlliinnee vveehhiiccllee ttrraacckkiinngg

22.. OOfffflliinnee vveehhiiccllee ttrraacckkiinngg

IInn ccaassee ooff oofffflliinnee ttrraacckkiinngg tthhee GGPPSS iiss ccoouupplleedd ttoo aa mmeemmoorryy uunniitt aanndd tthhee ddaattaa

rreeccoorrddeedd iinn tthhee mmeemmoorryy uunniitt,, wwhhiicchh ccaann bbee ddoowwnnllooaaddeedd ssoo tthhaatt tthhee mmoovveemmeennttss ooff

vveehhiiccllee,, nnoo ooff ssttooppss,, ssppeeeedd vviioollaattiioonn,, ttrraavveell ttiimmee eettcc ccaann bbee mmoonniittoorreedd.. IInn ccaassee ooff

oonnlliinnee ttrraacckkiinngg tthhee GGPPSS rreecceeiivveerr mmoouunntteedd oonn tthhee vveehhiicclleess wwiillll ccoonnttiinnuuoouussllyy

170

ttrraannssmmiitt ssiiggnnaall tthhrroouugghh ssoommee mmeeaannss lliikkee GGSSMM//IInntteerrnneett ttoo tthhee bbaassee ssttaattiioonn ssoo tthhaatt

tthhee eexxaacctt ppoossiittiioonn ooff tthhee vveehhiicclleess ccaann bbee mmoonniittoorreedd oonn lliinnee..

6.1. Online Vehicle Tracking

Online Tracking using GPS positioning has been implemented in many industries

in the past few years. Online tracking enables the controller to have an idea about

the relative locations of several vehicles on a computer screen so that the

movements of vehicles can be monitored. This also makes two-way

communication between the driver and controller possible. This can also enable the

controller to issue warning then and there whenever they violate the instructions

given to them. Technology evens allows immobilization of the vehicles when theft is

suspected. Online Tracking can be done using the lap top, computer connected to

the Internet or using mobile phone and a palm top computer. Online Technology

provides a range of equipment including the vehicle GPS/GSM tracking system. An

attempt is made to replace of the offline vehicle tracking.

77.. RROOUUTTIINNGG

RRoouutteess aanndd DDiirreeccttiioonnss wwiitthh ddiissppllaayy ooff rroouutteess oonn mmaapp,, SShhiifftt wwiissee eemmppllooyyeeee nnaammeess

wwiitthh ppiicckkuupp ppooiinnttss //ttiimmee,, ttoo tthhee ffiinndd sshhoorrtteesstt ppaatthh ccrriitteerriiaa..

77..11.. TTrraacckkiinngg

DDiissppaattcchhiinngg,, mmoonniittoorr rreemmoottee vveehhiicclleess,, ccoonnvveenniieennccee ooff IInntteerrnneett aacccceessssiibbllee

iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn,, nneeeedd eemmaaiill aalleerrttss,, cceennttrraalliizzeedd ddaattaa wwiitthhoouutt aa LLAANN oorr WWAANN,,

rreessppoonnssiivveenneessss ttoo ccuussttoommeerr sseerrvviiccee iissssuueess iiss iimmppoorrttaanntt.. OOnnlliinnee ttrraacckkiinngg iiss nnoott

ccoommpplleetteellyy aaffffeecctteedd bbyy rraaiinn,, iiccee,, ffoogg bbeeccaauussee ooff tthheessee ccoonnddiittiioonnss tthhee ddeeggrreeee ooff

pprreecciissiioonn ccaann bbee ppoooorr..

77..22.. MMooddee ooff OOppeerraattiioonn

RReeaall ttiimmee wwiitthh ppoossiittiioonn uuppddaatteess eevveerryy iinn mmiinnuuttee..

77..33.. CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn MMeetthhoodd

DDaattaa iiss ttrraannssffeerrrreedd ffrroomm tthhee vveehhiiccllee ttoo tthhee ccoommppuutteerr uussiinngg tthhee GGSSMM wwiirreelleessss

nneettwwoorrkk..

171

TThhee ffoolllloowwiinngg oouuttppuuttss ccaann bbee vviieewweedd oorr ggeenneerraatteedd

11.. SSiimmuullttaanneeoouuss llooccaattiioonn ooff aallll vveehhiicclleess..

22.. SSttaarrtt--SSttoopp ttiimmee,, ttoottaall ddrriivvee ttiimmee,, aanndd mmiilleeaaggee ffoorr eeaacchh ttrriipp..

33.. RRoouuttee ttaakkeenn,, aavveerraaggee ssppeeeedd,, nnuummbbeerr ooff ttiimmeess tthhee ddrriivveerr eexxcceeeeddeedd tthhee ssppeeeedd

lliimmiitt..

44.. LLooccaattiioonn//ppoossiittiioonn bbyy aapppprrooxxiimmaattee ssttrreeeett aaddddrreessss..

55.. AAlleerrttss ffoorr ssppeeeeddiinngg,, mmoovveemmeenntt aafftteerr hhoouurrss,, zzoonnee vviioollaattiioonnss..

66.. AAuuttoommaattiiccaallllyy llooccaattee cclloosseesstt vveehhiiccllee oorr llooccaattiioonn ttoo sseerrvviiccee aaddddrreessss..

77.. RReeccoorrddss ddaattaa oouuttssiiddee ooff ccoovveerraaggee aarreeaa aanndd aauuttoommaattiiccaallllyy uuppddaatteess oonn rreettuurrnn..

88.. CCAASSEE SSTTUUDDYY

This paper presents the contribution of the project on online vehicle tracking

project in Coimbatore Corporation. In this we are supposed to track the vehicles,

which are roaming in the streets of Coimbatore. However the some concept can be

extended to track the vehicles when they move beyond the city limits. The area of

interest is route tracking between the map areas of Coimbatore Corporation. The

case study presented is chosen in explaining some acoustical aspects of online

vehicle tracking. A base map with all features has been prepared in the scale of

1:25000 in GIS environment. The places represent static points in the map.

88..11.. LLooccaattiioonn MMaapp

CCooiimmbbaattoorree CCoorrppoorraattiioonn eexxtteennddss 110055..66ssqq..kkmm wwiitthh ffoouurr zzoonneess aanndd 7722 wwaarrddss.. IItt hhaass

aann aannnnuuaall aavveerraaggee rraaiinnffaallll ooff 660000 mmmm.. TThhee pprreesseenntt ppooppuullaattiioonn ooff tthhee cciittyy iiss

aapppprrooxxiimmaatteellyy 1133 llaaccss iinncclluuddiinngg aa ffllooaattiinngg ppooppuullaattiioonn ooff aarroouunndd 11..55 llaacceess.. TThhee aarreeaa

ooff tthhee ccoorrppoorraattiioonn iiss 110055..66ssqq..kkmm.. TThhee cciittyy iiss llooccaatteedd aatt 443322..0000 mm aabboovvee tthhee MMeeaann

SSeeaa LLeevveell ((MM..SS..LL)).. TThhee ccoorrppoorraattiioonn mmaaiinnttaaiinnss 660033..5500 kkmmss ooff ssttoorrmm wwaatteerr ddrraaiinnss..

TThhee CCoorrppoorraattiioonn mmaaiinnttaaiinnss aa llaarrggee nneettwwoorrkk ooff rrooaaddss wwiitthhiinn tthhee cciittyy ooff 668833..5500 KKmm..

TThhee CCooiimmbbaattoorree ddiissttrriicctt mmaapp iiss sshhoowwnn iinn

172

FFiigg..11 LLooccaattiioonn ooff CCooiimmbbaattoorree iinn TTaammiill NNaadduu

88.. PPLLAANNNNIINNGG AANNDD DDEESSIIGGNN

GGIISS pprroovviiddeess aa vvaalluuaabbllee ttooooll iinn tthhee pprroocceessss ooff ppllaannnniinngg aanndd ddeessiiggnniinngg rrooaaddss.. TThhiiss iiss

cclloosseellyy rreellaatteedd ttoo tthhee tteerrmm CCoommppuutteerr AAiiddeedd DDeessiiggnn ((CCAADD)),, MMooddeerrnn ssooffttwwaarree tteennddss ttoo

bbrriiddggee tthhiiss ggaapp bbeettwweeeenn ddiisscciipplliinnee--ssppeecciiffiicc aapppplliiccaattiioonnss ooff GGIISS iinn aa wwaayy tthhaatt tthheeyy

aarree ffuullllyy iinntteeggrraatteedd.. GGIISS ccaann hheellpp ttoo vviissuuaalliizzee aanndd ccoommmmuunniiccaattee tthhee eeffffeeccttss ooff rrooaaddss

oonn tthheeiirr eennvviirroonnmmeenntt.. EEnnggiinneeeerriinngg ddrraawwiinnggss aanndd mmaappss mmaayy eevvookkee aa vviivviidd llaannddssccaappee

iinn mmiinnddss ooff eennggiinneeeerrss ffaammiilliiaarr wwiitthh tthheemm,, bbuutt ttoo ddeecciissiioonn mmaakkeerrss oorr tthhee ppuubblliicc iinn

ggeenneerraall tthheessee ddrraawwiinnggss ccaann bbee qquuiittee iinnccoommpprreehheennssiibbllee.. TTrraaddiittiioonnaallllyy,, ddiissppllaayyiinngg

ddiiffffeerreenntt rroouuttee ooppttiioonnss aanndd pprrooppoossaallss hhaass bbeeeenn ddoonnee iinn tthhee ffoorrmm ooff 22DD mmaappss,,

aassssiisstteedd bbyy sseeccttiioonn ddrraawwiinnggss,, mmaayy bbee ttooggeetthheerr wwiitthh aann aaeerriiaall pphhoottoo,, wwhheerree tthhee rrooaadd

nneettwwoorrkk wwaass oovveerrllaaiidd iinn tthhee ffoorrmm ooff lliinneess.. IItt iiss ssiimmppllee aanndd ssttrraaiigghhttffoorrwwaarrdd,, bbuutt iitt iiss

nnoott ccoonnvveeyyiinngg mmuucchh iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn oonn tthhee aaccttuuaall iimmppaacctt..

88..22.. PPllaannnniinngg bbyy PPllaannnniinngg VVeerrssiioonn SSooffttwwaarree 33..2244

Planning software is powerful stand-alone software to check the number of

available satellites before actual work. A least six satellites must be available to

locate a point with a reasonable degree of accuracy. By downloading the almanac

from the Internet or placing the GPS for 20 to 60 minutes of equilibrium state, the

electronic almanac can be obtained which shows the position of satellites. TThheessee

aallmmaannaaccss aarree iimmppoorrtteedd ttoo ppllaannnniinngg vveerrssiioonn ssooffttwwaarree 33..2244 wwhhiicchh wwiillll iinnddiiccaattee tthhee

ssuuiittaabbllee ttiimmeess ffoorr ssuurrvveeyy wwoorrkk.. WWhheenn tthhee ddaattee ooff ssuurrvveeyy iiss eenntteerreedd iinn tthhee ssooffttwwaarree,,

aavvaaiillaabbiilliittyy ooff ssaatteelllliitteess,, DDOOPP pplloottss,, rreeccttaanngguullaarr sskkyy pplloott,, ppoollaarr sskkyy pplloott,, ddeettaaiillss ooff

173

ccoooorrddiinnaattee ssyysstteemm,, DDaattuumm,, mmaasskk aannggllee,, rriissee,, aazziimmuutthh aanndd tthheeiirr rreessppeeccttiivvee ppoossiittiioonnss

ccaann bbee oobbttaaiinneedd ..AA ssaammppllee oouuttppuutt ooff tthhee ppllaannnniinngg ssooffttwwaarree iiss sshhoowwnn iinn FFiigg 22..

Fig 2. View of Satellites and DOP Plots

The choice of GPS receiver capability is important in vehicle monitoring

applications. A GPS with an accuracy of five meters is good enough for tracking

civilian vehicles. GPS direct speed measurement should always be used in

preference to speeds calculated on the basis of vehicle positions over time. The

number of satellites the receiver is able to track (NSAT) and the PDOP give an

indication about the reliability of the speed data. As the dilution of precision

increases the error increases. The GPS data when DOP levels are more than two are

not reliable.

88..33.. DDeessiiggnn

TThhee ddeessiiggnn pprroocceessss bbeeggiinnss wwiitthh aann iiddeennttiiffiieedd nneeeedd aanndd ccoonncclluuddeess wwiitthh ssaattiissffaaccttoorryy

qquuaalliiffiiccaattiioonn.. TThhee ddeessiiggnn ffllooww ddiiaaggrraamm FFiigg 33 iiss tthhee ttooooll tthhaatt aapppprrooaacchheess ttoo mmoovvee

ffrroomm ggeenneerraall rreeqquuiirreemmeennttss,, iilllluussttrraattiinngg tthhee pprroocceesssseess aanndd ssttoorraaggee ooff ddaattaa iinn tthhee

ssyysstteemm.. DDaattaa‘‘ss pprroocceesssseedd ((GGPPSS)) iiss ffiirrsstt iiddeennttiiffiieedd aanndd tthheenn tthhee ddaattaa ttrraannssffeerr pprroocceessss

iiss iissoollaatteedd bbyy uusseerr iinntteerrffaaccee ccoommmmuunniiccaatteedd bbyy GGSSMM iiss ddeerriivveedd,, vviissuuaalliizzeedd iinn tthhee

ssyysstteemm.. TThhee ddaattaa ffllooww iiss aa ttrraannssffeerr ooff ddaattaa bbeettwweeeenn ttwwoo eennttiittiieess iiss ddeennootteedd bbyy aarrrrooww

ddiirreeccttiioonn.. GGSSMM ((GGlloobbaall SSyysstteemm ffoorr MMoobbiillee CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonnss)) iiss tthhee mmoosstt aaddvvaanncceedd

ddiiggiittaall cceelllluullaarr tteecchhnnoollooggyy.. GGSSMM iiss iinn aa ggoooodd ppoossiittiioonn ffoorr gglloobbaall rrooaammiinngg aanndd mmaannyy

nneeww GGSSMM pphhoonneess aarree ccaalllleedd ""gglloobbaall pphhoonneess"",, ssiinnccee tthheeyy aarree uusseedd iinn vviirrttuuaallllyy aannyy

ccoouunnttrryy.. TThhee SSIIMM ccaarrdd ((""SSuubbssccrriibbeerr IIddeennttiiffiiccaattiioonn MMoodduullee"")) iiss aallssoo aa uunniiqquuee aanndd

eesssseennttiiaall ccoommppoonneenntt ooff GGSSMM pphhoonneess..

174

TTeecchhnniiccaallllyy,, GGSSMM wwaass bbuuiilltt bbaasseedd oonn tthhee TTDDMMAA pprroottooccooll.. GGSSMM iiss aa ddiiggiittaall cceelllluullaarr

CCoommmmuunniiccaattiioonnss ssyysstteemm.. AAccccuurraaccyy iiss 44..55mm iinnddoooorr aanndd 22..55mm oouuttddoooorrss.. PPrroovviiddiinngg

aaeerriiaall ooff 11 mmeetteerr oouuttssiiddee tthhee ccaarr iinnccrreeaasseess GGPPSS aaccccuurraaccyy.. TToo bbee aabbllee ttoo mmaakkee uussee ooff

tthhee GGSSMM ttrraacckkiinngg ssyysstteemm,, ttoo aacchhiieevvee eeccoonnoommyy iinn ddeessiiggnn yyoouu rreeqquuiirree ssuuppppoorrtt ffrroomm

ssoo--ccaalllleedd ""llooccaattiioonn--bbaasseedd sseerrvviicceess"" bbyy tthhee GGSSMM nneettwwoorrkk ooff yyoouurr cchhooiiccee iinn yyoouurr

rreeggiioonn.. NNooww ddaayyss SSaatteelllliittee aanndd DDiiggiittaall TTrraacckkiinngg SSyysstteemmss iiss tthhee hhiigghh tteecchh ttrraacckkiinngg

eeqquuiippmmeenntt hhaavvee aaccccuurraaccyy ddaattaa ooff 11mm..

The device is fitted in vehicles and as they pass by a cell phone tower, data get

automatically transferred through the tower to our central computer. Using this we

can provide hourly or daily reports on the vehicle to its owner, we can access it

through a computer or mobile phone the details such as the location of the truck at

a given point of time, number of kilometers logged, idle time and estimated time of

arrival at destination. E-Logistics Company offers its patented vehicle-tracking

product, costing Rs 7,500 each, based on the GSM model.

FFiigg..33.. IInntteerraaccttiivvee DDeessiiggnn PPrroocceessss

99.. RROOUUTTIINNGG

RRoouuttee ppllaannnniinngg iiss aa pprroocceessss tthhaatt hheellppss vveehhiiccllee ddrriivveerrss ttoo ppllaann aa rroouuttee pprriioorr oorr

dduurriinngg aa jjoouurrnneeyy.. IItt iiss wwiiddeellyy rreeccooggnniizzeedd aass aa ffuunnddaammeennttaall iissssuuee iinn tthhee ffiieelldd ooff

ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn.. AA vvaarriieettyy ooff rroouuttee ooppttiimmiizzaattiioonn ccrriitteerriiaa oorr ppllaannnniinngg ccrriitteerriiaa mmaayy bbee

uusseedd iinn rroouuttee ppllaannnniinngg.. TThhee qquuaalliittyy ooff aa rroouuttee ddeeppeennddss oonn mmaannyy ffaaccttoorrss ssuucchh aass

ddiissttaannccee,, ttrraavveell ttiimmee,, ttrraavveell ssppeeeedd aanndd nnuummbbeerr ooff ttuurrnnss.. TThheessee aallll ffaaccttoorrss aallll ccaann bbee

rreeffeerrrreedd aass ttrraavveell ccoosstt.. RRoouuttee ppllaannnniinngg iiss oonnee ooff tthhee mmoosstt ppooppuullaarr aapppplliiccaattiioonnss

wwiitthhiinn ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn.. CCoonnsseeqquueennttllyy,, aannyy bbuussiinneessss ddeeppllooyyiinngg vveehhiicclleess iiss iinntteerreesstteedd

iinn ddeetteerrmmiinniinngg wwhhiicchh rroouuttee iiss tthhee bbeesstt ttoo ffoollllooww aass mmeeaannss ttoo ssaavvee ttiimmee aanndd

eesssseennttiiaallllyy ggaaiinn tthhee bbeesstt ccoosstt//bbeenneeffiitt rraattiioo.. TThheerree aarree aallssoo mmaannyy oonnlliinnee rroouuttiinngg

aapppplliiccaattiioonnss ffoorr CCooiimmbbaattoorree aavvaaiillaabbllee oonn tthhee IInntteerrnneett,, aalllloowwiinngg ttrraavveelleerrss ttoo lloogg iinn..

175

tthhee wweebbssiittee yyoouu ccaann aacccceessss yyoouurr vveehhiiccllee tthhrroouugghh wweebb aanndd ccoonnssiiddeerriinngg ddiiffffeerreenntt

ooppttiioonnss ffoorr sseerrvviicceeaabbiilliittyy ppuurrppoossee.. RRoouuttee ppllaannnniinngg iiss aallssoo aapppplliieedd aass aa ppaarrtt ooff

llooccaattiioonn ppllaannnniinngg,, zz..

CCaallccuullaattiinngg oovveerraallll ddrriivvee ttiimmee ttoo aanndd ffrroomm ssiittee,, mmaaxxiimmiizziinngg ppootteennttiiaall ccuussttoommeerr

iinnffllooww aanndd eennssuurriinngg bbeesstt ppoossssiibbllee aacccceessssiibbiilliittyy,, tthhee mmaapp uusseedd iiss nnoott ttoo ssccaallee.. TThhiiss iiss

tthhee nneettwwoorrkk ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn iinn aanndd aarroouunndd CCooiimmbbaattoorree..

1100.. UUSSIINNGG GGIISS FFOORR MMAANNYY PPUURRPPOOSSEESS

11.. TTrraaffffiicc aacccciiddeenntt ppaatttteerrnnss aarree vviissuuaalliizzeedd aanndd ssaaffeettyy iimmpprroovveemmeennttss aarree mmaaddee wwhheerree

tthheeyy aarree mmoosstt nneeeeddeedd..

22.. BByy ccoolllleeccttiinngg ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt ddaattaa ffoorr tthhee wwhhoollee ssuuiittaabbllee nneettwwoorrkk,, rreeppaaiirrss aanndd wwoorrkkss

bbuuddggeettiinngg hhaavvee bbeeccoommee mmoorree rreelliiaabbllee aanndd ccaallccuullaatteedd iinn aaddvvaannccee..

FFiigg.. 44..TTyyppiiccaall MMaapp oouuttppuutt ffrroomm rroouuttee ppllaannnneerr

TThhee ggeenneerraall ccoonncclluussiioonn iiss tthhaatt GGPPSS hhaass ooffffeerreedd oonnlliinnee vveehhiiccllee iiddeennttiiffiiccaattiioonn aanndd

mmoonniittoorriinngg ttooooll aapppplliiccaattiioonn.. TThhiiss ppaappeerr pprreesseennttss ssoommee ooff tthhee aapppplliiccaattiioonnss ooff tthhee

GGPPSS lliikkee iimmpprroovviinngg ttrriipp rreeppoorrttiinngg,, ttrraavveell ttiimmee ssttuuddiieess,, ddyynnaammiicc rroouuttee gguuiiddaannccee

((DDRRGG)),, oonnlliinnee vveehhiiccllee nnaavviiggaattiioonn aanndd ttrraacckkiinngg.. IInn ccaassee ooff oonnlliinnee ttrraacckkiinngg tthhee rroouuttiinngg

sshhoouulldd bbee uuppddaatteedd..

1111.. NNAAVVIIGGAATTIIOONN

RRoouuttee ppllaannnniinngg iinn aaddvvaannccee ooff aa jjoouurrnneeyy iiss oonnee wwaayy ttoo eennhhaannccee ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn

mmaannaaggeemmeenntt..

176

UUssiinngg aann iinn--ccaarr nnaavviiggaattiioonn ssyysstteemm bbyy pprroovviiddiinngg bbaassee mmaapp ooff ddiiggiittaall mmaapp ddaattaa aanndd

nnaavviiggaattiioonn ssooffttwwaarree rreelleeaasseedd aa mmaapp ddaattaabbaassee pprroovviiddiinngg ttuurrnn--bbyy--ttuurrnn vveehhiiccllee

nnaavviiggaattiioonn.. UUsseedd iinn ccoonnjjuunnccttiioonn wwiitthh GGPPSS tthhiiss ssyysstteemm nnoott oonnllyy iiss aann iinn--ccaarr rroouuttee

ffiinnddeerr,, bbuutt aallssoo pprroovviiddeess tthhee ddrriivveerr wwiitthh ddeettaaiilleedd iinnssttrruuccttiioonnss oonn wwhheerree ttoo ttuurrnn iinn

wwhhaatt ddiirreeccttiioonn.. IItt aallssoo ccoonnttaaiinnss aa lloott ooff iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn oonn ppooiinnttss ooff iinntteerreesstt aa ddrriivveerr

mmiigghhtt wwaanntt ttoo kknnooww.. IItt ccaann gguuiiddee tthhee ddrriivveerr iinn ccaassee ooff nneeww ppllaaccee oorr rroouuttee..

1122.. PPRRIINNCCIIPPLLEE OOFF GGPPSS NNAAVVIIGGAATTIIOONN

Measurements of code-phase arrival times from at least four satellites are used to

estimate four quantities: position in three dimensions (X, Y, Z) and GPS time (T).

Assume a timing error of 1 micro second. This is the principle of GPS navigation of

capturing positions of (X, Y, Z, T), where, X-latitude, Y-longitude, Z-altitude & T-

GPS time.

TTiimmee eerrrroorr ccaallccuullaatteedd

SSppeeeedd ooff lliigghhtt iinn aa vvaaccuuuumm ––118866,,000000mmiilleess//sseecc

118866,,000000 mmiilleess//sseecc sseecc//11,,000000,,000000 ==00..118866 mmiilleess 55228800 fftt//mmiillee ==998822fftt..

Fig.5.Differential GPS (DGPS)

1133.. PPRRIINNCCIIPPLLEESS OOFF DDGGPPSS

Maps >> Static Maps >> Tamil Nadu >> District >>Coimbatore

Details: Area 7469 sq. km, Population 4,271,856(2001 census)

177

11.. TThhee ''BBlloocckk SShhiifftt TTeecchhnniiqquuee'' uusseess tthhee ccoommppuutteedd ccoooorrddiinnaatteess aatt aannyy ttiimmee aanndd

ccoommppaarreess tthheemm wwiitthh tthhee kknnoowwnn ccoooorrddiinnaatteess ooff tthhee bbaassee ssttaattiioonn.. EExxppeecctt aann mmmm

ooff eerrrroorr ffoorr eevveerryy kkmm ooff ddiissttaannccee bbeettwweeeenn tthhee mmoobbiillee aanndd bbaassee..

22.. TThhee ''RRaannggee CCoorrrreeccttiioonn TTeecchhnniiqquuee'' uusseess tthhee iinnssttaannttaanneeoouuss aanndd kknnoowwnn bbaassee

ssttaattiioonn ccoooorrddiinnaatteess ttoo ccoommppuuttee tthhee eerrrroorr iinn aallll ppsseeuuddoo--rraannggeess..

1144.. DDGGPPSS SSUURRVVEEYY

IInn oorrddeerr ttoo ppllaaccee tthhee vveehhiiccllee ppoossiittiioonn,, tthhee ddiiggiittiizzeedd mmaapp wwiillll bbee ggeeoo rreeffeerreenncceedd ssoo

tthhaatt tthhee ccoo--oorrddiinnaattee rreeccoorrddeedd bbyy tthhee GGPPSS ddaattaa ccaann bbee ffiitttteedd ddiirreeccttllyy iinnttoo tthhee

ddiiggiittiizzeedd mmaapp.. GGeeoo--rreeffeerreenncciinngg hhaass bbeeeenn ddoonnee uussiinngg AARRCC GGIISS 99..11 ssooffttwwaarree ..IInn oorrddeerr

ttoo ddoo ggeeoo rreeffeerreenncciinngg tthhee llaattiittuuddee aanndd lloonnggiittuuddee aatt lleeaasstt 66 ccoonnttrrooll ppooiinnttss mmuusstt bbee

kknnoowwnn.. TThhee ccoonnttrrooll ppooiinnttss oonn tthhee ffiieelldd mmuusstt bbee sseelleecctteedd ssuucchh tthhaatt tthheeyy ccaann bbee

eeaassiillyy iiddeennttiiffiieedd oonn tthhee mmaapp.. TThhee llaattiittuuddee aanndd lloonnggiittuuddee ooff tthhee ccoonnttrrooll ppooiinnttss mmuusstt

bbee aaccccuurraatteellyy ddeetteerrmmiinneedd ssoo tthhaatt tthhee GGeeoo--rreeffeerreenncciinngg sshhaallll bbee aaccccuurraattee.. HHeerree tthhee

bbaassee ssttaattiioonn iiss ttaakkeenn aass CCooiimmbbaattoorree ((RR..SS..PPuurraamm)).. RReecceenntt ssuurrvveeyyss rreeppoorrtteedd bbyy tthhee

DDGGPPSS ppoossiittiioonniinngg uunniittss iinnddiiccaattee tthhaatt aa ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt ppoossiittiioonn ooff tthhee ppllaacceess.. TThhee

llaattiittuuddee aanndd lloonnggiittuuddee ooff tthhee ccoonnttrrooll ppooiinnttss aarree sshhoowwnn iinn TTaabbllee 11..

TTaabbllee 11 LLaattiittuuddee aanndd LLoonnggiittuuddee vvaalluueess ooff ccoonnttrrooll ppooiinnttss

SS

nnoo..

PPllaaccee LLoonnggiittuuddee LLaattiittuuddee

11 PPeerruurr 7766˚̊5555‘‘EE 1100˚̊5588‘‘EE

22 MMaadduukkkkaarraaii 7777˚̊5566''.. 331100‖‖EE 1100˚̊5544''.. 338800‖‖NN

33 OOnniippuudduurr 7777˚̊0022‘‘1177.. 777733‘‘‘‘EE 1111˚̊00‘‘.. 339955‘‘‘‘NN

44 GGaannddhhiippuurraamm 7766˚̊5577''.. 332255‖‖EE 1111˚̊00''.. 442255‖‖NN

55 RR..SS..ppuurraamm 7766˚̊5566''.. 330000‖‖EE 1111˚̊00''.. 442255‖‖NN

66 SSiinnggaannaalllluurr 7777˚̊77''.. 3300‖‖EE.. 1111˚̊00''.. 440000‖‖NN

1155.. TTYYPPIICCAALL LLAAYYOOUUTT FFOORR IINN--CCAARR NNAAVVIIGGAATTIIOONN SSEETTUUPP

178

Fig 6.Typical Layout for In-Car Navigation Setup

TThhee ccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ooff oonnlliinnee vveehhiiccllee ttrraacckkiinngg tteecchhnnoollooggyy iiss ddiissppllaayyeedd bbyy pprroovviiddeedd

aalloonngg wwiitthh tthhee ccaarr.. TThhee wwhhoollee ccoonncceepptt ooff mmeecchhaanniissmm iiss rreepprreesseenntteedd iinn tthhee ffoolllloowwiinngg

cchhaarrtt,, wwhhiicchh iinnddiiccaatteess tthhee pprroocceessss ooff tthhee ssyysstteemm aanndd rreeaalliissttiicc ffiinnaall rreessuulltt..

16. DDAATTAA PPRROOCCEESSSSIINNGG

PPrreeppaarree GGIISS bbaassee mmaapp ((rraasstteerr iimmaaggeess)) ooff CCooiimmbbaattoorree aarree iimmppoorrtteedd ttoo AAuuttooCCAADD

eennvviirroonnmmeenntt ffoorr oonn--ssccrreeeenn vveeccttoorriizzaattiioonn oorr ddiiggiittiizziinngg.. DDiiggiittiizziinngg iiss aa pprroocceessss ooff

eennccooddiinngg ggeeooggrraapphhiicc ffeeaattuurreess iinn ddiiggiittaall ffoorrmm aass xx,, yy ccoooorrddiinnaatteess.. TThhee ddrraawwiinnggss wweerree

eeddiitteedd aanndd hheenn eexxppoorrtteedd ttoo AARRCC GGIISS VVeerrssiioonn 99..11eennvviirroonnmmeenntt.. AAfftteerr uuppllooaaddiinngg

ccoonnvveerrtt tthhee ddrraawwiinngg ffiilleess ((**..ddwwgg)) ttoo sshhaappee ffiilleess lliikkee lliinnee,, ppoollyyggoonn,, ppooiinntt..

SShhaappee ffiilleess ddoonn‘‘tt uussuuaallllyy ccoonnttaaiinn iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn aass ttoo wwhheerree tthhee aarreeaa rreepprreesseenntteedd oonn

tthhee mmaapp ffiittss oonn tthhee ssuurrffaaccee ooff tthhee eeaarrtthh.. TThhee pprroocceessss ooff aassssiiggnniinngg aa ggeeooggrraapphhiicc

llooccaattiioonn ((ee..gg.. llaattiittuuddee aanndd lloonnggiittuuddee)) ttoo aa ggeeooggrraapphhiicc ffeeaattuurree iiss kknnoowwnn aass GGeeoo--

rreeffeerreenncciinngg bbyy ssppaattiiaall aaddjjuussttmmeenntt ooff tthhee ddaattaa.. TThhee llaattiittuuddee aanndd lloonnggiittuuddee ooff tthhee

ccoonnttrrooll ppooiinnttss mmuusstt bbee aaccccuurraatteellyy ddeetteerrmmiinneedd ssoo tthhaatt tthhee GGeeoo--rreeffeerreenncciinngg sshhaallll bbee

aaccccuurraattee.. TThheenn tthhee aaccttiivvee GGPPSS ddaattaa iiss ccoonnnneecctteedd bbyy UUPPSS ppoorrtt tthheenn tthhee ppooiinntt iiss

ddiissppllaayyeedd iinn tthhee mmaapp.. AArrcc VViieeww pprroovviiddeess tthhee ttoooollss wwee nneeeedd ttoo qquueerryy,, aannaallyyzzee tthhee

ddaattaa aanndd pprreesseenntt rreessuullttss aass pprreesseennttaattiioonn--qquuaalliittyy mmaappss..

179

FFiigg 55LLaayyoouutt ooff tthhee MMeecchhaanniissmm

180

FFiigg.. 77 GGeeoo RReeffeerreennccee MMaapp ooff CCooiimmbbaattoorree wwiitthh RRooaadd NNeettwwoorrkkss uussiinngg AARRCC GGIISS

VVeerrssiioonn 99..11

1177.. SSHHOORRTTEESSTT PPAATTHH

CCoommppuuttiinngg sshhoorrtteesstt ppaatthhss oovveerr aa nneettwwoorrkk iiss aann iimmppoorrttaanntt ttaasskk iinn mmaannyy nneettwwoorrkkss ooff

ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn rreellaatteedd aannaallyysseess.. SSoommee ddrriivveerrss mmaayy pprreeffeerr tthhee sshhoorrtteesstt ppaatthh bbaasseedd

oonn ddiissttaannccee aanndd ttrraavveell ttiimmee.. TThhiiss ccoonnvveennttiioonnaall mmeetthhoodd ffoorrmmeedd tthhee bbaassiiss ooff kknnoowwnn

aass ggrraapphh tthheeoorryy,, aanndd ppaavveedd tthhee wwaayy ffoorr ppaatthh ffiinnddiinngg aallggoorriitthhmmss tthhaatt aarree aapppplliieedd iinn

GGIISS iinn tthhee ssoolluuttiioonn ooff rroouutteess iinn ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn nneettwwoorrkkss.. HHeennccee,, iinn GGIISS rroouuttee

ppllaannnniinngg iiss oofftteenn rreeffeerrrreedd ttoo aass nneettwwoorrkk aannaallyyssiiss.. TThhee rroouuttee sseelleeccttiioonn ccrriitteerriiaa ccaann bbee

eeiitthheerr ffiixxeedd bbyy aa ddeessiiggnn oorr iimmpplleemmeenntteedd vviiaa aa sseelleeccttaabbllee uusseerr iinntteerrffaaccee.. IInn tthhee

ccuurrrreenntt pprroojjeecctt rroouuttee sseelleeccttiioonn iiss vviiaa uusseerr iinntteerrffaaccee.. IInn tthhee ooppttiimmiizzaattiioonn ooff tthhee ttrraavveell

ddiissttaannccee ((rrooaadd sseeggmmeenntt lleennggtthh)),, ddiissttaannccee iiss ssttoorreedd iinn ddaattaabbaassee aanndd tthhee rroouuttee--

ppllaannnniinngg aallggoorriitthhmm iiss uusseedd.. IInn tthhee ooppttiimmiizzaattiioonn ooff ttrraavveell ttiimmee,, rrooaadd sseeggmmeenntt lleennggtthh

aanndd ssppeeeedd lliimmiitt oonn tthhaatt rrooaadd aarree ssttoorreedd iinn ddaattaabbaassee aanndd ttrraavveell ttiimmee iiss ccaallccuullaatteedd

((ddiissttaannccee//ssppeeeedd lliimmiitt)).. BByy CCoosstt aanndd bbeenneeffiittss AAnnaallyyssiiss tthhee uusseerr ccaann aabbllee ttoo aasssseett aa

rreelliiaabbllee ccoosstt.. TThhee ccaallccuullaatteedd ttrraavveell ttiimmee wwaass uusseedd aass ttrraavveell ccoosstt iinn tthhee ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee

ooff ppaatthh ooppttiimmiizzaattiioonn.. AAss iinnccrreeaasseedd pprriicceess ooff ppeettrroolleeuumm pprroodduuccttss,, wwee ccaann ffiinndd tthhee

sshhoorrtteesstt ppaatthh ccrriitteerriiaa uussiinngg aapppplliiccaattiioonnss ooff GGIISS && GGPPSS//GGSSMM aanndd ssaavvee ffuueell..

1188.. SSHHOORRTTEESSTT PPAATTHH WWIITTHH UUSSEERR GGIIVVEENN OORRIIGGIINN AANNDD UUSSEERR GGIIVVEENN

DDEESSTTIINNAATTIIOONN

11.. CCrreeaattee aa ttooppoollooggyy mmaapp aanndd cclliicckk oonn ‗‗UUttiilliittyy NNeettwwoorrkk aannaallyysstt‘‘ iinn tthhee ssuubb mmeennuu oorr

bbuuttttoonn..

22.. SSeelleecctt oorriiggiinn,, ddeessttiinnaattiioonn ppooiinnttss bbyy cclliicckkiinngg aannyy ppooiinntt oonn rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkk..

33.. CClliicckk ‗‗AAnnaallyyssiiss‘‘ bbuuttttoonn aanndd sseelleecctt ttrraavveell ccoosstt ((lliinnee lleennggtthh oorr ddrriivvee ttiimmee))

44.. SShhoorrtteesstt ppaatthh wwiillll bbee ddiissppllaayyeedd iinn ggrreeeenn ccoolloorr oonn tthhee mmaapp aanndd ddiirreeccttiioonnss ffrroomm

OOrriiggiinn ttoo DDeessttiinnaattiioonn wwiillll bbee ddiissppllaayyeedd iinn ‗‗sshhoorrtteesstt ppaatthh‘‘ ddiiaalloogg..

181

FFiigg.. 88.. TThhee NNeettwwoorrkk AAnnaallyysstt

1199.. TTRRIIPP RREEPPOORRTTIINNGG

CCllaassssiiccaall mmeetthhooddss ooff ttrriipp rreeppoorrttiinngg hhaavvee ddiissaaddvvaannttaaggeess lliikkee tthhee ppoooorr ddaattaa qquuaalliittyy oonn

ttrraavveell ssttaarrtt aanndd eenndd ttiimmeess,, ttoottaall ttrriipp ttiimmeess aanndd ttrriipp ddeessttiinnaattiioonn.. TToo aavvooiidd tthheessee

eerrrroorrss,, DDGGPPSS wwaass uusseedd ttoo ccaappttuurree vveehhiiccllee--bbaasseedd,, ddaaiillyy ttrraavveell iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn‘‘ss..

CCoommbbiinneedd wwiitthh DDGGPPSS ssyysstteemm tthhee ddeessiiggnn ooff eeqquuiippmmeenntt rreeqquuiirreedd tthhee rreessppoonnddeennttss ttoo

aaccttiivveellyy ttuurrnn tthhee ccoommppuutteerr oonn eeaacchh ttiimmee tthheeyy mmaaddee aa vveehhiiccllee ttrriipp,, tthhee GGPPSS

ccoommppoonneenntt ccoouulldd ccaappttuurree tthhee ――aaccttuuaall‖‖ ttrraavveell rraatthheerr tthhaann tthhee sseellff--rreeppoorrtteedd ttrraavveell..

TThhee GGPPSS ccaappttuurreess ddaattee aanndd ttiimmee,, aanndd llaattiittuuddee//lloonnggiittuuddee ooff ppaassssiivvee ddaattaa eelleemmeennttss

wwiitthhiinn tthhee rreeccoorrddeedd ttiimmee wwhheenn aa ttrriipp ccaann bbee rreeccoorrddeedd.. TThhee aaddvvaannttaaggee ooff ppaassssiivvee

ddaattaa rreeccoorrddiinngg rreedduucceess tthhee bbuurrddeenn tthhee ttrraavveell ttiimmeess;; ddiissttaanncceess tthhaatt wweerree ccoolllleecctteedd

rreepprreesseenntt tthhee ttrruuee ppiiccttuurree aabboouutt tthhee lleennggtthh aanndd dduurraattiioonn ooff tthhee ttrriipp.. TThhee uussaaggee ooff

ccoommppuutteerr ffoorr ccoommppuutteerr--aassssiisstteedd--sseellff--iinntteerrvviieewwiinngg iiss hheellppeedd ttoo ccaappttuurree ddaattaa

rreeggaarrddiinngg ttrriipp ppuurrppoossee aanndd vveehhiiccllee ooccccuuppaannccyy.. HHaavviinngg tthhee ddaattaa rreeggaarrddiinngg tthhee ttrriipp

182

ppuurrppoossee,, ttooggeetthheerr wwiitthh tthhee rroouuttee cchhooiiccee aanndd ttrraavveell ssppeeeedd,, wwoouulldd pprroovviiddee ppllaannnneerrss

wwiitthh tthhee iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn tthhaatt ccoouulldd bbee uusseedd iinn eevvaalluuaattiinngg mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ssyysstteemmss.. GGIISS

ccaann bbee iinntteeggrraatteedd wwiitthh GGPPSS.. TThhee GGPPSS oouuttppuutt ddaattaa,, aafftteerr eexxppoorrttiinngg ttoo aa GGIISS ccaann bbee

vviieewweedd oonn tthhee mmaapp.. TThhee uussee ooff GGIISS hheellppss iinn kknnoowwiinngg tthhee ddeessttiinnaattiioonn ooff tthhee ttrriipp,, aanndd

aallssoo iinn kknnoowwiinngg tthhee ppaarrttiiccuullaarr rroouuttee tthhee ddrriivveerr cchhoosseenn ttoo rreeaacchh tthhee ddeessttiinnaattiioonn.. TThhee

GGPPSS ddaattaa wwaass ddoowwnnllooaaddeedd aanndd pprroocceesssseedd uussiinngg tthhee GGIISS ssooffttwwaarree ffeeww sseelleecctt ppooiinnttss

tthhaatt wweerree mmaappppeedd iinn ssttaattiicc mmooddee aanndd tthhee ttrriipp sshheeeett iiss pprreeppaarreedd ffrroomm tthhee ccoolllleecctteedd

ffoorrmmaatt..

2200.. TTRRIIPP SSHHEEEETT

VVeehhiiccllee nnoo//nnaammee//ddrriivveerr:: TTNN xxxx AAAA 66003311// BBuuss // MMrr..xxxxxx DDaattee:: dddd//mmmm//yyyy

TTrriipp

nnoo

SSttaarrttiinngg DDeeppaarrttuurree

llooccaattiioonn

ttiimmee

EEnndd llooccaattiioonn AArrrriivvaall

TTrraavveell ttiimmee

((sseecc))

DDiissttaann

ccee

((mmiilleess))

AAvveerraa

ggee

ssppeeeedd

((mmpphh))

11

22

33

44

55

66

77

TToowwnn hhaallll

RRaaiillwwaayy ssttaattiioonn

PPeellaammeedduu

GGaannaappaatthhyy

GGaannddhhiippuurraamm

RR..SS..ppuurraamm

GGaannddhhiippaarrkk

88..3300

88..3355

88..5555

99..1100

99..2200

99..3355

99..4455

RRaaiillwwaayy ssttaattiioonn

PPeelluummeedduu

GGaannaappaatthhyy

GGaannddhhiippuurraamm

RR..SS..ppuurraamm

GGaannddhhiippaarrkk

TToowwnn hhaallll

88..3333

88..5533

99..0099

99..1199

99..3344

99..4411

99..5544

118866

111100

77

885566

551188

882244

336688

552244

00..9900

55..884477

33..880077

22..330055

33..554422

11..559977

22..112255

3333..8855

3322..8877

2277..6644

2288..8888

2266..3388

2266..3388

2255..1155

AAvveerraaggee ttiimmee:: 11..2222 hhoouurrss..

AAvveerraaggee ssppeeeedd ttiimmee:: 2288..6622 mmpphh

TToottaall ddiissttaannccee ttrraavveelleedd:: 2222..112233mmiilleess ((3322..338844 kkmm))..

183

2211.. TTRRAAFFFFIICC CCOONNTTRROOLL

MMaannyy ootthheerr ccoouunnttrriieess mmoonniittoorr oonnggooiinngg ttrraaffffiicc aatt ccrriittiiccaall ppooiinnttss iinn tthhee rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkk

rroouunndd--tthhee--cclloocckk,, ccoouunnttiinngg ddeevviicceess oorr ootthheerr mmeeaannss ooff ttrraaffffiicc ddaattaa ggaatthheerriinngg,, aanndd

tthheenn rreellaayyiinngg tthhiiss iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ttoo tthhee ppuubblliicc uussiinngg iitt ffoorr aannaallyyttiiccaall ppuurrppoosseess.. TTrraaffffiicc

ccoonnttrrooll ssyysstteemmss aarree tthhee mmoosstt ddeemmaannddiinngg ooff tthhee IInntteelllliiggeenntt TTrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn SSyysstteemmss..

TThheeyy mmaayy hhaavvee ttoo ccoovveerr llaarrggee ggeeooggrraapphhiiccaall aarreeaass aanndd iinntteerrffaaccee wwiitthh aa llaarrggee nnuummbbeerr

ooff ddeevviicceess,, tthhuuss mmaannaaggiinngg ddaattaa aavvaaiillaabbllee ffrroomm aa vvaarriieettyy ooff ddiissppaarraattee ssoouurrcceess.. IInn

ootthheerr ccoouunnttrriieess,, rreellaayyiinngg ttoo ttrraaffffiicc iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn,, ggiivviinngg uupp--ttoo--ddaattee rreeaall--ttiimmee ttrraaffffiicc

iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ttoo tthhee ppuubblliicc,, ttoo bbee bbrrooaaddccaasstteedd ttoo bbee ddiissppllaayyeedd oonn tthhee IInntteerrnneett.. TThheeyy

ccaann ccoonnttrrooll hhiigghh--ssppeeeedd rrooaadd aacccciiddeennttss,, wwhhiicchh ccaannnnoott bbee ccoonnttrroolllleedd eevveenn bbyy tthhee

ssppeeeedd bbrreeaakkeerrss aanndd tthhee ttiimmiinnggss ooff tthhee vveehhiicclleess ccaann,, mmaaiinnttaaiinneedd.. TThhee aavveerraaggee

nnuummbbeerr ooff aacccciiddeennttss iinn aa yyeeaarr iiss 33..55 ppeerrcceenntt ooff tthhee ttoottaall ffoorr iinn aannyy ccoouunnttrryy bbuutt

tthheessee ccaann bbee rreedduucceedd bbyy tthhee iimmpplleemmeennttaattiioonn ooff tthheessee tteecchhnniiqquueess.. IInn tthhiiss ppaappeerr,,

rreelleevvaanntt uupp--ttoo--ddaattee ttrraaffffiicc,, ttrraavveell iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ffoorr ppuubblliicc aanndd pprriivvaattee ttrraannssppoorrtt uusseerrss

iiss ppoosstteedd eelleeccttrroonniiccaallllyy oonn ttoouucchh ssccrreeeenn ddiissppllaayyss aatt mmaaiinn ppllaacceess aanndd aallssoo oonn tthhee

IInntteerrnneett..

To control the traffic the data‘s should be updated for the present condition. If

there is any accident we can use the alternate routes as guide of your GPS. The car

was fitted with GPS and satellite communication technology along with a Web-

based interface/ GSM that allows you to locate your vehicles and communicate

with your drivers anywhere you can access the Internet/ GSM.

2222.. EEVVAALLUUAATTIIOONN

UUssiinngg GGIISS aaiiddiinngg rrooaadd ddeessiiggnn hhaass pprroovveedd iittsseellff aass uusseeffuull,, eessppeecciiaallllyy wwhheenn

vviissuuaalliizziinngg iimmppaacctt oonn tthhee eennvviirroonnmmeenntt iiss ccoonncceerrnneedd.. UUssiinngg GGIISS ffoorr 33DD vviissuuaalliizzaattiioonn

mmaayy aallssoo hheellpp iinn ssoollvviinngg aallrreeaaddyy iinn uussee ffoorr ppllaanneess aanndd sshhiippss,, ssoommeetthhiinngg tthhaatt ccoouulldd

ttuurrnn oouutt ttoo bbee eessppeecciiaallllyy hheellppffuull ffoorr eemmeerrggeennccyy vveehhiiccllee ddrriivveerrss wwhheenn tthheeyy aarree ssttiillll

nneeww ttoo aann aarreeaa.. IInn aallll tthhee mmeennttiioonneedd aapppplliiccaattiioonnss GGIISS iiss aa ttooooll ffoorr vviissuuaalliizziinngg aanndd

aannaallyyzziinngg ddaattaa.. LLooookkiinngg aatt ffuuttuurree pprroossppeeccttss,, tthhee ppootteennttiiaall rraannggee ooff ssuucchh

aapppplliiccaattiioonnss,, ccoommbbiinneedd wwiitthh 33DD vviissuuaalliizzaattiioonn,, iiss vviirrttuuaallllyy uunnlliimmiitteedd.. RRoouuttee ppllaannnneerrss

aarree vveerryy uusseeffuull ttoooollss iinn ggeenneerraall,, bbuutt tthheeyy hhaavvee lliimmiittaattiioonnss.. DDaattaa tthhaatt iiss uusseedd iinn

rroouuttee--ppllaannnniinngg ssyysstteemmss mmuusstt bbee eexxttrreemmeellyy aaccccuurraattee aanndd sshhoouulldd bbee uuppddaatteedd.. EEvveenn

tthhoouugghh tthhee rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkk mmaayy llooookk ffiinnee oonn ssccrreeeenn,, iitt mmaayy ccoonnttaaiinn ffaallssee iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn

184

tthhaatt wwiillll ddiivveerrtt tthhee rroouuttee ffrroomm wwhheerree iitt sshhoouulldd ggoo,, ssuucchh aass sseennddiinngg aa vveehhiiccllee tthhee

wwrroonngg wwaayy ddoowwnn aa oonnee--wwaayy ssttrreeeett oorr uussiinngg aa rroouuttee tthhaatt iiss cclloosseedd ttoo tthhee ppuubblliicc..TThhee

ddaattaa mmuusstt bbee kkeepptt uupp--ttoo--ddaattee wwiitthh tthhee llaatteesstt ssttaattuuss ooff aannyy ppaarrttiiccuullaarr rrooaadd iinn tthhee

nneettwwoorrkk.. TThhuuss,, aa GGIISS ffoorr rroouuttee ppllaannnniinngg wwiillll hhaavvee ttoo ccoonnttaaiinn aa llaarrggee vvoolluummee ooff

aattttrriibbuuttee ddaattaa,, ddeeppeennddiinngg oonn tthhee ssppeecciiffiicc aapppplliiccaattiioonn nneeeeddss.. UUsseerrss mmaayy wwaanntt ttoo

eennqquuiirree aabboouutt ggrraaddiieennttss,, hheeiigghhtt aanndd wweeiigghhtt ccoonnssttrraaiinnttss,, rrooaadd wwoorrkkss,, ffiilllliinngg ssttaattiioonnss,,

ddeettoouurr ooppttiioonnss,, hhootteellss oorr ootthheerr ppooiinnttss ooff iinntteerreesstt.. IItt ccoosstt iiss mmoorree ffoorr tthhee uusseerr.. RRoouuttee--

ppllaannnniinngg ssyysstteemmss ttyyppiiccaallllyy eeiitthheerr ccaallccuullaattee tthhee sshhoorrtteesstt oorr tthhee ffaasstteesstt jjoouurrnneeyy,, iinn

ddooiinngg tthhiiss,, tthhee ssyysstteemm uusseess aallggoorriitthhmmss ffoorr cchhoooossiinngg aa ppaarrttiiccuullaarr rroouuttee.. HHoowweevveerr,,

ssoommee eexxppeerriieenncceedd ddrriivveerrss mmaayy nnoott ttaakkee tthhee ssaammee rroouuttee aass tthhee ssyysstteemm ccaallccuullaatteess..

RRoouuttee ppllaannnneerrss wwiillll oofftteenn tteenndd ttoo ggeenneerraalliizzee,, bbeeccaauussee vvaarriiaabblleess ssuucchh aass ttiimmee ooff ddaayy,,

wweeaatthheerr ccoonnddiittiioonnss ((ee..gg.. ssuunn,, rraaiinn,, ffoogg,, iiccee oorr ssnnooww)),, ttyyppee ooff ccaarr uusseedd oorr ddrriivveerr

bbeehhaavviioorr aarree uussuuaallllyy nnoott iimmpplleemmeenntteedd,, eevveenn tthhoouugghh tthheeyy llaayy hheeaavvyy iinnfflluueennccee oonn

ddrriivviinngg.. SSyysstteemmss mmaayy aallssoo llaacckk llooccaall kknnoowwlleeddggee aa ddrriivveerr hhaass aabboouutt aa cceerrttaaiinn ssttrreettcchh

ooff aa rroouuttee.. GGiivveenn tthhee wweeiigghhtt tthhaatt rrooaadd ttrraannssppoorrtt hhaass iinn ddiissttrriibbuuttiinngg ggooooddss aanndd

ppeerrssoonnaall ttrraannssppoorrtt,, aanndd ggiivveenn tthhee sstteeaaddiillyy iinnccrreeaassiinngg ccoommpplleexxiittyy ooff rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkkss,,

rroouuttee ppllaannnneerrss wwiillll uunnddoouubbtteeddllyy nnoott cceeaassee ttoo eexxiisstt.. AAss ffoorr iinn--ccaarr nnaavviiggaattiioonn

ssyysstteemmss,, iinn ootthheerr ccoouunnttrriieess ppoossiittiioonn iiss ddiissppllaayyeedd iinnssiiddee aa mmoovviinngg vveehhiiccllee iiss rraatthheerr

rriiggiidd,, oonnllyy aalllloowwiinngg aa ssccrreeeenn sshhoowwiinngg aa ssiinnggllee bboolldd aarrrrooww.. AA ffuullll mmaapp ccaann oonnllyy bbee

ddiissppllaayyeedd wwhheenn tthhee vveehhiiccllee iiss ssttiillll.. VVooiiccee mmeessssaaggiinngg hhaass nnoo ssuucchh rreessttrriiccttiioonnss.. BBootthh

vviissuuaall aanndd aauuddiioo oouuttppuutt hhaavvee aa ppootteennttiiaall ffoorr ddiissttrraaccttiinngg tthhee ddrriivveerr,, tthhee uussee ooff

mmoobbiillee pphhoonneess iinn ccaarrss,, iinn--ccaarr nnaavviiggaattiioonn mmaayy ffaaccee tthhee ssaammee aarrgguummeenntt.. TTrraacckkiinngg

ssyysstteemmss ddeeppeenndd oonn GGPPSS ffoorr ffiinnddiinngg tthhee eexxaacctt llooccaattiioonn ooff aa vveehhiiccllee.. MMooddeerrnn GGPPSS

rreecceeiivveerrss hhaavvee aa rreelliiaabbllee aaccccuurraaccyy ooff bbeettwweeeenn 55 aanndd 1155 mmeetteerrss iinn ggoooodd ccoonnddiittiioonnss..

UUssiinngg ssoo--ccaalllleedd ddiiffffeerreennttiiaall GGPPSS,, tthhee aaccccuurraaccyy ccaann bbee iinnccrreeaasseedd ttoo aa ffeeww

cceennttiimmeetteerrss..

FFiigg 99..CCoommppaarriissoonn ooff AAccccuurraaccyy ooff SSiinnggllee ppooiinntt ppoossiittiioonniinngg aanndd DDGGPPSS ppoossiittiioonniinngg

185

23. LAYOUT OF VEHICLE TRACKING

FFiigg.. 1100..LLaayyoouutt ooff VVeehhiiccllee TTrraacckkiinngg

AA nneeww mmeetthhoodd hhaass bbeeeenn ddeevveellooppeedd ffoorr tthhee oonnlliinnee vveehhiiccllee ttrraacckkiinngg ssyysstteemm uussiinngg

GGSSMM ooff vveehhiicclleess.. AA ttwwoo--wwaayy ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn iiss ppoossssiibbllee bbeettwweeeenn tthhee ccoonnttrrooll rroooomm

aanndd tthhee vveehhiicclleess.. TThhee ttrriipp sshheeeett ggiivveess aa ddeettaaiilleedd ddaattaa aabboouutt tthhee ttrriippss,, vveehhiicclleess aanndd

ddrriivveerrss,, wwhhiicchh wwiillll bbee uusseeffuull iinn mmoonniittoorriinngg tthhee ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee ooff ddrriivveerrss aanndd vveehhiicclleess..

SSiinnccee tthhee ddeevveellooppeedd JJaavvaa ssccrriipptt iiss wweebb eennaabblleedd,, vveehhiicclleess ccaann bbee mmoonniittoorreedd ffrroomm aannyy

ppaarrtt ooff tthhee gglloobbee.. RReemmoottee mmoonniittoorriinngg sseerrvviiccee ffoorr tthhee vveehhiiccllee tthhaatt ddeetteeccttss

uunnaauutthhoorriizzeedd mmoovveemmeenntt oorr aattttaacckk iinnssttaannttllyy,, aalleerrttss aann ooppeerraattoorr ttoo tthhee ssttaattuuss aanndd

ppoossiittiioonn ooff tthhee vveehhiiccllee tthhaatt iiss ccoonnttiinnuuaallllyy ttrraacckkeedd bbyy aaccttiivvaattiinngg tthhee vveehhiiccllee aallaarrmm

ssyysstteemm aanndd eevveenn iimmmmoobbiilliizzeess tthhee ccaarr ssttooppppiinngg tthhee tthheefftt.. TThhee rraannggee ooff pprroodduuccttss aanndd

aapppplliiccaattiioonnss iinn tthhee ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn sseeccttoorr iinnddiiccaatteess tthhaatt tthheessee aarree ttoooollss tthhaatt aarree iinn

hhiigghh ddeemmaanndd.. IItt hhaass bbeeeenn eessttiimmaatteedd tthhaatt ssoommee 8800%% ooff aallll iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn tthhaatt aannyy

bbuussiinneessss mmaannaaggeess hhaass aa ggeeooggrraapphhiicc ccoonntteexxtt.. IInn tthhee ffiieelldd ooff ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn mmuucchh ooff

tthhiiss iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn iiss ccoonnssttaannttllyy mmoovviinngg,, tthhuuss iinnccrreeaassiinngg tthhee ddeemmaanndd ffoorr uupp--ttoo--ddaattee

iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn..

2244.. CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONN

TTrraannssppoorrtt tteelleemmaattiiccss mmeeaannss tthhee llaarrggee--ssccaallee iinntteeggrraattiioonn aanndd iimmpplleemmeennttaattiioonn ooff

tteelleeccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn aanndd iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn tteecchhnnoollooggyy iinn tthhee ffiieelldd ooff ttrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn ..TToo

iimmpprroovveess iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn aaccccuurraaccyy oonn tthhee aattttrriibbuuttee ddaattaa ooff rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkkss aanndd

aavvaaiillaabbiilliittyy wwee hhaavvee uusseedd DDGGPPSS.. AAccccoorrddiinngg ttoo CCoosstt aanndd bbeenneeffiittss AAnnaallyyssiiss ooff tthhee

ooppttiimmuumm ddeessiiggnn wwee ccaann uussee mmoobbiillee ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonnss ((GGSSMM)).. BByy tthhiiss ssyysstteemm tthhee

ccoonnttrrooll oovveerr ttrraaffffiicc wwiillll bbee eeaassyy aanndd eeffffeeccttiivvee bbyy tthhiiss oonnee--tthhiirrdd aabbuunnddaanntt ooccccuurrrreennccee

186

ooff ssppeeeedd rreellaatteedd aacccciiddeennttss ccaann bbee rreedduucceedd.. BByy ccoonnttrroolllliinngg vveehhiiccllee ssppeeeedd wwee ccaann

rreedduuccee aanndd mmaaiinntteennaannccee aa ccoonnssiiddeerraabbllee eeccoonnoommyy ooff 3300%%.. UUssee ooff SShhoorrtteesstt ppaatthh

aallggoorriitthhmmss -- SSaavveess ffuueell,, ssaavveess ttiimmee bbyysseelleeccttiinngg tthhee aalltteerrnnaattiivvee rroouutteess ttoo aavvooiidd

ppoossssiibbllee ddeellaayyss,, OOnnlliinnee ttrraacckkiinngg ccaann rreedduuccee tthheefftt iiss wwiiddeellyy pprroommootteedd iinn tthheessee ddaayyss

aass aann uullttiimmaattee nnaavviiggaattiioonn aanndd vveehhiiccllee--ttrraacckkiinngg ttooooll.. AAddooppttiinngg GGIISS tteecchhnnoollooggyy

iiddeennttiiffiieess wwhheerree tthhee sseerrvviicceess aanndd ffaacciilliittiieess aarree nneeeedd bbyy tthhee mmaannaaggeemmeenntt.. TThhiiss

iinntteeggrraatteedd GGIISS ddeeffiinniitteellyy wwiillll hheellpp tthhee mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ooff tthhee rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkk bbyy tthhee

ccoonncceerrnneedd oorrggaanniizzaattiioonnss ttoo mmaaiinnttaaiinn aa uusseerr--ffrriieennddllyy rreellaattiioonn aalloonngg tthhee ppeeooppllee.. TThhee

ssttuuddyy pprreesseenntteedd aabboovvee hhaass bbeeeenn mmaaddee oonnllyy ffoorr aa sseelleecctteedd ttyyppiiccaall bbuuss rroouutteess.. TThhiiss

ccaann bbee ccoonnvveenniieennttllyy eexxtteennddeedd ttoo tthhee wwhhoollee ooff CCooiimmbbaattoorree rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkkss.. .. IIff tthhee

ssyysstteemm iiss vveerryy aaccccuurraaccyy wwee ccaann uussee ffoorr mmaappppiinngg ffoorr rreemmoottee ppllaacceess.. TThhee iinnccrreeaassee iinn

uussee ooff hhiigghh ssppaattiiaall aanndd ssppeeccttrraall rreessoolluuttiioonn ssaatteelllliittee ddaattaa ffoorr aannaallyyssiiss ccaann mmaakkee tthhee

wwhhoollee jjoobb mmuucchh ssiimmpplleerr..

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS

11.. SSllaatteerr AAllaann,, ((FFeebbrruuaarryy 22000022)),, ――SSppeecciiffiiccaattiioonn ffoorr aa ddyynnaammiicc vveehhiiccllee rroouuttiinngg aanndd

sscchheedduulliinngg ssyysstteemm‖‖.. IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall JJoouurrnnaall ooff TTrraannssppoorrtt MMaannaaggeemmeenntt,, VVoolluummee

11,, IIssssuuee 11,, PPaaggeess 2299--4400

22.. LLaannggLLaauurraa,, TTrraannssppoorrttaattiioonn GGIISS.. IISSBBNN 11--887799110022--4477--11 113322 ppaaggeess..

33.. SStteeeeddee--TTeerrrryyKKaarreenn,, IInntteeggrraattiinngg GGIISS aanndd tthhee GGlloobbaall PPoossiittiioonniinngg SSyysstteemm..

44.. VVddaannii PP..MM.. aanndd GGooyyaall RR..KK..,, GGPPSS eennaabbllee mmoobbiillee GGIISS sseerrvviicceess..

55.. MMeehhttaa PPaavviittrraa aanndd AAggggaarrwwaallPPaavviittrraa,, GGPPSS BBaasseedd fflleeeett mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ssyysstteemm..

187

TRACKING OF STOLEN VEHICLES USING AN ULTRA-

HIGH SPEEDMICROCONTROLLER WITH GPS AND

GSM TECHNOLOGY

L. Mohana Priya1, M. Ponmani2

BMIE Department,

AvinashilingamUniversity,Coimbatore.

ABSTRACT

One of the most challenging problems faced by our modern society is the increasing

phenomenon of car thefts. Reports from police departments around the world

indicate that car theft in some of the countries reaches more than 300,000 cars a

year and the percentage of the cars recovered is not very high. Increasing the

possibility of finding a stolen car is very important to both police and car owners. In

this paper, a vehicle identification system using an embedded wireless

communication system is proposed to address the car theft problem. The proposed

scheme is based on getting information about the exact location of the vehicle using

GPS and GSM technology. The police officer can also receive the same information

and Can also be automatically notified in case of the car is stolen.

1. INTRODUCTION

The phenomenon of car theft poses a serious problem to our modern society.

Statistics showed that the number of stolen cars exceeded the boundary of one

million cars per year in the United States for the last few years. In fact, only 14% of

stolen cars are cleared out by arrests each year. The recovery rates in most

countries do not exceed 60% , and the number of reported stolen cars in some

countries reaches more than 300,000 cars a year.

Increasing the recovery rate is of great importance to both car owners and police

officials. People steal cars for different reasons. Some people steal cars in order

to sell them and benefit from their revenues. Such criminals tend to steal late-

model vehicles especially luxury cars. Old model cars are usually targeted for parts.

188

This type of theft is called enterprise theft. Others steal cars for joyriding or the

commissioning of another crime participating in what is so called opportunity theft.

As a result, people started to invent anti-the techniques such as mechanical

barriers on controls, alarms, and immobilizers. Mechanical barriers on control have

to be set by the vehicle driver whenever she/he is leaving the car. This method is

considered to be inconvenient because it requires setting these barriers every time

the driver wants to leave the car and dismantling them whenever she/he is back

again. On the other hand, car alarms do not require such physical effort.

However, nowadays people consider these alarms as noise sources and when one of

these alarms goes on people start to talk louder! It is the immobilizers, which are

the most efficient among these theft deterrents. Immobilizers cut vital circuitries in

the car such as the starter, ignition, and fuel supply, and in order to disable this

system the driver has to enter a code or use a special key. The question now is

what if the car is already stolen. We need a system to relocate the position of the

stolen car. Here the tracking of location is achieved in mobile communication

environment with the help of Global Positioning System (GPS) and Global

Systems for Mobile communication (GSM) technology.

2. PROPOSED SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION

The main idea of the proposed system is to have all cars registered with the police

department such that each has a unique identification number (identity code)

associated with the vehicle information such as make, model, color, plate number,

owner, etc. Installing a device which is composed of GPS receiver, GSM modem and

a microcontroller in a hidden place in the car. A block diagram of the system is

shown in Figure1. If the vehicle is theft then the Owner of the vehicle can send

message to the SIM card that is located in the GSM modem inside the device.

Using GPS receiver and an Ultra-High speed microcontroller the device tracks its

exact location and it will transmit the information using GSM technology to the

owner of the vehicle. The proposed system block diagram is shown in the Figure 1:

189

Fig. 1 System Block Diagram

In this system GPS receiver and GSM modem are directly connected to the micro-

controller. The GPS receiver Transmit its location with latitude and longitude co-

ordinates The firmware coding in the micro-controller can read the SMS (Short

Message Service) from GSM modem which is send by another GSM modem or

mobile. Initially it analyzes the mobile number and the message which is received

by GSM. If the number and the password are correct means, the controller analyzes

the location from the database with the help of GPS. Finally the controller will

send the tracked location by SMS to the mobile numbers including Owner‘s and to t

he Police numbers that is stored in the SIM card with the help of GPS.

2.1. Tracking Scenario

The owner can send message to the SIM card located in the hidden devices in the

vehicle will compare the mobile number and message which is received by the GSM

modem. If the number and the password are correct means, the controller will

analyze the location from the database with the help of GPS. Finally, the controller

sends the tracked location by SMS to the mobile numbers with the help of GSM.

190

2.2. Structure of GSM Network

Fig. 2. Structure of GSM Network

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by

searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different

frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands.

Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the

850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands

were already allocated. The structure of the GSM network as shown in the Fig. 2.

The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries,

notably Scandinavia, where these frequencies were previously used for first-

generation systems.

In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890–915 MHz, and the

downlink frequency band is 935 –960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided

into 124 carrier frequency channels, each spaced 200 kHz apart. Time division

multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per

radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods)

grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames

in the same timeslot. The channel data rate is 270.833kbit/s, and the frame

duration is 4.615 ms.

191

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM

850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.

There are four different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, Pico and

umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the

implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base

station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level.

Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are

typically used in urban areas. Pico cells are small cells whose coverage diameter is

a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Umbrella cells are used to cover

shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and

propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of

kilometers. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is

35 kilometers (22 mi) . There are also several implementations of the concept of an

extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on

the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor

Pico cell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed

through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to

the separate indoor distributed antenna system.

These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for

example in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since

indoor coverage is also provided

by in-building penetration of the radio signals from nearby cells. The modulation

used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of continuous-

phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier

is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency

modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels

(adjacent channel interference).

2.3. Global Positioning System

192

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully functional Global Navigation

Satellite System (GNSS). Utilizing a constellation of at least 24 Medium Earth Orbit

satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, the system enables a GPS

receiver to determine its location, speed, direction, and time. GPS is officially

named NAVSTAR GPS

2.3.1Operation of GPS Receiver

A typical GPS receiver calculates its position using the signals from four or more

GPS satellites. Four satellites are needed since the process needs a very accurate

local time, more accurate than any normal clock can provide, so the receiver

internally solves for time as well as position. In other words, the receiver uses four

measurements to solve for 4 variables - x, y, z, and t. These values are then turned

into more user-friendly forms, such as latitude/longitude or location on a map, and

then displayed to the user.

Each GPS satellite has an atomic clock, and continually transmits messages

containing the current time at the start of the message, parameters to calculate the

location of the satellite (the ephemeris),and the general system health (the

almanac). The signals travel at a known speed - thespeed of light through outer

space, and slightly slower through the atmosphere.

The receiver uses the arrival time to compute the Distance to each satellite, from

which it determines the Position of the receiver using geometry and trigonometry

(tri-lateration). Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer

may be needed in some special cases.

For example, if the local time is known very precisely (to atomic clock accuracy), or

one variable is already known (for example, a sea-going ship knows its altitude is

0), a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. Also, in practice,

receivers use additional includes (Doppler of satellite signals, last known position,

dead reckoning, inertial navigation, and so on) to give degraded answers when less

than four satellites are visible.

2.3.2System Segmentation

The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment

(SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).

193

2.3.2.1 Space Segment

Fig. 3.Space Segment (Satellites)

A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice

how the number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in

this example at 45°N, changes with time. The space segment (SS) comprises the

orbiting GPS satellites or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance The GPS design

originally called for 24 SVs, 8 each in three circular orbital planes, but this was

modified to 6 planes with 4 satellites each.

The orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the

distant stars. The six planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to

Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node

(angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection).

The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight

from almost everywhere on Earth's surface. Orbiting at an altitude of approximately

20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles or 10,900 nautical miles; orbital radius of 26,600

km (16,500 mi or 14,400 NM)), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal

day.

The ground track of each satellite therefore repeats each (sidereal) day. This was

very helpful during development, since even with just 4 satellites, correct alignment

means all 4 are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military

operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat

zones. As of September 2007, there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the

194

GPS constellation. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver

calculations by providing redundant measurements.

With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a non-

uniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and

availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.

2.3.2.2 Control Segment

The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by US Air Force monitoring stations in

Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Colorado Springs,

Colorado, along with monitor stations operated by the National Geospatial-

Intelligence Agency (NGA). The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space

Command's master control station at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado

Springs, which is operated by the 2d Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the

United States Air Force (USAF). 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a

navigational update (using the ground antennas at Ascension Island, Diego Garcia,

Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs).

These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few

nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal

orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from

the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other

inputs.

Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a

satellite, the satellite must be marked 'unhealthy', so receivers will not use it in

their calculation. Then the maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit

tracked from the ground. Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite

marked healthy again. Even if just one satellite is maneuvered at a time, this

implies at least five satellites must be visible to be sure of getting data from four.

2.3.2.3 User Segment

Fig. 4. User Segment

195

The user's GPS receiver is the user segment (US) of the GPS system. In general,

GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by

the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly-stable clock (often a crystal

oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed

information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels:

this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously.

Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so

that, as of 2006, receivers typically have between twelve and twenty channels.

GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM

SC-104 format. This is typically in the form of a RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed.

Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal

sent using RTCM.

Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM

data. As of 2006, even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation

System (WAAS) receivers.

Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA

0183 protocol. NMEA 2000 is a newer and less widely adopted protocol. Both are

proprietary and controlled by the US-based National Marine Electronics

Association. References to the NMEA protocols have been compiled from public

records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating

intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the

SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods

including a serial connection, USB or Bluetooth.

3. PROTOTYPE IMPLEMENTATION

An experimental system has been implemented to verify the operation of the

proposed system as shown in Figure 6. It consists of a GPS Receiver, GSM modem

and a microcontroller with two serial ports. GPS Receiver analyzes the exact

location of the vehicle and it sends the Location information to the SIM that is

located inside the GSM modem.

196

The only instance when we are going to have a response or an acknowledgment is in

case of the presence of a stolen car, which is supposed to be not often. The main

advantage of this type of medium access is that it does not require any coordination

between the nodes in the network and hence less complexity.

Fig. 5. Prototype Implementation

In the above fig 5 shows the prototype implementation. Here an Ultra High speed

microcontroller 89C429 is used. It is an enhanced version of 8051 controller. It is

12 times faster than the original and it can perform 33 Million Instructions Per

Second (MIPS).

4. DISCUSSION AND ENHANCEMENTS

The proposed scheme can be used for any car even it is not stolen. This leads to

more security but some people may dislike the idea that someone may find their

whereabouts even if they did not any criminal act. This is a real privacy concern.

5. CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, an embedded wireless communication system for recovering stolen

cars is proposed and implemented. The system is based on GPS and GSM

technology. If a car is stolen, it will respond to the owner and to the police. This will

lead to the location of the stolen car can be easily identified by the police officer.

The proposed scheme is quite attractive since there is no major cost of installation

or maintenance and can be absorbed by the police department.

REFERENCES

1. Insurance Information Institute, "Hot Topics and Issues Updates: Auto Theft,"

March 2005, http://www.iii.org/media/hottopics/insurance/test4/.

2. Bend Oregon, ―Facts and Figures about Vehicle Theft,

"http://www.bend.or.us/police/carfigures.htm.‖

GSM

MODEM

GPS

RECIEVER

Dallas

Microcontroll

er 89C420

serial ports

LCD

197

3. Paul Williams, "Tracking stolen vehicles: Boomerang vehicle tracking

system,"http://www.canadiandriver.com/articles/pw/boomeran.htm.‖

4. Dallas semiconductor based on 8051 microcontroller

http://www.alldatasheet.com/datasheet- pdf/pdf/58645/DALLAS/DS89C420.

5. Stolen Vehicle tracking http://www.wirelesscar.com/Page.as

198

PIANO KEY WEIR

Aniket Kanchan1, Aditya Karan1

1Singhad College of Engineering, Pune, India

ABSTRACT

Ongoing efforts to enhance safety (revision of extreme floods in future construction

zones notably in Asia) increase significantly the discharge requirements of existing

or new dams. This leads to considerable cost overruns if the conventional solutions

are employed, such as fully gated spillways (which are prone to complete

obstruction or ill-adapted operation); or long uncontrolled spillways with low

specific flow rates. Most existing free-flow spillways have a standardized shape

(ogee weir) and are placed upon concrete gravity dam structures. Their drawback is

their low specific flow which is (in m3/s/m) close to 2.2 h 1.5 (h being the nappe

depth in meters). Consequently, the loss of live storage corresponding to the

maximum nappe depth may be 20% to 50%, compared with a gated reservoir, even

if using longer spillways than with gates. It is thus very advantageous to increase

the specific flow as much as possible. A new low cost solution of free flow spillway

in form of the ―Piano Key Weir‖ multiplies the specific flow by 2 to 4 and may be the

best solution to these problems for most dams. It applies also for reducing the cost

and / or increasing the storage of new dams. This paper deals with introduction of

new concepts and their design and application.

1. INTRODUCTION

There are 50,000 large dams (higher than 15m or with storage over 3 hm3). Their

total storage is over 6,500 km3. Over 75% of this storage is devoted to hydropower

although; hydropower large dams are less than 10,000.

Over 30,000 large dams and hundreds of thousands small ones are devoted

essentially to storage for irrigation and to a smaller extent for drinkable or

industrial water. The great majority is in countries with a rainy season of few

months; many are essentially used for storage of most of the flow of the rainy

season to be used along the dry season. Most irrigation dams have or may have an

important impact on flood mitigation but, their spillway has usually been designed

for optimizing the storage and not for improving the flood mitigation. It may be

199

advisable in the future to take greater care of this possibility in the design,

upgrading and management of reservoirs. Few thousands of irrigation dams

(mainly large ones) are concrete dams. There have been very few relevant failures

after first filling and no one by floods for dams higher than 30 m. One thousand are

masonry dams subject to ageing by leakage. The risk of failure the dam body of

masonry gravity dam may thus, be serious in case of reservoir level increase and

such a failure is instantaneous and difficult to anticipate exactly. Most failures

were caused by undersized spillways but, the main risk for gated dams is the total

jamming of gates; this risk has been often over-looked.

2. FURTHER NEEDS

2.1. Need of Extra Storage

Presently, the total storage in the world dams for irrigation and drinkable or

industrialized water is in the range of 1000 km3. The needs will increase along the

21st century for meeting unsatisfied needs, increase of population especially in

areas needing irrigation and reduction of storage by siltation but the most

important extra need may be linked with the climatic changes; it is quite sure that

the average temperature will increase by some degrees concrete dams. There have

been very few relevant failures after first filling and no one by floods for dams

higher than 30 m. One thousand are masonry dams subject to ageing by leakage.

2.2. Increase in Spillways Capacity

The climatic changes will also probably increase the value of extreme floods in most

world areas. This increase cannot presently be evaluated precisely but it could well

be between 10 and 50% in most areas and possibly more in the northern part of

northern hemisphere. A substantial increase of the spillway capacity of most

existing dams may this be advisable within 20 to 50 years.

2.3. Extra Need of Flood Mitigation

The average storage of most irrigation reservoirs is in the range of 100,000 to

500,000 m3 per km2 of catchment area, i.e. much over the necessary volume for

floods mitigation. But, the climatic changes will modify the present optimization.

An increase by 10 to 50 % of the peak flow and volume of exceptional floods will

multiply by 2 to 10 the occurrence of floods damages for most world areas. The

200

utilization of most existing and new dams for floods mitigation may well is justified

within 20 to 50 years. This may as well apply to large rivers as to small or medium

reservoirs upstream of populated areas. This would not prevent the increase of

storage or of spillage capacity.

3. PIANO KEY WEIR

A totally different design has been studied for five years by Hydro coop (a nonprofit

making international association) and this has been supported by more than 50

hydraulic tests. The target is a structure which:

1. Can be placed on existing or new gravity dam sections.

2. Will allow for specific flows of up to 100m3/s/m.

3. Can multiply at least by four the flow of ogee weir and

4. Is structurally simple and easy to build with the local resources of all countries.

Preliminary model tests were done in 1999 at the LNH laboratory in France and in

2002 at Roorkee University in India and Biskra University in Algeria. Some shapes

were then selected and are based on:

1. A rectangular layout somewhat similar to the shapes of piano keys which

explains the name ―Piano Keys weir‖.

2. An inclined bottom of the upstream and downstream part

3. A reduced width of the elements.

Many detailed tests were then done in 2003 on selected shapes at Biskra University

and some tests using very wide flume at LNH. These detailed tests provided the

basis for optimizing the flow increases according to the ratios between length,

depth, width and shape of the elements and particularly according to the ratio N

(ratio of length of walls to the length of spillway). The impact of various overhangs

has also been studied. Particular attention has been paid to the structural design

and construction facilities for selecting the most attractive solutions.

4. STANDARD DESIGN

Main Features of Standard Design:

P.K. Weirs may have various shapes to fit with site conditions where they have to

be built and operated. The possible options are:

201

1. The value of the ratio N between the total length of the walls and the spillway

length measured from right bank to left bank.

2. The value of the ratio between the width of the inlet and outlet cells.

3. The value of the ratio between the length of the upstream and downstream

overhangs.

4. The slopes of these overhangs.

5. The possible profiling of the walls under the upstream overhangs to facilitate the

flow entrance into the inlets cells.

6. The possible ―partial filling‖ of the bottom of the cells to decrease the overall

height of the PKW.

The tests already performed have shown that:

1. To get a good ratio between efficiency and price of PKW, the N ratio should be

between 4 and 7.

2. To get the maximum flow, inlets should be larger than outlets and a ratio of 1.2

would be close to the optimum.

3. The slope of the overhangs should not be too small and a minimum 2/1 slope

has to be kept.

4. The ―partial filing‖ of the downstream extremity of the outlet cells has practically

no incidence on the discharge capacity of PKW.

Having in mind the above considerations, the importance to facilitate the

construction and to reduce the costs, and the most probable conditions of

utilization of PKW, some kind of standard design may be considered with the

following characteristics:

1. Overhangs are symmetrical with a 2/1 slope.

2. Width ―b‖ (measured from upstream to downstream) at the bottom of PKW is half

of the width ―a‖ at the top, so that the length of each overhang is a/4.

3. The depth ―H‖ of the PKW (maximum walls height which has the main incidence

on the discharge capacity) is a/4.

4. Inlets cells are 20% larger than outlets cells (respective widths being 1.2e and e).

5. Ratio N should be 6, so that a = 5.5e and e = 8/11H, all dimensions of the

standard design being in proportion of H

5. CONCLUSION

202

These non-fuse spillways make it possible to triple free sill outflow for a given level.

This means dividing by 3 the length of the spillway or by 2 the depth of the nappe

and the losses in storage. These spillways consist of reinforced concrete or steel

walls, with a developed length that is 2 to 3 times that of the spillway. P.K. Weirs

have an innovative shape, are more efficient, and are designed for installation on

existing or new free-sill crests. They have been improved through testing of models

in 5 countries (France, China, India, Algeria and Vietnam). This solution is not

patented and can be easily tested and implemented by users. P.K. Weirs represent

a cost-effective method for improving most existing or planned dams, for spillways

ranging from tens of m3/s to tens of thousands of m3/s, since: the useful storage

capacity of many free-sill dams can be increased by about 20% at a price per m3 of

water capacity that is lower than that of a new dam. Therefore, an increase of tens

of billions of m3 is possible worldwide.

1. The outflow of a free-sill spillway can be doubled for a same reservoir level,

which decreases the probability of dam flooding by a factor in the range of 100.

Spillways with high flow rates can be added to existing undersized gated

spillways.

2. The cost of new dams can be significantly lowered while still planning for

extreme floods.

3. Combining these solutions with gates can also, in a number of instances,

provide even greater benefits, notably by facilitating flood reduction. In addition

to their attractive cost considerations, these solutions also effectively address

concerns with regard to the environment and climate change.

REFERENCES

1. http:/www.hydrocoop.org

2. http:/www.vncold.vn

3. http:/www.springerlink.com

4. http:/www.businessstandard.com

203

CIVIL PLANNING FOR A CLOSED-KNIT SOCIETY:

RESIDENTIAL PLANNING FOR A DYNAMIC, VIBRANT AND

CLOSED-KNIT COMMUNITY

ASEEM KUMAR

Undergraduate Part II Student, Department of Civil Engineering

Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University

ABSTRACT

What is the formula of planning a residential area which results in a creation of a

bustling, buzzing, smart, urban and suave society where there is no room for

abnormalities like two people meeting at a party later realizing they live right next

door (!)? In short a much better connected and spirited neighborhood rather than

the bland concretized forest or vast low population localities where its not really

safe to go out after 8 in the evening; and to create room and conditions for better

and effective social interaction in today‘s fast paced society.

This paper effectively emphasizes the effects on vital sociological effects through

the proposed system of residential area planning in order to –

1. Create a society of convenience where everything in need is within a stone‘s

throw away.

2. Create a planned residential space which automatically increases social

interaction and give way to a ―closed-knit community‖ leading to a healthy

lifestyle and better ―peripheral*‖ security.

3. Planning the residential area to create ―social nucleation sites‖ that creates a

sense of mutual awareness amongst the population that really cuts against the

solitary lifestyle of a fast paced society.

To plan the residential area on classical grid ideas, yet placing of dwelling and

commercial spaces such that every place is frequented by the population from every

corner of the society – which is a very important criteria for development of a

community. This is in context to the very important definition of the term

Community

… a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to

one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members’ needs will be

met through their commitment to be together [1]

204

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Need

It has been noted an increasing trend in the United States that less no. of citizen

contact with one another and more time spent in cars commuting or at home

watching television.[2]

Suburban residential communities that rely heavily upon automobile use show an

accompanying decrease in the amount of neighbourhood social ties [3] .

Today‘s planners and builders especially in the Western Society have

overwhelmingly acknowledged the need for evolving the traditional residential

planning to account for the sociological and psychological harmony of the

population.

Master planned communities are becoming the dominant form of new large-scale

housing development in Australia. A characteristic of these developments is the

focus on community as a major promotional feature. This resonates well with

buyers in a climate in which community (and social capital) has become a catch-

cry of governments and the private sector for a whole range of benefits [4]

Knowing people in your street and from your community and finding common

interests with them is an essential element in building a community‘s social

capital. Most people want to identify with a place and with a community that they

can take pride in. Everything we do in our urban design place making activities is

designed to achieve this end [5]. Informal social interactions are an important

component in the formation of neighbourhood social ties, which strengthen sense

of community among residents [6]. Having a sense of privacy as well as participation

in local activities contributes to sense of community in suburban neighbourhoods

[7].

In India itself the Housing Colonies and Real Estates Developers have built some

spectacular examples of the residential building design and living comfort but have

not overtly emphasized on the significance of comparative location of community

centres, amenities provider, and recreation facilities to achieve the goals as

aforesaid in the abstract.

205

1.2 Planning Principles

This paper explains the principals and concept for achieving such a ideal

residential space with the following planning principles.

1. The ideal residential area is never made from scratch and as realized can never

be wholly planned but actually evolves over time. Also this type of planning is

tailored to medium-density residential area. It is thought that for a low

residential area or for the matter space teeming with high-rises the

demographics becomes sufficiently different.

2. The first step in this process is Outer Planning or Overview Planning which

takes into account the shape and size of the area in question. The pattern of

connecting streets, plot size for construction, and allotment of recreational

areas.

3. The second step is the most vital of all processes – its called classification and

categorizing. This is categorization of all possible types of constructible

buildings specific to the need of the residential area.

4. The third step is placement or allotment of the right type of building to the right

place. Needless to say this is the most vital process needing absolutely careful

planning, the lack of which can make all the difference between a bad

residential area and good residential area.

5. The fourth step is on sociological lines – establishment of a firm authority over

the residential area that can legally enforce local laws and creation of a cultural

center for community entertainment.

All the four steps should result in creation of

1. Open space – with privacy intact for the residents. They should have sufficient

access to the natural elements, i.e. air, sunlight etc.

2. A feeling of compactness of population without any congestion. That‘s why over

30% of the available plots is for G+6 constructions, 40% for G+3/4 construction

and rest for private bungalows and other things. This is because the planned

residential area is supposed to be medium population density area.

2. CONCEPT OF SOCIAL NUCLEATION SITES (SNS)

This is the central theme of the whole paper. Just as nucleation is a physical term

which means gathering of molecules or bubbles at a particular site ; social

nucleation means specific constructions and allowance for street vendors, stalls at

206

strategic locations where people from all over the area may gather for walks,

recreation , discussion etc.

This can be created in many ways – careful planning of the main street, placement

of supermarkets and departmental stores and other apparel stores side by side,

encouragement of small and private businesses to flourish in the neighborhood.

Placing major frequented shops right across each other – like groceries and

apparels –the basic aim being enabling people from different locations to frequent

certain places regularly greatly increasing social interaction.

Fig 1.Depiction of flow of population facilitating social interaction

Effectiveness of the SNS can be guaranteed by ensuring a favorable community

spirit in places where majority of the people are from the same social strata.

207

3. OVERVIEW / OUTER PLANNING

The plan of the whole residential is based on the classic right angle grid principle

as it is

1. Time tested as exemplified by many modern cities like New York and

somewhat BHU campus too!

2. Convenience of travel and easy to remember routes.

3. Facilitates easy creation of Social Nucleation Sites

Fig 2. Indicative diagram of the primary planning of the residential area.

208

3.1 Organization of streets and avenues

There will be one main street cutting across the residential area, and 2 parallel sub

main roads. Fore-lanes and back-lanes will cut these roads at right angle forming

the dominant grid pattern.

Fore-lane is always at the front of a building –it is dotted with small/medium shops

which can be anything from local dairy to grocery or apparels. All building‘s front

gate opens to it.

However it‘s taken care of that all garages, car parks should be accommodated in

the back lane to keep the fore-lane just for pedestrians.

This is done mainly to improve convenience and easy access to daily needs but also

open new vistas for SNS and more social interaction and mutual awareness by

knowing people from the same locality, a type of background security is already

boosted; because now residents have mutual acquaintance of each other. In these

circumstances, it is highly probable that any outsider is easily identified.

In the long run, crime rates in such residential areas remain abysmally low – even

less than the posh areas where supposedly better security can be afforded, but less

number of SNS and Social Interaction in such low-density neighborhoods lead to a

higher crime-rate.

3.2 Organization of Main Street /Main Avenue

Main street is planned only to allow medium-light traffic. There are sidewalks

(footpaths) on each side of the road taken approx. 5 m wide( to accommodate 2

medium sized car side by side comfortably). Beyond the sidewalks there is green

plantation and space for roadside stalls which is another important promulgator of

SNS.

209

Fig. 3. Depiction of setup of things on the main street (indicative diagram)

Front part of buildings on both sides of the main street is supposed to be occupied

by merchants, departmental stores (Wal-Mart, Reliance Fresh etc.) , medical stores,

coffee houses, restaurants , ATMs and other daily lifestyle use.

It should be noted luxury/signature stores are not recommended because they do

not exactly fit into such residential areas.

3.3 Location of the Residential Area

One of the most important criteria for the area is have all the daily and basic needs

along with all electrical appliances and repair facilities in it. Therefore the area even

if a bit secluded from the city (that is to say with excellent connectivity by way of

road or rail-metro /subway) is supposed to be blessing as it affords a way out from

the hustle and crowd of the city.

210

Fig. 4. Placing the township a bit away from the city.

4. CLASSIFICATION – CATEGORIZING & POSITIONING

This is the most important process of setting up the residential area – that is

profiling of all available plots to be constructed or to be allowed buildings according

to commercial/ non-commercial, heights etc. so that effective placement or location

of proper type of building to proper position in the residential area.

4.1 Economic Classification

1. Commercial (C) and Non-Commercial (NC)

2. Commercial: Types – Shops, Retail, Service Providers etc.

3. Non-Commercial: - Houses (Flats) ;Bungalows ; ATMS Parking Lots

4. Healthcare: Hospitals, Dispensaries, Medical Stores (M)

5. Economic and Education: Banks, public schools (E)

4.2 Height Classification

1. HA – G+6 storey tall buildings NC/C

2. HB – G+3 storey NC/C

3. HC – 1-2 floor buildings - bungalows, banks etc.

211

Fig. 5. A depiction of segregation and categorization of plots of a sample block.

4.3 Advantages of such categorizing and selection of location

1. When the total available plots are coded and pre-allotted to different forms of

construction, it automatically establishes regulation. Now the entire residential

area need not be built by a single developer under stringent guidelines. Any

developer can select any one of the plot according to the building requirements

and continue to build on that plot as per the guideline pertaining to that

particular plot.

2. This gives better control to the Residential Area Authority to better exercise its

discretion in planning matters, control haphazard encroachment of area and

most importantly:

3. Similar access of natural elements to all the available plots is ensured by

ensuring that a HA plot not completely surrounded by other HA plots or that a

HC plot by buildings such that there is proper access of elements in all the

areas.

212

4. This evidently eliminates the seeds of disputes and personal preferences which

is undoubtedly vital for creation of a healthy society and a closed-knit

community.

5. SUMMARY

1. Allotment of Area to be planned for residential purposes.

2. Planning based on grid system

3. Extensive planning of construction projects.

4. Segregation and categorizing of plots.

5. Extensive planning keeping in mind development of SNS.

6. Finally, letting different developers choose their choice of plot and build on them

according to the particular guidelines of the plot.

6. CONCLUSION

Utilization of land and creation of better societies should be the goal of present

developers. For a long time, efforts were on to understand the place of civil

engineering structures in the society; but now it must be on the effects of them on

the society and social life. From the above discussion it is clear that a little more

perspective on sociology while planning a residential habitat for people can go

along way towards actually making a difference in the life of people. That is most

vital today in the chaos of fast-paced lifestyles we lead today. Credence must be

given to new efforts in these fields and to the development and research on new

terms such as SNS must be encouraged.

7. REFERENCES

[1] (McMillan & Chavis 1986:9).

[2] Beatley and Manning (1997) Science Direct - Landscape and Urban Planning

Volume 69, Issues 2-3, 15 August 2004, Pages 245-253The Social Aspects of

Landscape Change: Protecting Open Space Under the Pressure of Development)

[3] (Freeman, 2001)

[4] Housing, Theory and Society, Vol. 26, No. 2, 122–142, 2009

[5] (Delfin Lend Lease 2004:12)

[6] (McMillan and Chavis, 1986)

[7] (Wilson and Baldassare, 1996).

213

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF LARGE AMPLITUDE

FREE FLEXURAL VIBRATION OF ISOTROPIC PLATES

A. K. Mishra, M. R. Barik

Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,

Kharagpur

ABSTRACT

Susceptibility to fracture of materials due to vibration is determined from stress

and frequency. Maximum amplitude of the vibration must be in the limited for the

safety of the structure. Hence vibration analysis has become very important in

designing a structure. Also the response of the structure changes when the

amplitude of vibration is large. The present study analyses some rectangular &

skew plates for their non-linear free vibration frequencies by FEM.

1. INTRODUCTION

Non-linearity in structural mechanics can arise in many ways. The generalized

Hooke‘s law is not valid if material stress-strain behavior is non-linear. This type of

non-linearity is generally known as the material or physical non-linearity.

Alternatively, problems involving deformations that are large are called

geometrically non-linear problems. Deformation of an elastic body can also be of a

magnitude that does not overstrain the material or produce stretching under large

deformations and thus lead to curvature-displacement non-linearity. Since this is

deformation dependent it is also classified as a geometric non-linearity.

In the current investigation the main objective is to find out the non-linear

frequency ratios of free un-damped vibration of plates. Finite element method has

been adopted for the current analysis. An iso-parametric quadratic plate bending

element has been used. It also considers the shear deformation of the plate. Hence

the formulation is applicable to both thin as well as thick plates. Consistent mass

matrix has been used.

As the higher order terms in the strain-displacement relations are not known, in

order to obtain the solution for non-linear free vibration problem an iterative

214

procedure is adopted using linear strain-displacement relations for the first

iteration. For the successive iterations the higher order terms of the strain-

displacement relations have been evaluated from the scaled eigenvectors

corresponding to the given amplitude at a prescribed point of the previous

iterations. The iteration process is continued until required convergence is reached.

The large amplitude vibration of plates and shells has received considerable

attention in recent years because of great importance and interest attached to the

structures of low flexural rigidity. As a result of which large amplitude vibrations of

plates of various geometries have received much attention. In the area of non-linear

vibration of plates of various shapes, rectangular plates have been studied more

frequently than others. Most of the work is based on the governing equations in

terms of stress function and lateral displacement. The governing non-linear

equations of motion can be suitably modified to include the effects of several

complicating factors such as transverse shear, in-plane forces and the like.

Rao et al. [14] have studied the large amplitude vibration of rectangular plates with

and without stiffeners. They have taken the shear deformation of the plate and the

stiffeners into due consideration in their formulation. Also the formulation

considers the in-plane inertia of the plate.

Large amplitude free flexural vibration analysis of composite stiffened plates have

been carried out by Goswami & Kant [7] using a C˚ nine-noded Lagrangian element.

The element is based on the first order shear deformation theory. The large

deformation effect of the stiffened plated structures has been taken care by the

dynamic version of von Karman‘s field equations. The non-linear equations

obtained have been solved by the direct iteration technique using the linear mode

shapes as the starting vectors.

A nine-node iso-parametric plate-bending element has been used by Pandit et al.

[12] for the analysis of free un-damped vibration of isotropic and fiber reinforced

laminated composite plates. The effect of shear deformation is incorporated in the

formulation by considering the first-order shear deformation theory for the

analysis. An effective mass lumping scheme with rotary inertia has been

recommended. Two types of mass lumping schemes have been formed. In one

lumping scheme rotary inertia has also been introduced.

215

Large-amplitude free vibration analysis of simply supported thin isotropic skew

plates has been presented by Das et al. [5]. In this paper the large deformation has

been imparted statically by subjecting the plate under uniform transverse pressure.

The mathematical formulation is based on the variational principle in which the

displacement fields are assumed as a combination of orthogonal polynomial or

transcendental functions, each satisfying the corresponding boundary conditions of

the plate. The large-amplitude dynamic problem has been addressed by solving the

corresponding static problem first, and subsequently with the resultant

displacement field, the problem is formulated. The vibration frequencies are

obtained from the solution of a standard Eigen value problem. Entire

computational work has been carried out in a normalized square domain obtained

through an appropriate domain mapping technique.

2. FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION

The equations of motion for free un-damped vibration of an elastic system

undergoing large displacements can be expressed in the following matrix form,

0

MK

in which K and M are overall stiffness and mass matrices and is the

displacement vector.

The virtual work equation in Lagrangian coordinate system is

0 RddvdT

V

T

The finite element approximation to the above equation is

0 RKS

Where SK =

216

dvBDBBDBBDBBDBV

NL

T

NLNL

T

LL

T

NLL

T

L

2

1

2

1

Considering the stress matrices the linear and non-linear stiffness matrices may be

written as

0KKL

and

dvBDBBDBBDBK

VNL

T

NLNL

T

LL

T

NLNL

2

1

2

1

The consistent mass matrix is given by

120000

012

000

0000

0000

0000

3

3

h

h

h

h

h

mP

By assembling the finite elements and applying the kinematic boundary conditions,

the equations of motion for the linear free vibration of a given plate may be written

as

for linear vibration

for non-linear vibration

The solution to the above is obtained by using any iterative process.

00

2 LL KMw

INLLINL KKM 2

217

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The non-linear frequency ratios LNL of a simply supported square plate for the

fundamental mode with amplitude to thickness ratios h

C varying from 0.2 to 1.0

is presented in Table 1. The results compare well with those of Goswami et al. [7],

Ganapathy et al. [6] & Rao et al. [14].

Table 1 Non-linear Frequency ratios LNL for square plate (SSSS)

h

C

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Present 1.0268 1.0995 1.2116 1.3545 1.5249

Goswami et al. 1.0263 1.1012 1.2165 1.3629 1.5325

Ganapathy et al. 1.02504 1.10021 1.20803 1.35074 1.51347

Rao et al. 1.0261 1.1009 1.2162 1.3624 1.5314

Table 2 presents the non-linear frequency ratios for the fundamental mode for

CCCC, SSCC, SCSC boundary conditions for a square plate for amplitude ratio h

C

values ranging from 0.2 to 1.0. The results have been compared with those of Rao

et al. [13], Mei [10] and Yamaki [21].

It can be seen that the values of the references are on the lower side. This is

because of the different techniques chosen by them for the solution of the nonlinear

equations. Their formulations have been based on appropriate linearization of the

non-linear strain-displacement relations. They have also neglected the in-plane

deformation terms. In the present investigation, the in-plane deformation terms

have been considered and no approximating procedure is used. Hence the present

results may be deemed as more accurate.

218

Table 2 Non-linear Frequency ratios LNL for square plate with various boundary

conditions

h

C Boundary

conditions 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Present 1.0098 1.0370 1.0812 1.1386 1.2099

CCCC

Rao et al. 1.007 1.0276 1.0608 1.1047 1.1578

Mei 1.0062 1.0256 1.0564 1.0969 1.1429

Yamaki 1.0085 1.0292 1.0661 1.1136 1.1674

Present 1.0183 1.0689 1.1480 1.2473 1.3608

SSCC Rao et al. 1.0139 1.0541 1.1169 1.1977 1.2918

Mei 1.0138 1.0527 1.1119 1.1855 1.2705

Present 1.0137 1.0518 1.1135 1.1928 1.2896

SCSC Rao et al. 1.0097 1.0381 1.0838 1.1443 1.2174

Mei 1.0097 1.0380 1.0833 1.1429 1.2143

3.1 Effect of Poisson’s Ratio

Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 depict the effects of Poisson‘s ratio on the non-linear frequency

ratio LNL for a square plate with SSSS and CCCC boundary conditions

respectively. From the graphs it can be seen that there is an increase in the

frequency ratio with an increase of the Poisson‘s ratio at each amplitude levels. For

a single material (i. e. constant Poisson‘s ratio) the higher the amplitude level the

higher is the frequency ratio.

219

Fig. 1 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio LNL with

Poisson‘s ratio of a square plate (SSSS) for the fundamental mode

Fig. 2 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio LNL with

Poisson‘s ratio of a square plate (CCCC) for the fundamental mode

3.2 Effect of Thickness Parameter ha

Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the variations of non-linear frequency ratio LNL due to a

change in the thickness parameter ha for square plates with different boundaries.

Fig. 3 is for a square plate simply supported on all sides. Fig. 4 gives the variation

for the plate when it is clamped on all edges. It can be seen from all the graphs that

the non-linear frequency ratio LNL remains almost constant despite a change in

the thickness parameter ha .

Fig. 3 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio LNL with

thickness parameter ha of a square plate (SSSS) for the

fundamental mode

Fig. 4 Variation of non-linear Frequency ratio LNL with

thickness parameter ha of a square plate (CCCC) for the

fundamental mode

220

4. CONCLUSION

It has been observed that the Poisson‘s ratio of the plate elevates the degree of non-

linearity. The non-linear frequency ratio is found to be higher for skew plates than

the rectangular ones. More constrain boundaries tend to raise the non-linear

frequency of vibration for a definite plate. The thickness parameter has no

significant effect on the degree of non-linearity. The aspect ratio also shifts the non-

linear frequency towards the higher side.

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